Petrologic, Mineralogic, and Ion Exchange Characteristics ...

University of Tennessee, Knoxville University of Tennessee, Knoxville

TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative

Exchange Exchange

Masters Theses Graduate School

12-1980

Petrologic, Mineralogic, and Ion Exchange Characteristics of the Petrologic, Mineralogic, and Ion Exchange Characteristics of the

Rome Formation and Pumpkin Valley Shale on the Oak Ridge Rome Formation and Pumpkin Valley Shale on the Oak Ridge

National Laboratory Reservation, Oak Ridge, Tennessee National Laboratory Reservation, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Janine Gajda Sledz University of Tennessee - Knoxville

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Sledz, Janine Gajda, "Petrologic, Mineralogic, and Ion Exchange Characteristics of the Rome Formation and Pumpkin Valley Shale on the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Reservation, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1980. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/2659

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To the Graduate Council:

I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Janine Gajda Sledz entitled "Petrologic, Mineralogic,

and Ion Exchange Characteristics of the Rome Formation and Pumpkin Valley Shale on the Oak

Ridge National Laboratory Reservation, Oak Ridge, Tennessee." I have examined the final

electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, with a major in Geology.

O. C. Kopp, Major Professor

We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance:

Fred B. Keller, T. Tamura, Russell Lewis

Accepted for the Council:

Carolyn R. Hodges

Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School

(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)

To t h e Graduate Counc i l :

I am subm i t t i ng herewi t h a thes i s wr i t ten by Jan i ne Gajda S l edz ent i t l ed " Petrol og i c , Mi nera l og i c , and I on Exchange C h ar acter i st i c s o f t h e Rome Format i on and P umpk i n Va l l ey Sh al e o n t h e Oak R i dge N at i ona l L aboratory Reservat i on , Oak R i dge , Tennessee . " I recommend t hat i t be accepted i n part i a l fu l f i l l ment of the requ i rements for the degree of Ma ster of Sc i ence , wi th a major i n Geo l ogy .

We h ave read th i s thes i s and recommend i t s acceptance :

J '.' .. t_.::l;' �/

r ��lJc{L

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I I . ..,.,/t • ... _ L- '''-· (<. /L

o. l!!i£2!te

·�·dL.)-<1-L-� Accepted for t h e Coun c i l :

V i ce C h ance l l or Graduate Stud i e s and Research

PETROLOGIC, MINERALOGIC, AND ION EXCHANGE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROME FORMATION

AND PUMPKIN VALLEY SHALE ON THE

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY

RESERVATION, OAK RIDGE,

TENNESSEE

A Thesis

Presented for the

Master of Science

Degree

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Janine Gajda Sledz

December 1980

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express her thanks to Dr. 0 . C. Kopp for all

his time and energies devoted to this project. The suggestions and

criticisms of conmittee members Dr. F. B. Keller and Dr. T. Tamura were

also appreciated. Two ORNL staff members are acknowledged for their

contributions to this study: Dr. S. Haase, whose advice was especially

helpful since he is presently involved in related studies, and to Dr.

R. Floran for the use of his microscope and photographic equipment.

Finally, the author would like to acknowledge ORNL, operated by the

Union Carbide Nuclear Corporation for their support of this study.

; ;

ABSTRACT

Two o u tcro ps of the Rome Fo rmat i o n and lower Conasauga Group ,

lo cated o n the Oak R i dge Nat i o nal Laborato ry Reservat i on were stu d i ed

wi th respect to thei r petro l og i c , m i neralog i c , and i o n exc hange

c haracter i st i cs . Twen ty-ei g ht sampl e pai rs (a pai r consi sted o f a

fresh and weathered segmen t ) were taken from each o u tc ro p .

The arg i llaceo us samp l es were analyzed by x-ray d i ffrac t i o n and

the remai n i ng samples by th i n sec t i o n anal ysi s . Us i ng an ammo n i a

el ectrode , C EC values were determi ned fo r all arg i l l aceo us samp l es an d

selec ted non-argi llaceo us samples . Po rosi ty determi nat i ons o f the fresh

segments o f the sandsto nes and si l tsto nes were made , usi ng 1 0 to 1 2

mi cro n th i c k petro g raphi c sec t i o ns .

X-ray analysi s establi shed the presence o f i l l i te , glauco n i te ,

kaoli n i te , chlo r i te , b i o t i te , muscovi te , quartz , hemat i te , calc i te ,

dolomi te , Kspar , and plag i oc l ase . Quanti f i cat i o n o f shal es i s

compli cated by the clay mi neral s , therefore the data i s stri ctly

quali tati ve . The p resence o f randomly i n terstrati fi ed clays , d i sc rete

crystal li tes , or a comb i nati o n was suggested by a few broad peaks o n

the d i ffrac tog rams . The exact nat u re o f these peaks was undetermi nabl e

i n t h is stu dy .

Fo r the arg i ll aceo us samp l es , C EC's ranged from 5 . 5 2 to 33 . 6 1

meq/100 g . A few sandsto nes anal yzed generall y had values at o r bel ow

the lowest val ue of the si ltstones . C l ay m i neral co n tent ( by v i sual

est i mates ) appeared to be d i rec t l y p roport i onal to C EC values .

Quart z , Kspar , matri x , cement ( q uartz overg rowths , hemati te ,

cal c i te ) , g l auco n i te , p l ag i oc l ase , musco v i te, and b i ot i te were the

i i i

mi neral compo nents o f the sandstones and si ltsto nes . Based o n modal

i v

analysi s , the fo l l owi ng "average" compos it i o n fo r all non -arg i llaceous samples

was calculated : quartz-58% , Kspar-20% , matri x- 1 0% , cement-4% ,

glaucon i te- 3% , plag i oclase- 2 % , muscov i te- 1 % , m i scellany - 1 ��. and

b i oti te-trace .

The " typ i cal " Rome sandsto ne i s mature , well -so rted , subarkosi c ,

and a very fi ne sandstone to s i lty sandstone. Sandy s i ltsto nes to s i l ty

sandsto nes , wh i ch were moderately sorted and i mmatu re , are the " average"

non-arg i llaceous u n i ts of the Co nasauga .

The porosi ty o f the samp l es exami ned can be attri buted to fo u r

facto rs : deteri o rati o n of glaucon i ti c and mi caceous g rai ns , m i c roscop i c

vo i ds , d i sconti nuous m i crosco p i c c rac ks , and mac roscop i c fractu res .

Values ranged from 0- 1 0% . A notable d i fference was observed i n the

average po rosi ti es between samples from the two outc ro ps : 0 . 7% at the

Comparati ve An i mal Research Lab and 3 . 7% at the Fue l Rep rocess i ng

Road outc ro p . The sli ghtly h i gher deg ree of weatheri ng at the FR

locati o n i s beli eved responsi ble for the si zeabl e var i at i o ns .

Samples from the fresh and weathered segments o f a l l li tholog i es

exh i b i ted li ttle o r no mi neral o g i cal vari at ion .

The data gathered i n th i s i nvesti gati o n p ro v i de i nformati o n

concern i ng the li tholo g i es d i rectly at o r adjacent to waste bur ial

si tes . From th i s data , i t i s possi b l e to assess the potenti al fo r the

development of an aqu i fer , sho uld any materi al seep from the Pump k i n

Valley Shale (where some waste i s bu r i ed ) i nto the Rome Fo rmati on .

The u ppermost porti o n o f the Rome ( th i c k layers o f sandsto nes ) i s bound

above and below by shale layers . I n the event o f seepage o f waste

fl u i d , shales are si gn i fi cantly mo re effecti ve i n remo v i ng cati o ns

than sandsto nes , and are fai rly i mperv i o us . I f any flu i d does reach

t he Rome san dsto nes , i t is unli kely that an aqu i fer wo uld develop ,

si n ce t he sandsto nes have l ow absolu te po rosi t i es , thus suggest i ng low

permeab i l i t i es .

v

TABL E OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAG E

I . I NTRODUCTION

I I . I NV EST IGATION O F THE ARGI LLACEOUS COMPON ENTS 24

I I I . P ETROGRAPH I C ANALY S I S O F THE SA NDSTONES AND S I LTSTONES 60

I V . SUMMATION AND CONCLUS I ONS .

SEL ECTED RE FERENCES

APPEND I C ES .

Append i x 1 : Append i x 2 : Append i x 3 : Append i x 4:

V I TA .

Gr i nd i ng Study Smear Mou n t P reparat i o n Determi nat i o n o f C EC Val ues Stai n i ng fo r Ks par

v i

8 7

92

1 00

1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04

1 05

L I ST OF TABLES

TABLE

1 . L i st of Terms .

2 . Mi nerals Detected i n the Arg i llaceous Samples and C EC Values ( All Arg i llaceous Samples)

3 . Peak Intensi t i es of t h e Arg i llaceous Samples ( All 48)

4 . C EC Data C ompar i sons B ased o n the Outcrop Locat i on , Degree of Weatheri ng, and Li tholog i c Type .

5 . C ompar i son of C EC Values of Fresh and Weathered Samples i n the CARL and FR Outcrops

6 . C EC Values of Selected Sandstones .

7 . M i neralogy and Porosi ty Determi nat i ons from Petrograp h i c Analyses of the Sandstones and Si ltstones

8 . Porosi ty Trends i n t he CARL and F R Outcrops .

9 . Average Mi neralog i cal C omposi t i ons of the Sandstones and S i ltstones Analyzed wi th Respect t o Degree of Weather i ng , Outcrop Locat i on, and Geolog i c Un i t

1 0 . D i str i but i on of Grai n S i ze, Sorti ng, and Textural Matur i ty i n t he Rome Sandst ones ( Based on Folk, 1 974) .

1 1 . C omposi t i onal Classi f i c at i on of the Sandstones/ S i ltstones ( Based o n F olk, 1 974)

1 2 . S i g n i fi c ant Mi neralog i c al D i fferences Between the Rome and Conasauga

v i i

PAGE

4

32

35

40

42

58

65

7 1

7 5

80

8 1

84

L I ST O F F I GURES

F I GURE PAGE

1 . Locat i o n r�ap . 3

2 . Stra t i g ra p h i c Co l umn fo r the CARL Outcrop 1 0

3 . S tra t i g ra ph i c Co l umn for the FR Outcro p . 1 5

4 . Typ i ca l D i ffract i on Pa ttern o f a n Arg i l l a ceous Sampl e 3 1

5 . M i nera l D i str i bu t i o n fo r the Arg i l l aceo us Samp l es . 33

6 . Frequency Ba r Chart fo r C EC D i str i bu t i on of Samp l es

7 .

8 .

9 .

From CARL a n d FR ( Al l 48 Samp l es ) 43

Compar i so n of Frequency D i str i bu t i o n of C EC Va l ues of the CARL a n d FR Outcro ps 44

Frequency Cha rt for Fresh vs . Wea thered Segments o f CARL Samp l es 46

Frequency Cha rt for Fresh vs . Wea thered Segments o f Samp l es of the FR Outcro p . 48

1 0 . P l o t o f the CEC Va l ues o f the CARL a nd FR Outcro ps Rel a ted to the L i thol ogy of the I nd i v i dua l Samp l es 5 1

l l . P l o t of C EC Va l ues a nd L i tho l og i es o f the CARL a n d FR Sampl es . 5 2

1 2 . Frequency Chart fo r the C EC Va l ues o f the Rome Fo rma t i o n a n d Conasa uga Gro u p 5 4

1 3 . P l o t Rel a ti ng the CEC Va l ues a nd L i thol og i es o f the Rome a n d Co nasa uga . 55

1 4 . Fa ctors I nf l uenc i ng Po rosi ty and Permeab i l i ty . 6 2

1 5 . Deteri orat i on of G l aucon i t i c ( G) and M i c areous ( M) Mater i a l Al l owi ng for the Devel opment of Pores ( P ) 68

1 6 . Wel l Devel oped Pore Spaces ( P } . 69

1 7 . M i nera l og i c a l Composi t i on of the Average Rome and Conasauga Sandstone/Si l tstone . 73

1 8 . Mi nera l Di st r i but i on of the S andstones and S i l tstones 74

v i i i

CHAPTER I

I NTRODUCTION

I ntroducti o n

I n recent years there has been g rowi ng co ncern o ver the methods

employed fo r the d i sposal of rad i oacti ve waste mater i als . One currently

used metho d i s bu r i al i n selected geolo g i cal format i o ns whi ch possess

c haracter i sti cs that retai n an d i mmo b i li ze rad i oacti ve wastes fo r lon g

peri ods o f ti me . I t must be reali zed that there are a li m i ted number

of geolog i cally su i table s i tes fo r bur i al and that other factors

i nvolved may i mpose yet fu rther restr i cti ons o n thei r use .

Rad i oact i ve waste di sposal si tes o n the Oak R i dge Nati onal Lab

reservati o n are located i n the Conasauga Grou p wh i ch i s composed

pr i nci pally o f shales , i nterbedded w i th claysto nes , s i ltstones , and

li mestones . D i rectly below li es the Rome Formati on wh i c h i ncludes

sandsto nes , s i ltstones , shales , and locali zed occurrences o f dol ostone

and/or li mesto ne . Previ ous i nvestigati o ns have shown the Rome on the

reservati o n to be domi nantly shale and sandsto ne ( Carroll , 1 96 1 ) .

