Ervin MitchellFinal Thesis03/02/13Foundations of Knowledge and
UnderstandingIn my research, I have learned the following: There is
very little correlation between formal education and accomplishment
when it comes to many of the most sophisticated tasks performed by
human beings. As a matter of fact, many of the most successful
people to ever live within our society possessed very little formal
education. For example, Andrew Carnegie, who was once the richest
man in the world, dropped out of school at the age of 13. Thomas
Edison and Benjamin Franklin who are among the fathers of this
country dropped out of school at very young ages as well.These
facts lead me to the following question: Is formal education a
proper yardstick for the measurement of an individuals capabilities
or are there better processes by which knowledge should be measured
and obtained? In order to answer this question, we must first
attempt to determine what knowledge is in its most basic form.
There are various theories on the basic source of knowledge but the
two main ones are Rationalism and Empiricism. Rationalism in its
purest form holds that all of our rational beliefs, and at least
the majority of human knowledge altogether, consists in concepts
that we are born understanding. Rationalism also says that any
other ideas that we can conceptualize are processed using reason.
Scholars such as Descartes and Kant who were both Rationalists,
would argue that reality is created only through representations.
They said that the most important of these representations is the
idea. These philosophers believe that the degree of objective
reality of an idea is the same as the degree of formal reality the
object of the idea would have if it existed in the physical world
and they maintain that without prior categories and principles
supplied by reason, we cannot organize and interpret our sense
experiences in any way. (Descartes) Rationalist ideas might be
better understood through an example. I will use the concepts of
cause and effect in order to demonstrate.Human beings tend to
naturally think in terms of cause and effect and this helps
organize our experience of the world. Our senses cause us to
believe that some distinct actions cause other distinct actions to
occur concurrently, but in terms of our raw sense experience, we
just perceive certain things before we perceive other things, and
we tend to remember these sequences. (Descartes)This causes our
minds to believe that these events must always occur in this
sequence since we have not seen them happen in any other way. For
example, a person drops a glass on the floor, and then the glass
breaks. We dont see causation but attribute it to the situation.
(Descartes) We just assume that since the glass is no longer in one
piece, then the floor must have caused it to shatter.The issue is
that this cause is not directly perceived through the senses.
Experience does not seem to force the concept of causation on us.
(Bonnen and Flage) We just use it to interpret what we experience.
Cause and effect are not directly perceived, yet they are conceived
and the Rationalist viewpoint says that they can only be attributed
to the mind since they cannot be attributed to any one of our
physical senses. Rene Descartes is a rationalist who believes that
knowledge comes from the mind alone. His notion of knowledge begins
with the question of absolute certainty. (Descartes) He arrived at
the conclusion that there must be some type of a great deceiver,
who guides an individual to a state of uncertainty. (Flage and
Bonnen) Descartes begins with details that indistinct feelings are
likely to be affected by doubt and uncertainty. Furthermore, he
attempted to cast doubt on distinct feelings. Descartes began by
expressing that intimate awareness must be evident, in view of the
fact that one is not insane, and only people who are considered to
be incompetent would have no faith in what was right in front of
their face but then he also draws attention to the argument of
dreaming to cast suspicion on intimate feelings. (Cress) He
believed that dreams, which take place when we sleep are as dynamic
and as vibrant as reality is when we are awake. So vivid in fact,
that they cannot be distinguished from reality except upon later
reflection. (Cress) He says that this reflection is what makes
things real. Additionally, he uses geometry and math as examples of
this sort of reflection, because math, geometry, and the simple
sciences are capable of being understood and proven through logic
and reasoning without being perceived by the physical senses.
(Cress)Descartes' goal was to find only those truths to him, which,
exist clearly and without a shadow of a doubt. This notion of
knowledge strips away all information previously gained through the
senses. Thus, he is left to believe that the mind is the only
substance that exists within itself when removed from all physical
properties. (Descartes) In regards to this topic of measuring
knowledge, Rationalists would argue that once we can gain complete
control of our minds and ideas, we will be able to attain true
knowledge. Therefore according to the Rationalist viewpoint,
intelligence would probably be measured by how much well a man
controls his own ideas. Empiricism is the exact opposite of
Rationalism. It is the argument that all forms of knowledge,
including ideas, come exclusively or primarily from sensory
experience. Empiricists dont believe that there are any innate
ideas which were not formed based upon some sort of experience in
formal reality. An Empiricist would say that we must use
collections of data and test the information through trial and
error. John Locke was an empiricist who believed that knowledge
came from experience, and he rejected the idea of natural thoughts
completely. He believed that if we continuously had natural
thoughts, recognizing them or understanding them would not be
feasible and he reasoned that if there were innate ideas then they
would be common thoughts existing within all. (Locke) He
demonstrated that not all ideas were common and natural, by using
children because he declared that everyone would possess them from
birth if these sorts of ideas existed. He used children because
their ideas have yet to be altered in the ways that those of most
adults have by the world but he says that even children dont share
common thoughts and takes this as proof that the concept of innate
ideas is false. (Locke)Locke believed the mind to be a bare canvas
that allowed thoughts and ideas to enter through the senses. Locke
said that the two manners in which ideas or thoughts entered our
minds were reflection and sensation. (Locke) As a result,
experience is achieved and in order to have an opinion on a
particular topic, one must have had some particular experience of
it. He said that people have different types of experiences and
that this is why people have various amounts of knowledge. He
admitted that a number of individuals may have additional knowledge
from the same number of experiences but he attributes this to their
experiences influencing them to a greater extent and not innate
ideas. So there you have it, Rationalists attribute knowledge to
the mind and Empiricists attribute knowledge to the senses.While
the answers above are each plausible, they have several weaknesses
when viewed in contrast to one another. In the case of Rationalism,
how does one validate his ideas without some sort of evidence that
can be rooted in the phenomenal world? A strong argument against
Empiricism is that sensory qualities, even if assumed to be known
immediately, do not justify matters of fact outside of sensory
qualities. For example, I may dream and feel that I am dancing in
the rain but there is technically no rain. Empiricism has no
explanation for situations that our senses perceive as real even
when they are not. So the question still remains. What is the true
source of knowledge? My own answer to the question is as follows:
Despite the efforts of Rationalism and Empiricism to disprove one
another, neither has been able to determine its' own truth while
completely negating the truth of the alternative view without a
shadow of a doubt. Knowledge by definition is best understood as a
familiarity with something gained through experience (physical) or
association (mental) and hence appears to be a combination of
Rational and Empirical views. This definition leads me to believe
that elements of each point of view are necessary in order for one
to completely understand what it means to have knowledge.My thesis
is supported by the following piece of evidence from David Hume
which also states that we gain knowledge from impressions made by
both our innate ideas and sensations. He says that our experiences
mean nothing unless we are able to interpret them and that our
interpretations are formed from habit, custom, and instinct. (Kemp)
My thesis is also supported by Immanuel Kant. Kant was himself a
Rationalist until he began to study the teachings of Hume and he
believed that Rationalism could only explain analytic knowledge.
