PGD - CS - SOLAL THERMAL

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Introduction to Solar Energy 744 Solar Thermal - CSP Water Consumption -

Individual Assignment 2013

Compton Colin Saunders [email protected]

079 176 3020

Name: Compton Saunders

Student Number: 13718436 Degree: PGD Sustainable Development

Module: Introduction to Solar Energy Lecturers: Mr Johann Strauss, Mr Riaan Meyer

Total Pages: 13 Due Date: September 2th, 2013

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Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv

List of Abbreviations and Symbols ............................................................................................. v

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1

2. Concentrating Solar Power Energy Generation ..................................................................... 1

3. Technology Overview - Parabolic Trough and Solar Tower ................................................... 2

3.1 Parabolic Trough Power Plants ........................................................................................ 2

3.2 Solar Tower Power Plants ................................................................................................ 3

4. Cooling Systems ..................................................................................................................... 3

4.1 The Cooling Requirement................................................................................................. 3

4.2 Cooling Types ................................................................................................................... 4

4.2.1 Once-through Cooling ............................................................................................... 5

4.2.2 Recirculating or closed loop Systems ....................................................................... 5

4.2.3 Dry-cooling ................................................................................................................ 5

4.2.4 Hybrid-cooling ........................................................................................................... 6

5. Cooling Technology Performance Comparison ..................................................................... 6

5.1 Water Consumption ......................................................................................................... 6

5.2 Energy Production Performance and Efficiency .............................................................. 8

5.3 Hybrid Cooling Benefits .................................................................................................... 9

5.4 Life Cycle Costs ................................................................................................................. 9

5.5 Decision factors .............................................................................................................. 11

6. The South African CSP Landscape ........................................................................................ 11

7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 13

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 14

Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 16

Appendix B ............................................................................................................................... 17

Appendix C ............................................................................................................................... 18

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List of Figures Figure 1: Bokpoort CSP components and process as outlined in CDM-PDD document. Source CDM (2012) ................................................................................................................................ 2

Figure 2: CSP - Parabolic Trough based Power Plant - Source (DOE 2011a) ............................. 2

Figure 3: CSP – Solar Tower based Power Plant. Source (DOE 2011b) ...................................... 3

Figure 4: Rankine cycle and temperature-entropy. Source Kaushik et al. (1994) ..................... 4

Figure 5: Wet-cooling system for power plant. Source (Strzepek et al. 2012). ......................... 4

Figure 6: Dry-cooling System. Source (Strzepek et al. 2012). .................................................... 5

Figure 7: Hybrid Cooling System. Source DOE (2008b) ............................................................. 6

Figure 8: Output of power of hybrid cooling plant represented as a fraction of the output for wet cooled plant related to the fraction of water consumed (DOE 2008b). ............................ 9

Figure 9: Water consumption for different cooling energy generation technology. Source (Macknick et al. 2012). ............................................................................................................. 16

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List of Tables Table 1: Water consumption and cost penalty comparison of different cooling types for various power plant technologies Source (DOE 2008b) ............................................................ 7

Table 2: Estimated water consumption of planned South African CSP plants – all plants use dry-cooling ................................................................................................................................. 7

Table 3: Net Present Value representation of various cooling technologies relative to base wet-cooling system. WorleyParsons (2008). ........................................................................... 10

Table 4: REIPPP CSP plant technology ..................................................................................... 11

Table 5: Environmental legislation applicable to establishment of CSP plant in Upington, Northern Cape. Source (ESKOM 2007). .................................................................................. 12

Table 6: Currently operating CSP plants using dry-cooling. .................................................... 17

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List of Abbreviations and Symbols Alternating Current AC Inches of Mercury in. HgA Concentrating Solar Power CSP Carbon capture and sequestration CCS Direct current DC Department of Energy DOE Direct Normal Insolation DNI Environmental Impact Assessment EIA Integrated gasification combined cycle IGCC kilowatt kW heat transfer fluid HTF kilogram kg kilowatt hour kWh kilowatt peak kWp Levelised cost of electricity LCOE Megawatt MW Megawatt hour MWh Mega Joule MJ Non-governmental organisation NGO Photovoltaic PV Thermal Energy Storage TES Ultra violet UV Volt V Watt W

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1. Introduction South Africa and especially areas such is the Northern Province is prime location for solar thermal electricity

generation. Although the country has good solar resources it is also faced with water scarcity. Concentrating

solar power (CSP) is amongst one of the renewable energy technologies currently planned for development

within South Africa and like conventional power stations also operates with steam turbines which requires

the use of cooling technology. CSP plants are capable of thermal energy storage (TES) and within the current

development framework of South Africa will significantly contribute to energy generation in the Future.

Conradie and Kröger (1996) states that various industrial processes such as power generation need to reject

waste heat with power plants typically rejecting heat at twice the rate it is producing electricity. The current

climate situation and water shortages as well as strict environmental regulations are forcing designers to

consider expensive water efficient dry-cooling technology instead of more capital efficient wet-cooling

(Conradie and Kröger 1996).

Wet-cooling systems use considerably more water than dry cooling systems and water consumption is a

critical deciding factor within the current water scarcity and climate change arena. This paper offers a brief

review of CSP and cooling technologies while considers factors such as performance, cost, efficiency and

environmental aspects of various cooling technologies.

2. Concentrating Solar Power Energy Generation Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems generate electricity by concentrating or focusing solar energy (sun

beams) onto a fluid conducting mechanism in order to heat the fluid. The fluid also referred to as working

fluid (Mittelman and Epstein 2010) or heat transfer fluid (HTF) (Fernández-García, Zarza, Valenzuela and

Pérez 2010) is used to boil water, by delivering hot HTF to a heat exchanger or unfired boiler to create steam

which can be utilised to power a conventional steam turbine or generation engine in order to generate

power (Richter, Teske, Short and International 2009).

According to (Mendelsohn, Lowder and Canavan 2012) there are three main subsystems which work

together in order to have a working CSP plant: the first collects solar irradiance and transforms it to thermal

energy; the second system creates electricity from thermal energy; and the third subsystem acts as a storage

and power dispatching unit to the power block for thermal energy that was collected from the solar field

(Mendelsohn et al. 2012).

Figure 1 is a representation of the proposed Bokpoort CSP plant obtained from the Project Design Document

for carbon credit application from the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol. The

numbered block correspond to the three subsystems mentioned previously. A unique feature of CSP

systems, within the renewable energy sphere, is that these systems are capable of integrated large scale

thermal energy storage (TES) which enables power production after the sun has set. CSP plants can also be

integrated with fossil fuel power generation plants to create a hybrid power plant (Mendelsohn et al. 2012).

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Figure 1: Bokpoort CSP components and process as outlined in CDM-PDD document. Source CDM

(2012)

3. Technology Overview - Parabolic Trough and Solar Tower

The process or mechanism by which solar energy is collected by the Concentrating Solar Power plant

determines its classification. Currently four main technologies exists which are Parabolic Trough (PT), Solar

Tower (ST) or Central Receiver (CR), Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) and Parabolic Dish (PD); while mostly

Parabolic Trough (PT) and Solar Tower (ST) are implemented in utility-scale solutions (Mendelsohn et al.

2012) and will be the focus of this paper.

3.1 Parabolic Trough Power Plants

Parabolic Trough (PT) CSP systems as

seen in Figure 2 utilise large curved

mirrors with single-axis (North-South)

tracking in order to track the sun during

the day (Mendelsohn et al. 2012).

Sunlight is concentrated on thermally

efficient1 absorption receiver tubes or

other heat collecting elements which

encloses a heat transfer (HTF) or

working fluid (Pavlović, Radonjić,

Milosavljević and Pantić 2012; DOE

2011a).

Figure 2: CSP - Parabolic Trough based Power Plant - Source (DOE 2011a)

1 Absorption tubes are often coloured or spectrally selective coated in order to reduce heat losses.

1 22

3

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Working fluid would typically be molten salt, synthetic oil or even steam and after it is heated, up to about

400 degrees Celsius for mineral oils (Pavlović et al. 2012), it is passed through heat exchangers which in turns

converts water to steam which is utilised by a turbine to create power. Amongst the four mentioned CSP

technologies Parabolic Trough technology is regarded as the most matured, advanced and commercially

proven (Cavallaro 2009); while also offering the most cost effective land-use factor (Ummadisingu and Soni

2011).

3.2 Solar Tower Power Plants

Solar Tower systems which are also referred to

as central receivers use heliostats, a field of dual

axis tracking mirrors, that individually track the

sun to redirect sunbeams to a central receiver at

the top of a tower (Pavlović, Radonjić,

Milosavljević and Pantić 2012). According to

Australian National University (2010) and (Yogev,

Kribus, Epstein and Kogan 1998) the incoming

sunlight is directed and concentrated between

600 to 1000 times giving the system the ability to

heat working fluid or HTF to between 500 and

800 degrees Celsius.

Figure 3: CSP – Solar Tower based Power Plant. Source (DOE 2011b)

Solar Towers can use various working fluids such as air, steam or molten salt with latest designs using a

combination of steam and molten salt (DOE 2011b). One of the major advantages of Solar Towers over

Parabolic Trough systems is the fact that they can generate higher operational temperatures which better

suited for storage integrated systems as less molten salt is required (Richter et al. 2009).