Under certai n co n d i ti ons th i s comb i nati o n o f li tholog i es may act as

an aqu i fer system ( permeable u n i t between i mpermeable layers ) . S i nce

rad i oacti ve waste p ro ducts are p resently bei n g bur i ed i n the overly i n g

Conasauga shales , the potenti al ex i sts fo r some o f th i s materi al to move

downward i nto the potenti ally mo re porous and permeable beds i n the

Rome Formati o n .

The p r i n c i pal goals o f th i s study are to determ i ne the m i neralo g i c ,

petrolo g i c , and i o n exchange characteri sti cs o f the typ i cal li tholog i c

1

2

types found i n the Rome Fo rma t i on a nd the l ower Conasauga Group ( Pump k i n

Va l l ey Sha l e Member ) . I f these ana l yses revea l a potent i a l h a za rd o r

hazards , then they can be ta ken i n to account i n the da i l y o pera t i o n s

a nd i n p l a n n i ng fo r future d i sposa l s i tes .

Outcrops c ho sen for s tudy a re l ocated appro x i ma tel y 6 . 5 km ( 4. 2 mi )

apart , j u s t south of Bethel Va l l ey Road ( refer to F i g . 1 ) . O ne outc ro p

i s l ocated a l ong the Fuel Rep roces s i ng Pl a n t Road ( FR ) , wh i ch i s about

4 . 8 km ( 3 m i ) ea s t of X- 10 ( a maj o r g roup of bu i l d i ngs a t ORNL ) , wh i l e

the other i s j u s t wi t h i n the bo unda ry o f the Compara t i ve An i ma l Resea rch

Lab fa c i l i ty ( CARL ) . The FR ou tcrop cons i s ts a l mo s t en t i rel y of Rome ,

wh i l e a t CARL there a re near l y eq u i va l ent th i c knesses o f Rome and

Conasauga expo sed . See Tab l e 1 for l i st of abbrev i at i ons.

Locat i on

Located i n the ea s tern sec tor o f the s tate , Oak R i dge i s

a pprox i ma tel y 48 km ( 30 mi ) no rthwes t o f Knoxv i l l e , Tennes see . The

Oak Ri dge Nat i ona l Labo rato ry fac i l i t i es , adjacent to the sou thwestern

l i m i ts o f the c i ty , extend abo u t 21 km ( 1 3 m i ) i n an eas t-wes t d i rec t i o n ,

a nd 10 km ( 6 m i ) i n a north -south direc t i o n (McMa s teG 1 96 3 ) . On the

reservat i on there a re fou r pr i nc i pa l un i ts presen t : t he Rome Fo rma t i o n ,

the Co nasauga Grou p , the Knox Group , and the Ch i c kamau ga Grou p . On l y

the Rome a nd Cona sauga were s tu d i ed i n th i s p roject.

The Rome , o f ea rl y Camb r i a n a ge , i s the o l des t fo rma t i on exposed

and co n s i s ts p r i mar i l y of sandstones , s i l ts tones , and s ha l es o n the

reservat i on . The sands tone beds a re more p reva l ent towa rd the upper

segment o f the fo rma t i on , wherea s the mo re a rg i l l aceous u n i ts domi na te

the l ower ha l f . Sha l es o f t he Rome cha racter i s t i ca l l y exh i b i t ba nded

/ /

X-10 (ORNL)

Figure 1. Location map.

RIDGE

/ /

/ /

/

' '

' '

'\. '\.

/ /

/ /

/

KNOXVILLE

X;- FR outcrop Xa-CARL outcrop

3

N

SCALE- O km 3

TABLE l

LIST OF TERMS

The fo l l ow i ng l egend app l i es to a l l tabl es a nd f i g ures i n th i s

report , but a l l terms do not occur i n each fi g ure or tab l e .

Q qua rt z

I L L i l l i te

MUS muscov i te

CHL c h l ori te

GLAU gl a ucon i te

BIO , B I OT bi o ti te

KAO kao l i n i te

H EM hema t i te

CAL ca l c i te

DOL do l omi te

KSP , KSPAR a l ka l i fel dspar

PLAG p l a g i oc l ase

MAT ma tri x

C EM cement

M I SC m i s cel l a ny

PORO poro s i ty

C , C l s t c l ays tone

H , s h s ha l e

L, s l t s i l ts tone

R Rome Fonna t i on

4

5

TABL E 1 ( cont i nued)

c Co na sa uga Gro up

FR FR outcrop l o cat i o n

CARL CARL o utcrop l oca t i o n

FRM forma t i o n

L I TH 1 i thol ogy

LOCA l oca t i on ( see p . 7) SAM samp l e number

wx f resh ( f ) o r wea thered (w ) segment of samp l e

N n umber of samp l es

co l o rat i on ra ng i ng from ma roo n , purp l e , and g reen , to va ri ous shades

of brown . I t i s bel i eved that o n l y the uppermo st few hundred meters

6

of the fo rmat i on a re expo sed i n the area , hav i ng l eft 300 to 600 meters

beh i nd dur i n g the t hru st s heet fo rma t i o n ( McMa ster , 1 963 ) . I n a l l k nown

exposu res , thrust fa u l ts ma rk the l ower contac t , wh i l e there i s a

gradat i ona l contact between the Rome a nd l ower Conasauga . The prec i se

upper bo unda ry of the Rome i s a rb i tra ry ( McMas ter , 1 963 ; Harri s and

Mi l i c i , 1 9 7 7 ) . I n th i s s tudy , the u pper l i mi t i s d rawn 0 . 5 m above the

l a st th i c k ( 30-35 em ) sa nds tone u n i t . Th i s i n ves t i ga t i o n i nvol ves o n l y

the Pump k i n Va l l ey Sha l e ; i t compr i ses the l ower 9 0 meters ( 300 f t ) of

the Co nasa uga Group . Th i s s h a l e- r i ch member i s i n terca l a ted wi th very

th i n beds of s i l ts to nes. A l though not as v i bra n t , the co l o rs are

s i mi l a r to those of the Rome s ha l es wi th shades of maroon , green , and

brown domi na t i ng .

W i th i n the bou nds of the O RNL reservati o n , the Rome a nd l ower

Conasauga a re l oca ted a l ong two maj o r para l l e l ri dges trend i ng

approx i ma te ly ea s t-wes t ( refer to F i g . 1 ) : P i ne R i dge , w h i c h i s i n

the northern port i o n , and Haw Ri dge to the sou thea s t . The two fa ctors

bear i ng the grea test i nfl uence o n s i te sel ect i on were :

a ) the max i mum expo s u re of beds ( o n l y ou tcrops essent i a l l y perpend i cu l a r

to bedd i ng were co n s i dered ) , a nd

b ) the qua l i ty of the outcrops ( i . e . , fres hnes s , m i n i ma l covered

i n terva l ) .

A thorough sea rc h for s u i tabl e outcrops wa s made over the enti re

reserva t i o n , a nd two s i tes were sel ected o n Haw R i dge ( see F i g . 1 ) .

No outcrops of suff i c ient s i ze a n d qua l i ty were found a l ong P i ne R i dge .

An add i t i ona l i ncen t i ve to i nves t i gate the mo re sou ther l y r i dge resu l ts

7 from the fac t ra d i oa c t i ve wa s te bu r i a l s i tes a re p resent l y l oca ted i n

the Conasauga Group a djacen t ( south ) to Haw R i dge . The i nfo rmat i o n

obta i ned i n th i s s tu dy i nvo l v i ng Haw Ri dge may n o t be d i rec t l y app l i cab l e

to the Rome and l ower Co nasauga o n P i ne R i dge s i nce i t i s p art of a

d i fferent thrust s heet . Hence , a sepa ra te i nves t i g a t i o n wou l d be i n

o rder i f buri a l s i tes were to be devel oped in the Co nasauga Group

adj acent to P i ne R i dge .

Prev i ous Stud i es

There have been numerous stud ies i nvol v i ng the Rome Fo rma t i o n and

the Conasa uga Group . Some of these i nves t i ga t i on s have a fa i rl y b road

scope ( Safford , 1 869 ; Res ser , 1 938 ; Rodgers, 1953 , 1 9 56 ; Petti j oh n ,

1 970 ; Pa l mer , 1 97 1 ; Ha rri s a n d Mi l i c i , 1 9 77 ) , wh i l e o thers have exami ned

more narrowl y def i ned aspects ( S p i ga i , 1 963 ; McMa s ter , 1 9 63 ; Harri s ,

1 964 ; Samma n , 19 7 5 ; S i ri bha kdi , 19 76 ; Krumha n s l , 1 9 79 ) . However , no

p rev i ou s s tudy has cha racteri zed i n deta i l the petro l ogy a nd mi nera l ogy

of both the a rg i l l a ceous a nd coa rser-gra i ned cons t i tuents of the Rome

a nd/o r Conasauga , nor determi ned thei r i on exc ha nge chara c teri s t i cs.

Geol og i c H i s tory

The current l y accepted i nterpreta t i o n of the geo l og i c h i story of

the southern Val l ey a n d R i dge i s ba sed on ' ' t h i n-s k i n nedn tecto n i c s i n

wh i c h defo rma t i on i s confi ned to sedi menta ry l ayers above the basemen t

( Rodgers , 1 9 5 6 ) . Ut i l i zi ng t h i s co ncept , Harr i s a n d M i l i c i ( 1 9 77 )

p repa red a genera l i zed ba s i n mo del to rep resent the o r i g i na l sedi menta ry

ba s i n i n wh i ch t he sed i ments tha t a re now preserved i n t he p resent day

Va l l ey and R i dge were depo s i ted . Accord i ng to thei r recons tructi o n ,

t here wa s a th i c k c l a st i c sequence i n the eas tern porti o n , r immed by a

na rrow shel f sequence to the wes t . Roc k un i ts ran g i ng from Cambr i a n

to Pen nsy l van i an fo rm a wedge- s ha ped sequence wh i ch t h i n s from ea st

to west i n the sou thern part of the p ro v i nce . Three depos i t i o nal

ep i sodes , ea c h d i v i ded by reg i ona l unconfo rmi t i es a re rep resented by

the fo l l owi ng i n terva l s :

a ) Camb ri a n - l ower O rdo vi c i a n

b ) mi ddl e Ordov i c i a n- l ower Devo n i a n

c ) upper Devo n i an - Pennsyl vani an

The Rome Format i o n a n d Co nasauga Group were depo s i ted dur i ng the

ea rl i es t of these three ep i sodes .

Seq uence "a" rep resents a wes twa rd transgres s i o n wi th d i m i n i s h i ng

c l a st i cs a n d i nc rea s i ng ca rbonates . The f i rs t depo s i ts ( Ch i l howee

Group ) of sha l l ow ma r i ne sandsto nes , i ntercal a ted wi th deeper water

s i l tstones a nd s ha l es , were s ucceeded by a sha l l ow c a rbonate bank

8

( Shady Do l om i te ). The sha l es , sandstones , and s i l tstones of the Rome

Forma t i on were depos i ted i n s h a l l ow subt i da l a n d i n terti da l env i ronments

d i rect l y wes t of the carbonate ban ks throu ghout the ea r ly a nd mi dd l e

Cambri an . A deeper ma ri ne sett i ng evo l ved after t he depos i t i o n of the

Rome by g ra dua l s ubs i dence of the ba s i n . Wi th a source to the northwes t ,

a deep wa ter l agoona l seq uence of shal e , th i n l y bedded l imes tone , a nd

s i l ts tone formed i n the ba s i n's western reg i o n ; ca rbona tes i ncrea sed

i n abu ndance i n the ea stern segment where sha l l ow ma r i ne cond i t i o n s

preva i l ed . These i nterfi ngeri ng c l a s t i c and ca rbonate depos i ts

con st i tute the Co nasauga Grou p . Du ri ng the l a te Cambri an , carbonate

fac i es expanded wes tward from t hei r ea s tern doma i n to cover the ent i re

bas i n , res u l t i ng i n t he depo s i t i o n of the Knox Group . U p l i f t , affect i n g

m u c h of the ea s tern a n d sou thern Un i ted States , termina ted sedi mentation

9

i n Ea r l y Ordov i c i a n t ime . Later depos i ts were ma i n l y der i ved from

ea sterl y sources up l i fted du r i n g o rogen i c ep i sodes dur i ng the rema i nder

of the Pa l eo zo i c .

F i el d Work

Majo r d i v i s i o n s were made a t ea c h ou tcro p ba sed o n l i tho l og i c

ra t ios a nd a s s i g ned a l etter . I n a few i nsta nces col or p l ayed a n

i mpo rta n t ro l e pa rti cu l a rl y when subd i v i d i ng the s h a l es . A t the CARL

outcro p , 1 31 meters ( 430 ft ) of mea sured sect i o n were s p l i t i n to n i ne

major grou p s ( A - I ) , wh i l e a t the FR s i te the 1 9 7 meters ( 64 5 ft ) were

d i v i ded i nto seven g roups ( L - R ) . A l thoug h both ou tcrops exh i b i t

faul t i ng a n d fo l di ng , beds ca n genera l l y be tra ced a nd fa i rl y compl ete

s tra t i g ra p h i c col umns were p repa red ( see F i gs . 2 and 3 ) .