This idea is significant because it modifies and adds to the
current topic by creating a foundation for a new theory of
knowledge based on non-biased inquiry that will put an end to the
repetitive cycle of thought that currently dominates society and
our education system. Today America is a very materialistic
society. I believe that this is because a majority of this nations
inhabitants believe the world to be purely empirical. Despite the
widespread belief in this idea, it appears to be very illogical. I
think that the reason we accept this idea so generally is because
most of us dont have the courage to question it. It seems that as a
whole we are afraid to seek the truth for ourselves because it will
remove us from our comfort zones so instead of going on a journey
for discovery, we simply follow along with whatever ideas are fed
to us by those that have come before us. As I stated earlier,
humans tend to believe that if things occur in a certain sequence
they must always occur in this sequence. At the core this type of
thinking is simply a biased reflection on a finite number of
experiences blindly labeled as law due to the arrogance of the
human ego. This arrogant way of thinking has also trickled over
into our education system and has all but ruined our society. We
have lost sight of the glaring holes in todays materialistic and
arrogant philosophy of purely empirical living.Our ignorance has
taken us farther away from the realities of true knowledge. Until a
balanced philosophy based on the material and the mental is
developed, our education system will never bring us to the axioms
of knowledge. The proper union between Rationalism and Empiricism
would be based upon two substances: the mind and the body. In
Descartes Theory of Substance, he says the relationship between
mind and body is like a more complex version of the relationship
between that of a sailor and his ship. He states that mind is the
form of all humanity and it will play the role of the ascended
captain here because we know more about it than any other
sensation. (Descartes) As I stated earlier, Descartes believed the
mind was the only immediately perceived idea (Descartes). We could
not even recognize that we have bodies without the use of our minds
which allows us to be aware of space and time so in order to
understand knowledge we must understand these concepts. Immanuel
Kant had a theory that space and time were the most pure forms of
intuition. (Weinert) Space is defined as a continuous area that is
free, available, or unoccupied. It is used to represent our outer
sense of the world. Time on the other hand represents our inner
senses and it is defined as the indefinite continued progress of
existence and events in the past, present, and future regarded as a
whole. All existence resides within space and time so we must gain
some idea on how substances relate within both concepts. Isaac
Newton saw space as a sort of container, separate from all material
objects, in which all material objects flowed through. However,
Einsteins concept is a bit different. His idea is that space and
time are one entity that is constituted by the distribution of
matter. He calls this space-time. (Weinert) In todays society we
measure time using clocks based on a succession of events that
happen often enough for us to say that one comes directly after
another. Einstein says that there is an underlying viewpoint in
which this concept of time submits to however. He believed that
atoms accelerate, slow down, or stand still in relation to each
other and this is the basis of his Theory of Relativity. (Weinert)
This theory says that the entire universe is locked into one system
but within that system there are various other systems that can be
measured based upon a persons individual frame of reference. For
example, a person standing on a sidewalk and another person who is
the passenger in a fast moving car have two completely different
frames of reference even though they both reside within the same
realm. (Weinert) This shows how spatial movements are relativized
based on frame of reference. The clock on the pavement will not
show the same time that the clock in the car shows. (Weinert)
Einstein says that this proves that there is not one space and time
but that there are as many as there are reference systems and these
reference systems are responsive to one another but are not
ultimately determined by one another. (Weinert) Einstein said time
depends directly upon the perception of the viewer and it is at
least partially intuitive but there is also an external aspect that
is undeniable. This is the same synthesis that I believe is found
in Rationalism and Empiricism. We must anchor events in the
empirical world but then experience has the final say. All
scientific knowledge is hypothetical from this point of view since
there are limitless perceptions of an event. This hypothetical
viewpoint is supported by the fact that there is no way that we can
set up an external world without having some sort of
comprehensibility of it which lies in the intuition because we have
always been aware that our senses can often times deceive us. I
read this article entitled A Senseless Conversation by Zach Barnett
that illustrates how our senses can play tricks on us in real world
situations. The article was about this test known as the Turing
Test. The Turing Test is a way of testing the intelligence of
machines. The test requires that a human be placed in one room and
a machine in another. A series of questions is asked and an outside
viewer must determine which room contains the machine and which
room contains the human based on their responses. The hypothesis is
that if the viewer on the outside cannot distinguish between the
man and the machine, then the machine is thinking and conscious.
The trick lies in this question. Even if the viewer is unable to
distinguish between the two, how can we determine the consciousness
of a machine if we are not machines? (Barnett) We cannot simply
rely on our senses to determine such a thing. There must be some
sort of intuition involved in this process that is combined with
the empirical data. Another question that we must ask is this one.
Since it is widely accepted that our senses can sometimes deceive
us, how do we know that our senses are not always deceiving us?
Descartes discusses these sorts of ideas in his First Meditation.
He says that when we are dreaming, we sometimes falsely believe
that we are awake. Did God create us in a way that we will always
be deceived? If so, how would we know this? Even when we are awake
how to do know this to be true? Do we rely on our senses alone to
provide us with this understanding? When we are asleep all of the
things that we see are real. For example, if I were to dream about
riding a bicycle, my senses would tell me that this event is
actually occurring even though I realize that this is not so once I
am finally awakened.(Cress) The difference between dreaming and
being awake is that we have direct access to our rational mind.