4. Cooling Systems Carter and Campbell (2009) mention that within a steam turbine process there are two major cycles which

require water which is the steam generation and cooling cycle. The cooling process consumes the most water

and consumption is determined by the cooling technology being used Carter and Campbell (2009). This

section investigates cooling technologies options for power plant cooling.

4.1 The Cooling Requirement Steam is low cost, non-flammable and non-toxic and is the most common form of working fluid within the

Rankine cycle (Kaushik, Dubey and Singh 1994). In the case of a CSP plant steam has to be condensed back

to water in order to be reused with the cycle and the colder the water used to cool the steam the more

efficient the power generation becomes (DOE 2006).

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All concentrating solar plants use a Rankine cycle

in order to produce electricity. As seen in Figure 4

the vapour from the working fluid is extracted

from a boiler at raised temperatures as well as

pressure then expanded or passed over turbine

blades to generate electricity (Clean Energy 2013).

Kaushik et al. (1994) further explain the process

where a cooler expanded vapour which is now at

a lower pressure is condensed back to a liquid

after which a pump is used to transport it back to

the boiler and as part of the continues process it is

re vaporised.

Figure 4: Rankine cycle and temperature-entropy. Source Kaushik et al.

(1994)

According to Strzepek, Baker, Farmer and Schlosser (2012) the three thermodynamic processes which are

responsible for heat dissipation are sensible, radiant and latent heat loss. Water is predominantly used to

generate steam within conventional and CSP power plants but not all power plant cooling systems use water

to achieve cooling. There are three common means to achieve cooling which will be addressed in the

following sections.

4.2 Cooling Types

Looking at a high level perspective there are essentially two classifications technologies for thermal cooling

of power plants. Wet-cooling, which requires the use of water, and dry-cooling as it does not require water.

The dominant thermal cooling technology is wet-cooling and can be grouped into once-through systems and

recirculation systems with cooling towers or cooling ponds (Strzepek et al. 2012).

Figure 5: Wet-cooling system for power plant. Source (Strzepek et al. 2012).

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4.2.1 Once-through Cooling

Once-through cooling systems as seen in Figure 5 withdraw water from water sources in close proximity such

as lakes, rivers or the sea and pumps it through heat exchangers in order to absorb heat after which the

water is returned to its original source at elevated temperatures. The main heat loss mechanisms are radiant

and sensible heat loss as well as evaporative heat loss but has little water consumption, about 1 to 3 % in

relation to withdrawal which is much less than closed loop systems (Strzepek et al. 2012). This method was

popular in the past due to its simplicity and low cost but has been increasingly difficult to approve as it could

have negative environmental impact (Clean Energy 2013).

4.2.2 Recirculating or closed loop Systems

Recirculating or closed-loop cooling systems, also depicted in Figure 5 was engineered to reduce the quantity

of water withdrawn from water sources (Torcellini, Long and Judkoff 2003). Cooling water is reused in a cycle

which is continuous opposed to discharging it back to the water source. Water still transfers heat via means

of a heat exchanger but is recycled through a cooling tower which cools through exposing the water to the

ambient air and evaporating some water to the atmosphere. Due to evaporation additional water has to be

constantly added, usually from a nearby water source, in order to make up for the consumed water.

Although these systems have a much lower withdrawal rate they consume much more water, 60 to 70% of

withdrawn water, than once-through cooling systems (Strzepek et al. 2012; Clean Energy 2013). According

Dziegielewski and Bik (2006) comparing consumption loss per unit of energy produced with that of a once-

through system, closed-loop systems consume more water. Closed-loop systems also has a negative effect

on plant efficiency as it decreases due to higher temperatures present in recirculating water.

4.2.3 Dry-cooling

Dry-cooling systems do not use water to cool

turbine exiting steam but air and can reduce

the water consumption due to cooling by 90%

or more (Clean Energy 2013). Cooling happens

via sensible heat loss and is assisted by moving

large amounts of air over heat exchangers

with large fins to increase surface area, no

evaporation or water consumption thus takes

place (Torcellini et al. 2003). There is however

a trade off in order to achieve these water

savings as it is more costly to install and run

the cooling fans and less efficient than wet-

cooling systems.

Figure 6: Dry-cooling System. Source (Strzepek et al. 2012).

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As a result of inefficiencies more fuel is needed per unit of generated electricity as well as a decrease in

revenue but in arid areas where water is costly dry-cooling technology is gaining popularity (Strzepek et al.

2012).

4.2.4 Hybrid-cooling

Hybrid cooling is a combination of wet and dry-cooling.

According to the DOE (2008b) hybrid cooling can be

categorised as systems that aim to reduce water vapour

plume and those that aim to reduce water consumption.

Solar thermal plants have more interest in water

consumption reduction and hybrid systems can reduce

consumption while enhancing production performance

in hot weather conditions when compared to dry-cooled

plants. Hybrid systems typically have separate wet and

dry-cooling systems that work in parallel as seen in

Figure 7. The dry-cooling system would run the majority

of the time but during very warm days the wet-cooling

system would be included in the cooling cycle as it will

assist in evaporative cooling by the air moving through

the air-cooled condenser (DOE 2008b).

Figure 7: Hybrid Cooling System. Source DOE (2008b)

5. Cooling Technology Performance Comparison

5.1 Water Consumption

Numerous studies have been performed regarding the current status of world water resources and according

to (Gleick 1993:13) to supply the world population with fresh water is one of “today’s most acute and

scientific and technical problems”. The cooling system used by a power plant, whether it be a conventional

or renewable energy plant, is a major determinant of water usage regarding water withdrawal or

consumption (Macknick, Newmark, Heath and Hallett 2012). Blanco-Marigorta, Victoria Sanchez-Henríquez

and Peña-Quintana (2011) states that the main heat transfer process related to wet-cooling is evaporation

and that for every 1kg of steam that is condensed about 1kg of water will be evaporated. This section will

investigate the water consumption related to various power plants and cooling technologies.

It is relatively difficult to estimate the water consumption as it is dependent on location, average

temperature, humidity and quality of the water (Leitner 2002). Table 1 indicates the amount of water that

is consumed in order to generate one MWh of energy and includes the requirement for mirror cleaning

which is normally small in comparison. Evaluating water consumption for Solar Towers and Parabolic Trough

systems it is evident that Solar Towers use slightly less water than Parabolic Trough plants do for wet and

dry-cooling. Recirculating systems use the most water which is up to 4.1 cubic meters per MWh for Parabolic

Trough systems and 3.5 cubic meters per MWh for Solar Towers. It can immediately be seen from Table

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1that dry-cooling systems consume but a fraction of the water than what wet-cooling systems do with 0.3

cubic meters per MWh for Parabolic Trough systems and 0.1 cubic meters per MWh for Solar Towers.

Table 1: Water consumption and cost penalty comparison of different cooling types for various power plant technologies Source (DOE 2008b)

Technology Cooling Type Cubic Meters of

Water per MWh

Performance

Penalty 2

Cost

Penalty 3 Source

Parabolic

Trough

Recirculating 2.7 to 4.1 Cohen, Kearney and Kolb (1999)

Leitner (2002)

Combination Hybrid

Parallel 0.37 to 1.7 1 to 4% 8% WorleyParsons (2008)

Dry-Cooling 0.16 to 0.3 4.5 to 5% 2 to 9% WorleyParsons (2008)

Power Tower

Recirculating 2.7 to 3.5 Estimation by DOE (2008b)

Combination Hybrid

Parallel 0.35 to 0.95 1 to 3 % 5% WorleyParsons (2008)

Dry-Cooling 0.1 1.3% WorleyParsons (2008)

(Macknick et al. 2012)

Fresnel Recirculating 3.8 Estimation by DOE (2008b)

Dish / Engine Mirror washing 0.07 Cohen et al. (1999)

Coal / Nuclear

Once-Through 87 to 1024

DOE (2006)

National Energy Technology Laboratory

(2006)

Recirculating 1.5 to 2.8

DOE (2006)

National Energy Technology Laboratory

(2006)

Dry-Cooling 0.2 to 0.25

DOE (2006)

National Energy Technology Laboratory

(2006)

Natural Gas Recirculating 0.75

DOE (2006)

National Energy Technology Laboratory

(2006)

Comparing the water consumption for a CSP plant based in the South African Northern Cape to that of a

vineyard along the Orange River a few assumptions have to be made. A vineyard that has been trellised5 will

be considered as the trellising of grapevines are common in the viticultural world and studies by Swanepoel,

Hunter and Archer (1990) indicate that trellising is used for vineyards along the Orange river. Studies by (Van

Zyl and Van Husysteen 1980) indicate that trellised vineyards require about 4150 cubic meters per hectare

per annum. Using the data the water requirements for a similar size vineyard block as that of the land use

by the Northern Cape CSP plants have been calculated and added to Table 2.

Table 2: Estimated water consumption of planned South African CSP plants – all plants use dry-cooling

Project Capacity

(MW)

Annual

Mwh

Production

Water

Consumption

In Cubic

Meters/Mwh

For Wet/Dry-

Cooling

Annual Water

Consumption

In Cubic

Meters For

Wet-Cooling

Annual Water

Consumption

In Cubic

Meters For

Dry-Cooling

Annual

Vineyard Water

Consumption

In Cubic Meters

Of Similar Size

CSP Plant Land

Use

Land

Area

Hectares

Location In

Northern

Cape

Solar

Technology

Annual CSP

Water

Consumption In

Cubic

Meters/Hectare

Bokpoort 50 224 000 4.1 / 0.3 918 400 67 200 415 000 100 Globershoop Parabolic

trough 9184

2 Annual reduction in energy output relative to wet-cooling. 3 Additional cost to component to that of a wet-cooling plant. 4 Most of this water is returned to the source at increased temperatures. 5 Structure to support grape wines during growth which normally consists of wire and poles.