A mi n i mum o f two samp l e pa i rs were col l ec ted from every l ettered

group . The fo l l owi ng i s a n exampl e o f the sampl e des i g na t i o ns u sed :

FQ 3 F SS

F - samp l e from FR outc ro p

Q - g ro u p i n FR o u tc ro p

3 - sampl e n umber ta ken from g roup

SS - sa ndsto ne l i thol o gy

When neces sary , a dd i t i ona l sampl es were ta ken to p ro v i de a comp l ete

represen ta ti o n of s i gn i f i cant l i tho l og i es i n ea ch grou p . Ea c h sampl e

pa i r cons i s ted o f a rel a t i vel y "fres h" and a rel a t i vely " wea thered "

port i o n . The wea thered porti o n o f the samp l e wa s ta ken d i rect ly from

the surfi c i a l expo sure , whereas the fres h segment was removed from a

l oca t i o n para l l el to the bedd i ng p l a ne , a nywhere from 1 0 em (4 i n ) to

30 em ( 14 i n ) from the surface , depend i ng on the d i ff i cu l ty i n secur i ng

I . Tota l t h i c k nes s 1 3 1 meters Sca l e

o ____ __..Lj. m

A- I Groups A-G H- I

Rome Forma t i o n Co nasauga Group ( Pumpk i n Va l l ey Sha l e )

I I . Symbo 1 s

Fau l t - - - - - - F R i p p l es MI\N Mi s s i ng i nterva l =t= Con t i nued

I I I . Abb rev i a t i o ns

Ss s andstone S l t s i l ts tone Sh s ha l e C l / C l s t c l ays to ne a l t a l ternate samp l e W wea thered F fres h

I V . Bed t h i c knesses ( em )

th i ck 30- 1 00 med i um 1 0- 30 th i n 3 - 1 0 very th i n l y 1 - 3 th i c k l y l ami nated t h i n l y l ami nated

0. 3- 1 < 0 . 3

V . Area s s how i ng a ma rked i ncrea se i n wea ther i ng effec ts ( i . e . , c ha nge i n co l ora t i o n , extent o f wea thered r i nd ) a re no ted a s s uch , o n a compara ti ve bas i s wi th the overa l l wea ther i ng cond i t i ons of the outcro p a s a s ta ndard .

h i g h l y - g reates t wea ther i ng effects noted s i gn i f i cantl y - nota b l e i nc rea se i n wea ther i ng effects

F i g u re 2 . Stra t i graph i c co l umn for the CARL o u tc ro p .

1 0

CH 21 --

CH IT SH -t:=;:===� CH H SLT � (elt) -��-===.....;-==�

H-20m C»

ce

Cl 21 (elf)

G-lOm c, 22

c, 11 aa _j�� F-IOm

CEll

Cl IT

SILTY IANDSTON[I WITH INTE.-CALATED SHALES a SILTSTONEI

SI/SLTS- MEDIUM TO THIN IEDS LAMINATED W- IU,, e.-EEN, MMO ON '-"'EEN, e .-EY

IH -vE.-Y THINLY IEDOED TO THICKLY LAMINATED W-MEEN, ILACK, MA.-OOM ,_G,_EEN, MA.-OON, YI:LLOW

UNDULATO,_Y IEDDI Nl ' LAND

MINOtt '0LDINI AD.IACINT T O 'AULTS

WILL INDU.-ATED IILTY IANDITOMEI a lANDY SILTSTONES WITH S HALE ,A.-TIN IS

SS/SLTI- VE.-Y THIN TO THICK IEDI AVI-MIDIUM w- a.-owN, IU'' ,_,,_EEN, ILACK, ' URPL!

S H-VE.-Y THINLY BEDDED HIGHLY WEATHEMD W-IU ''• GltEEN,G.-EY , _0.-EEN

UNDULATORY I!DDINI 'LANII

S ANDY SILTSTOHEI a SMALlS

SLTS -vE.-Y THIN TO MEDIUM IEDS AVG-THIN LAMINATED W- lUff IIIIMOON ,_ a.-ta.,e.-IY, ltiNK

IN-Vt.-Y THINLY ltDOID W a ,_ M IIN, IIIIAitOON,ILACIC

UNDULATO.-Y ltDDINI 'LANI.

Figure 2 ( contin ued )

1 1

CD 1411-

Cl I

Cl 7 Sl Celt)

Cl I

CA I IH - 1::::====� (alt) CA 2

CA I II

A-9m

FIN!·& .. AJNED SANDSTONES WITH IWTER

IEDDED SHALES a SILTITOHES

Sl -THIN TO THICK lf:DS AVi-M!DIUM W - IU,, "NK P-8 .. E!N, ME'4 MA"OON L AMINATED, SYMIIIET .. ICAL RIPPLES

SH- VEin' THINLY IEDD!D THIN TO THICK LAM INATIONS W a '-IRE EN, MA .. OON

fiNE·IIUINED SANDSTONE$, a SILTSTONES WrTH INTE .. IED DrD IHALEI

11- VE .. Y THINLY IEODED LAMINATED!. 'RIAa.E W a ,-WA .. oON, ... EEN

IH -VE .. Y THINLY IEDDED LAMINATED W a' .. EEN, MA .. OON

SANDY SILTSTONES TO SILTY SANDSTONES INTERCALATED W1TH SHALES

St.'SLTI- VERY THIN TO MEDIUM IEDDE'D A VI- THIN MASiaVE TO LAMINATED MINOfll ITAR"ID lttPPU:S W- lUff,, MAttOON, 8 .. EEN , _ MA .. OON, I .. EEM

SH -VE .. Y THINLY IEDD€D TO THINLY LAMINATED

W- MAROON, IREEN, IREY ,_ MA .. OON, IREEN

MINOR TO W ODE .. ATE ' OLDfNI WINO .. 'AULTINQ UNDUUTO .. Y IEDDINI PLANES

SILTY SANDSTONES TO lANDY SfLTITONU INT! .. IEDDED WITH SHAUl

ILTS/S.S - THIN TO THICK IEDI AVG- THIN WAISfVE TO LAMINATED W - PIN� IU'' '- TAN, M OWN, G .. !Y

SH -VEin' THINLY IEDDID TO VDY THINLY L AMINATED

W- ORANII, TAN, IRIY '-IRE IN, IRIY, IROWN

Wf NOR 'OLDI N I MINOR 'AULTINI

F i g u re 2 ( conti nued )

12

,...--- ..

Cl IIILT-�· - ·-

....-- ·-· -

C.l 12 ILT ·- ·- ·-

�·-- -

1--· - · �

1-52m Cl

�-- -=�

CH llll.T-�·�·-=

(eft)

- ·- · -

CH 30 Sl.t-�.

·-· - ·-

·- · CM II IH i�·�i-il 1-- · -· --1 - - --

COVERED INTERVAL

2 METERS IIII ISSINQ

SHALES INTERCALATED WITH MINOR

l ANDY SILTSTONES

SH-THIN TO VERY THIN liDS LAIIIINATED TO IIIIAIIIVI

W- MAROON, IROWN, IIIINOit ILACIC P- QltEEN, IIIII MOON

S LTI- V!ltY TH INLY KDDED

L AM INATED TO MASSIVE W- IIIIMOOM, IUPP, IROWN P- QltEEN

CiROU, 'HI A,,! A ItS L EU W !Ant!RID THAN MOU' '1' Q!NTLY 'OL DID M INOR ,AUL TINI UNDULATORY IIDDUte 'LAII!I

Figure 2 ( continued )

1 3

,...... __ _

.;.._--:-� . -=-� ....-· ·-

Cl 31 SH

�-----

Cl 5S

�-

-·-·---- - -......... ·�·,:...,.; ss_ �� _...,...

:::;:::: .:..i::::!:-1 23. ,.:...._ � �---.:-� ":.:.---:-....:....=-: -::J �· � --:-:� Cl 34 SH- ,::7...:_--:-�-:,

·-·-·

-·---;;;;;;;;--. __ _ -·---

-·-·

,....._ . . -� .....

----- --

-·-·-

:::-:" .:...== .. -==:

....._.,__- ..... ----

1 4

SHALES INTE�LATED WITH IILTITONEI • lANDY SIL TSTONES

SH THINLY BEDDED TO THICKLY LAMINATED

W-Muoo�, .-uRPLI, '"owN, e"IEN YILL Ow, lUCK

f-e .. I IN

ILTI -YI"Y TH INLY TO T HINLY BEDDED LAMINATED TO NASSIVE W-IUFf, CMEE N F-GREEN

GENTLY TO SEVE .. ELY FOLDED SYMMET .. ICAL .. IPPLES HIGHLY WEATHERED

Fig u re 2 ( continued )

I . Tota l th i ckness Sca l e

1 9 7 meters

0'---____ 4, m

L - R Groups L-Q Rome Formati on R Conasa u ga G ro u p ( Pumpk i n Va l l ey Sha l e )

I I . Symbo l s

Fa u l t - - - - - - F R i pp l e s � Mi s s i ng i nte rval =t= Conti nued

I I I . Abbrev i ati ons

S s sandstone. S l t s i l ts to ne Sh s ha l e C l / C l s t c l aystone a l t a l te rnate W weathered F f re s h

I V . B e d th i c knesses ( em )

th i ck 30- 1 00 med i um 1 0- 30 thi n 3- 1 0 very th i n l y l - 3 th i c k l y l am i nated th i n l y l ami nated

0 . 3- l < 0 . 3

V . Area s s howi ng a ma rked i ncrease i n weatheri ng effects ( i .e . , change i n co l o rati o n , extent of weatheri ng r i n d ) a re noted a s s uch , on a compa rati ve ba s i s wi th the overa l l weather i ng con d i ti o ns o f the outcro p a s a standa rd .

h i gh l y - g reatest weatheri ng effects noted s i gn i f i ca ntl y - notab l e i nc rease i n weather i ng effects

F i g u re 3. Strati graph i c col umn for the FR o utcro p .

1 5

"· 7 CL

P L 4

PL I

1'1. l ILT _ l•lt)

L-31m

1 6

lAND Y IILTITON!I INT ! RI!DD!D WITH IHAL!I a MINOR CL AYITON ! I

ILTI- VERY THIN T O M EDIUM I!DD! D

AVI-THIN INDISTINCT LAMINATIONS

UNDULATORY I ! DOINI PLAN II

W- MAROON. IR! !N, IU'P P - IUP,, ft1NIC, TM, MIEN,

IROWN

IH - THICKLY LAMINATED TO WRY THINLY li DDED

W- IR! !N1 MAROON P - IR! IN, IUPP, MAAOOM

CLIT- TH INLY I ! D D! D M AUl VI W- TAN P- YILLOW

MODIRAT!LY POLDID MINOR PALA.TINI IIINIPICANTLY WIATHIRID

CNICICAMAUIA lltOUP

F i gure 3 ( continued )

, .. 4 ss -, .. 3 ss-

, .. 2 CL(elt)

, .. I CL (elt)

M-52m

�---. '=....:_. • -· -:- • � �� 7'":...:.-� �- -· -· �· · � 2......!;·· ,·�� ...:...,.,..,. ,� � · · � �-· -·-= ��-�..=-7 �- -

·- ·-- -� ----·�

·-f.-·

·-

�--=-- . -·- .. �- -- .-=

�- . . -· -- · ·-�.....u::r:-� ...:.....:::: �·�-:---� ·----- ·

#:<.,..,...,..; -:�.:-:��·�� ;,.o,o..;. .. ·�··· =· --·- ·-·.,.;;;; �· - ·

-· . . ·-·-· -· - ·-· �---=--� ��:; "=- ·-· - · 1:::.:--:-=....:....-:-�-�-:-_;_-:-.:...:: ·-· - · �· - ·-·

---

�- · - ·

-� �:=:=� �� ..:.._-:-� � �-=-�--:-.:... -1

-·-·-

Fig ure 3 ( continued )

1 7

,,. I CL(ett)

N-34m

'M I

'M 7

,.. I

I M!T!RI MISSINQ

SII.TS TO NES a SHALES WITH MINO R

CL.AY STOftES a S ANDSTONES

S� THINLY LAMINATE D TO THINLY lED OED

W a '-IR!EN, IR!Y , MA ROON

ILTS-THIN TO THICK 1£01 Avt-THIN

L AMINATED UNDULATORY IEDEMNI PLANES SYMMETRICAL RIPPLES

W- MAROON, IU,,, ILACK

, -MAROON, IREY , IREEN, IU''• YELLOW

CUT- T HINLY IEDDED MAIIIVI

W -IU''• M A R OON , IREIN '-YEL L OW, IU''• MAROOM,

IRE EN

II-VERY THINLY TO THINLY KDD!D

LAMINATED TO MASSIVE

w a ,_,u,,·

MINOR 'AUl.TUM IENTLY ,OLDED IIINIPICANTL Y WIATHIR ID

F i g ure 3 (continued )

18

fO 2 CL -

fO I

0-42m fll 7 •• -

fll I ILT-

fN a •• (lit)

- ·-··-·--·-·

IILTITON!I a IHAU:I IIIT!Iti!OMO

WITH MINOR CLAYITON!I a SAND

I TOMEI

19

'"-TH ICkLY LAMIIIATID TO THIIILY 110010

W- IIAROOII, llt llll, lltOWII, l Uff f- lltllll, M.U.OOII, I ROW II

ILTI- Vllt Y THill TO THill IIDI LAMIIIATID TO IIA.II IVI UIID4JLATotn' 11001111 PL.AIIII

IYMIIIITRICAL IUPPLII

W-IUI'I', IROWII, IIAJtOC*, IUCIC

f- llti!II,IROWN1 ftLLOW. Ill A ROO II, IL Ac;IC

&I - VlltY THill TO THICIC 1101 AVI-THIII WILL IIIIKMATID

MAISIVI TO LAMIIIATI.D W- I Ufl', ILACIC f- CltiAM, 111111

tLIT-THIIILY KDHD MAII IVI

W a F-Y£L.LOW, MAROC*, IU''• I REIN

IIINifltANTLY WEATHERED IE. TLY ,OLOID fAULTED

F i gure 3 ( conti nued )

