Phonology

LI 2023 NATHALIE F. MARTIN

PHONOLOGY

Introduction: Phonology

No human language exploits all phonetic possibilities

Every language makes its own particular selection from the range of all possible ___________

IntroductionPhonological Representation

Phonology /fənɒlədʒi/ : The components of grammar that

determines the _______of speech sounds and that ______both the sound ______ and the systematic phonetic variation found in language.


The task of phonologists: To ________and ________the systematic

phonetic patterns found in individual languages

To discover the ___________ ____that underlie the patterning of sounds across human languages.


Three major phonological units:_________________________________


Wd

σ σ

s è g m F n t

- syllabic+ sonorant

…[ ]

Word level

Syllable level

Segment level

Feature level


Segment:___________ ___________

Feature: Features correspond to articulatory or acoustic

___________such as [voice] or [strident] Smallest building block of phonological structure

Syllable: A syllabic element – usually a vowel- and any

preceding or following segments that are associated with it

Segments in ContrastContrast

All speakers knows which segments contrast and which ones don’t …

Segments are said to _______when:Their presence alone may distinguish

forms with different meaning from each other Ex: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp] Ex: hit [hɪt], hat [hæt] & hot [hɒt]

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs

The first step in the analysis of the phonology of language is to establish which sounds in that language are in ______with each other

In order to establish contrast, it is necessary to examine the ___________ of sounds in words and to compare word meanings.

This can be accomplished through the ______________

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs

Minimal pair: Consists of _______with ___________ that differ by ______ ____ ______found in the same position in each form.

Example: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp]Therefore the segments [s] and [z] contrast

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – English Consonant

Example:

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions

Environment:The phonetic _________in which a

sound occurs.Near minimal pairs:

Pairs of words that have segments in nearly identical environments (ex: assure & azure)

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions

Phoneme: Segments that _______with each

other ___________ _______are said to belong to separate phonemes of that language

• Contrastive phonological units

Not to be confused with ________

Segments in ContrastVowel Contrast in English

Segments in ContrastVowel Contrast in English

Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts

Important: - Two sounds can be phonetically

distinct without necessarily being phonologically distinct or contrastive.

- Sounds that are contrastive in one language may not necessarily be contrastive in another.

Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts

oExample: In English [ɛ] & [æ] are contrastive (ex: Ben & ban)

In Turkish (ex: the word “I” can be said [bɛn] & [bæn])

Segments in ContrastPractice & Homework

Find minimal pairs to show contrast between all English consonants

(15 phonemes) Exceptions which are hard to find:

[ŋ] [h] [ʔ] [ʒ]

Complementary distribution

Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction

Phonetic variation is systematicOccurs most often in phonetically

similar segmentsConditioned by the ___________ or

environment in which the segments are found

Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction - Variation

Variation occurs because segments are affected and altered by phonetic characteristics of neighboring elements or by the larger phonological context in which they occur

Speakers and listeners of any language tend to factor out this type of variation in order to focus on contrast that affect meaning

Phonetically Conditioned VariationComplementary Distribution

In English, all Ls are not identicalDifferent sounds:

[l//] (voiceless l)& [l] (voiced l)

Yet they do not contrastThere are no minimal pairs in which the

phonetic difference [l//] & [l] functions to indicate difference


Examine the distribution of the two Ls

All of the voiceless [l//] occurs after the class of ___________ ___________

Voiced [l] never occurs after voiceless stopsPredictable property of phonology in English


Therefore: Since no voiced [l] ever occurs in the same phonetic

environment as a voiceless [l/] (and vice versa), we say that that the two variants of L are in ___________ ___________

Table 3.6 Complementary distribution of [l] and [l� ] in English

[l] [l/]

After voiceless stops no yes

Elsewhere yes no

Phonemes and allophones

Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones

Allophones:When segments are phonetically

distinct, but not phonologically the same they are considered _________(predictable variants) of one _________(contrastive phonological unit).


Phonetic representation: Consists of predictable variants or allophones

Phonemic (or phonological) representation: Consists of the phonemes to which the allophones

belong.

Phonemic representation (phoneme)

/l/Phonetic representation (allophones)

[l//] [l]

Symbols for allophones are

enclosed in square bracket []

Symbols for phonemes are

placed between slashes //


Phonemes:Are _________representations: the way

in which sounds are stored in the mind.Are in your ________

Allophones:Are not part of what you remember

when you store a word in your mindCome out of your mouth


An important part of phonological analysis thus deals with discovering ___________ of the phonemes of language and accounting for ___________ ___________.