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KaXu

Solar

One

100 330 000 4.1 / 0.3 1 353 000 99 000 1 286 500 310 Poffader Parabolic

trough 4364

Khi Solar

One 50 180 000 3.5 / 0.1 630 000 18 000 2 490 000 600 Upington

Power

Tower 1050

Considering Table 2 it is clear that the capacity factor plays a role in the amount of water the CSP plant will

consume. The only comparative value is that of the KaXu Solar One 100MW Parabolic Trough plant that uses

4364 compared to the vineyards 4150 cubic meters of water per hectare per year. The remaining two plants

are on opposing scales.

5.2 Energy Production Performance and Efficiency

The pressure as well as the temperature of the steam which enters and leaves the expansion engine, which

in the case of a power plant could be a steam turbine, determines the level of efficiency of the Rankine cycle.

According to Kelly (2006) the cycle efficiency can be improved in the following ways: increasing turbine inlet

pressure and temperature; as well as decreasing the turbine outlet pressure and temperature. The

temperature at which latent heat of vaporisation6 can be removed to the environment and the temperature

at which steam is condensed determines the steam conditions at the outlet of the turbine. Wet bulb

temperatures7 provides the lowest ambient temperatures for cooling water sources during the condensation

process but requires significant amounts of water as evaporation is the primary heat transfer mechanism. In

order to reduce water consumption dry-cooling is used which condenses turbine exhaust steam by expelling

heat to the environment at dry bulb temperatures8. As an example a desert site is considered with a dry

bulb temperature of 40 degree Celsius and wet bulb temperature of 20 degrees Celsius which operates at a

turbine inlet temperature of 307 degrees Celsius. The 20 degree Celsius difference in wet and dry bulb

temperatures has a significant impact as it influences the pressure and thus the pressure ratio. The work

that is performed by the turbine during the expansion process is defined by ∫ν ΔP. The fluid specify volume is

denoted by ν and the change in pressure by ΔP. The turbine inlet pressure at 307 degrees Celsius is 2950 in. HgA

(inches of Mercury), at dry bulb temperature of 40 degree Celsius the outlet pressure is 2.17 in. HgA and at a

wet bulb temperature of 20 degree Celsius the outlet pressure is 0.69 in. HgA. In theory the overall pressure

ratio (inlet pressure divided by outlet pressure) for this wet bulb scenario is 4260 while it 1360 for the dry

bulb. This example clearly shows the work performed by the steam is greatly impacted by even a small

change in the condensation temperature as the expansion ratio is influenced (Kelly 2006).

Dry-cooling thus has a performance penalty due to less high condensation temperatures and reports from

the DOE (2008b) show that studies indicate a performance drop of 5% in annual electricity production.

Studies performed by Deng and Boehm (2011) on dry-cooling for Parabolic Trough systems under various

ambient conditions conclude that:

Wet and dry-cooling systems show a performance increase with decrease in ambient temperature

6 The amount of energy that is required in order to change the state from a liquid to vapour at a constant temperature. 7 The wet bulb temperature is regarded as the temperature of adiabatic saturation and is the temperature that would be shown by a thermometer with a moistened bulb which is being exposed to air flow. 8 The air temperature which is normally referred to as the dry bulb temperature

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Dry-cooling is only affected by dry bulb temperatures

Wet-cooling is affected by dry bulb temperature as well as humidity

When ambient temperatures are low similar performance is seen for wet and dry-cooling systems

When ambient temperatures increase dry-cooling will offer lower efficiency than wet-cooling

Ideal dry-cooling occurs when condensing and dry bulb temperature are similar

Ideal wet-cooling occurs when condensing and wet bulb temperature are similar

Performance variance between ideal dry and wet-cooling cycles are negligible

Dry-cooling performance results are inherently location or environment specific but also vary depending on

whether Parabolic Trough or Solar Towers are being used. Studies have shown that energy production

performance reduction for Parabolic Trough systems can be in the range of 5% while Solar Towers only

experience a 2% reduction DOE (2008b). This can be ascribed to Solar Towers operating at higher

temperatures than Parabolic Trough Systems. Augsburger (2013) notes that Parabolic Trough systems only

allow heat transfer temperatures of up to 550 degrees Celsius while Solar Towers are able to achieve 1500

degrees Celsius which enables the Solar Tower to operate at a higher efficiency.

5.3 Hybrid Cooling Benefits

Hybrid cooling systems offer a middle

ground between water consumption,

efficiency and cost. Studies performed by

Kelly (2006) and WorleyParsons (2008)

showed that compared to a reference wet-

cooling system for different hybrid cooling

scenarios 97% performance can be achieved

with only 10% water consumption while up

to 99% is possible with 50% water

consumption. The graph in Figure 8 shows

the performance of a hybrid cooled system

as a fraction compared to a wet cooled

system and clearly shows the more water is

consumed the closer to wet cooled

performance the system can come as the

turbine back pressure is decreased.

Figure 8: Output of power of hybrid cooling plant represented as a fraction of the

output for wet cooled plant related to the fraction of water consumed (DOE

2008b).

5.4 Life Cycle Costs

Air cooled condensers for dry-cooling escalates the capital cost of a power plant by about 5% and also results

in lower efficiency and energy production (BrightSource 2012). The California Energy Commission (2002)

indicated that for wet-cooling systems capital cost could range from R27mil to R41mil while for dry-cooling

systems it could be in the range of R180mil to R470mil.

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Table 3: Net Present Value representation of various cooling technologies relative to base wet-cooling system. WorleyParsons (2008).

A study performed by WorleyParsons (2008) indicates the cost of a dry-cooling system as well as a hybrid

cooling system compared to that of a base wet-cooling system for a 250MW Parabolic Trough solar plant

(see Table 3). The results show that dry and hybrid cooling is more costly in terms of initial capital as well as

production efficiency. The results also indicate what would happen in the event of the solar field being

enlarged to offset the loss in efficiency and energy production showing that net present value impact would

be reduced.

The very large fans required for dry-cooling and to condense steam use a great deal of electricity to run. The

parasitic costs from these fans reduce the available energy that can be sold to clients. The higher the ambient

temperature the harder these fans have to working which increasing the parasitic loss (BrightSource 2012).

Dry-cooling also affects the levelised cost of electricity and studies indicate an increase of 0.3c to 0.6c/ per

kWh (Palenzuela, Zaragoza, Alarcón-Padilla and Blanco 2013). However it is vital to consider the impact of

location on dry-cooling performance when looking at on levelised electricity. The cost of electricity, due to

dry-cooling, of a parabolic trough plant in New Mexico might experience a cost increase of 2% due to daytime

temperatures which will be significantly lower than that of a Mojave Desert plant (DOE 2008b). Once again

a Solar Tower would also outperform a Parabolic Trough due to its higher operating temperatures yielding a

better levelised cost of electricity.

There is clearly a capital cost penalty related to dry-cooling or hybrid cooling as dry-cooling is more costly

and operate at lower efficiencies that that of wet-cooled systems. The penalties can be escalated in hot

environments where peak power is needed during the hottest time of the day or in summer when insolation

is at its highest and the plant should be able to produce at maximum capacity. Insolation at a specific site is

normally a fixed and all plausible effort should be made in order to convert as much solar energy to electricity

WorleyParsons (2008).

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5.5 Decision factors

There are various factors which play a role in determining which cooling technology to implement. Some of

the key factors are the geographical location, water source and availability, water type and the ecological

impacts (Clean Energy 2013). Solar power plants typically have to be in locations with high Direct Normal

Insolation (DNI) and low cloud coverage levels. Such places are often arid and do not have easy access to

vast or conventional water sources which offer the opportunity to implement dry-cooling (Macknick et al.

2012). A list of all CSP plants currently using dry-cooling can be found in Appendix B.

Water scarcity is a major factor in dry arid or dessert areas such in Alrgeria and United Arab Emirates where

the Hassi R'Mel and Shams 1 are located and where dry-cooling can offer a major advantage (HELIOCSP

2013). The Kimberlina Solar Thermal Power Plant in California USA is situated in the heart of agricultural

country. The technology using the least amount of land and water would be ideal and thus the site uses

Linear Fresnel technology combined with dry-cooling.

In the case of the Jülich Solar Tower in Germany the project is experimental as it uses open loop atmospheric

air cycles. Ambient air is drawn in through a volumetric receiver that consists of porous foam or wire mesh

and heated to between 700 to 950 degrees Celsius and directed to rock bed storage unit or drive a steam

cycle through by passing through a steam generator. Proposals for innovative solutions have been suggested

where a combustion chamber can be replaces with a pure solar combined cycle and air-air heat-exchanger

(Augsburger 2013).

According to (RENAC 2012) the Puerto Errado 1 Thermosolar Power Plant in Spain implements Linear Fresnel

technology and due to its cost reduction, compared to that of Parabolic Trough, funds were available to

invest on more expensive dry-cooling was which provides and advantage in terms of water consumption,

permitting and ecological aspects.