CLAYITONU uenRIIDDID WITH MINOR IHALII, IANDITCIIIII1 a IILTITONII

CLIT-YIR Y THINLY I IDDID LAMINA T ID IIIIOT TLID

W-IROWN1 ILACIC1 IU''• IR!IIe

'-IR ID. YILLOW. TAN. IROWM

IH-YDY THIN TO THIN IIDI INDISTINCT LAIIIIIMATIONI

W- I RIIN. OR ANII. au,, P- IRIIN

SLTI -THINLY liDDED I NOtiTINCT L.AIIIIN'ATIONS w- IU''• YELL OW, MAROON

tr- MOWN, &REIN, IIIIA .. OON

IS -THINLY liDDED VERY ,.NI IRAINI D

LAMINATED TO NAIIIYI

W-IU''• MI EN, ILACIC

,_ IROWN1 CRIAIIII, IR!!N1 IMY

LARII ICALI 'OLDUtG HIQH LY WEAT HERED

14 IIITERI IIIIIUit


20

"' 4 CL

FR 3 IS -

FR 2

FR I SLT

R-24m

FQ 3 II ,Q 2. f'QIII

Q .... 6m

pp I

II- THIN TO MEDI U M liDDED AVI-THIN L AMINATED U N DUL.AT�Y IEDDtNI PL.ANEI ,AIRLY dLL INDURATED

W-MOWN, ILACK, .,,,,IR EEN F -ett EAM. IR&EN, IL.ACK, MOWN,

Y ELL�

ILTI -VIRY TMNLY TO THUILY IEDDO AVI-THIN MOTTL ED W- IROWN, ILACC, IU,P, IRE EN P- C.RIAM, QREEN, ILACK,BAOWN

YE LLO W

SIQNIFICANTLY WEATHERED

IANDITONEI a I ILT Y IANDSTONEI WITH MINOR IHAL E PARTINII

11/ILTI -THIN TO ntiCit MDI AVI-MEDI UM MASSIVE TO L.AMUlATED 'AIRLY WELL INDURATED W-IIIAJitOOM, IU''• •owN '-IUPF, Y EL LOW, CR EAM

IH - VERY TH .. LY IIDOED W a P- IREEN a IIAROOte

CLAYITONEI a IHALEY CLAYITONEI WITH INTERIEDDt:D IILTITOMEI TO lANDY IILTITONEI

CLIT - LAMINATED MOTT LID W- IRUN, IROWN,ILACK, YELLOW ' -5AEEN, YELLOW,If'OWN

SLTI- VERY THIN TO MEDIUM IEDI AVI-THIII LAMINA TID PIUAIL& W IIUOO., ILACIC.IUPP P IIAAOO., ClliAII,ellll.


2 1

CLAY STONES a SHALES INTERBEDDED

WITH M INOR SILTS TONES a SANDSTONES

CLST/SH- VER Y THINLY TO THINL Y

BEDDED

MOTTLED TO LAMINATED W- PINK , 8RE EN, BLACK ,

BROWN

F- PI NK , 8REEN, YELLOW 1

MAROON. 8LACIC

Fig ure 3 ( conti nued )

2 2

2 3

sampl es of rea s ona bl e s i ze . A tota l o f 56 pa i rs o f samp l es were ta ken ,

28 from CARL, 28 from FR. Eighteen a l ternate samp l es were co l l ected at

the same ti me , to be a vai l a b l e i f the need aro s e to exami ne addi ti ona l

sampl e s o f certa i n l i thol o g i e s .

CHAPTER I I

I NV EST I GATION O F TH E ARG I LLACEOUS COMPONENTS

I ntrodu c t i on

Buri a l i n s ha l l ow p i ts a n d trenches , dug i n to comp l ete l y or

parti a l l y wea thered Cona sauga Group , ha s been conducted for o ver two

decades a t O RNL , a nd a maj or concern i s l ong term hazards a s soc i a te d

wi th t h e wa stes (Lomen i c k et a l . , 1 9 67 ) . A knowl edge o f t h e c a t i o n

exchange capa c i ty ( CEC ) o f sha l es i s i mportant , s i nce i t i s a mec han i sm

by wh i ch i ons ca n be i mmob i l i zed. C EC i s dependent on the m i nera l ogy o f

t h e s ha l es, a s c l ays are t h e pr i nc i pa l m i neral s co n tr i b ut i ng t o C EC. A

knowl edge o f the mi nera l ogy i s a l so v i ta l i n unders tand i ng a n d pred i c t i ng

a ny poten t i a l i nteract i on s between the was te materi a l , ground or meteori c

water , a nd the e nc l o s i ng l i thol og i c u n i ts .

Prev i ou s Stud i e s

Numerou s s tud i e s o f s ha l e s have focused s pec i fi ca l l y o n the c l ay

mi nera l components or a part i c u l ar c l ay m i nera l present . I n contra s t ,

there are a fa i r l y l i m i ted number o f s tud i es o f who l e roc k s ha l es .

Inves t i ga ti o n s by Shaw and Wea ver ( 1 965 ) , Schu l tz ( 1 964) , Gre ensmi th

( 1 958 ) , a nd Gri m e t a l . ( 1 957 ) , prov i de some of the mos t comp l ete

s ources o f i n forma ti o n beca use they descri be numero us methods of ana l ys i s

o f the bu l k roc k s ha l es and t h e i r mi nera l co n st i tuents. X -ray

techn i q ues were excl u s i ve l y empl oyed by Purton and Youe l l ( 1 969 ) a nd

E vans a n d Adams ( 1 9 74 ) .

Accord i ng to Weaver ( 1 9 57) , there i s a s i g n i f i c ant change i n c l ay

mineral su i te compo s i t i o n of Pa l eozo i c rock s : Pre-Up per Mi s s i s s i p p i a n

2 4

2 5

roc k s conta i n fa i rl y s i mp l e s u i te s , where a s l a te r roc k s t e n d to be more

var iab l e a nd comp l ex i n c l ay m i neral compos i t i on . Th i s d i s tr i b ut i o n i s

tho ugh t to be pr ima r i l y a funct i on o f tecton i c s a nd sou rce roc ks , l a ter

mod i fi ed by metamo rp h i sm , e p i genes i s , syngenes i s , prefe ren t i a l

segreg a t i on , and c l i ma te .

Prev i ous s tud i e s of Camb r i a n and o l der s ha l es a re scarc e . The i r

;�c us i s o n the c l ay m i ne ra l const i tuents , a s i l l us trated i n wo rks by

Sucheck i et a l . ( 1 9 7 7 ) , Tan k a nd McNeel ey ( 1 97 0 ) , and Ve l de and Hower

( 1 9 63 ) . A l though the Rome and Co nasauga are of Cambr i a n age , val uabl e

i nforma t i on rega rd i ng the chara c ter i zati on o f the a rg i l l aceous ma teri a l s

wa s obta i ned from the many s tu d i es spann i ng the Pa l eozo i c from the

Ordov i c i a n to Perm i an .

Methods o f Ana l ys i s

I n a na lyz i ng the a rg i l l a c eo u s components o f the Rome and Conasauga ,

two ba s i c methods were emp l oyed : x - ray d i ffract i on ( XRD ) a n d ca t i o n

exchange capac i ty ( C EC ) determi nat i o n . The former techn i qu e p rov i de s

va l ua b l e i nforma ti on o n a l l the maj o r c rysta l l i ne cons t i tuents o f the

who l e roc k samp l es , whi l e CEC1S a re l a rg ely a ttributed to the clay

m i nera l s p resent i n each s ample .

The a rg i l l aceo u s sampl e s , wh i ch i nc l ude a l l s ha l es a nd c l ays tones

as we l l a s a few s i l t s tones wh i ch were uns uita bl e fo r th i n section

p repara ti on , were ground ma nua l l y wi th a morta r a nd pest l e to pas s

through a 2 mm mes h ( number 1 0 ) s i eve . To i ns u re u n i fo rm gr i nd i ng

throughout the ent i re a rray o f samp l es , equ i va l ent q ua n t i t i e s were

g round further by a mechani ca l gr i nder fo r one hou r . A pre l i m i na ry

test was conducte d to determ i n e the o pt imum l ength o f t i me for gr i nd i ng

mecha n i ca l l y ( see Appendi x 1 ) .

26

X- Ray D i ffra c t i o n

Prepa ra ti on and Ana l ys i s

From the mecha n i ca l l y g round samp l es , smea r s l i des were p repa red

( see Appen d i x 2 ) . Th i s p art i cu l ar type of mount was sel ected on the

bas i s of p reci s i on and accura cy ( Sto kke a nd Ca rso n , 1 97 3 ; G i bbs , 1 96 5 ) .

After a i r d ry i ng , eac h was r u n from 5 ° t o 68° 2 e o n a No rel co

d i ffractometer a t l / 2 °/mi n , w i th CuKa rad i a t i o n , at 35 kv , and 1 7 rna.

Sel ected s amp l es were x - rayed a fter g l yco l a t i o n a n d a fter heat

trea tment a t 550 ° fo r one hou r. Ba sed o n thei r res ponses , i t was

deemed unneces s a ry to trea t a l l samp l es. As a further chec k , the

coa rser segmen t ( sand to med i um s i l t ) wa s removed from several samp l es ,

and the fi ner fra ct i ons ana l y zed by x-ray di ffrac t i on a n d s u bjected to

trea tments ( hea t a nd g l yco l a t i on ). Res u l ts i nd i ca ted separa t i o n s o f

the rema i n i ng samp l es were u nwarranted .

I n terpreta ti on 0

Broad pea k s , s pec i f i ca l l y i n the 8- 1 2 �and 2. 7 - 2 . 3 A ra nges , were

noted i n a l l patterns. The pea k hei ghts va ri ed from samp l e to sampl e ,

but the overa l l sha pes rema i ned fa i rly cons ta nt . The broa dened pea k s

were bel i eved t o ha rbo r ma x i mum i n tens i ty peak s o f i l l i te , muscov i te ,

b i ot i te , a nd/o r g l aucon i te . However , ma ny refl ect i o n s ( a s i de from

tho se o f the broadened pea ks) were obscured by pea k s of o t her mi nera l s .

I n a n attempt to reso l ve the c l ay m i nera l ogy , d i ffractog rams of

the f i ner-g ra i ned ( < 2� ) fract i ons were ana lyzed. These patterns d i d

s how a n enha ncement o f the cl ay m i neral pea k s a nd s u pres s i on of the

pea ks of the coa rser-gra i ned components ( i . e . , fel d s pa r , q ua rtz , etc. ) .

The reso l u t i on o f the broadened pea ks d i d not change . Overl app i ng

pea ks wi l l not be reso l ved i f the s pa c i ng between pea ks i s l es s than

the wi dth a t one ha l f the ma x i mum o f the i nd i v i dua l pea ks.

27

Pea k broaden i ng can be the resu l t of mecha n i ca l m i x i ng of d i s c rete

mi nera l s , i nters trat i f i cat i on , or var i o u s grada t i ona l s tages betwee n

t h e two ( G ri m , 1 968 ; Brown , 1 96 1 ) . I nters tra t i f i e d m i ne ra l s a re a

spec i a l ca s e o f i n tergrowth s perm i tted by gen et i c s i m i l ar i t i es , both a s

regu l a r a n d random mi xed- l ayer c l ays .

I n reg u l a r l y i nterstra t i f i e d s equences , regu l a r repet i t i o n of

l ayers a l o ng the c -ax i s y i el ds a un i t ce l l equa l to the s um to the

components a nd regu l a r basa l reflect i ons a re observe d . There was no

ev i dence for regu l a r i nterstrat i f i ca ti o n i n any patte rn , s i nce no

regu l a r p er i od i c i ty ( i ntegra l sequence ) was observed .

Ran dom mi xed- l ayers ( non- regu l a r i nte rgrowth s ) do not p ro duce a n

i ntegra l s equence , hence a re genera l l y more d i ff i cult t o e stabl i s h .

There i s l i tt l e dev i a t i on from the s ta ndard p a ttern o f the maj or

compon ents i f one m i nera l dom i nates ( 90% ) . Changes i n d i ffracti o n

e ffec ts wi l l occur i f bo th ( co n s i der i ng a two component sys tem ) a re

abundant . Ra n dom i nterstrat i f i ca t i ons a re often character i zed by a

non-i ntegra l s er i e s o f basal ref l ect i ons ; they are compo s i te s of

refl ect i ons of the pa i rs ( two components ) . The i r exac t pos i t i on s a nd

i ntens i t i es a re dependent on t he quanti ti e s pres ent .