Dreams are just unconscious combinations of the thoughts and ideas
that we hold in our minds. Upon waking up and regaining control of
our rational and intuitive mind, we are able to realize the
contradictions that our senses could not recognize while we were
dreaming. This proves that knowledge extends beyond the phenomenal.
Knowledge is a combination of the mind and the body. Italian
Philosopher Gaetano Chiurazzi says that to deny the physical
reality or method of understanding is to deny understanding but to
deny the idea behind the method is also a denial of understanding
because they are all one in the same. One must study the ideas and
also practice the methods that will be required for his success.
The awareness of experience is what creates mastery but this
awareness is only found through repetition of method. (Chiurazzi)
We are co-creators of reality but it is impossible to take absolute
control. Knowledge is not found in being able to create the perfect
situation, but being able to succeed under whatever circumstance
may arise. Repetition prepares us for these circumstances.
Repetition is said to translate the human interrogation into the
language of nature. (Chiurazzi) We as humans impose our will on
nature. Although we are not completely in control, the lack of
control that we often have over our own circumstances makes events
unpredictable and therefore eliminates the idea of there being any
real objectivity within science. (Chiurazzi) No event is directly
repeatable but using experience as a test is effective nonetheless.
For example, we cannot repeat the 2012 NBA Finals but the effects
of this event will still remain. Method and experiment can be
basically summed up as happening and understanding. (Chiurazzi)
Experience opens us up to possibilities that may not have been
there before that go beyond our expectations. Every time an event
occurs, reality is in a sense suspended. (Chiurazzi) Even though
every event is susceptible to the laws of nature, the event still
stands alone as a solo event. (Chiurazzi) The necessity of law and
accident of experience give the experiencer a sense of regularity
while not removing all flexibility from the equation.( Chiurazzi)
This is an increase of awareness and is therefore the essence of
knowledge. The greatest deception is said to be the redundancy of
truth. (Chiurazzi) Truth and reality are not interchangeable. Truth
must present reality in a higher degree. (Chiurazzi) The relation
between reality and truth is similar to the relationship between
space and time that was described in Einsteins Theory of
Relativity. Alteration in intuition is how reality is transmuted
into truth and this is what connects reality to consciousness.
(Chiurazzi) There is no true experience without at least some
degree of this conscious awareness because experience is defined as
being the conscious subject of a state or condition. Experience is
apprehended through the senses of the mind or accumulated through
direct participation over a long period of time. Therefore, in
order for experience to truly play its role relations must be
created based upon the experience. (Chiwuzz) Williams James said
that experience is determined by the perceiver alone. He says that
focus and flow of experience must be in sync in order to reach the
highest level of experience. If the proper attention is paid to the
experience, then the alterations that must be made can be reflected
upon later. (Chiuwuz) Consciousness comes gradually and the process
can be directly attributed to an understanding of the objects
involved.(Chiuwuz) There are many ideas on the true definition of
consciousness. A philosopher by the name of Leibnez says that once
a person is able to have a perception of his perception, then he
begins to become conscious. (Leibnez) I guess we would have to know
the definition of perception to understand what he is referring to
hear. Leibnez says that perception is expression of the multitude
through the simple and that this perception does not belong to the
body. (Leibnez)If perception does not belong to the body then what
does it belong to? We often identify ourselves with our physical
being but to truly understand perception, we must learn to identify
ourselves using our minds and our intuition as well. We must
re-conceptualize our ideas in order to comprehend the role that
intuition plays in identity. God created a law of the universe that
transcends all man made law. This law is only knowable through
human reason. (Torza) There is an unaltered form of justice that is
common to all even when there is no society to bind it to us. An
understanding of these laws is required in order for us to achieve
our passions. The most powerful of these laws is probably belief.
There is no success without belief. A belief is an idea of a
present stimuli based upon a summation of all of our other
ideas.(Kaveh) it is a more intense conception of an idea. Beliefs
are not to be confused with ideas that are simply being
entertained. According to Hume, beliefs are more of a disposition
than a perception. Therefore, a person cannot be aware of the
existence of something that he doesnt believe in. Our beliefs
dictate all of our actions and our actions create our results. A
man will not act in a way that is contrary to his beliefs for they
are so deeply rooted within each of his ideas. What constitutes
belief? Hume says that beliefs must be measurable phenomenally and
must also have the right amount of causal power. (Kaveh) The
difficulty in understanding belief however is similar to difficulty
in understanding consciousness. The vagueness of the concept makes
it nearly impossible to measure and define. We often define things
on a purely empirical basis because ideas are much harder to
conceptualize using a standard that can properly be perceived by
all. Nevertheless, beliefs are created through intense impression
(Kaveh) A universal definition of an intense impression is equally
as elusive as a universal definition of a belief. Sometimes our
impressions are faint and are barely separate from ideas. One way
to bring clarity to the situation is through our memories that
replay in our minds constantly and therefore create a sort of
simulated reality that can correlate with our ideas. (Kaveh) For
example, confidence is simply an idea that has been impressed upon
the brain through repetition of memory, also known as imagination.
Imagination is the ability to formulate new images without them
being directly perceivable and it combines causation, resemblance,
and contiguity in order to impress ideas onto the subconscious
mind. (Kaveh) First, an event occurs. Then we associate that event
with a similar event from the past and eventually we begin to
associate that event and all similar events with each other. We
often times associate everything related to this initial event with
the concurrent events including our emotions regarding the
situation. This can be a good or bad thing. A person who is in
control of his beliefs has trained his mind to respond properly to
external stimuli through the use of his imagination. A person who
has neglected to take control of his beliefs is at the mercy of his
past experiences. We would all like to believe that we respond to
what happens to us but really we are only able to respond to how we
feel about what has happened. If you seek proof that we respond to
our feelings and not our environment then look no further than an
angry man. An angry mans responses to his environment are vastly
different from those of a calm man who resides in the same
environment and the same situation. The way we feel about an event
directly correlates with how we perceive and deal with the event.