6. The South African CSP Landscape South Africa has significant potential for renewable energy generation with good solar resources and has

already committed itself to a target of 10 000 GWh renewable energy production by 2013 (DME 2003). In

line with the IRP 2010-2030, 3 725 MW of renewable capacity has been included in the IPP Procurement

Programme to assist the renewable energy sector within South Africa (DOE 2011). All of the CSP plants for

window 1 and window 2 of the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme

(REIPPP) have been designed using dry-cooling systems (NREL 2013).

Table 4: REIPPP CSP plant technology

Project Capacity (MW) Location in Northern Cape Solar Technology Window Cooling

Bokpoort 50 Globershoop Parabolic trough 2 Dry

KaXu Solar One 100 Poffader Parabolic trough 1 Dry

Khi Solar One 50 Upington Power Tower 1 Dry

South Africa is currently facing water scarcity and in certain regions the demand for water is more than what

is available from natural river basins (UNEP 2012). Climate change will also likely result in more dry conditions

12

and less rainfall and river flow with some of the western parts of the country already experiencing the worst

drought in more than 100 years (Edkins, Winkler and Marquard 2009). According to UNEP (2012) The South

African National Water Act of 1998 supports the countries forward thinking water policy and legislation lends

significant weight to ecological preservation. The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) has taken into account

the energy sectors water requirements in their appeasement policies and feasibility assessments as there is

a clear link between energy and water availability. The use of alternate energy sources, water efficiency,

relationships among water requirement for growth and development are a few of the factors which are

considered and a close working relationship is formed between the water resource planning centres and the

energy sector expanding the national grid.

In terms of the National Environmental Management Act

(No 107 of 1998) issued by the National Department of

Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) in order to

obtain project approval an Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) in accordance with the EIA Regulations

published in Government Notice R385 to R387 has to be

completed (ESKOM 2007). According to (Edkins et al.

2009) the lengthy and administratively taxing EIA could

pose a barrier to rapid up-scaling of CSP plants as the EIA

can take years to complete especially if water becomes

limited. The EIA is regarded as an effective tool which can

be used to assist in decision-making and planning related

to environmental consequences of a proposed project.

Table 5 indicates all the relative legislation which needed

to be considered during the EIA process for the CSP plant

in Upington are required to determine the environmental

feasibility, specifications and management measures of

the project (ESKOM 2007).

Table 5: Environmental legislation applicable to establishment of CSP plant in Upington, Northern Cape. Source (ESKOM 2007).

In a study performed by Segal (2011) he states that evidence exists which indicates that Eskom became

interested in dry- cooling technology in the 1930s which Hungary and Germany had been developing. Eskom

was aware of the pending water scarcity and the impact it would have on the expansion of the electricity

grid. A foremost South African academic hydrologist and civil engineer published a paper in 1965 which

highlighted the relationship between the economy, electricity and water which forced the chairman of

Eskom to publically address the limited water resources. Cognisant of the fact that the electricity generation

industry used vast quantities of water Eskom committed itself to consider new dry-cooling technology. In

1970 the Grootvlei electricity plant was extended and offered the chance to run direct and indirect dry-

cooling technology as a pilot and it was a great success. Even though the dry-cooling pilot project was a

success due to the location where water was still abundant, cheap water prices, cost based decisions from

Eskom management and the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) “generous” provision of water to Eskom

the following seven power plants all used wet-cooling systems (Segal 2011).

Segal (2011) continues to explain that in the 1980s when there was a great realisation that there is a pending

water crisis only then a commitment was made by the DWA and Eskom to utilise dry-cooling technology and

13

during 1982 to 1994 three new power stations, Matimba, Kendal and Majuba were designed using dry-

cooling technology. The national Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the University of

Stellenbosch, Department of Mechanical Engineering, contributed to Eskom lead long-term research on the

dry-cooling technology implemented at Grootvlei and was funded by national Water Research Commission.

Eskom became the world leader in dry-cooling technology for a while due to its practical experience and

research and development program but was soon surpassed by countries such as China (Segal 2011).

South Africa has established dry-cooling as its preferred technology and currently all energy planning

forecasting for coal, nuclear and CSP utilise dry-cooling according to Segal (2011). However the previous

statement has to be qualified by noting that if the environment at the power plant location has very high

ambient temperatures hybrid (dry/wet) cooling might be considered in order to mitigate efficiently losses.

It is stated within the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS) of 2004 that when new power generation

capacity is constructed dry-cooling should be used in the event that it is feasible (DWA 2004). The 2010

situation analysis of the integrated water resource plan (van Rooyen and Versfeld 2010) notes that the

energy sector requires water assurance and that future power plants should be designed with consideration

of water availability. The analysis also noted that the planning of water supply to CSP plants from the Orange

River was underway.

The Second Edition of the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS2) released in June 2013 clearly indicated

that electricity generation is critical and regarded as a national “strategic requirement” that has to be

provided with water assurance (DWA 2013). The NWRS2 outlines that all solar thermal energy plants, such

as those planned in the Northern Cape, will have to be supplied with water if required but dry-cooling has

to be implemented as a priority. In the event that the water requirements for these solar thermal plants are

significant water will have to be acquired from unutilised allocation or traded from current users until

resources such as the Polygala Dam is built in 2020 (DWA 2013).

7. Conclusion All studies and operational experience have indicated that up to 90% of water consumption can be reduced

by implementing dry-cooling opposed to traditional wet-cooling systems which offers various environmental

benefits. There is inherently a cost regarding capital and production output when using dry-cooling as capital

costs can increase by 5% and energy production decrease by 5%. The geographical location of a power plant

has a major influence on the efficiency when dry-cooling is used as the local climate is a demining factor

regarding temperature and humidity which play a role in performance. Solar Towers offer superior

performance compared to that of a Parabolic Trough system when coupled with a dry-cooling system as they

use less water and are more efficient as they operate at higher temperatures. The South African legislative

environment requires that dry-cooling be the first choice for a cooling system when planning new capacity

generation while length Environmental Impact Assessments is regarded as a barriers to large scale CSP

rollouts. Ultimately the choice of cooling technology involves in depth consideration of various trade-offs.

14

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temperature solar plants. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 23, 239-245.

16

Appendix A

Figure 9: Water consumption for different cooling energy generation technology. Source (Macknick et al. 2012).

17

Appendix B

Table 6: Currently operating CSP plants using dry-cooling.

Capacity (MW)

Name Country Technology Type Cooling Thermal Storage

Start Date

0.250 Augustin Fresnel 1

France

Liner Fresnel Reflectors

Dry-cooling 0.25 hours

25 ISCC Hassi R'mel

Algeria Parabolic trough Dry-cooling 0 2013

1.5 Jülich Solar Tower

Germany Power tower Dry-cooling 1.5 hours 2008

5.0 Kimberlina Solar

Thermal Power Plant

United States Linear Fresnel

reflector Dry-cooling 0 2008

9.0 Liddell Power Station

Australia

Linear Fresnel reflector

Dry-cooling 0 2012

1.5 Maricopa Solar Project

United States Dish/Engine

Does not use water

0 2010

1.4

Puerto Errado 1 Thermosolar Power

Plant

Spain Linear Fresnel

reflector Dry-cooling 2009

30

Puerto Errado 2 Thermosolar Power

Plant

Spain Linear Fresnel

reflector Dry-cooling 0.5 2012

100 Shams 1

United Arab

Emirates Parabolic trough Dry-cooling 0 2013

18

Appendix C List of people Segal (2011) consulted during his study called: “GENERATING ELECTRICITY IN A DRY COUNTRY: GOVERNANCE OF WATER AND ENERGY IN SOUTH AFRICA”

Kader Asmal (Minister of Water Affairs, 1994-99)

Thabang Audat (Director, Department of Energy)

Thinus Basson (Consultant)

Brian Bruce (Chief Executive, Murray & Roberts)

Thembani Bukula (Board Member for Electricity, National Energy Regulator)

Rod Crompton (Board Member for Petroleum, National Energy Regulator)

Johan Dempers (Corporate Specialist: Coal, Eskom)

Anton Eberhard (Professor, UCT Graduate School of Business)

Alec Erwin Minister of Public Enterprises, 2004-09)

Nandha Govender (Water Procurement Manager, Eskom)

Ian Hall (Anglo Coal)

Avril Halstead (Chief Director, National Treasury)

Alex Ham (Executive Director: Technology, Eskom 1991-94)

Sarah Haswell (Director, National Treasury)

Mervyn King (Chairman, King III Committee on Corporate Governance)

Detlev Kroger (Emeritus Professor, University of Stellenbosch)

Doug Kuni (Managing Director, Independent Power Producers Association)

Kannan Lakmeeharan (Divisional Executive: System Operation and Planning, Eskom)

Laurraine Lotter (Overall Business Convenor, National Economic Development and Labour Council)

Penuell Maduna (Minister of Minerals & Energy, 1996-99)

Neva Makgetla (Deputy Director General, Economic Development Department)

Lize McCourt (Chief Operating Officer, Department of Environmental Affairs)

Dolly Mokgatle (Executive Director, Eskom 1991-2003)

Smunda Mokoena (CEO, National Electricity Regulator)

Mohammed Valli Moosa (Chairman, Eskom, )

Allen Morgan (CEO, Eskom, 1994-2000)

Helgard Muller (Acting Chief Director, Department of Water Affairs)

Valerie Naidoo (Water Research Commission)

Willem Needham (Senior Manager, Eskom)31

Zvi Olsha (Corporate Advisor, Eskom)