Accord i ng to Wea ver ( 1 9 57 ) , ra ndoml y i nterstrat i fi ed 2 : 1 l ayer

c l ays ( i . e . , i l li te-montmor i l l o n i te , ch l or i te-mo n tmo r i ll o n i te ,

i l l i te- chl or i te-mo n tmori l l on i te ) a re fa i r ly commo n i n s e d i menta ry roc k s

( note : smec ti te i s now the a ccepted g roup name for c l ay m i neral s w i th

a l ayer charge between 0 . 2 a n d 0 . 6/formu l a un i t , thus a n t i quat i ng the

term montmo r i l l o n i te ; Ba i l ey , 1 980 ) . Weaver ( 1 957 ) exami ned more tha n

28

6 , 000 sed imenta ry s pec imens , ra ng i ng i n age from Camb r i a n to Recent ,

a nd foun d that a ppro x i mately 70% conta i ned s ome fo rm o f mi xed l ayer

c l ays . Mos t were ra ndoml y i n terstra t i f i e d . The deve l opmen t o f mi xed

l ayers i s commo n l y a ttr i bu ted to the aggradati o n or deg rada t i o n o f

p re-ex i s t i ng c l ays dur i ng wea ther i ng , i on excha nge du r i ng tran sporta t i o n ,

d i agenes i s , etc .

S i nce the b roadened and o verl a pp i ng d i ffra c t i o n pea ks cruc i a l to

the i dentifi ca t i on of the c l ay m i nera l s were not reso l ve d ( even wi th

trea tment ) , i t i s not pos s i bl e to conc l u s i ve l y report the p re sence of

random i nterstra ti f i ca ti on s , d i s crete crysta l l i tes , o r a comb i na t i o n

( M i l l s a n d Zwa r i ch , 1 972 ; Hel l er- Ka l l a i a nd Ka l ma n , 1 9 72 ) . Further

s tudi e s i nvo l v i ng only the c l ay fract i on m i g h t o ffer mo re concl us i ve

ev i dence .

Phyl l os i l i ca te cons ti tuents i denti f i ed by XRD a re i l l i te ,

g l auco n i te , kaol i n i te , ch l or i te , b i ot i te , and muscov i te . Th e l a t te r

two were s uffic i ent ly coa rse in g rain s i ze t o be i dentif i ed i n severa l

s ampl e s wi th a b i nocu l ar mi cro s cope . Ma ny b i o ti te refl e c t i o n s ,

however , a re genera l l y obscu re d by qua rtz pea ks .

I n a n i nves ti gat i on i nvol v i ng the Co nasauga , Rome , a n d

Ch i c kamauga from t h e Joy tes t wel l core , ca l c i te , quartz , i l l i te ,

kao l i n i te , c h l o r i te , fel d spa rs , dol omi te , mon tmo ri l l on i te , a n d

m i xed- l ayer seq uences were i den t i fi ed by R . E . G r i m ( de Laguna et a l . ,

1 968 ) . Mos t o f the const i tuents o f the Rome and Conasauga were

recogn i zed i n both the present s tu dy and that of de Lagu na et a l . ( 1 968 )

with the exception o f montmoril l on i te a nd mi xed - l ayers . The l a tter

has been discus sed p revious ly . There was no e v i dence for the p resence

o f montmoril l onite ( smectite ) in the samp l es a na l y ze d in t h i s s tu dy .

2 9

Gl yco l a t i o n o f both who l e rock a n d the fi ner fra c t i o n samples d i d not

resu l t i n a pea k s h i ft ( from 1 4 �to 1 7 � ) , or eve n a n a l tera t i on i n

p ea k con fi g u ra t i on. Krumhans l ( 1 97 9 ) a l s o reported no response o f the

Conasa uga sha l es to g l ycol a t i on , a l though i nterstrat i fi ca t i o n o f

i l l i te - smect i te wa s s u s pected . I n th i s i nvesti gat i on, heat t rea tment

ver i f i e d the presence of ch l or i te by a s l i ght i ncrease i n pea k hei ght

a t 7 A.

Non-C l ay M i nera l s

Recogn i t i o n o f non-cl ay m i nera l s was not comp l i cated by pea k

broadeni ng , a s wi th the cl ays . Mi nor p ea k overl a p s do ex i s t , but do

not g rea tl y hamper i de nt i f i ca t i o n , as o ther d i s t i ng u i s h i ng refl ect i ons

a re denera l l y present . Quartz , h emat i te , cal c i te , do l om i te , Kspa r , a nd

p l a g i o c l a se were i denti fi ed .

Quant i fi c at i o n

The arg i l l a ceous samp l es are compl e x , mu l t i component sys tems ma k i ng

quant i f i c a t i on by x -ray d i ffra c ti on d i ffi cu l t. I n a dd i t i o n , there

appea rs to be a s i g n i f i cant amount o f c l ay present , based on v i s ua l

i ns pect i on of the samp l es themse l ves . C l ays a re noto r i o u s for the i r

exten s i ve s ub sti tut i on capab i l i t i es whi ch further compl i ca te a ny

q ua n t i fi ca t i on attempts . Standards a re mo re ea s i l y obta i ned fo r

non- cl ay m i nera l s , s uch a s qua rtz and dol omi te. I n genera l , the g reater

the amount of non- c l ay ma teri a l , the more eas i l y the s ha l e i s

quant i f i e d ( Cub i tt , 1 975 ) .

The po s s i b i l i ty o f attempti ng a quant i ta t i ve o r s em i -quant i tat i ve

a nal ysis was considered i n the embryon i c s tages o f th i s i nvest i ga ti o n .

However , upo n exami n i ng the resul tant pa tterns a n d rev i ew i ng the mos t

30

recent devel o pments i n q uant i f i c a t i o n o f x-ray d i ffra c tograms ( Bardos sy

et a l . , 1 980; Pearson , 1 978 ; Cubitt , 1 975 ; Towe , 1 9 74 ; S to k ke a nd

Carson , 1 9 73; P i erce a n d S i eg e l , 1 969; G i bbs , 1 965 ) , i t wa s not

con s i d ered feas i bl e i n th i s particu l ar s tu dy due to numerous obstac l e s

( i .e . , obta i n i ng s ta ndards , amo u n t a nd comp l ex i t i es o f the c l ays present ,

e tc. ).

Res u l ts

A typ i ca l pattern is s hown in Fig. 4 . The diffra ct i on patterns were

ana l yzed a n d the pea k he i g hts ( i ntens i t i es ) of the m i nera l components

be l i eved present were recorded . I ntens i t i es for t ho s e m i nera l s

be lieved to be i nc l u ded i n the broadened pea ks are e s t i ma te s. I t

shou l d b e noted tha t the max i mum poss i bl e n umber o f m i nera l s present i n

a samp l e were recorded ( see Ta b l e 2 ) . Due to certa i n cond i t i on s

prev i o u s l y d i s c u s sed i t was not a l ways po s s i bl e t o u nequ i voca l l y

i de nti fy the pres ence or absence o f a part i cul ar m i neral s o l e l y on the

ba s i s o f x-ray da ta. Mi nera l freq uencies for a l l 48 samp l es ( fres h and

wea thered ) are presented i n Fi g ure 5. S i nce t he x-ray d i ffra c t i o n data

coul d not be q uant i f i ed , d i scus s i on i s l i m i ted. Numeri ca l va l ues ( pea k

i nten s i t i e s ) are thought to have s i g n i fi ca nce o n l y when compari ng

fres h a nd wea thered s amp l es of the s ame s pe c i men .

Mos t o f the d i agno s t i c pea ks for b i o t i te were obscured by other

mi nera l s , therefore XRD data for b i ot i te i s ques t i o nab l e. Sma l l

amounts were noted i n about ha l f o f hand s pec imens ( u s i ng a b i nocu l ar

m i cro s co pe ) . Al though bi ot i te i s by no means a quant i tat i vel y

signif i ca n t const i tue n t , i t i s c erta i nl y reasonab l e t o a s s ume sma l l

quantit i es are present in mos t, i f not al l sampl es .

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TABLE 2

MINERALS DETECTED IN THE ARGILLAC EOUS SAMPLES AND C EC VALUE S (ALL ARGILLAC EOUS SAMPLES )

--------------------------------------............... ... ... _ .............................. - 4R �A•CAiiiL ....................... ... ... .............................. ---- -- - --- -- --- ----- --- -- ----- ---------

OilS LOCA SIUII Will LITH

• •

10 II 12 "

I •

..

16

,

I. 19 20

..

22

co

CB

cc

cc

«

«

CE

Cf

Cf

Cf

co c o Ct<

(H

Ct<

(H

(H

(t< C l

C I

C I Cl

� � .

10 F

10 •

II F

II •

16 8

16 10 F 1 0 • •• •• • 21 F

21 •

29 F

29 •

lO F

]0 •

U F .. . ]6 • ]6 •

H

H

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

L

L

..

H

CEC

••·z•

9.64

14.29

I J • � 1 I J. 82

I "•�" 1

10.4tl

19. Tl

·�·t14

A 2 • J� 16.71

IJ.f'-8

12.67

l4.4.J

12.67

II .81

14.!.9

az.zz

28· 12

19.60

22.23

19.17

Q ILL NUS CHI.. GLAU 1!110

I 0

0

KfJl ....

0

0

0

, ... DOL

•

0

0

0

KsPAA PLAG

Q I 0

II

12

"

I•

"

16

17

16 19

20

"

2?

5 .. p FIUf

. q

10

II

12

ll •• "

•• 11

10

•• 20

21

2Z

A

A

A

A

A

- ---- ................................................... ----------- ............................................................ ------ ARE A•FR - ---- ----- ............... --------- .............................. -------- ... ---- _ ... __ ... - -----

OB'S LO(A SAN WX L. l TH

2l

2•

.,

26

.,

••

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>0

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]2

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]9 •o

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4]

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·� •• •• ••

FL

FL FL

FL

FL

FL

FL

FL

••

FM

..

FN

FN

FO

FU

FO

FO

FO

FO

FA

FA

FP

FA

FA

••

�

6 I

• • � �

• F .

F

.

F

•

•

•

F

•

•

F

.

• •

•

•

,

•

H

H

H

H

c

L

L

c

H H

c

c

H

H

c

c

L

L

c

c

c -------- -- --

CEC

.2.03

1 J. ]8

I� •• 7

l J. I 0

11.95

11. 4]

18.90

'7. l2

1 e. zt.

15.38

18. lt

26. 78

ll.60

ltl.HO

•�·•o

1!:..2?

t 5· 63

l2 .J. 21.'11 Jl. t>l

'S. 5.ol

tie 02

tr • .JJ

17.27

t.J.61

1.1..70

Q ILL �us CHL

0

0

GLAU BIO

0

I 0

K AO HEM C.L OOL

0

•

K�PAP P1..AG

0

0

------ ----------

minera l s detected ; 2 = mi ner a l s not detected .

.. HP

2) .,

2& 2.to

?.� 2�

2 6 ?f 2 7 21

21'\ 2 � 29 2 ,.

JO 10

11 ] I

l.? 12

Jl )] l" ].to J"i 1'!1

)6 )jll

)7 J'P

1ft 1e

)9 ] � o\0 "0

"' "'

·� "2 .., o\) "" ....

o\'!l 4 5 46 4f

• r a 1

48 411

FP•

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

p

w N

tz l&J :::> t-

t(/) z 0 (.)

..J q: 0::: l&J z

�

(!) z

z

� z 0 (.)

(/) l&J ..J a. � <( (/)

LL. 0

.,.

100 -

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Q ILL MUS 810 KSP GLAU KAOL DOL CHL CAL PLAG HEM

Fi gure 5. Mi nera l d i s tri but ion for the argi l l aceous sampl es . w w

Fre s h a nd Weathered . A l though the maj or i ty o f con s t i tuents

ma i nta i ne d fa i r l y equ i val ent i nten s i ti es i n the compar i son o f the i r

fresh ( f ) a nd wea thered ( w ) segme nt s , there were notab l e excepti ons

34

wi th certa i n m i neral s : qua rtz , ca l c i te , do l omi te , a nd/o r Kspar exh i b i t

an i n tens i ty d i fference o f mo re tha n te n i n s ome sampl e pa i rs ( Tab l e 3 ) .

Nei ther the cause no r s i g n i f i ca nce i s known. No obv i o us trend for

i ntens i t i es ( ex . f > w , f < w ) o f a ny mi nera l wa s no ted.

Every sampl e a ppears to con ta i n quartz , i l l ite , and mus covite in

both fresh and wea thered s egments. When present, h emat i te and g l aucon i te

a re the o n l y other mi nera l s t hat con s i s tent ly appear i n both fresh and

wea thered s egments ( refer to Tab l es 2 and 3 ) .

CARL and FR . The re wa s co ns i de rab l e decrea s e i n occu rrence o f

ch l ori te a n d p l ag i ocl a s e i n the FR ou tcro p (Ta b l e 2 ) compared to the

CARL outcro p. The s i g n i f i ca nce of th i s d i fference i s uncerta i n , b ut

may be a ttri butabl e to depo s i t i o nal env i ronmen t , d i agenes i s , o r weat heri ng .

Rome a nd Cona sauga . I n the CARL data , t he on l y a p pa rent s i gn i f i ca n t

mi nera l og i ca l d i ffere nce between t h e a rg i l l aceous s amp l e s o f t h e Rome

( CB 5-CG 25 ) a nd Conasa uga ( CH 27- C I 36 ; s ee Ta bl e 2 ) , i s the l ac k o f

do l omi te i n the Conasa uga sampl e s . A t t h e F R l ocati o n , the re i s a n

apparent s carc i ty o f kaol i n i te a n d hemat i te i n t h e Cona sauga ( FR 1 , 4 , 5 ) .