This is why beliefs are seen as dispositions and not simply just
entertained ideas. Impressions activate our subconscious mind. Our
subconscious mind is guided by our thought and in return guides our
actions. We must master our subconscious minds to master our lives
and the only way to do this is to use our will in order to direct
our thoughts. We often make the mistake of attempting to use our
will to direct our actions, when in actuality a change in our
thoughts and beliefs will automatically equate to a change in our
actions. Emotion helps to create belief within the subconscious
mind. When we reflect on events, the emotions tied to those events
create a feeling of them being real. Perception in itself is not
causal but understanding of it is as necessary in producing action
as it is to our psychological state. (Kaveh) Our passions must be
fueled by understanding or they will be blind and reckless. This
brings me to an essential question in relation to beliefs. How can
they be measured if not by quantification? Hume put it this way. He
said that belief is similar to color. A bright red and a dull red
are still red even though they vary in intensity.(Kaveh) I take
this to mean that the more powerful the belief, the greater the
phenomenon. Beliefs create passion and this passion can be measured
by how intensely an individual works towards a particular goal or
desire. As I stated earlier, there is a law of man based upon
justice and co-existence but the justification of our beliefs is
strictly our own. We all perceive events differently so our beliefs
are always justified in some sense. Justification has just as many
possibilities as there are beliefs so no ones opinion on your
beliefs should matter. The only thing that I will say in regards to
the justification of belief is that the justification must be
reached based on reasoning that coincides with natural law in order
to be true. Each of our personal beliefs is subject to the
understanding of these laws. No one can tell us what to believe as
I stated early but we must not lie to ourselves and feel as though
we can accomplish something outside of natural law. How do we
acquire the knowledge that allows us to understand natural law?
Understanding is perceived through the rational and not through
empirical. If an individual does not have a proper grasp on the
rational then he can never gain understanding but no one can
determine comprehension in another because the rational mind
extends no further than oneself. This is what makes it so hard to
determine in a universal way.
Despite the difficulty of explaining such a concept, many have
made attempts at refining it in order to reach a generally
perceptible explanation. Plato uses his analogy of the divided line
in order to explain how one can reach understanding. He says that
opinions and illusions are the lowest forms of understanding. Next
in line are our beliefs about empirical things. Then comes
mathematical reasoning and all theoretical science. Lastly, there
is philosophical understanding. Plato designates philosophical
understanding to be the highest form of understanding. (Plato) He
uses an allegory entitled The Allegory of the Cave in order to
further illustrate the separations in levels of understanding.
According to Plato, what most people perceive to be reality is
merely an illusion. He say the masses are like prisoners who have
been forced to stare at a wall of shadows for the entirety of their
lives. Behind the prisoners is a fire, and above the fire lies a
walkway where people are carrying items. The prisoners are unaware
of the fire and the walkway. They only see the shadows that are
cast by the figures and they mistake the shadows for the figures
themselves. The echoes of the people on the walkway resonate
throughout the cave. The prisoners perceive these echoes to be the
true and genuine voices of the shadows but they are merely
reflections of what is really there. They praised the man clever
enough to determine which shadow would appear next upon the wall
and their entire lives revolved around these shadows on the walls.
The story then takes an interesting twist. One of the prisoners is
somehow freed. He sees the people who have casted the shadows
before him for so long but the shadows still remain more real to
him because they are all that he has ever known. He tries to run
back to the shadows but he is forced into the light. The prisoner
initially loses all sense of reality because he is blinded by the
light but his eyes eventually acclimate and begin to see more and
more of the things around him. He now realizes that the sun is the
true source of existence and the shadows that he once knew to be
real were only reflections of what actually is. The man then
attempts to go back in order to spare his brothers from there
tragic fate of living a false life but instead of embracing him,
they reject him. Their fear of the new ideas that he brings cause
them to hate him and even mock him due to his ignorance. They then
attempt to destroy him because he is now viewed as a threat to the
only world that they have ever known. The man of understanding is
like the prisoner who was freed. It will be very hard for him to
explain what he has seen to someone who has been in the shadows.
They must see the light for themselves in order to understand it.
Very few people today master their craft. It is not because they
are incapable but because they are caught up in the illusion of
knowledge in the same way as the prisoners. Why are we not able to
overcome this perpetuated lie and gain true understanding? That is
a very loaded question and I dont believe that there is any simple
answer to it but I am aware of some factors that definitely play a
part. The United States of America now possesses more educated
people than it has during any time in the past so why are there
still so many people who are left out of the loop? Its simple, more
educated does not necessarily mean better educated. Colleges are no
longer able to produce critical thinkers which in turn creates
ineffective leaders. (Flores) In America, knowledge is determined
based on how well a person collects information attributed to a
specific subject and reiterates that information. (Flores)
Understanding is nowhere in the picture. The reasoning probably
revolves around the fact that it is very hard to measure
understanding so instead we have created a simple system that
rewards based on a high level of memorization. Schools nowadays
teach students what to think as opposed to teaching them how to
think. Institutions of higher learning are supposed to teach
students how to take knowledge and apply it to different situations
that benefit not only the individual but the entire society as a
whole but instead, we take thinking for granted. It is a common
misconception that human beings all think. (Flores) Granted, school
does require some sort of application of knowledge and examples
include solving simple math problems and constructing simple
sentences but this hardly suffices. (Flores) We make decisions when
we do these things but we dont even think about them as we do them
most times because we have done them for so long so once again we
find ourselves in this cycle of repetition and memorization.
(Flores) As was stated earlier, truth is not found in
redundancy.Knowledge and truth are found in a critical
understanding of concepts on a more comprehensive level. Critical
thinking involves conscious consideration which allows us to
combine associated objects and ideas in order to create new forms.
(Flores) Once a person can do this, then he is thinking critically.