Crispian Olver (Director General, Department of Environmental Affairs, )

Gary Pienaar (Senior Researcher, The Institute for Democracy in Africa)

Wendy Poulson (General Manager: Sustainability & Innovation, Eskom)

Jeffrey Quvane (Senior Financial Officer, National Treasury

Barbara Schreiner (Deputy Director General, Department of Water Affairs, 2002-07)

Vuyo Tlale (Director, Department of Public Enterprises)

Theo van Robbroek (Deputy Director General, Department of Water Affairs, 1987-1991)

Johan van Rooyen (Director, Department of Water Affairs) Source: Segal (2011)

1

Introduction to Solar Energy 744 Solar Thermal – Solar Cooking - Individual

Assignment 2013

Compton Colin Saunders [email protected]

0791763020

Name: Compton Saunders

Student Number: 13718436 Degree: PGD Sustainable Development

Module: Introduction to Solar Energy Lecturers: Mr Johann Strauss, Mr Riaan Meyer

Total Pages: 15 Due Date: September 2th, 2013

ii

Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv

List of Abbreviations and Symbols ............................................................................................. v

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1

2. Solar Cooking Success ............................................................................................................ 1

2.1 Requirements for Success Diffusion ................................................................................ 2

2.2 Iridimi Refugee Camp in Chad, Africa .............................................................................. 3

2.3 China ................................................................................................................................. 6

3. Solar Cooking Challenge ......................................................................................................... 9

3.1 Burkina Faso ..................................................................................................................... 9

3.2 Lesotho ........................................................................................................................... 11

4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 15

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 16

Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 18

iii

List of Figures Figure 1: "Cookit" solar cooker and hay baskets introduced in refugee camps in Chad. Source Loskota (2007)............................................................................................................................ 3

Figure 2: Frequency of trips to collect firewood before the introduction of solar cooking. Source (Loskota 2007)................................................................................................................ 4

Figure 3: Frequency of trips to collect firewood after the introduction of solar cooking. Source (Loskota 2007)............................................................................................................................ 5

Figure 4: Survey results taken by Loskota (2007) in order to determine replacement rate of solar cookers. ............................................................................................................................. 5

Figure 5: Tibetan Solar energy distribution, .............................................................................. 7

Figure 6: Dissemination of solar cookers in ............................................................................... 7

Figure 7: Butterfly type concentrating solar .............................................................................. 8

Figure 8: Horizontal surface - Monthly mean radiation ......................................................... 11

iv

List of Tables Table 1: 116 countries where solar cooling is used. Source (SCInet 2013) ............................ 18

v

List of Abbreviations and Symbols AC Alternating Current Demand side management DSM Direct current DC kilogram kg kilowatt kW kilowatt hour kWh kilowatt peak kWp Levelised cost of electricity LCOE Square meter m2 Megawatt MW Megawatt hour MWh Mega Joule MJ Non-governmental organisation NGO Photovoltaic PV Ultra violet UV Volt V Watt W

1

1. Introduction The ability to cook food is one of the most basic needs of all people around the globe and in

developing countries. It comprises a large share of energy consumption while in developing

countries it is a rudimentary yet prevailing end use of energy (Panwar, Kaushik and Kothari

2012). The availability of and access to energy is greatly seen as the foundation of economic

as well as social development of mankind and regarded as inseparable from the fight against

poverty (Seidel, Klingshirn and Hancock 2007).

Having to cook food is one of the most basic needs of human beings and accounts for a

majority share of energy consumption and requirements in developing countries among rural

and often urban populations. Solar energy has been regarded as a probable way of alleviating

poverty and to provide the resources required to cook within developing countries and

poverty stricken areas. Wentzel and Pouris (2007) state that solar cookers have for a very long

time been perceived as a possible solution to the global dilemma of diminishing fuel wood

sources as well as other environmental issues that can be associated with cooking using

firewood.

According to Panwar et al. (2012) solar cooking has successfully been contributing to the

cooking energy requirements, as well as other energy requirements, of the developing world.

The adoption of solar cooking has been unpredictable as in certain cases it has been

successfully adopted and delivering amazing social and economic benefits while in other cases

it has failed. A range of studies, such as those by Ahmad (2001), have been performed, to

obtain parameters to the use or disuse of solar cooking and this paper will investigate which

factors play a part in the acceptance or disuse of solar cookers around the globe.

2. Solar Cooking Success Over five hundred NGOs, various businesses, agencies, manufacturers, governments and

educational institutions in over 116 countries are in alliance to form the Solar Cookers

International Network (SCINET). According to their website their purpose is to “improve

health, economics, societies and environments through collective actions to spread solar

cooking, water pasteurization and food processing, especially to regions of greatest need”

and also lists 116 countries (see Appendix A) where solar cooking is currently being promoted.

All over the globe biomass and essentially firewood is still used to cook with by over 2 billion

people (Kalogirou 2012; Seidel et al. 2007). It is very often the case that these people do not

have access to or simply cannot afford conventional energy sources which the developed

world simply takes for granted such as electricity or gas. The question is thus if solar energy

2

is free does it not make sense to harvest solar energy in order to meet certain needs and

especially in those countries close to the equator and in the South with a good solar resource?

It is upon this premise that numerous projects have been pursued around the globe and in

some instances have received a very good response. The German development cooperation

have over the past 20 years promoted the commercial distribution of solar cookers in

numerous countries and gained valuable insight into the aspects that make the use of solar

cooking successful (Seidel et al. 2007). There have been various studies regarding solar

cooking adoption such as those performed by Seidel et al. (2007) and Wentzel and Pouris

(2007) in South Africa and Ahmad (2001) in India.

2.1 Requirements for Success Diffusion Numerous studies have been performed over the past 30 years in order understand what

determines the acceptance or disuse of solar cookers. As noted previously such studies have

been performed all around the world such as those performed in South Africa (Biermann,

Grupp and Palmer 1999; SCInet 2013; Seidel et al. 2007), India (Kalogirou 2012; Pohekar,

Kumar and Ramachandran 2005; Pohekar and Ramachandran 2006) and Asia (Kuhnke, Reuber

and Schwefel 1990; Wang, Jing, Zhang and Zhao 2009). Seidel et al. 2007 concluded that there

are 10 conditions which need to exist for solar cooking to be accepted and disseminated

successfully and they are as follows:

1. Biomass fuel has to be scarce and hard to come by and users have to find it challenging

finding these fuels at certain times.

2. Other cheap energy sources are not freely available.

3. Solar cookers should never be promoted as the only cooking mechanism but

compliment other technologies which could constitute household energy-saving.

4. A space within the general living area where good sunlight can be intercepted has to

be available for solar cooking.

5. Solar cooking has to enable local cuisine and traditional cooking.

6. Affordable good performing cookers have to be available locally with good after

sales service.

7. Users have to be confident that good follow-up support will be available and that

infrastructure to support this is established.

8. In certain instances where theft is a concern the cookers need to be mobile and easy

to move or store in a place of safety.

9. Cooker has to be easy to manoeuvre and stable especially since it has to be

constantly positioned to track the sun.

10. Cookers should be able to perform other functions such as the sterilisation of

drinking water, preserving fruits or making jam and heating or draying clothes.

3

Within the context of the previously mentioned 10 points two counties, India and China,

where solar cooking has been successful will be evaluated. The following section will look at

the factors which make solar cooking successful and reference them to successful

implementations in the Iridimi Refugee Camp, Chad an African country and China focussing

on Tibet.

2.2 Iridimi Refugee Camp in Chad, Africa More than 20 000 refugees fled from Darfur to the Iridimi Refugee Camp in Chad since 2004

due to genocide (Iridimi Refugee Camp Library). These people relied on conventional wood-

burning methods to cook and prepare meals for their households (Loskota 2007). Since the

camp is located in a desert region firewood and other fuels are scarce and not easy to come

by.

Refugees, mostly woman and children, that have to travel several kilometres outside of the

camp to gather wood, they are very vulnerable and are often attacked and raped by various

predators such Janjaweed militia (Resch 2007). According to Patrick (2006) various

humanitarian agencies have reported that they receive more than 200 reports a month from

women raped while collecting firewood while (Médecins Sans Frontières 2005) reports that

82% of rape victims say they were raped during daily routine activities.

During 2004, Derk Rijks, a member of

the Dutch KoZon1 Foundation in

cooperation with an NGO introduced

the “CooKit” solar cookers and hay

baskets which were inexpensive and

locally manufactured. The initiative

would aim to reduce the dependence

on wood or other fuel and decrease

the requirement to leave the camp

and thus improve safety by

empowering woman to produce and

use solar cookers and hay baskets.

Figure 1: "Cookit" solar cooker and hay baskets introduced in refugee

camps in Chad. Source Loskota (2007).

Rijks did not promote the cooker as the sole cooking mechanism but as a combination with

the fuel-efficient stoves originally supplied by GTZ (Loskota 2007; Resch 2007; VRAC 2009).

Solar cookers were introduced successfully by Derk Rijks and Marie-Rose Neloum, a trainee

from Chad, by initially providing 100 solar cookers to refugee woman as a demonstration. In

1 Stichting KoZon or translated to English as the KoZon Foundation is a Dutch NGO that is attempting to introduce solar cookers to certain African countries.

4

2005 an investigation related to establishing whether self-sustaining activity could be created,

KoZon trained and evaluated the ability of the refugees to manufacture 120 cookers on site.