I t shou l d be noted that very l i ttl e o f the Pump k i n Va l l ey Sha l e ( l owes t

member o f the Cona sauga Grou p ) i s expo s ed a t FR , hence no s i g n i fi cant

compara t i ve s ta tement can be ma de .

Ca t i o n Excha nge Capac i ty

CEC Defined

Cati on exchange capaci ty ( CE C ) refers to the n umber of cati on

exchange s i tes per u n i t wei g h t ; CEC va l ues a re common l y reported i n

TAB L E 3

PEAK I NTEN S I TIES OF THE ARG I L LAC EOUS SAMP LES ( ALL 48 )

.. - -- - - .... .. - .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ...... ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. -- -- .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. - All ( Aa (A PL

08, LOC A

• 1 0

I I

1 2

"

1 4

"

1 6

1 1

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

22

ce c o ( (

( (

( (

( (

C f

C E

C E

C f

C G

C G

(H ( H ( H ( H ( H ( H C I C I C I

C I

0 8 � L O C A

"J:r! F L

2 4 F L

2 � F L

z e F L

2 7 F L

2 8 �l 2 � F L

lO H. � I F ill

· J 2 F N

"1: ! F J4

� · ,. ...

l ! .. ...

J e � ... l 7 F O

) I F O

l 9 F O

4 0 F O

4 1 fl"Q 4 :l F O

4 � F A

4 4 F R

4 ! p: p 4 6 P" A

4 7 f R •• ... A

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� � � 8 4 69 I .J

1 2 . 1 5 1 66 . ..

1 6 . 7 1 95 1 5 1 3 . 6 8 1 0 0 1 2

1 2 o 6 7 60 l .l 1 4 . 4 ] 6 l 1 6

1 2' o 6 7 2 6 0 I ]

1 1 . 8 1 2 6 8 I J

1 4 . 59 1 5 0 1 2

1 2 . 2 2 2 1 00 1 2 2 8 . 7 2 1 88 1 7 l �o b O 2 5 l 1 4

22 . 2 ] 1 78 1 2

1 9 . ] 7 1 ]6 . ..

(. f_ ( Q

1 2 . o J I 1 6 t .J . l 8 4 7

1 5. " 1 4 ]

I lo I 0 4 0

1 1 . '1 5 59

l t . " ) 8 2

1 6 . 9 0 t. O t 7 . 1 2 5 5

1 8 . 2 b I 4 4

I 'S o ] 8 1 5 6

1 8 . J l 1 40

ze. . 7 8 4 2 � 0

n . e:. o 1 1 �

1 6 . 8 0 � 2 1 � . 4 0 J t

· � · .l 2 � � · � . 6 J 1 26

1 2 . 3 ... 1 6 9

Z 1 . 9 T 1 2 2

J) . l') ' ' � 0

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l l . 6 7 2 70

1 2 . 7 0 ] 4 0

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36

m i lli equ i valents ( meq ) / 1 00 g rams ( g ) . For example , i f a s u b s tance ha s

a C EC o f 1 meq/ 1 00 g , then there a re 6 . 02 X 1 02 0 negat i vely charged

adsorpt i o n s i tes p resent ( Fo th a nd Turk , 1 9 72 ) .

Accord i ng to Gr im (1 968 ) , there a re th ree maj o r causes o f C EC i n

clay m i n erals :

1 ) B ro ken bonds a round the p er i pher i es of the s i l i ca -alumi na u n i ts

result i n unbala nced charges wh i c h wo uld be s a t i s f i ed by adsorbed

cat i o n s. Latt i ce d i s tort ions tend to i nc rease bro ken bo nds , hence C EC

wo uld i nc rea se wi th a dec rea sing deg ree o f crys talli n i ty . Fo r i lli tes

a nd c hlor i tes bro ken bonds a re a maj o r ca use o f CEC .

2 ) W i th i n the latt i ce structu re s , t he re can be s ubst i tu t i on o f lower

v�lence i ons fo r Al+3

i n the octahedral s h eet , a nd Al+3

fo r S i+4

i n

the tetrahedral sheet. As i de from adso rbed ca t i on s , o th e r la t t i ce

changes s uch a s OH-l replac i ng o- 2 can occa s i o nally rect i fy the

i mbala nce . In th i s s i tua t i on excha ngeable ca t i o n s a re normally loca ted

on cleavage planes. Charges result i ng from s ubst i tu t i o n i n the

tetrahedral sheet have a s tro nger bond due to the s horter d i s tance a s

opposed to the longer bond fo r subs t i tut i ons i n t h e octaheqral sheet .

Replacements can occur i n e i th e r o r bo th the oca ta hedral o r tetra hedral

layer s . Subs t i t ut i on s cont r i b u te to a li m i ted deg ree to the C EC of

i lli tes and chlor i tes .

3 ) The hydrogen o f exposed hydroxyls (wh i c h i s i n the s tructu re ra ther

tha n the re s ult of bo nd brea kage ) can be rep l a ced by an excha ngeable

cati on . Th i s i s not a part i cula rly common ca u s e o f CEC s i nce the

hydrogen i s held t i g h tly when compa red wi th those res ulti ng f rom b ro ke n

bon ds . Th i s parti cula r cause ca n be o f impo rtance when con s i de ri ng

kao l i n i te , due to the p resence of the hydroxyl sheet on one s i de o f

t h e basal cleavage s urface .

37

S i g n i fi cance of C EC

Ma ny i on i c spec i e s are ra p i d l y t i ed - up o r hel d by c l ays i n s ha l es.

I l l i te i s bel i eved to be the p redomi nant cl ay m i nera l i n the Co nasauga

s ha l es ( Lomen i c k et a l . , 1 967 ; de Lag u na , 1 968 ; Ca rro l l , 1 961 ) .

Rad i onuc l i des s uch a s 9 0 sr and 1 37 cs a re o f i mpo rtance , a n d to a l es ser

degree , 1 06Ru , 89sr , 1 34c s , 1 25sb , 60co , 94zr- Nb , 1 03Ru ( Lome n i c k et a l . ,

1 967 ) A · · f · t t f 1 3 7c d 90s · d b d h . s 1 gn 1 1 ca n amoun o s a n r 1 s a sor e onto t e

i l l i te a l ong the edges of the crysta l l a tt i ce ( Lome n i c k et a l . , 1 967 ) .

Sawhney ( 1 97 0 ) a l so a ttri butes Cs a d sorp t i o n ( s u rf i c i a l adhes i o n ) i n

i l l i tes to frayed edges c reated du ri ng wea ther i ng. Acco rd i ng to Tamu ra

and Jacobs ( 1 960 ) , i l l i te ' s h i g h a ffi n i ty for Cs i s p r i mar i l y due to i ts 0

l OA s pac i ng ( c - ax i s d i mens i o n ) a nd abunda n ce o f pota s s i um i ons wh i ch

i n i ti a te and ma i nta i n a col l apsed s ta te ( no t s i g n i f i ca n t l y a ffecti ng

the C EC ) , a l l owi ng for the i ncorpora ti o n of Cs. C EC val ues a l one do not

ful l y exp l a i n C s sorp t i o n ( ab sorp t i o n and ads o rp t i o n phenomena ) .

Quartz and o the r s i l t s i zed ( a nd l a rger ) components a re bel i eved

to have neg l i g i b l e ro l es i n CEC ( Foth and Turk , 1 97 2 ) .

Method

The ammo n i a e l ectrode techn i que , a s d i scu s s ed by Bus enberg and

C l emency ( 1 97 3 ) , wa s s e l ected fo r C EC determi nat i ons of bu l k s ha l e

sampl e s. A s i de from the obv i ou s advantages of s peed , s i mp l i c i ty , the

use of fa i rl y i nexpens i ve equ i pmen t , and freedom from i n te rfe rences by

certa i n i o ns , th i s techn i que i s accura te to l ow va l ues on the order o f

0 . 01 meq/ 1 00 g . Such l ow va l ues may be encountered when dea l i ng wi th

who l e roc k sha l e s , a nd other method s of C EC determi na t i ons may not be

rel i a b l e for very l ow val ues .

38

Procedure

Sampl es ma nua l l y grou nd ( to pass a 2 wm s i eve ) were u sed for two

rea son s : to i ns ure a na l ys i s of the bu l k roc k samp l e ( a s wou l d be

en coun tered at the ou tcrop ) and to a voi d crea t i on of exchange s i tes by

exces s i ve gri nd i ng wh i ch wou l d y i e l d arti f i c i a l l y h i g h C EC ' s . The

procedure out l i ned be l ow adheres c l ose l y to that presented by Busenberg

a nd C l emen cy ( 1 973 ) .

1 ) Approx i ma te l y 1 0 g of each samp l e wa s satura ted overn i ght i n 1 00 ml s

of l N ammon i um a cetate .

2 ) The samp l es were ri nsed wi th a n add i ti ona l 5 0 ml s of ammo n i um

ch l ori de . Exce s s ammoni um s a l ts were l eached wi th 1 00 ml s of ; sopropanol .

3 ) One hundred ml s of de ion i zed water were a dded to 5 g ( exact we i ghts

were recorded ) of thorough ly a i r dri ed sampl es . St i rri ng wa s commen ced ,

u s i ng a mag net i c s t i rrer ; the Ori on model Ammon i a E l ectrode was

i mmers ed , and 1 ml of 1 0 M sod i um hydroxi de wa s added by vol umetri c

p i pette .

4 ) A fter de l i very of the s od i um hydroxi d e , a rea d i ng wa s ta ken i n

mi l l i vol ts (mv ) , a t 30 second i nterva l s , from a n Ori on 70 1 / d i g i ta l pH

meter . El ectrode rea d i ng s were recorded unt i l a cons ta n t poten t i a l

was observed for l . 5 m i nu tes ( 3 read i ngs ) .

5 ) C EC va l ues were determi ned by the method descri bed by Busenberg

a n d C l emency wi th prec i s i on to 0 . 0 1 meq/ 1 00 g ( s ee Appendi x 3 ) .

Res u l ts

The CEC va l ues mea sured for the arg i l l a ceou s samp l es ra nged from

5 . 52 to 3 3 . 6 1 meq/ 1 00 g . A c omp l e te l i s t i ng i s presented i n Tab l e s

2 a nd 3 , pages 32 a n d 35 . These va l ues s upport a pre v i ous i nves t i ga t i on

39

of CEC va l ues of s ome Rome and Cona sauga co re s amp l e s wh i ch ranged f rom

5 . 76 to 29 . 40 meq/ 1 00 g ( de La guna et al . , 1 968 ) . The c l ay mi nera l s

i n the sampl es a na l yzed i nc l ude i l l i te , muscov i te , ch l o r i te , g l aucon i te ,

b i o ti te , a nd kaol i n i te . The fo l l owi ng i s a l i s t o f CEC va l ues for

certa i n c l ay mi nera l s : kaol i n i te , 3- 1 5; i l l i te , 1 0-4Q; smect i te , 80 - 1 50

meq/ 1 00 g ( Gr i m , 1 968 ) .

W i th reference to a l l t ab l e s a nd fi g ures i t i s i mp o rtant to note

the two C E 1 6 SH sampl e s . They a re u n i que i n tha t they a re not fresh

and wea th ered s egments , a s a re a l l t he o thers . I n th i s ca s e , fres h a nd

wea thered sampl es were unobta i nabl e . C E 1 6 B SH i s a very t h i n ly

begded b l a c k s ha l e , a nd CE 1 6 * SH i s a th i n , pa l e g reen s ha l e

i mmed i a te l y bel ow . They a re rel a ti vel y i ns i gn i f i ca n t i n the overa l l

v i ew o f l i tho l o g i e s a s they a re a typi ca l samp l e s a n d con st i tu te a very

m i nor fract i o n of the sha l es e xposed .

Compa ra t i ve CEC da ta . Ta bl e 4 i s a comp i l a t i o n o f the CEC da ta i n

terms o f means ( X ) and s ta nda rd dev i at i ons ( a ) for both CARL a nd FR

samp l e s wi th vary i ng empha s i s . I n each case the " B " g roup i ng d i ffers

frorn the "A " i n tha t the two h i ghest and the two l owes t va l ues from FR

and the h i ghe s t and the l owes t va l ues from CARL we re not i nc l u ded i n

the ca l cu l a ti on s . Thi s was do ne to moderate the effects the extreme l y

h i g h a n d l ow va l u es exerc i se o n t h e mea n s . I n Ta b l e 4 ,

l ) Group s 1 A a nd B compare a l l the da ta from ea ch o u tc ro p .

2 ) Groups 2 A a nd B compare fre s h and wea thered s egmen ts .

3 ) Groups 3 A and B compa re the i nd i v i dua l l i thol og i es p res ent .