He is not just responding to the same question that he has
responded to time and time again with the same answer. This is not
the end of this problem. If we already lack critical thinking
skills as a nation, then we will buy into the leadership styles of
bad leaders and the cycle soon becomes perpetual. Nowadays, school
is used to prepare people for a workforce that doesnt necessarily
require that they be able to think critically. As a matter of fact,
critical thinking may even be seen as a negative. The issue then
becomes further complicated because people begin to ask what
critical thinking really is. Some people known as technicists argue
that critical thinking is measured through task accomplishment
through a specific purpose. (Flores) Rationalists oppose this idea.
They believe that critical thinking revolves around the use of the
intellect and being able to respond to any situation no matter the
circumstances. The culmination of the two would begin us on the
road to critical thinking. An individual must understand the ins
and outs of his specific goal but he also must be properly prepared
to respond to the unknown. A machine can be programmed in order to
complete the same task over and over again with no error but the
human element comes into play when things dont go exactly as
planned. Understanding is gained by being able to think critically
and alter ones philosophy based on experience. Only a fool does the
same thing over and over again while expecting different results.
We must teach our students how to think in this way so that they
may progress to a deeper level of understanding. The road is a long
one but one easy way to begin to think critically is to simply
start asking questions. Doing something simply because it is
something that you have always done is not a sufficient reason.
Upon answering these questions, we must evaluate our sources and
test our arguments. We have to become skepticists in a sense and we
have to learn to suspend what we think we believe in order to
properly analyze new information. Before we can start to implement
these concepts in to schools, we must first come to a consensus on
what it means to think critically. The best option appears to be a
combination of the technicists idea of critical thinking and the
rationalists idea. This combination would have to include
developments of the proper skills, rationality based on some form
of universally accepted logic, an openness to new ideas, and the
ability to suspend ones beliefs. (Flores) In order to suspend our
beliefs, we must separate ourselves from our ego as much as
possible. This can be very hard to do at first and can also be
quite scary but it is necessary. This suspension of belief allows
us to evaluate all of our decisions logically and without bias. If
they still make sense upon further observation, then we should hold
on to them but if they do not, then we must have the courage to let
them go. This is the highest level of human development. Human
development is based on a transformational leadership model that
includes three stages. (Flores)As young children we are dependent
and we depend solely on others to construct out realities for us.
(Flores) As we move beyond this stage and into our teenage years,
we move into an independent phase where we begin to discover
ourselves outside of our childhood influences. (Flores) Finally, we
move into an interdependent phase where we begin to learn that all
of our success depends solely upon how we learn to interact and
understand one another within society. (Flores) One of the problems
of today is that we never completely move beyond the dependent and
independent phases. Most of todays leaders have an egocentric world
view which limits their abilities. Meanwhile, we are looking to
these unethical leaders and are modeling ourselves after them.
Leadership is becoming more and more complicated while leaders are
becoming less and less equipped. We have to start preparing leaders
to deal with drastic changes early. Memorization alone will not
allow us to develop the skills we will need to excel in life. The
only way we will excel is to learn to think for ourselves.
Experience means nothing if we do not have the capacity to
comprehend what it teaches us and the current educational system
presents no way of developing the skills that will be required to
gain this capacity. At the beginning of this paper, I asked whether
or not the educational system of this country was a proper
measuring stick for knowledge. Now I can confidently say that it is
not.Despite these discouraging facts, there are still things that
we can do in order to gain understanding and knowledge. We can
begin by asking questions about things that we have never
questioned before. There was this quote from Martin Luther King Jr.
that said, Lightning makes no sound until it strikes. (King) I feel
as though the lightning has yet to strike with many of us but it
all begins with a question. I have come to the conclusion that the
question is one of the true beginnings of knowledge. Once we as
people begin to ask questions, then we will be able to climb from
the cave and enter into the light. We must transform our education
system and our minds and cause this lightning to strike. In his
book The Mis-Education of the Negro , Carter G. Woodson said some
interesting things. One thing that he said stands out to me because
it rings so true today. He said,Practically all of the successful
Negroes in this country are of the uneducated type. The large
majority of the Negroes who have put on the finishing touches of
our best colleges are all but worthless in the development of their
people. Negroes what traducers of the race thereby earn a living at
teaching and preaching what they have learned and they never become
a constructive force in the development of the race. The so-called
school, then becomes a questionable factor in the life of this
despised people. As another has well said, to handicap a student by
teaching him that his black face is a curse and that his struggle
to change his condition is hopeless is the worst sort of lynching.
(Woodson) Woodson was referring to the African-American people of
the early 19th century when he wrote this but I cant help but
believe we are in a similar predicament today. The big difference
is that this idea not only applies to the African-American, but it
applies to all people of this nation. Somewhere we have become lost
and now it is time for us to regain our place within the universe.
In order to do this, we must release our materialistic philosophies
on life and begin to understand our true nature. Knowledge is not
something that can be obtained but it is something that one must
just become due to his being in tune with nature and his
surroundings. This connection cannot be forged through the physical
senses alone. We must join our physical bodies with our intuition
and our rational mind. This is the beginning of all knowledge.
An intelligent heart acquires knowledge, and the ear of the wise
seeks knowledge.Proverbs 18:15 ESV
Works Cited1. Kemp, Catherine. "Our Ideas In Experience: Hume's
Examples In ''Of Scepticism With Regard To The Senses''." British
Journal For The History Of Philosophy 12.3 (2004): 445-470.
Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May 2013.2. Brandhorst, Kurt.
Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy. Bloomington, IN:
Indiana UP, 2010. Print.3. Almog, Joseph. What Am I?: Descartes and
the Mind-body Problem. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. Print.4.Locke,
John, and P. H. Nidditch. An Essay concerning Human Understanding.
Oxford: Clarendon, 1975. Print.5. Kemp, Catherine. "Our Ideas In
Experience: Hume's Examples In ''Of Scepticism With Regard To The
Senses''." British Journal For The History Of Philosophy 12.3
(2004): 445-470. Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May 2013. . Descartes
on Causation Daniel E. Flage and Clarence A. Bonnen The Review of
MetaphysicsVol. 50, No. 4 (Jun., 1997), pp. 841-872Published by:
Philosophy Education Society Inc.Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/201301176. Weinberg, Julius R. Ockham,
Descartes, and Hume: Self-knowledge, Substance, and Causality.
Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1977. Print.7. Weinert, Friedel.
"The Modern Synthesis: Einstein And Kant." Forum Philosophicum:
International Journal Of Philosophy 14.2 (2009): 193-216.
Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May 2013.8. Zach Barnett (2011)
ASenseless Conversation. Think, 10, pp 9-21 9.Chiurazzi, Gaetano.
"Truth Is More Than Reality: Gadamer's Transformational Concept Of
Truth." Research In Phenomenology 41.1 (2011): 60-71. Philosopher's
Index. Web. 8 May 2013.10. Torza, Alessandro. "'Identity' Without
Identity." Mind: A Quarterly Review Of Philosophy 121.481 (2012):
67-95. Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May 2013.11.Kamooneh, Kaveh.
"Hume's Beliefs." British Journal For The History Of Philosophy
11.1 (2003): 41-56. Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May
2013.12.Balinsky, Margaret Anne. Plato's Divided Line. N.p.: n.p.,
1973. Print.13.Flores, Kevin L, Gina S Matkin, and Mark E (et al.)
Burbach. "Deficient Critical Thinking Skills Among College
Graduates: Implications For Leadership." Educational Philosophy And
Theory 44.2 (2012): 212-230. Philosopher's Index. Web. 8 May
2013.14. King, Martin Luther. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper
& Row, 1964. Print.15. Duncan, Stewart. "Leibniz's Mill
Arguments Against Materialism." Philosophical Quarterly 62.247
(2012): 250-272. Philosopher's Index. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.16.
Woodson, Carter Godwin. The Mis-education of the Negro. Chicago,
IL: African-American Images, 2000. Print.17. Bloom, Harold. The
Bible. New York: Chelsea House, 1987. Print.18. Sober, Elliott.
Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings. New York:
Macmillan, 1991. Print.19.Freeman, James B. Thinking Logically:
Basic Concepts for Reasoning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1988. Print.20. Gardiner, Patrick L. Nineteenth-century
Philosophy,. New York: Free, 1968. Print.
Tyrus BrownEnglish 3604Professor McAdonNovember 8, 2013The Half
Baked TruthMany people have strong views on college and other
alternatives to becoming successful. America is the land of
opportunities; it emphasizes the survival of the fittest. The
desire to go to college is greater in the 21st century than ever
before. Are students really prepared to attend college or are there
other alternatives? We learn in school that college is the norm and
if a person wants to make something out of himself, then college is
the best route. We are the nation of freedom; freedom of
opportunities supporting the Bill of Rights document of free will.
Now we are behind so many countries educational systems because our
methods are outdated (Strauss, Valerie Why Everyone Shouldnt Go to
College 2). There are more students going to college, but after a
semester or two they are failing or dropping out (Lawrence Schalak,
Going to College Is Not Always the Best Choice 2). How can we
change this? How can we become this great nation with a strong
economy and the land of opportunities? We can become this great
nation again by expanding our resources, and not just by going to
college and accumulating debt; but by putting people in positions
and in fields that could really benefit them by building jobs,
supporting funds of money, and giving our communities a boost.
People are going to college like never before mainly because of
high unemployment rates. Most high schools emphasize going to
college but hardly recommend other routes to become successful such
as trade schools or programs to go immediately into a profession.
College is a great way of becoming successful; it also allows you
to be around others seeking the same opportunities; but everyone is
not made for college and also everyone does not take college
seriously. College is very expensive; it is almost double the
amount of trade school. In some cases people who leave college will
make less than the person who went off to trade school learning and
gaining the experience within their field (Hirschel, Kasper The
Economics of Community College Labor Markets 2). Most people who
attend college actually do not obtain their degree. This means that
most people waste their time in college obtaining loans and do not
even get their degree. There should be more alternatives to college
because every individual is different. This essay will evaluate the
claims of other authors who have opposing views of this issue and
explain why students should have other opportunities rather than
attending college. The essay will begin by analyzing why it is
detrimental for low income families to attend college, and why
there should be other alternatives. Then the essay will present the
many claims made by other scholars that contend that a four year
program is not for everyone. Finally, there will be elaboration and
supporting evidence from those authors claims that students or
those who take the alternative route most times are just as, or
more successful than, those who attend a four year institution. As
children, we are told that after graduating high-school attending
college would be the best route. A college education not only
provides a competitive edge in the workforce, it also provides
financial security and changes the individual (Schlack 1). Schlack
makes this claim in his article but then refutes this claim by
stating that, after high school students need to take some time and
find themselves before making any major decisions about going back
to school(3). Most times college is forced upon people and they
feel as though they have to go even if they are not ready. It is
said that everyone should have the opportunity to attend college
but many low-income families do not have that opportunity.
Carnevale and Sylvester make the claim that to get a good job a
person must attend college. They say that being on welfare makes
the circumstance of going back to school a greater challenge. They
also claim that individuals who have competent skills can interpret
complex tables and graphs, and understand and respond to lengthy,
complicated documents can accumulate more wealth over the years
than the people who only attend high school and know basic skills
and can solve simple math problems (7). Carnevale and Sylvester
address the welfare issue by claiming that two-thirds of all
respondents to the education facility indicated that they could not
identify current students who received public assistance while in
college. They also state that some colleges claim that they could
not support those students if they did not know which of their
students are on welfare; it is almost impossible to ensure that the
students are receiving the support they need whether for securing
child care, obtaining financial aid, or finding jobs (5). Some
strong arguments were made by Carnevale and Sylvester. The point
where they state that colleges need to make sure that welfare
recipients and other low income students take full advantage of
federal and state financial aid is a strong argument (7). Some low
income people feel they are not capable of attending college
because they are unaware of the resources that are available for
them. This could be a main concern that some low income families do
not go the extra mile of seeking these resources because they feel
they have none, if colleges make people aware of their resources,
more people are likely to attend college because they feel they can
afford it. Another strong claim is when they state, The community
and technical colleges expanding their long tradition of
responsiveness to market trends and the needs of local employers.