In February 2006 a workshop equipped refugees with tools and space to manufacture solar

cookers as well as to train others to teach their own people how to cook using the solar

cookers. Tchad Solaire, an NGO, was specifically formed in order to run the solar cooking

program and operation in the Iridimi refugee camp and grow the program to other camps.

The long standing relationship between KoZon and SCI (Solar cooking International) created

the opportunity to involve Jewish World Watch2 who has been the primary funder since May

2006 (Loskota 2007).

In order to extend the usefulness and to create a combination of other cooking methods

woman were also taught how to make hay baskets which would keep food warm, which was

prepared in the afternoon, until dinner time in the evenings. The camp was supplied with

materials to manufacture solar cookers on site. Also a store room was built which could house

materials such as foil, cardboard, glue and other supplies for heat retaining baskets. The local

manufacturing of solar cookers and hay baskets took off. After the entire camp’s woman and

young girls were skilled in the correct utilisation of the solar cookers a maintenance program

was established in order to assist in repairs, replacement and after sales service (VRAC 2009).

In camp, trainers are responsible for monitoring or “service after training” and making

recommendation to users and well as organising retraining weeks to facilitate ongoing

training (URD 2009).

Tchad Solaire claims that their evaluations indicate solar cookers are used by an estimated 85 to 90% of households in Iridimi (URD 2009). According to the surveys conducted by Loskota (2007) the introduction of solar cookers have radically decreased the number of times refugees had to travel outside of the camp in order to collect firewood

Figure 2: Frequency of trips to collect firewood before the introduction of solar

cooking. Source (Loskota 2007)

Results in Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the drastically reduced wood collection trips and that

up to more than 50% of survey participants said that they have the requirement to go outside

of the camp to gather wood for fire and cooking. Refugees are housed in tents within the

camps and would normally cook outside using three stone fires, “Banco” (mud) stove or “Save

2 A coalition of 55 synagogues in the United States based in Southern California

5

80”3. As an additional method to cooking and their CooKit, 95% of survey participants utilised

the improved “Banco” (mud) stove or the “Save 80”.

Although the “Save 80” is not

broadly available, families of five or

more received one and 42% of

recipients use them (Loskota 2007) .

Thus using the solar cooker did not

have an impact on the space where

they would cook or prepare food and

within the normal cooking

environment.

Figure 3: Frequency of trips to collect firewood after the introduction of

solar cooking. Source (Loskota 2007)

The inhabitants of Iridimi were now able to cook and prepare a variety of traditional dishes

that they are accustomed to. According to the survey done by Loskota (2007) Solar cookers

are used to cook all customary foodstuff that previously was prepared with a conventional

wood-burning stove. These foods would include wheat, la bouillie (porridge), sauces, tea,

eggs, millet, macaroni, lentils, sweet potatoes yellow peas, rice, la boule (traditional maize

based meal such as millet), beans and meat. Although some residents have reported that

they sometimes have trouble cooking la boule and pancakes (Loskota 2007) a positive noted

is that legumes (peas) which normally requires slow cooking can be prepared in a more energy

efficient way using the solar cookers (VRAC 2009).

The 19 000 refugees in Iridimi

have been supplied with 15

000 solar cookers between

2007 and 2009 and with 4500

trained woman who are able

to use solar cooking (Resch

2007; VRAC 2009) . The camp

of Iridimi now manufactures

about 1000 solar cookers a

month of which the excess is

supplied to other nearby

camps.

Figure 4: Survey results taken by Loskota (2007) in order to determine

replacement rate of solar cookers.

Cookers last on average for three to six months but can last longer as seen in survey results

shown in Figure 4. Cookers are now starting to last longer due to modifications such as water

proof bindings (VRAC 2009; Loskota 2007)

3 Stove that was improved made of stainless steel and utilises twigs – offers up to 80% of firewood saving.

6

The project in Chad has been hugely successful and there are various other benefits which

have been noted since the introduction of solar cookers. Food rations are now rarely sold in

order to obtain firewood since the need for wood has drastically been reduced. Solar cookers

only heat the pot and much safer than wood-burning stoves and also reduces other health

risks in woman and children. Health issues related to smoke inhalation such as irritation of

the eyes, coughing and noses that run are also minimised. There are less conflicts among

neighbours as there is no need to squabble over scare resources (Loskota 2007). The

economic opportunities created by the use of solar cookers do not just come from their

manufacture but since solar cooking takes more time and can be left unattended it has

created more free time for woman to perform other tasks besides collecting wood (Resch

2007). One of the great additional benefits of solar cooking is that drinking water can be

purified without wasting scare and valuable solid fuels (VRAC 2009).

2.3 China

There are more solar cookers in China than anywhere else on the globe. Predominantly used

in rural China, there are more than 600 000 solar cookers in the country (Xiaofu 2009) and

every cooker used saves between 600 to 1000 kg of wood a year (Seidel et al. 2007). Solar

cookers have a long history in China as their research, promotion and dissemination in China

started more than 30 years ago and since had significant achievement in solar cooker design

theory, technology of materials, technical standards, production methods, distribution and

sales (Seidel et al. 2007; Xiaofu 2009). Solar cooker growth has been assisted by the industrial

production and technical capacity. Factories are located in Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Gansu and

Beijing; family owned workshops mainly in Gansu and Hebei selling mainly to local rural

markets. This also demonstrates the potential rural markets (Xiaofu 2009).

Tibet has an annual radiation intensity of 6000 - 8000 MJ/m2 which is the highest in China and

second highest on the planet compared to that of the Sahara which has the highest. Tibet has

an incredible and practically inexhaustible solar resource where the yearly average number

of days is 275 to 330 with 6 hours of sunshine (Wang and Qiu 2009). The province of Gansu

also has large solar resources in certain of its remote regions reaching 4800–6400 MJ/m2 per

year with 1700–3300 hours of annual sunshine and high atmospheric transparency (Yunna

and Ruhang 2013).

An estimated 150 000 solar cookers are in use in the province of Gansu that does not have a

strong ecological environment with energy resources per capita at half of what is available to

the rest of the country (Zhiqiang 2005). Its water resources are not evenly distributed and

scarce; facing a dire situation increasing desertification and soil salinisation with low forest

coverage and soil erosion (Yunna and Ruhang 2013).

7

Besides the erosion of soil,

vegetation degradation and

the degradation of land, by

gathering wood and grass on

the unfertile hills greenhouse

gases such as CO2 and SO2 are

part of the ecological price of

rural energy use (Li, Niu, Ma

and Zhang 2009) . According

to Xiaofu (2009) the

ecological degradation can be

attributed to human activity.

Figure 5: Tibetan Solar energy distribution,

China (from www.weatherinfo.com.cn/zy/gnzy.html).Direct irradiation account

for 60-70% of total annual solar radiation this goes up to 70-90% in

summer(Wang and Qiu 2009).

Through the various provinces in China

primary reasons for successful solar cooker

uptake can be attributed to the countries good

solar resource and lack of energy sources.

Gansu province is a good example as it has

very good solar resources and the demand for

solar cooking has been driven by the scarcity

Figure 6: Dissemination of solar cookers in

various regions in China (Xiaofu 2009)

of traditional fuels. Figure 6 clearly shows that Gansu province has the largest uptake of solar

cooking among the rest of China (Xiaofu 2009).

The Tibet Autonomous4 region plays a significant role in saving energy and fuel while being

the biggest highland area on the planet at 4500m above sea level. Tibet is often called the

‘‘Roof of the World’’ and the ‘‘Third Pole of the Earth’’ (Wang and Qiu 2009). The region has

wide fluctuating temperatures throughout the year and a dry climate as a result of the “rain

shadow” effect created by the Himalayan mountain range (Seidel et al. 2007). The highlands

which are stripped of trees flow into desert with low lying regions bounded by forests which

use to be an important energy resource but has now been replaced by roots, dung and bushes

(Seidel et al. 2007). Grass root, firewood and sod were used by farmers for decades as

conventional fuels and since the 1980s solar cooking became increasingly popular due to a

lack of these conventional fuels. Solar cooking can contribute to 15% of the required energy

fuel requirements which equates to 50 to 100 acres of firewood (Xiaofu 2009). Nomadic and

semi nomadic tribes form most of the Tibetan population depend on livestock farming such

as yak, sheep, horses and goats for their livelihood (Ward 1990).

4 A Chinese province which has its own local government and more legislative rights.

8

The high plateau and solar insolation which peaks during the colder winter months as a result

of the increased atmospheric clarity creates perfect conditions to use solar cookers as they

can be used for 85 to 90% of the year (Seidel et al. 2007). Solar cookers can deliver almost all

energy necessary for cooking while offering an energy source which suits the traditional

dietary needs of the Tibetan population as almost all meals requires the use of hot water.

Breakfast is made by boiling water the previous day and keeping it warm in thermos flask

which enables the serving of barley porridge; during the day water is boiled for tea and in the

evening water stored in thermos flasks is used to make soup (Seidel et al. 2007).

There are an estimated 260 000 solar cookers in Tibet

(Wang and Qiu 2009) with the butterfly concentrating

cooker being the most popular and requires the reflective

metal foil to be replaced every 2 to 3 years (Seidel et al.

2007). The concentrating cooker has gained its popularity

as it is easy to construct, operate, transport. It has a

simple structure, provides reliable performance and is

affordable amongst other things (Xiaofu 2009). Various

cooker types are produced on local industrial scale as

well as family workshops with about 50 000 produced

each year (Seidel et al. 2007; Xiaofu 2009).