I n the CARL data , the compara t i ve l y h i g h va l u e o f 2 8 . 7 2 ( 6 . 5

g rea te r than a ny other CARL va l ue ) a nd the somewha t l ow v a l u e o f

9 . 64 meq/ 1 00 g ( on l y 0 . 5 meq/ 1 00 g d i fference from the fresh va l u e )

Group

1 A

1 B

2A

2B

3A

3B

TABLE 4

C EC DATA COMPARI SONS BASED ON THE OUTCROP LOCAT ION , D EGREE O F WEATH E R I NG , AND L I THOLOG I C TYPE

Des c r i p t i o n N Mi n . Max . X*

CARL 20 9 . 64 28 . 72 1 5 . 35 FR 26 5 . 52 33 . 6 1 1 5 . 96 CARL + FR 46 5 . 52 33 . 6 1 1 5 . 70

CARL 1 8 1 1 . 81 2 2 . 23 1 4 . 93 FR 22 1 1 . 43 26 . 78 1 5 . 54 CARL + F R 40 1 1 . 43 26 . 78 1 5 . 2 7

CARL- f 1 0 1 2 . 67 2 8 . 7 2 1 6 . 5 7 CARL-w 1 0 9 . 64 1 9 . 60 1 4 . 1 3 FR- f 1 3 5 . 5 2 2 7 . 9 7 1 5 . 69 FR-w 1 3 6 . 02 3 3 . 6 1 1 6 . 24

CARL- f 9 1 2 . 67 2 2 . 2 3 1 5 . 22 CARL-w 9 1 1 . 8 1 1 9 . 60 1 4 . 6 3 FR- f 1 1 1 1 . 9 5 1 8 . 90 1 5 . 50 FR-w 1 1 1 1 . 43 26 . 78 1 5 . 59

CARL- s h 1 8 9 . 64 28 . 7 2 1 5 . 5 7 CARL - s l t 2 1 2 . 22 1 4 . 59 1 3 . 40 FR- c 1 s t 1 2 1 2 . 70 33 . 61 1 9 . 62 FR- s h 1 0 1 1 . 43 1 6 . 80 1 3 . 5 7 FR- s 1 t 4 5 . 52 1 8 . 26 1 1 . 2 9

CARL- sh 1 6 1 1 . 8 1 2 2 . 2 3 1 5 . 1 2 CARL- s 1 t 2 1 2 . 2 2 1 4 . 59 1 3 . 40 FR- c 1 s t 1 0 1 2 . 70 26 . 78 1 7 . 2 7 FR- sh 1 0 1 1 . 43 1 6 . 80 1 3 . 57 FR- s l t 2 1 5 . 38 1 8 . 26 1 6 . 82

Mi n . = Minimum X* = mea n

Max . = Ma x i mum o** = one s tandard deviation

40

o**

4 . 31 6 . 02 5 . 30

2 . 85 3 . 39 3 . 1 3

5 . 08 3 . 1 7 5 . 1 3 7 . 0 1

2 . 93 2 . 9 1 2 . 49 4 . 23

4 . 48 1 . 6 7 6 . 44 1 . 81 6 . 49

2 . 9 5 1 . 67 3 . 88 1 . 81 2 . 03

p robab ly ref l ect the in homogeneities o f the roc k units . The l owe s t

number e l imina ted i s n o t a true extreme ; howev e r , to b e s ta tis tica l l y

va l id , if the highest val ue is e l iminated , so must the l owes t. The

o ther CARL ( fresh and wea there d ) va l ue s do no t exhibit s uc h extreme

differences .

The ex treme s o f the FR da ta were the two high va l ues o f FO 6

( fresh a n d wea thered ) a nd the two l ows o f FR l ( fresh a nd wea there d ) .

I n this in s ta nce the ex treme va l ues c a n b e exp l ained a s a function o f

l itho l ogy : the c l ays tone with the highes t , a n d the sil t s tone with the

l owes t .

Compa rison o f fresh and weathered s ampl es , a nd CARL a n d FR . A

comparison of C EC va l ues for the fresh a n d wea the red s egments o f the

41

s ame samp l e is given in Tabl e 5. Fresh a nd wea thered a re considered

e s sentia l l y equa l , p rovided the difference is l es s than l . 00 meq/1 00 g .

I n the equatio n fo r the determina tion o f C EC ( se e Appendix 3 ) the

concen t ra tion is determined g raphica l l y ; a difference o f o n l y 6%

( co ncentratio n ) can resu l t in a C EC va l ue differentia l o f 1 . 00. Hence ,

a ny differences l es s than l . 00 a re conside red neg l igibl e. For the CARL

da ta , f > w appears to be sig nifican t , with an a ve rage difference o f

2. 44 . This wa s no t t h e ca se with t h e F R da ta. Combining the data fo r

the two outc ro p s revea l s no consis tent trend ( refer to Figs. 6 , 7 , 8 ,

a nd 9 ) . El imina tion of the extreme va l ues in both da ta sets can g rea t ly

a ffec t the mean a n d s ta ndard devia tio n ; a few inconsistent o r extreme

resul ts can obscure a pa tte rn o r trend ( Tab l e 5 ) . The difference betwee n

the fresh a nd weathere d segments , in bo th CARL a n d FR , i s l es s than

1 . 00 meq/ 1 0 0 g , hen ce is insignificant.

TABLE 5

COMPA R I SON OF C EC VALUES O F FRESH AND W EATHERED SAMPLES IN TH E CARL AND FR OUTCROPS

CARL ( a l l 1 0 observat i ons ) Mea n

42

fres h = wea there d 30% fre s h > wea thered 60 fresh < wea thered 1 0

fre s h 1 6 . 5 7 ± 5 . 09 meq/ l OOg

FR ( a l l 1 3 observati o n s )

fresh = wea thered 38% fres h > wea thered 31 f res h < weat hered 31

FR and CARL ( a l l 23 o bs erva t i o ns )

fre s h = wea the red 35% fre s h > wea thered 43 fre s h < wea thered 22

CARL ( 9 observa t i ons )

fre s h 1 5 . 22 ± 2 . 94 weathered 1 4 . 63 ± 2 . 92

FR ( 1 1 observa t i ons )

fre s h 1 5 . 50 ± 2 . 49 wea the red 1 5 . 59 ± 4 . 23

wea thered 1 4 . 1 3 ± 3 . 1 7 d i fference 2 . 44

fre s h wea thered d i fference

fre s h wea thered d i fference

1 5 . 69 ± 5 . 1 4 1 6 . 24 ± 7 . 0 1

0 . 55

1 6 . 1 3 1 5 . 1 9

0 . 94

d i ffere nce 0 . 59

d i fference 0 . 09

FREQUENCY

14 + I

1 3 + I

1 2 + I

I I +

10 + I

9 + I

II + I

7 +

6 + I

5 + I

• + I

3 + I

2 + I

I + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

5

F i gu re 6 . sampl e s ) .

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

9 I I 1 3 1 5

F REQUENCY BIIR C H II R T

• • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1 7 1 9 <' I

C E C M I DPU J N T

• • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

2 3 2 5 2 1

• • • • • • • • • •

2 9 3 1

• • • • • • • •• •

D

Frequency bar chart for CEC d i s tri but i o n of samp l es from CARL and FR (al l 48

15

.p w

AP [ A=: ( ARL

f P f OU ENC't BAR ( H APT

� r; E f)I J f N C l'

7 • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 6 • . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . ' . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

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. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

9 l l l ) ' ' l 7 ' " > l � l ?� u ? 9 " 1�

C F C M I ODO J N T

Fi gure 7 . Compari son of frequency d i s tr i bu t i o n o f CEC va l ue s of the CARL a nd FR outcrops . Both fol l ow the same ba s i c patte rn . Sampl e s of the FR outc rop have a s l i g htl y g rea ter range of CEC val ues .

� �

� � c �

"' a ... c ' " c � ,. � u c z "'

e "' "'

. . : . . : . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .. . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

: . . . . . . : : . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

. .

.

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . : : . . .

: : : : . . . : : : . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. � . . . . . u • • • • • z "' j · - - - - · - - - - · - - - - · - - - - · - - - - · - - - - · - - - -0 '" .. ..

' ' ' -

-o (]) ::l I:: .,.... +J I:: 0 u .........

45

F F:E OUf Nl Y

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F i g ure 8 . Frequency chart s l i g ht s kewnes s towards segments .

ex h i bi t a wea thered

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

' "

AR[ A = C AH L w x � f

f J.f[ � rN C 'f' UA.Il ( t i A IH

. . . . .

" 1 '1 l l

( [ ( lo( I OPU I N T

. . . . .

.'l l ... ? 7 7 <�

for fresh vs . wea thered segments of CARL h i gher CEC va l ues as opposed to the more

I I ., �)

sampl es . Fresh segments norma l ly d i stri buted

+:> 0)

.... . " " .. K X . v

a: .. J "' " c ,. v v " z c "' "' a "' .. "' " ..

,. v z "'

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' ' ' � ' "' ' I '

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ll) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : : : : : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

� · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - -0 .. I> ..

.... z 0 � 0 " "' "' v

"0 Q) ::I s:::: .,.... ..... s:::: 0 u

co Q) s.. ::I Cl .,....

LL.

4 7

F J;� f:I)V': N ( Y

. .

2 •

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. . . . .

9

.. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

I I I J

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

I �

Ni [ A ::. f- J..I w .ll � f

F kf W � NCY UA� ( H AJ..IT

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

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.. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

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. . . . . - - - -

, ,

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

, ,, 2 1

( f' ( M I OP(J J N T

l J " ,>7 ? Y I I ,.,

F i g ure 9 . Frequency chart for fresh vs . weathered segments of samp l es of the FR outcrop . Wea thered segments have a s l i gh t l y h i gher max i mum va l ue a nd the fresh segme nts have a s l i ght l y l ower mi n i mum .

� OJ

•

.

. " c :l

" �

" " c z '" "' � 3

w "'

. . . . . . . . . . : : : : : : : : : : �

� u z ...

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

. .

. .

. .

. : .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . .. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . :

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . : :

. :

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . : : : : . : : : : :

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

j · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - -0 � .. "

' -' -

r "

"

"

: :: ' I

' ' -

z " 0 Cl

%

v � "'

49

.,.... � 1:: 0 u

0"1 Q) s... ::s Ol

.,.... l.J....

50 L i thology . Unli ke the compa r i sons o f the fresh a nd wea thered

s egme n ts , d i s t i nc t correla t i o n s ex i s t between C EC values and li thology .

Thes e a re clea rly i llu s trated i n F i g s . 1 0 and 1 1 . As a g roup ,

clays tones possess the h i ghes t C EC values due to t he i r compa ra ti vely

h i g he r clay m i neral content . The pa uc i ty of clay i n the s i lt s tones

a ccounts fo r the i r lower overall values.

Rome a nd Cona s auga . I t i s well e s ta bli s hed that the Rome and

Co nasa uga exh i b i t a g rada t i o nal contac t ; however , the data gathered

i n th i s s tudy were a nalyzed to reveal any s i g n i f i cant d i ffe rences

between them . I n the analyse s , the da ta from bo th outcrops we re con

s i dered s i nce the FR loca t i on has very li ttle o f the Cona sauga expose d .

The CEC d i s t r i bu t i on o f the Rome a r. d Ccr. asuug� a rc q u i te s i m i l u r

( see F i g. 1 2 ) and the li tholog i c CEC trends a re a ppli cable to both ( see

F i g . 1 3 ) . There a p pears to be a sli ght i n c rea s e i n the numb e r of s i ltstones

i n the Conasauga ( ta k i ng i n to cons i de ra t i on the g reater number of Rome

s amples ) , wh i ch i s balanced by the fact that there a re mo re s a ndstones i n

the Rome . No s harp d i s t i nct i on s can b e made b etween the a rg i llaceous u n i ts

o f the rome and Conas auga. Therefo re the contact mu s t b e g rada ti onal .

Mac ros cop i c Observa t i ons o f the A rg i llaceous Samples

The perti nent i nfo rmat i o n obs erved i n the f i eld fo r both a rg i llaceous

and coa rser- g ra i ned components has been presented and s umma r i zed i n the

s t rat i g ra p h i c columns ( F i gs . 2 and 3 , pages 10 and 1 5 ) . Some po i nts , s u ch

as d i s t i nct i ve colo ra t i on and fab ri c/ tex tu re o f the a r g i llaceous ma teri als

meri t further d i s cu s s i on .

�-p 1 •• • • ? • . . . . . . . . . . � . • • •

. . .

0 0 • ,. .

,. .

H +

> < •

,. . . . .

'I ! •

. . . " .

)0 •

2 9 •

2 0 •

2 1 • 2 6 •

2 ! •

2 . •

l � •

. . .

2 l •

• o •

. . .

. . . 1 7 •

I t •

. . . I . + " . l 2 •

l l •

l 0 •

. .

. .

1 •

. .

. .