Through close ties with local employers, colleges can identify new
jobs and provide tangible incentives for welfare recipients to
enroll in campus programs (13).Although the authors made good
arguments, there were a few flaws in their evidence. They put more
emphasis on going to college but they never addressed the cost
effect or the psychological strain that tuition puts on the
students. They say they want more low income families to enroll in
college, but what about the debt they will accumulate while in
college? William Symonds argued, in the article, Pathways to
Prosperity that, Low income families going to college and the debt
factor that they occur (3) is a major issue. Symond also offers
young people in high school and beyond multiple pathways to
success, instead of putting so much emphasis on attending a
four-year college; (2) engaging employers in the crucial work of
preparing young people for success, such as by providing career
counseling and offering opportunities for work-based learning and
actual employment; and (3) creating a new social compact with
youth, in which key stakeholders in a state or region improving the
pathways for those who are now being left behind and have a low
income situation(9). Christen Brownlee argues that going straight
to a four year school is not for everyone; he points out about a
person planning on attending college but would like to do something
different before starting (4). Brownlee claims that there a growing
number of opportunities that are available from environmental work
to cultural immersion programs, to internships to community service
initiatives. (4) Wally Barnes, on the other hand emphasizes the
need for college; his approach is dealing with the career-readiness
for all high school graduates; he addresses college-readiness
clearly to the exclusion of other educational alternatives. He
states that, college and career readiness may be the mantra for the
21st century, but politicians and educational leaders tend to lean
heavily on college-readiness when curricular requirements are
increased and accountability measures become more stringent, which
tends to anchor academic preparedness(9). Carnevale and Sylvesters
article is very well done and their account with dealing with going
to college is well thought out but has many gaps and not much solid
evidence supporting their overall claim. They take a strong stand
saying that in order to get a good job a person must attend
college; but they also state that how could colleges cannot low
income students if they do not know which of their students are on
welfare; it is almost impossible to ensure that the students are
receiving the support they need whether for securing child care,
obtaining financial aid, or finding jobs (5). A person can learn a
trade in the field they want to expand in and make a great living
without any college training.Christen Brownlee author of the
article Alternative Routes claims that going to a four year college
is not for everyone (1). According to Brownlee there are four other
routes that he believes can lead to a rewarding future: community
college, trade school, volunteering, and the military (1). Brownlee
states that, statistics show that over the next couple of years, it
is projected that thirty new jobs are projected to grow; only seven
of those careers will require a bachelors degree (3). Brownlee
gives this example in his article about a young man named Charles
Livingston:[Charlie Livingston's high school years in Middletown,
Connecticut, were a blur of regular courses and technical
classes--he crammed in as much shop, woodworking, and welding as he
could handle. Sometimes he'd even hang out with friends who went to
a nearby technical high school and help them do electrical work. He
knew right away that he loved working with his hands, climbing
ladders, and running wire. But when graduation rolled around, he
decided to take the same route as many other students in his high
school: He started toward a four-year degree. But after enrolling
at Central Connecticut State University in New Britain, Livingston
wasn't sure what he wanted for a major, and he didn't like going to
class. When he finished his second semester, he dropped out, and
decided to pursue the electrical work he really enjoyed.Now, he's
taking a one-year electrical training program and well on his way
to a career as an electrician, a job that can pay more than $33 an
hour, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Compared to the
$56,000 it takes to attend four years at his state college, the
electrical training program costs only about $15,500. Like many
other young people, Livingston originally thought college was his
only ticket to an interesting job with a good salary] (2-3).
According to polls taken from ten different high schools and the
example Brownlee gives of Mr. Livingston he states that, many high
school students choose college because, they feel that it is the
only ticket to an interesting job, they think there is not anything
else, and or they think that their parents (adults) do not want to
hear anything else (4). But as proven choosing college is not the
only path to success. Both Jacques Steinberg and Valerie Strauss
also make compelling claims regarding college alternatives. Jacques
Steinberg presents different educators and their various opinions
about higher education. Steinberg also presents evidence that many
careers do require a two or four year degree and that half of
college students will not receive their degree within six years
(4). Steinberg argues that of the ten most popular jobs in the
economy, only two, accounting and post-secondary teaching require
degrees (6). He says these jobs are outnumbered by the ones that do
not require a degree and these workers make almost as much or
sometimes even more than those with a degree. The need for
registered nurses, home health aides, customer service
representatives, and store clerks and managers is rising, and none
of these jobs requires a college degree (8). In Valerie Strausss
article she addresses some the various rates of some of the college
students enrolled in the United States. Strauss says that the
percentage of high school students between the ages of 18-24 who
enrolled in college has increased from thirty five percent in 2000
and to forty one percent in 2010 (6). Strauss also states in the
article that seventy percent of high school students attend college
right after high school but nearly half of the students enrolled in
college full time drop out after their first year (6). Strauss
makes the claim that students may not pursue four more years of
academic work after high school, so some may pursue career and
technical training (7). Wally Brown says that many American
citizens believe that education beyond high school is a passport to
the American dream ("College-Readiness Is Not One-Size-Fits-All."
Wally Brown) 1). College-Readiness researchers have reported that
students in our nations high schools are earning diplomas, but they
are graduating without the knowledge, skills, and metacognitive
strategies needed to be successful at postsecondary institutions.
Although college-readiness is an ambitious, viable tenet for
student success at the postsecondary level, federal and state
policy makers must understand that students and patterns of college
attendance are changing rapidly (Barnes 2). Barnes discusses how to
eliminate the thought that college is a one size fits all idea. He
makes the claim that there are many more opportunities rather than
college, because college is not for everyone (2). Barnes in this
article examines the educational policy reports, and legislative
acts to explore the extent in which students should be college
ready (1). While exploring those documents and also other evidence
Barnes came to the conclusion that, the one-size-fits-all college
readiness agenda is a dichotomous variable than a continuum, which
would allow students to make more informed decisions about college
goals, and career aspirations (2). Now that the many different
claims have been discussed by scholarly authors we need to
recognize the alternatives that are referred to and how effective
they really are. The table below compares a trade school a
traditional four year college. Comparing Types of CollegesCommunity
College/ Trade SchoolFour-Year Private or Public Institution
Many community colleges have open admissions policies, meaning
that anyone who can benefit is welcome to attend. There are usually
minimal qualifications for admission to degree and certificate
programs; however, some programs" especially in the allied health
sciences are highly selective, have rigorous admissions criteria,
and accept only a small number of students each year. You will need
a high school diploma or a high school equivalency certificate
based on the General Educational Development (GED) test to take
courses for credit. Many non-credit courses are generally open to
anyone who wants to enroll.Students take assessment and admitted.