Figure 7: Butterfly type concentrating solar

cooker popular in Tibet. Source SCInet (2013).

The use of solar cookers are common in cities and towns but very much so in the rural areas

as it saves dung which can be used for cooking when the sun is not available, special heating,

fertilizer or simply be sold which creates a source of income (Seidel et al. 2007).

There has been an inherent economic benefit to using solar cookers. During the 90s case

studies showed that in Hebei the use of 1000 solar cookers equates to 75 000 RMB (Chinese

Yuan) annual fuel cost savings which is 750 to 1000 kg of firewood per year while Gansu

benefits with about 824 000 RMB (Chinese Yuan). Solar cookers also realise savings on fire-

straw to the tune of 560 kg per year per solar cooker equalling 15% of the total cooking energy

required and is 45 RMB (Chinese Yuan); this is very prominent in Qinghai Hualong where more

than 18 000 cookers save 7800 tons per year and 620 000 RMB (Chinese Yuan) (Xiaofu 2009).

The straw that is saved due to solar cooking can now be used on farms as organic fertilizer

this promoting sustainability of the land. Xiaoling county of Yongjing became a model

example in how this could be achieved by the use of solar cookers (Xiaofu 2009). Tibets cost

of energy is extremely high and every solar cooker can save about 600 RMB (Chinese Yuan)

per year (Xiaofu 2009).

In China various social benefits have also contributed to the successful use of solar cookers as

it can be used for cooking and preparation of food for humans and livestock, the heating of

9

water, bathing and water purification and therefore greatly improves the quality of health

and life (Xiaofu 2009). Normally in households in Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang or Tibet one person

would be responsible for collecting firewood or other fuels due to its scarcity. This task no

longer requires so much time and effort (Xiaofu 2009). Transportation and consumption of

coal has also been reduced. Previously due to shortage of fuel, to cook, food polished rice in

cold water would be consumed for lunch which has a detrimental and even fatal effect on

health5. The standard of living has been changed or improved by the introduction of solar

cooking (Xiaofu 2009).

3. Solar Cooking Challenge Solar cooking has not been successful in every situation it has been attempted to be disseminated. This section will explore examples of where solar cooking did not fare as well.

3.1 Burkina Faso Burkina Faso unlike many other African countries as it does not possess coal or gas as a natural

resource from which it can generate electricity and besides being energy poor it is one of the

poorest counties in Africa with an average income of $1 per day per capita. The population of

Burkina Faso are heavily reliant on firewood, which most of the population gathers by hand

to meet their energy needs and only 3% of residence have the means to revert to kerosene

or gas (Seidel et al. 2007). According to Kramer (2010) in excess of 90% of all the wood that

is cut is utilised as fuel with urban consumption exceeding that of rural areas. Increased

urbanisation can thus have the effect of accelerating deforestation.

Burkina Faso has an amazing constant solar resource with a 250 to 300 days of sunny days a

year. Since the 1990s various efforts were made to disseminate solar cookers in Burkina Faso.

According to Seidel et al. (2007) the NGO APEES with assistance from the German-Burkinabe

NGO Solar Energy for West Africa (SEWA) distributed about 500 solar cookers, of the Papillon

type, through a loan system with a wood-based price, but have had major problems collecting

the monthly instalments. Loan systems have been found to only really be feasible within the

urban middle class who can afford the monthly payments and have an interest in ecological

preservation while rural communities often find it too expensive (Seidel et al. 2007). The NGO

from Netherlands KoZon mainly distributed the CooKit solar cooker unit to rural areas by

providing a subsidy.

In an attempt to draw interest and popularity from a specific community two parabolic

cookers were utilised in an eatery in the city of Gaoua and even though it managed to attract

5 Beriberi is a condition that occurs due to a deficiently in thiamine and vitamin B which results in weakness and pain or death.

10

interest the need for larger pots rendered the cooker impractical. This problem could be

solved by implementing a Scheffler cooker but would be financially out of reach for the

restaurant; this pattern is prevalent amongst all socio-economic groups where it is clear that

more advanced technology is simply unaffordable (Seidel et al. 2007).

Weather dependency, time constraints and cooking size have been of barriers in the adoption

of solar cookers in Burkina Faso. Studies by Struif Bonktes and Jongbloed (2005) indicated

that poor weather conditions were regarded as a key issue in the utilisation of the CooKit by

Burkina Faso trial families. Women have a vital role in preparing meals for their families. They

take this responsibility seriously and according to (Toonen 2009) consider it a failure not being

able to do this successfully. Dust and cloud cover can dramatically influence cooking time and

many woman commented that if they did not place their CooKit units outside earlier than

10:00 they sometimes had to wait till 14:30 before they could serve meals, keeping their

families waiting6 (Toonen 2009). Even though solar cooking can free up to three hours during

the day, since firewood does not have to be collected, the time spent by women collecting

firewood does not have a value attributed to it since it is a necessity and just the way it has

always been done. The time that is saved by using solar cooking is thus attributed a value as

it would be in the industrial world (Coyle 2006). Thermal baskets, kerosene or gas cookers

which are added expenses thus have to be utilised and are necessary for overcast days

(Kramer 1996).

Besides it not being socially acceptable to keep their families waiting for a meal the size of the

CooKit units was considered a problem as one unit could not make enough food for a large

family. Bigger families thus required two solar cooker units which was not always financially

possible. It is also restricted by the fact that no local production has been established to be

able to supply demand (Toonen 2009). Restaurant owners also required larger pots which

could hold up to 50 litres but the available technology could not provide the thermal output

or offer a robust stable solution (Kramer 1996). According to Kramer (2010) many NGOs have

tried to assist in the adoption of bigger solar cookers such as the SK-14 and Papillon cookers

but they are just too expensive and outside the financial means of most citizens as well as

various German solidarity groups financing the project (Kramer 1996). Another challenge

regarding the size of the solar cookers is the fact that a typical meal has two components

which is the rice and then secondly the sauce. These two different foods requires different

pot sizes and cannot be prepared simultaneously; while rice could possibly be cooked in

thermal baskets after heating. This presents another cost component (Kramer 1996).

According to Kramer (1996) the women in urban areas are considerably influenced by the

continual increased in the cost of wood. One of the effects of high fuel prices is that the fuel

used to cook is often more expensive than the food in the pot. Urban woman do not have

6 Often the main meal is taken during the middle of the day emulating certain European cultures.

11

time to collect wood, even if it is traditionally their task, due to their lifestyle which requires

them a to have a job to support the household income. They are also exposed to film and

print media and are familiar with solar cooking and even though there is a substantial financial

benefit in using solar cookers it simply does not compliment their lifestyles and pose a catch-

22 situation (Kramer 1996).

In conclusion there have been numerous attempts to boost the diffusion and adoption of

solar cookers within Burkina Faso where within the rural communities traditional cooking

methods and psychological hurdles are high and it is often considered impossible to cook with

solar energy (Seidel et al. 2007). Kramer (1996) interestingly notes that during one of his trips

he made the observation that to some of the rural people cooking without fire was

inexplicable and since they were not influenced by media ascribed it to the supernatural. The

elderly woman thought that they were being deceived and that the fire was hidden

somewhere while others mentioned it to be witchcraft (Kramer 1996).

3.2 Lesotho

Over the past few years various efforts were mobilised to introduce or disseminate solar

cookers in Lesotho without much success. There is not much literature on the topic but that

which is available aims to shed light on the factors that influence the acceptance of solar

cookers or rather lack thereof. The following section is based on a recount of first hand

experiences by William Grundy (1995), who was a Peace Corps volunteer in Lesotho and

inputs from Dr. Roy Grundy, a Professor of Marketing. Diffusion practise and theory from

authors such as Rogers (1983) is used to draw from other examples where diffusion is

applicable as well a previously published report by Eberhard (1984) regarding the Basotho

people of Lesotho and solar cooker dissemination is used.

According to Taele, Gopinathan and

Mokhuts’oane (2007) the use of solar energy

is limited even though Lesotho has a very

good solar resource with more than 300 days

of sunshine a year varying between 10 to 14

hours per day for high and lowlands. As seen

in Figure 8 Maseru receives an average

radiation of 20 - 24MJ per m2 per day (Taele

et al. 2007).

Figure 8: Horizontal surface - Monthly mean radiation

(Global and diffuse) for Maseru, Lesotho

As background information to the case study some literature on diffusion of innovation by

Rogers (1983) is reviewed which was also taken into consideration within the report by

Grundy and Grundy (1994). According to Rogers (1983) diffusion can be regarded as the

procedure whereby a new innovation is communicated along various channels within

12

members of a social system or community over time. Diffusion can we seen as social change

of sorts by which the structure and function of the social system is altered (Rogers 1983).

Rogers (1983) states five characteristic which assists in explaining the rate by which potential

users would adopt innovation:

1. Relative advantage: regarded as the extent to which the innovation is observed to be

more superior than its predecessor – the advantage can be economic, social prestige,

satisfaction, convenience or other soft factors;

2. Compatibility: regarded as the extent to which potential adopters observe an

innovation to encompass their existing values, needs and previous experiences

innovation;

3. Complexity: regarded as the extent to which potential adopters observe an

innovation to be challenging to use and understand;

4. Trailability: regarded as the extent to which potential adopters are allowed to, on a

limited basis, experiment with an innovation – the potential adopter is able to able

to learn by doing and thus faces by less uncertainty when considering adopting

innovation;

5. Observability: is the extent to which potential adopters of innovation are able to

observe its results – the easier adopters can observer results they likelier they are to

adopt them.