Classes and generalization

Phonetically Conditioned VariationFree Variation

Free variation: Various forms that do not change the

meaning since they are phonetically similar.

They are therefore allophones of a phoneme Ex: [stɒp!], [stɒp̚] & [stɒpʔ] [p!], [p̚] & [pʔ] are different allophones of the

phoneme /p/

Notice that the narrow transcription of these words and the different allophones

are in square brackets and that the phoneme is in between

slashes.

Forceful articulation

(Feature rep. only used in the book)

Extended closure

Coarticulation with glottal

stop

Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation

Everyday speech usually _______ systematically according to phonetic classes


In English, liquids have _______ __ __ _____after voiceless stops and ___________ __elsewhere.


In English, liquids and glides have ___________ ________after voiceless stops, and _________ __ ___________ elsewhere.


One of the major goals of phonological description is the discovery of such ____ __ ________, and the formulation of the most ___________ ____possible to describe them.

CANADIAN RAISINGENGLISH MID VOWELS AND GLIDES

LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC PATTERNS

Phonetically Conditioned

Variation

Phonetically Conditioned VariationCanadian Rising

Canadian rising is another example of allophonic variation in English

[aj] before the class of ____________________

or in _________________

[ʌ j] before the class of ________________________________________

Phonetically Conditioned VariationCanadian Rising

• [aj] before the class of ___________ or in ___________

• [ʌ j] before the class of ___________

Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides

In most dialects of English, the mid tense vowels [e] & [o] are always diphthongized

[ej] & [ow]

[o] and [w] are both back and unrounded

[e] and [j] are both back and unrounded

[e] and [o] are both mid tense vowels

Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides

The ___________ ___________ are predictably followed by a ___________ that has the same ___________ and ___________ as the vowels

Phonetically Conditioned VariationLanguage-specific patterns

Important: The phenomenon of allophonic variation is

universal. However, just as the phonemic contrast

found in each language are specific to that language, the actual ___________ of phonemes and allophones is also language-specific.

Thus, whatever we discover for one language may not hold true for another.


Nasals in Scots Gaelic:

Vowels are nasal in Scot Gaelic when preceded or followed by a nasal consonant


Nasals in Malay:

In Malay, all vowels and glides following a nasal and not separated from it by a non-nasal consonant are nasalized (until an obstruent, liquid, or glottal is reached)


English and Khmer (Cambodian) stops:


English and Khmer (Cambodian) stops:

Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionInventory of Vowels

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionInventory of Consonants

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionLet’s Practice!

Transcribe the following wordsPhonemicallyPhonetically

Don’t forget the predictable properties mentioned on the previous slides

ReviewContrast, phonemes and allophones

Each language has a set of contrastive phonemes

Phonemes themselves can have predictable variants or allophones

There are two distinct levels of representation: phonemic level and phonetic level

DEFINING THE SYLLABLEONSET CONSTRAINTS AND PHONOTACTICS

ACCIDENTAL AND SYSTEMATIC GAPS

Syllable

SyllablesIntroduction

Definition: A syllable consists of a ___________ _ and

its associated non-syllabic (less sonorous) segments.

What speech sounds are more sonorous?


Vowels are the most sonorous soundTherefore, syllables usually have a

vowel nucleus as their coreLess sonorous sounds may appear ___________ ___________


Native speakers of a language demonstrate their awareness of the sonority values of segments and of the syllable

Examples: Telegraph Accident Sprint

Onset Constraints and Phonotactics

SyllablesOnset

Syllable: σOnset (O): Within a syllable, the longest

segment of consonant to the ___of each nucleus

SyllablesRhyme: Nucleus & Coda

Rhyme (R): The ______and the ____of a syllable (e.g., [ɪnt] in Sprint)

SyllablesNucleus & Coda

Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the _______of a syllable (e.g., [q])

Coda (Co): The elements that _______the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [nt])

SyllablesConstraints

Syllables comply with certain constraints that prohibit them from beginning with a sequence like [kstr] and thus results in the actual syllabification / ək.strim / (“extreme”)

SyllablesEnglish Syllables

SyllablesUniversal Tendencies

All languages have syllablesThe shapes or syllables are governed

by various kinds of constraintsBut certain universal tendencies are

observable

SyllablesUniversal Tendencies

1. Syllable nuclei usually consists of _________;2. Syllables usually begin with onsets;3. Syllables often end with codas;4. Onsets and codas usually consist of one

consonant.

