PHILOSOPHY THE SEARCH FOR ANSWERS
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PHILO
SOPHY
TH
E S
EA
RC
H F
OR
AN
SW
ER
S
Originated in Ionia
6th century B.C.
Movement away from religious myths
Celebrated man’s reason, ability to find Truth
Combined religion, morals, and metaphysics (the nature of being)
BIRTH OF PHILOSOPHY
MAN BEGAN ASKING IMPORTANT QUESTIONS.Do gods cause everything?
Are the gods real? What is real?
Can man affect change?
How to live well =
Right opinions about God, world, man, virtue
THE C
OSMOLOGIS
TS
SE
EK
I NG
AN
SW
ER
S A
BO
UT
TH
E U
NI V
ER
SE
OVERVIEW OF THE COSMOLOGISTS
Questioned nature of the cosmos (universe)
“Single, eternal, imperishable substance = basis for reality”
Wanted to understand the “One”
Everything emerges from the “One”
Contemporary of Solon
“Water = basic element for everything in nature”
Omitted gods from origin of nature
Believed earth floated on water
First to predict eclipse of the sun
THALES: THE FIRST PHILOSOPHER
Rejected Thales belief about water
“Indefinite substance (Boundless) = source of all”
“Boundless” contains powers of heat and cold
Heat and cold produced nucleus (seed of world)
Influenced ideas about evolution
ANAXIMANDER
“Air is primary substance”
Believed world was orderly
“Rainbow = sun’s rays falling on dense air”
ANAXIMENES
THE R
ELIGIO
US MYS
TICS
WH
AT
IS
TH
E S
OU
L ?
OVERVIEW OF RELIGIOUS MYSTICS
Soul more important than body
Immortality
Transmigration of the soul (reincarnation)
Ate no meat
Influenced Plato
Taught transmigration of souls (reincarnation)
“Order in universe based on numbers”
Mathematical, geometrical, astronomical science
Knew that earth is a sphere
Developed Pythagorean theorem
PYTHAGORAS: COINED THE TERM “PHILOSOPHY”
“You can never step into same stream twice”
“Material world is in state of flux”
Matter itself is constantly changing
“Fire (constantly changing) = source of all things”
HERACLITUS
Disagreed with Heraclitus
“Change is an illusion of the senses”
“Reality is fixed, unchanging”
Founder of formal logic
Believed in one True Being: transcendent, permanent, perfect
PARMENIDES
Identified four basic elements: Fire, Water, Earth, Air
“Reality is permanent but mobile”
Four elements move by two opposing forces
Love and Strife
Like magnet’s attraction or repulsion
EMPEDOCLES
Called the “laughing philosopher”
World made of atoms:
Innumerable tiny, solid, indivisible, unchangeable particles
Atoms move, create shapes/colors
Senses perceive shapes/colors
DEMOCRITUS
Friend of Pericles
“World made of tiny fundamental particles: seeds”
“Seeds unite on rational basis by nous, or mind”
Made distinction between matter and mind
ANAXAGORAS
THE M
EDICAL
PHILO
SOPHER
SE
AR
CH
I NG
FO
R A
NS
WE
RS
TH
RO
UG
H
OB
SE
RV
AT
I ON
Started a school
Observed ill patients, classified symptoms
Predicted future course of an illness
Rejected supernatural explanations and cures
HIPPOCRATES: FATHER OF MEDICINE
SOPHIS
TS
TR
AV
EL I N
G T
EA
CH
ER
S
SOPHISTS
Paid, traveling teachers of rhetoric, dialectic, argumentation
Taught students how to win arguments
Some claimed to teach wisdom
Socrates believed sophistry was wrong
“Distracts people from pursuit of Truth”
Sophist
“Law is contrary to nature”
“Law man-made, so weak controls strong”
Extremist
“Gods invented, keep people from acting independently” (There are no gods.)
CRITIAS
Never wrote anything
Plato wrote “dialogues,” Socrates was a character
Xenophon also wrote about Socrates
Did not consider himself wise
Denied he was a teacher or sophist
SOCRATES – “I AM NOT A SOPHIST!”