The solar cooker is an example of a technological innovation. According to (Rogers 1983:35)

“technology is a design for instrumental action that reduces the uncertainty in the cause-

effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome”. He further states that

technology consists of two components:

1. Hardware: is the material or physical object which that embodies the technology.

2. Software: which is the knowledge base of the technology tool – also includes

“innovation -evaluation information” which is information which can be used to

valuate an innovation in order to reduce uncertainty.

Lesotho has local inhabitants called the Basotho people who farm the local and mountainous

areas. Eberhard (1984), a researcher from University of Cape Town, indicated that one of the

reasons why the villagers of Thaba Tseka, located in middle of Lesotho, did not accept solar

cookers was because they previously utilised fires to warm their houses and were cooking

over the fires as well. Considering the first characteristic of innovation adoption, “Relative

advantage”, the Basotho did not perceive there to be an additional benefit to adopting the

solar cooker in comparison with their existing methods.

Grundy and Grundy (1994) notes that for the Basotho people to adopt any technological

innovation even if it is as low tech as a solar cookers they would require the two categories

13

of information referred to by Rogers (1983): “software and innovation-evaluation”. Software

information aims to decrease the doubt faced by potential adopters regarding cause and

effect relationships (Rogers 1983) and in the case of the Basotho that might be how and if

food gets cooked using the solar cooker (Grundy and Grundy 1994).

The Basotho lacked principle knowledge, which essentially enables them, to understand the

fundamental principles, laws, concepts and ideas of how things work (Grundy and Grundy

1994) and the report by Eberhard (1984) revealed that the Basotho believed the solar cooker

would not function on cooler winter days even if the skies were completely clear.

Experimental groups were formed within the Basotho and results showed that they had

practically no working knowledge of infrared light waves and that they could be captured by

the glass lid of the cooker; nor comprehend how the negative convection and conduction of

heat could be reduced by the insulated sides of the cooker Eberhard (1984). These findings

clearly indicate that in order for diffusion and dissemination of solar cookers to have any

change being successful a considerable effort will be required in educating the Basotho

regarding fundamental principles from a very basic educational level.

Reduction in uncertainty about the advantages and consequences of an innovation can be

assisted by innovation-evaluation information (Rogers 1983) and as an example Basotho

village leaders, with one Chief particularly outspoken, had a concern regarding what woman

and children would do with their spare time as they would have less work consequently by

preparing food with a solar cooker (Grundy and Grundy 1994). Innovation-evaluation

information was provided by a suggestion made by another Basotho leader as he commented

that they would be able to get more work out of their wives as they would have more free

time to perform other tasks (Grundy and Grundy 1994).

Grundy (1995), gives a personal account, why he perceived the diffusion of solar cookers to

be difficult in Lesotho, as he lived there for two years and worked as a high school maths and

physics teacher. Grundy (1995) crudely splits the Lesotho people into three groups based on

his experience and call them “rural woman”, “ urban sophisticates”, and the “wanna-be’s”.

Rural Woman

Grundy (1995) describes rural woman as those who live in villages far away from any main

city hubs and without access to cars, electricity and running water. More than anyone else in

Lesotho they would benefit from a solar cooker. These woman would benefit from solar

cooking as they often spend two hours of their day gathering fire-wood as the mountainous

landscape is almost bereft of trees; even those who use kerosene stoves would benefit as

funds for kerosene is scarce and often suppliers are out of stock for weeks. The environmental

benefit of saving the few remaining trees left in Lesotho, by using solar cookers, is obvious to

the developed world. However to the Basotho, saving trees for the sake of the trees is a

complete foreign concept and does not make sense at all. Perhaps if the trees were used for

14

building material or for other uses the Basotho would more easily adopt the solar cookers but

their absence of local and global ecological perception and concern is a barrier. Considering

that global ecological concern is primarily that of the developed world of post-industrial

outsiders and that the Basotho at this stage in their development would be concerned about

putting up telephone infrastructure using wooden poles, saving a tree makes motivating solar

cookers on this basis a hard sell (Grundy 1995).

Grundy (1995) notes that rural people in Lesotho who live by traditional cultures are adverse

to charge or innovation and through experience and discussion with a local, Anthony Scott,

notes that any innovation cannot be introduced by well-meaning foreigners but has to come

from a local source. In industrialised countries the need for or benefits of solar cookers could

be departed by way of television and print media. This is however not possible in rural Lesotho

as there were no televisions or magazines reaching them and thus normal advertising

mechanisms would have no effect (Grundy 1995).

Urban Sophisticates

Grundy (1995) introduces another group called the urban sophisticates and used one of his

friends Likopo as example who is the daughter of university professors, an educated lawyer

working for a big insurance firm in the capital of Maseru, living in an apartment with

electricity, a television and all other modern amenities. Even though an urban sophisticate

might be open to new ideas, concerned about the environment and susceptible to advertising

the use of a solar cooker would not suit her lifestyle as she works till just before sunset and

could use a microwave. The cost difference would be negligible and technologically the solar

cookers is not advanced enough for this group and even if the argument for environmental

preservation might be strong, modern day convenience trumps all (Grundy 1995).

The Wanna-Be's

A third group described by Grundy (1995) and also the most like to adopt solar cookers are

the “Wanna-Be's.” They fit in between the rural and urban sophisticates as they have not

reached the income or educational level of the urban sophisticates but are better off than the

rural people. The wanna-be's are those who want to become richer and every penny that

could be saved to achieve this would be considered even if it meant saving small amounts of

money on kerosene by using solar cookers. This is the group that is very open to new ideas

which could advance their social standing and are vulnerable to advertising and thus the most

likely to adopt solar cooking. There are however other factors which would influence this

group’s decision-making such as having to use the solar cookers outside which is a major

obstacle. In order for outside solar cooking to be socially plausible they would only opt for

more expensive solar cookers which will also negate the savings of using it. A general

observation made was also that these people do not just strive to be urban sophisticates they

also strive to be like wealthy western white people and when considering adopting new things

will ask themselves whether it would them seem more advance and like the people they are

15

trying to emulate. Using these first hand observations indicate that even if the wanna-be’s

are the most likely to adopt solar cooking it is very unlikely (Grundy 1995).

The general conclusion is that the successful diffusion of solar cookers in Lesotho does not

seem to be a reality as various attempts have been made to introduce the technology. The

attempts have failed as a result of multifarious reasons which are related to tradition, culture,

resistance to change, lifestyle incompatibility and socio-economic aspirations.

4. Conclusion

Energy poverty is a real and stark relativity for millions of people across the globe. Something

that is becoming a reality is the dwindling availability of cheap fossil fuel sources in order to

meet one of the most basic human needs, cooking. Kuhnke et al. (1990) said that people still

fail to come to the realisation that in certain parts of the globe solar cooking might quickly

become one of the limited enduring methods to prepare a warm meal. Sauer (2000) states

that irrespective whether in certain scenarios solar cookers can provide a way out of socio-

economic and ecological predicament they are still deemed “worthless” and not useful if they

are not adopted by a specific group. He also states that if solar cookers are adopted by a

population it should be treated as a special case and cannot be seen as a generalised case and

has to be assessed on its own merits (Sauer 2000).

Solar cookers successfully offered Chad (Africa) and China (Asia) health, safety and financial

benefits in areas where conventional fuel is scarce. Lesotho saw the adoption of solar cookers

inhibited by the rural population seeing no additional ecological or enhanced benefit to their

current way of living while adopter groups which would be more likely to accept could not

find a place for it in their lifestyles or aspirations of western lifestyles. Burkina Faso faced

financial and traditional barriers within their lifestyles which was influenced by the weather

conditions or traditional food as they would require more than one cooker.

The urban environment seems to be faced with the issue where the urban lifestyle requires

faster cooking times during times of the day where solar cooking might not be viable and

cooking is related to the notion of restricted time (Pohekar et al. 2005). The target group for

solar cooker dissemination has always been the rural population and the disuse or non-

adoption of solar cookers among this group has been explained by Kuhnke et al. (1990) and

Sauer (2000) to be related to the theory of traditionalism and less related to technical issues

but more involving psychosocial, socio-cultural and socio-economic factors. This has been

seen in all the cases that have reviewed. Solar cooking remains a viable solution but only when

it is seen within the context of a specific case or population where the conditions of diffusion

will assist its successful adoption and dissemination.

16

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Appendix A A Afghanistan Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria B Bangladesh Belgium Benin Bhutan Bolivia Botswana Brazil Burkina Faso Burundi C Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Côte d'Ivoire D Democratic Republic of the Congo Denmark Djibouti Dominican Republic E East Timor Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia F Finland France

G Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Guyana H Haiti Honduras I India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy J Japan Jordan K Kenya L Lesotho Liberia M Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mexico Mongolia Morocco Mozambique N Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria North Korea Norway

P Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal R Republic of Congo Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Rwanda S Samoa Senegal Sierra Leone Singapore Somalia South Africa South Korea Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Switzerland T Tanzania Thailand The Gambia Togo Turkey U Uganda United Kingdom Uruguay USA V Venezuela Vietnam Z Zambia Zimbabwe

Table 1: 116 countries where solar cooling is used. Source (SCInet 2013)

.