Syllables usually take the shape ___________

SyllablesOnset Constraints & Phonotactics

Isn’t it interesting! Native speakers of ant language intuitively

know that certain words from other languages sound unusual and they often adjust the segment sequences of these words to conform with the pronunciation requirements of their own language.

Example: Russian word vprog /fprɔk/ (value, or good) [fəprɔk] – adding /ə/ [prɔk] – deleting /f/


Phonotactics: The set of constraints on how

sequences of segments pattern Forms part of a speakers knowledge

of the phonology of his or her language


Accidental and Systematic gaps

SyllablesAccidental and Systematic Gaps

Gaps in the language’s vocabulary that correspond to ___________ but _________ forms called accidental gaps Sometimes filled by borrowed words that

fill the phonotactic constraints

Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroika


Systematic gaps:Gaps in the syllable structure of a

language that result not by accident but from exclusion of certain sequences

Examples in English: /bz/, /pt/ & /fp/

Unacceptable in one language but not necessarily another


Accidental gaps: Sometimes filled by ___________ ___that fill

the phonotactic constraints

Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroikaSystematic gaps:

English speakers often change the pronunciation of borrowed words that do not fit the phonotactic constraints

Ex: Psychology & pterodactyl

SyllablesLanguage-specific phonotactics

Language-specific constraints, on the other hand, hold true for individual languages such as English, but they may not be found in other languages

SETTING UP THE SYLLABLESSYLLABIC PHONOLOGY

PRACTICE

Review

ReviewSyllable & Onset

Syllable: σ

Onset (O): Within a syllable, the longest segment of consonant to the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonotactic constraints of the language in question (e.g., [st] forms the onset of the second syllable in hamster)

ReviewRhyme: Nucleus & Coda

Rhyme (R): The nucleus and the coda of a syllable (e.g., [ust] in the word boost)

Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the core of a syllable (e.g., the vowel [A] is the nucleus of the first syllable in Patrick)

Coda (Co): The elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [rf] in surfboard)

ReviewPractice

Sprint [sprɪnt]:σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)

Nucleus (N) Coda (Co)

spr ɪ nt

ReviewPractice

First [fɜrst]σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)


f ɜ rst

ReviewPractice

Words [wɜrdz]σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)


w ɜ rdz

SyllablesSetting Up Syllables

Each language defines its own syllable structure through the interaction of universal and language-specific constraints


Step a: Nucleus-formation


Step b: Onset-formation


Step c: Coda-formation


Step d: Word-level construction


SyllablesSyllabic Phonology

One reason that syllables are treated as units of phonological structure is that they are relevant to stating generalizations about the distribution of allophonic features

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Aspiration

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Aspiration

English ___________ are aspirated ___________

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Vowel Length

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Vowel Length

English vowels are ____when followed by a ______ ___________ in the ____ position of the same syllable

Features

FeaturesDefinition

Segments themselves are composed of even smaller, subsegmental, phonological units known as segments Smallest unit of phonology Basic building blocks of human speech

soundsIndependent and coordinate phonetic

elements

FeaturesIndependent and Coordinate

FeaturesFeatures & Natural Classes




By ___________ examining the phonemic contrasts of a language, we can extract the ___________ ____and use these irreducible linguistic elements to describe the phonemic inventory

Features, Processes, & allophonic variation

Features Representation

Only a limited number of features – currently around twenty-four – have been proposed

Fewer are needed to characterize the sounds of English

Features RepresentationMajor class features

[±consonantal][±syllabic][±sonorant]

Features RepresentationManner features

[±continuant][±delayed release] ([±DR])[±nasal][±lateral]

Features RepresentationLaryngeal Feature

[±voice][±spread glottis] ([±SG])[±constricted glottis] ([±CG])

Features RepresentationPlace of Articulation

[LABIAL][±round]

[CRONAL][±anterior][±strident]

[DORSAL][±high][±low][±back][±tense][±reduced]



Derivations

DerivationsDefinitions

Phonemic representations are equivalent to __________________ that speakers have of the words in their language Also called underlying representation

Phonetic representations are equivalent to the __________________that are produced in the course of speech Also called surface representations

DerivationsDefinitions

Derivations: Resulting from the application of phonological

rules to underlying representation Going from mental representations to spoken

languagePhonological rules:

Rules that derive phonetic representations from underlying representations, accounting for alterations among allophones

Derivations

The derivation of three phonetic representations from underlying representations are illustrated bellow:

Phonology

Documents

segments contrast

z contrast segments

segments s

ones dont segments

contrastvowel contrast

contrastive ex

pairs of words

phonology of language