THE BAREFOOT PHILOSOPHER
Socrates walked around Athens, barefooted
Odd looking: Bulging eyes, large nose
Successfully argued that he was superior looking
Taught by asking questions
Socratic Method
THE SOCRATIC METHOD OF TEACHING
Leading questions get people to think (“Aha!”)
Believed people do wrong because of ignorance
Don’t know what is virtuous
Educate in virtue, right living will follow
BOTH student AND teacher learns
TRIAL AND EXECUTION
Angry Athenians accused him of:
Corrupting youth + bringing new gods into city
Stood trial
Choice: exile or execution
Chose death: drank poison (hemlock)
THE C
YNIC
S
THE CYNICS
Extremists
Based philosophy on Socratic teaching
Disdained worldly pleasure and wealth
Withdrew from political life
Founded the Cynics
Follower of Socrates
ANTISTHENES
Wore rags, lived in a tub
Performed shameful acts in public
Made living by begging
Defined happiness:
Satisfy natural needs in simple, direct, public way
DIOGENES: THE MOST FAMOUS CYNIC
Ridiculed all religious observances
Plato said Diogenes was Socrates gone mad.
DIOGENES’ VIEW OF RELIGION
CYNICS’ BELIEF ABOUT VIRTUE
“Virtue = wisdom and happiness”
“Virtue comes from proper style of life”
Can’t be taught, does not come from philosophy
(Socrates said the opposite)
CYNICS’ VIEW OF THE POLIS
Abandoned concept of polis altogether
Diogenes said he was kosmopolites
“Citizen of the world”
PLAT
O
Socrates’ most important student
Became greater than Socrates
First systematic philosopher
Applied philosophy to political events, ideas
PLATO
Wrote 26 philosophical discussions
Almost all were dialogues
“Conversations” between Socrates and various people
PLATO’S DIALOGUES
BACKGROUND
Noble Athenian family
Wanted to participate in politics but didn’t
Socrates’ execution
Reign of Thirty Tyrants
Influential school
Purpose: train statesmen, citizens
Closed by Justinian in 6th century A.D.
PLATO’S SCHOOL: THE ACADEMY
POLITICAL BELIEFS
“Truth can be discovered by REASON”
Disliked democracy because power given to “amateurs”
Philosopher = “lover of wisdom” should lead polis
“We should question, challenge authority”
COMMITMENT TO THE POLIS
“Polis is based on virtues: order, harmony, justice”
Goal of the polis: Produce good people
“Man was meant to live in community”
“Community helps man become good”
KNOWLEDGE AND TRAINING
“Knowledge” (episteme)
True, unchanging wisdom
Only for a few philosophers
Philosophers need training (helps philosopher see “reality”)
Only philosophers qualified to rule
Prefer “life of contemplation”
Will accept responsibility from sense of duty
PLATO’S PHILOSOPHER-KING
Tried to define justice and holiness
These are inherent in the Good
Discovery possible only through philosophy
JUSTICE & HOLINESS
PRESERVING THE POLIS
“Preserve polis through moral + political reform”
Alleviate causes of strife:
Private property, family
Anything that comes between citizen and polis
Man must have knowledge of the Good
Understand philosophical principles first
Right action follows
THE GOOD
ARISTO
TLE
Plato’s student
Son of court doctor in Macedon
Studied at the Academy
Joined Platonic colony in Asia Minor
Taught Alexander the Great
BACKGROUND
Founded Athenian school: the Lyceum
Goal: Gather, order, analyze all human knowledge
ARISTOTLE’S SCHOOL
Wrote dialogues on Platonic philosophy; none survive
158 collections of information
Served as basis for scientific works
Only the Constitution of the Athenians remains
ARISTOTLE’S WRITINGS
Philosophy led to scientific studies:
Logic, rhetoric
Physics, astronomy, biology (including marine biology
Ethics, politics
Literary Criticism (categorized genres)
BIRTH OF SCIENCE
Observe evidence
Physical evidence OR opinion
Apply reason; discover patterns/inconsistencies
Compare + contrast
Explain with metaphysical principles