Placement tests to determine their appropriate class level. Basic
skills or developmental courses, plus English language classes, may
be required prior to enrollment in college-level courses for
credit.Four-year colleges and universities vary in their degrees of
selectivity and some do have open admissions policies. Selection is
most often based on competitive factors including standardized test
scores, such as the SAT and ACT, high school grade point average
and coursework, letters of recommendation, and admissions essays. A
high school diploma or high school equivalency certificate (GED) is
generally required in order for an applicant to be admitted.
The community college/ Trade School student body is often
described as "non-traditional," referring to independent, older
adults who are entering college for the first time or returning
after some time. range of Traditional" college-age students (18"22
years old) entering directly from high school are increasing in
numbers, especially as full-time students in day programs.Most
students are in-state residents from the local area; some
foreign-born students also attend.The majority of students attend
part time (less than 12 credit hours per semester).Many students in
baccalaureate programs start right out of high school and fall into
the traditional college-age 18-22 years.Students come from across
the country and around the world.Most students attend on attend a
full-time basis.
Most community colleges offer a comprehensive curriculum (course
of study) that focuses mainly on liberal arts and sciences, plus
vocational and technical training for direct entry into the
workforce, an option that most four-year such as institutions do
not offer. Continuing education and workforce development programs
are integral to community colleges' mission to meet local needs.The
undergraduate curriculum (course of study) focuses mainly on
liberal arts and sciences, preparation for professional degrees law
or medicine, and preparation for other graduate level education.
Many four-year institutions also offer continuing education and
workforce training programs.
An associate's degree is usually the highest degree awarded;
however, a few states Florida, Arkansas, Utah" have begun to allow
community colleges and Trade Schools to offer a bachelor's
(baccalaureate) degree. Most degree programs can be completed in
2years of full-time attendance. Certificate programs typically take
a year or less to complete if you go full time.All four-year
colleges and universities offer a bachelor's (baccalaureate) degree
as the highest undergraduate degree. Some also offer an associate's
degree. The bachelor's degree typically takes 4 to 6 years to
complete.
Community colleges/Trade Schools are mainly geared to commuters;
however, about 20 percent of community colleges do offer a more
traditional college experience with on-campus housing available to
students.Most four-year institutions are geared to full-time,
residential students with on-campushousing in dormitories widely
available (although they may also have a commuter population).
Faculty members are mainly focused on teaching as their primary
responsibility; many colleges require faculty to have master's
degrees and there are a growing number who also hold doctorates.
Faculty members' focus is divided among teaching, research, and
publication; there are a higher percentage of faculties with
doctorates than in community colleges.
Class size averages between 25 and 40 students. Classes are
taught by full-time or part-time (adjunct) faculty. Although
average class size varies, many lower-division (freshman and
sophomore) classes, especially lecture classes, can be very large
and are often taught by graduate teaching assistants.
Tuition for community colleges is affordable.Tuition costs at
public institutions are usually at least twice that of community
colleges and often more at a private institution.
(Susan Strafford, Table 1)Richard Vedder along with many of his
colleagues believes that volunteering prepares students for careers
better than a university education. Vedder claims that the number
of college graduates fell below the growth in the number of
technical or basic jobs that are producing in our economy (3).
Volunteers gain real life experience that they can use to pursue a
career. Ken Gray states in the article Alternatives to College,
that eighty percent of all jobs require less than a four year
degree, and hands on experience, trade school or volunteering to
gain experience benefits students more than attending four year
colleges (2). In conclusion, when deciding on a post-secondary
education one should definitely consider all options. Some options
that some may do to become successful are trade schools or programs
to go immediately into a profession. The authors discussed in this
essay made some valid claims on other alternatives that are
available besides attending a four year institution. Mary Marklein
in her article What If a College Education Isnt For Everyone claims
that our society feels that if you do not attend college and get
into the upper tier will struggle their entire life (2). This is
not true. It has been proven that when individuals take alternative
paths that they are usually as successful as those who attend a
four year institution.
Works Cited"Alternatives to College." Careers & Colleges
27.1 (2006): 32-34. OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 4
Oct. 2013.Barnes, Wally... "College-Readiness Is Not
One-Size-Fits-All." Current Issues in Education 16.1 (2013): 1-12.
OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 21 Oct. 2013.Brownlee,
Christen. "Alternative Routes." Careers & Colleges 25.1 (2004):
28-32.Web. 21 Oct.Kasper, Hirschel. "The Economics of Community
College Labor Markets: A Primer. (2009): 3-10. OmniFile Full Text
Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 4 Oct. 2013 2013.Marklein, Mary Beth.
Education What If a College Education Isnt For Everyone? 16
Mar.2010.Web.05 Oct. 2013.Schlack, Lawrence B. Going to College Is
Not Always the Best Choice. Winter 2010.Web.20 Oct.2013Stafford H.
Susan. Comparisons between Trade Schools Community Colleges and
Four Year Institutions. 20 July 2010. Web. 11 Nov. 2013. Steinberg,
Jacques. Plan B: Skip College. The New York Times. 16 May 2010.
Web. 26 Sept. 2013. Strauss, Valerie. Why Everyone Shouldnt Go to
College. Washingtonpost.com. 06 Dec. 2012. Web. Sept. 26
2013Symonds, William "Pathways to Prosperity." Educational
Leadership 69.7 (2012): 35-39. OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W.
Wilson). Web. 4 Oct. 2013Vedder, Richard. Why College Isnt for
Everyone. Businessweek.com. 09 Apr. 2012. Web. 05 Oct. 2013