ARISTOTLE’S SCIENTIFIC METHOD
THE GOOD LIFE
Emphasized balanced life
Moderation in all things
Goal: “The Good Life”
Contemplative but enough wealth to live comfortably
Sophists: “Polis is a man-made convention”
Aristotle said no:
Polis is natural, necessary
Polis will change over time
Polis will improve
BELIEFS ABOUT THE POLIS
ARISTOTLE’S CORE BELIEFS
Everything evolves to final, perfected form
Institutions serve human needs, helps continue species
Marriage + household necessary to polis
Purpose of polis: moral (not military, economic)
“Power should rest with middle class”
Most numerous and stable
Not arrogant from wealth or malicious from poverty
Mixed Constitution best
Democracy AND oligarchy
ARISTOTLE’S MIDDLE CLASS
ARISTOTLE’S LAST DAYS
Alexander died; Athenians rebelled from Macedonian rule
Aristotle fled
Died in Calcis (in Euboea) the next year
Contemporary of Plato and Aristotle
Headed important rhetorical/ philosophical school in Athens
ISOCRATES
POLITICAL BELIEFS
Supported Philip of Macedon
Sought unity and leadership
Urged imperial conquest
Plato said, “No – problem is moral”
Aristotle said, “Apply virtue, moderation; empower middle class”
HELLENIS
TIC
PHILO
SOPHIE
S
SKEPTIC
S
Founder: Pyrrho
Pointed out philosophical fallacies in rival schools
“Nothing can be known; accept conventional morality”
SKEPTICS
CYNIC
S
CYNICS
Denounced morality and status quo
Advocated crude, “natural” life
Shocked and outraged public
Diogenes reportedly walked around the streets of Athens, in broad daylight, carrying a lantern.
When asked why he was doing this, Diogenes said that he was searching for an honest man.
DIOGENES: THE MOST FAMOUS CYNIC
Alexander once had an opportunity to meet Diogenes, who was reclining in the sunshine.
Thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, Alexander asked if there was any favor he might do for him.
"Yes,” Diogenes replied. “Stand out of my sunlight."
DIOGENES AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Numerous reports:
held his breath till he died
became ill from eating raw octopus
suffered an infected dog bite
ACCOUNTS OF DIOGENES’ DEATH
LAST WORDS….
Someone once asked Diogenes how he wished to be buried. He said he wanted to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body.
“Wouldn’t you mind that?” the man asked.
"Not at all,” Diogenes said, “as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!"
“But how could you use the stick? Wouldn’t you lack awareness?” the man asked.
“If I lack awareness,” the philosopher replied, “then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?"
EPICUREANS
Founded by Epicurus
“Happiness achieved through reason”
“Nothing after death, so no need to fear death”
“Gods exist but uninterested in human affairs”
EPICUREANS
EPICUREANS
Wanted to liberate people from:
Reliance on the gods
Belief in supernatural
Fear of death
EPICUREANS
Emphasis on pleasure, good life (hedonism)
Pleasure = “absence of pain, trouble or responsibility”
Withdrew from society
Avoided business and public life
Advocated “restrained selfishness”
STOIC
S
Founder: Zeno
Established a school
Combined philosophies of Socrates, Cynics, Eastern thought
STOICS
THE STOIC’S GOAL IN LIFE
“Live in harmony with yourself and with nature.”
“God and nature are the same.”
Logos = guiding principle in life, divine reason
“Everyone has spark of divinity”
“After death, spark returns to eternal, divine spirit”
STOIC IDEAS ABOUT VIRTUE“Pursue virtue; differentiate between good, evil,
indifferent”
Good: prudence, justice, courage, temperance
Evil: folly, injustice, cowardice
Indifferent: life, beauty, health, strength, pleasure, wealth
“Misery results from passion; passion = soul’s disease”
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