J •

2 •

l •

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

L

H

H

H

H

PL. OJ OF Str4P •CEC

H

c

L

H

H

H

c

c

SYJ41!10L. 1 5 'I A L V E Of L I JH

H

" H

H

-- -· - - - - - - · - ... -...... -.... - ...... -- +- - - - - - - · ---- - - -· --- - - - -· - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - · - - -- - - - · - - - - - - . -- - --- - · - - - - - - - · - -- - -- - . - - -- - - - . - - - - - - · - - · � ' 9 " l ) · � 1 7 & 9 2 1 il l 2 !t 2 7 2 9 ] 1 ll 35

CEC

F i g u re 1 0 . P l o t of the CEC val ues of the CARL a nd FR outcrops rel a ted to the l i thol ogy of the i ndi v i dual samp l es . The genera l trend o f the c l aystones ( C ) posses s i ng the h i g hest val ues and the s i l tstones ( L ) concentra ted towa rd l ower va l ue s i s c l ea rl y i l l us tra ted . <.T1

APE .... CAPL

PL OT OF SMP•CEC SYMHOL I S VALVE OF L I TH

SNP I I I

Z 2 + H

2 1 + H

2 0 + H

I Q

1 0

1 1

I f

"

1 4

l l

1 2 • I

I I + I

1 0

Q •

I • •

I 1 •

I 6 •

I

• •

I . I

� . I

I +

H

H

L

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

-- - - · - - - - - - - · - - -- - - - ·- - - - -- - ·- - - - - - - · - - - - - - - ·- - - - - - - · - - -- -- - ·- - - - - - - · - - - - - - - · - - - - -- - .- - - - - - - · - - - - -- - · - - - - - - - · - - ---- - · -- - - - - - ·- -!) 7 9 I I I J I � 1 7 1 9 2 1 2 J 2� 2 7 2'9 l l ] ] ]�

C E C

F i gure 1 1 . P l o t of C EC va r ues a nd l i tho l og i es o f the CARL and FR sampl es . I n the CARL sampl es , the two s i l ts tones are l oca ted a t the l ower end of the s ca l e . The FR da ta supports the hypothes i s of �

cl ays tones ( C ) havi ng the grea test CEC va l ues , s i l tstones ( L ) co ns i derab ly l ower , and sha l es { H ) N

wi th i ntermed i a te val ues .

.. .. .

c .. .. c

;

[!; .. ::> .J c >

:= ..J 0 ., • ,.. "'

v .. '; .. .. "'

� b .J ..

.. .. ..

v

v .J

v v v %

% .J

%

%

.J

0 0 � .. 0 " 0 0 0 0 I

. � 0 "

i 0 0 0

. ;; 0

I 0

i . "' 0 "' I 0 0 -: . ... 0 "' 0 0 0 : 0 . .. o N

I 0 0 0 I

. "' 0 "' 0 0 0 I 0 0 . -0 "' 0 0 0 0

l.. 0 -0 0 0 0 0 0

. ... 0 0 0 0 I

:1: I

-

I . .. 1 -0 I 0 0

% I I

:1: • "' o -0 0

:1: :1: 0 0 0 � -I -

I 0 I :

. .. I 0

l I

. ... 0 0 0 0 I 0

. "' 0 0 0 · · · · · - - - - - - - - - - - 1

• ... ., • • ., . - o ,. ., ... ., ., . � ,. - o ,. • ... • • • " • • • • • • • • • II'I � II'I II'I II'I II'I II'I ., II'I II'I N N N N N N N

v �

• r-+-' s:: 0 u

53

f R E OU EN C Y H A P C H A '<T

F I' I' QU E N C V

, . +

\ 3 +

I l 2 +

l l +

l O +

9 + I

8 +

I 7 +

6 +

5 +

• +

3 +

2 +

l +

fl� H H P

R R P R H

P P f.' P P

RH R R �

PP P P P

R R H R P

PP P P P P P R R R

H R f.' � R R R H RR

P P P P � P PP R R

f.I:Hf.' f.H..j P R R R R

P P P P P P P R P R

R R P R 4 R H R R R

P P f.' fJ P P P P R P

R H J.J H U R R R RR

JIP P P P P P R R R

R H f.J R P P R R R R

P P P P P P P R R R

R R R fH-l P R R RJ;

c c c c c P P R R R

c c c c c R R R RR

PPPPP C C <. C C P P R R R

RRRRR C C C C ( R R R I< R

PPPflP cc c c c P P R R R

RRRRR c c c c c R R R R P

RPI' I' I' c c c cc cc c c c

R R R R R c c c c c c c c c c

c c c c c c cc c c " " " " " c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

ccc c c c c c c c R R R R R c cc c c c c c c c c c c c c

5 9 l l L l 1 5

R R R R R

R R R R R

R R R R R R R R P P

R R R R R R R R R F<

R R P R R P P � H� P

R R R R R R R R R fl

R P R R R R P R P R

R R R R R FH-tRRR

c c c c c c c c c c

c c c c c c c c c c

c c cc c c c c c c c c c c c

c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

1 7 \ 9 2 1 23

CEC M I DPO I NT

S Y M 'JOL F F N S Y MtiOL F RM

c c " "

R F' P R P

>' P R R k

R P R R R c c c c c

R R � R R cc c c c - - - - - - - - - - - -

? 5 2 7 2 9 3 1

P Fl �rtn R P �RR

33

Fi g ure 1 2 . Frequency chart for the CEC v a l ues of the Rome Fo rmat ion and Cona sauga Group . There appears to be no d i fferences between the two .

3 '>

(J1 +:>

F R M "' C.

Pl. O T O F S MP •C EC SYMBOL I S VALVE OF L i t H

,.p

•• . . , . •• . • • . . . . .. 4 J . . , . • • . 40 . )Q . , . . l 1 . H . " . •• . J l . l 2 . l l . JO . > O . , . . 2 7 . z e . , . . . . . 2 J . 2 2 . . . . 2 0 . l Q . , . . " . l . . " . • • . .. " . H

- - -- · - - - - - -- · - - - - - - - · - - - - -- - ·- - - - - - - · -- - - - - - · - -- - - - - · -- - - - - - · - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - · - - - - · - - - - - - - · - - - - -- - · - - - - - - - · 5 1 9 l l I J 1 5 1 1 1 9 2 1 2 l . . ? 7 2 9 3 l 3 ] "

CCC

Fi gure 1 3 . Pl o t rel at i ng the CEC val ues a n d l i tho l og i es o f the Rome and Conas auga . The prev i ou s l y e s tabl i s hed trends of c l ays tones ( C ) and s i l t stones ( L ) i s observed .

(J'1 (J'1

:

� 0 "' � -' .. >

-' c "' �

"' "" '

,. "' ...

" .. '; � ,. "'

� ... 0 .... �

....

l: l:

l: l:

l:

l: l:

l:

l:

l: l:

' I '

. "' , .., ' ' ' ' I

. .., , ..,

. -, .., I i ' r � ' ' l ' '

. . ' "'

' . "' . . I ' ' ' '

. .., . . '

i ' '

. -

. . ' ' I I I

� .,. I -

l I I L . 1 -, I I I I I

. "' I -I I I I I I

. .., I I I ' I I � -I -

I I I I I

. .,. I I

i I I

. �

I I I I l

. .. I I '

- - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - I

• - o • • • • • • '"' • - o • • · � "' " '"' "' - e • • • • "' • • • - o • • • • "' " '"' "' • • • • � .., .., • .., • .., .., � • · • � N N N N N � - - - - - - - - - -

v "' v

-a Q) ::J 1::

. ,... +-> 1:: 0 u

-

Q) s... ::J 01 . ,... LJ....

56

57

The p resence o f some mi nera l s wa s s ugges ted i n the f i e l d by the

vari ous co l ors . Freq uentl y , col ora t i o n i s due to red and p u rp l e

hema ti te ; g reen i l l i te , g l aucon i te , a nd chl ori te ( fe rrou s i ro n ) ; and

bl a c k orga n i c matte r . Yel l ow , o l i ve , a n d orey s ha l es a re commonl y a

res u l t o f a mi x ture of b l a c k o rga n i c mater i a l a nd g reen c l ays ( Mc Br i de ,

1 97 4 ) . Brown a nd tan shades suggest the p resence o f l i mo n i te/ goeth i te .

S i mi l a r concl us i ons were drawn by Samman ( 1 9 75 ) i n h i s s tudy o f the

Rome .

Textu re/ fa br i c da ta on s ha l e s , a l thou gh not i n tended a s a part o f

th i s s tudy , mi g h t p ro v i de va l uabl e i ns i g ht wi th respect t o the

i nterrel a t i onsh i ps between the mi nera l ogy a nd the p hy s i ca l cha racter i st i cs

of l i thol o g i e s . Sop h i st i ca ted equ i pment such a s the S EM , TEM , and EMP

( S i ever and Kas tner , 1 972 ; O ' B r i e n , 1 970 ; Gi pson , 1 966 ; Ri ch a nd Ku nze ,

1 964 ) wou l d be req u i red to reso l ve the m i nute g ra i n s i ze a nd p rov i d e

va l ua bl e mi nera l og i ca l and textural data .

Sa nds to ne C EC

Al though i t wa s prev i ou s l y s ta ted that the sandstones were thought

to have negl i g i b l e C EC val ues , fi ve pa i rs of san dstones were a na l yzed

to tes t the va l i d i ty o f th i s a s s ump t i o n . I t i s rea l i zed that the

sampl e s s e l ected do not represent a va l i d samp l i ng of the sandstone

u n i ts . Grea t d i ff i cu l ty was e nco un tered i n gr i nd i ng d ue to the

wel l - i ndura ted na ture of the maj ori ty of the sandstones col l ected . The

FQ 1 , 2 , 3 ser i es ( bo th fresh and weathere d ) were except i ona l case s ;

they were extreme l y fr i ab l e. C EC va l ues of s e l ected sandstones a re

prese nted i n Tab l e 6 . Once a ga i n i t s hou l d be noted no trend i n CEC

va l ues of fres h a nd weathered segments ex i s ts , for they a re not

58

TABL E 6

CEC VALU ES O F S EL ECTED SANDSTO N ES

Samp l e C EC (meq/ l 00 g )

C E 1 5 F 6 . 09

C E 1 5 W 5 . 84

CF 1 9 F 3 . 1 3

C F 1 9 W 3 . 83

CG 23 F 1 . 62

CG 23 W 0 . 70

FQ 2 F 1 0 . 40

FQ 2 W l l . 84

FQ 3 F 9 . 29

FQ 3 W 9 . 29

59

s i gn i f i cant l y d i ffe rent. The FQ 2 a nd 3 seri es have unusua l l y h i gh

val u es ; th i s i s bel i eved to be due to the effects o f wea theri ng on t h i s

part i cu l a r type o f l i thol ogy ( petrograph i c a na lyses presented i n

C h apter III ) . The apparent h i gh c l ay content ( v i s u a l e st i mat i on ) and

fri ab i l i ty a re l i ke ly mani fe s ta t i o n s of th i s p roce s s. The i r val ues

a re thought to represent a max i mum exchange capac i ty for sandstone s ,

but a re no t tru l y representa ti ve of the va s t maj ori ty o f the sandstones

enco untere d.

Di s rega rd i ng the FQ sampl es , the va l ues a pp ea r to be near or bel ow

the l owes t s i l t stone val ue ( 5 . 52 meq/ 1 00 g ). The refore , i t i s

rea sona bl e to a s sume that the typ i ca l sandstones have very l ow C EC

va l ues. I t seems reasonabl e there fore , to refer o n l y to the

a rg i l l aceous compo nents when d i scus s i ng C EC . I n the event o f seepage

of rad i oact i ve wastes from the p i ts , the mo re a rg i l l aceo u s u n i ts wo ul d

be mo re effec ti ve i n remo v i ng rad i o i sotopes tha n the sand i er u n i ts.

CHAPT ER I I I

PETROGRA PH I C ANALYS I S O F THE SANDSTONES AND S I L TSTONES

I n tro duction

A l though there are no sandstones of sig nifica nce in the Pumpkin

Va l l ey Sha l e ( the l owes t s tratigraphic member o f the Co nasa uga Gro u p )

where some wa s te is buried , there are thic k a n d medium-bedded sa ndstones

a t the top o f the Rome Formatio n , directl y bel ow. I f s ee page s hou l d

reach these u nderl ying sands tones a n d sil tstone units , a potentia l l y

ha zardous aq uifer sys tem cou l d exis t. The argil l a ceous u nits of the

o verl ying Conasa uga and the u nderl ying Rome bound the coarser- grained

rocks of the Upper Rome.

I n this p ha se o f the inves tigation , determina tio n o f the minera l o gy

a nd porosity o f the coarser- grained constituents o f the Rome and

Cona sauga .were the principa l goa l s. Ana lyses of thin sectio ns pro vided

importa nt data concerning porosity , minera l ogy , a n d indirect ly ,

permeabil ity. Porosity and p ermea bil ity are obvio u s concerns in

migra tio n of wa s te fl uids . �termining the minera l ogy wo ul d reveal the

components of the roc k s a nd provide insig h t into interpre ting behavior

a nd interaction of was te ma teria l coming into contact with these

l ithol ogie s.

Porosity a nd Permea bility

Porosity and permea bil ity are the two principa l ma s s prop erties

consid ered in asses sing a potentia l aquifer . Abso l u te porosity refers

to the total percentage of void s pace in the roc k , where a s e ffective

porosity a ccounts for onl y in terconnected voids ( Pettij ohn et a l . , 1 9 73 ) . 60

6 1

I n nea r ly a l l cases , effect i ve poro s i ty i s l es s than t h e abso l u te

poro s i ty va l ue . Permeab i l i ty i s the measure o f the a b i l i ty of a med i um

to transmi t fl u i ds.

The rel at i o ns h i p between permea b i l i ty and e ffec t i ve poros i ty i s

pr imar i l y dependent on the g ra i n s i ze d i s tri bu t i on , pore s i zes and

thei r d i s tri buti on , pore p a th tortuos i ty , and the number of po re

i nterconnect i o n s a nd the i r wi dths ( C h i l i ngari a n a nd Wo l f , 1 9 76 ) . Wh i l e

poro s i ty i s fa i rl y s tra i g htforwa rd , the co ncep t o f permeab i l i ty i s not

yet fu l l y unders tood due to the compl e x i t i es i nvo l ved wi th the number

of pa rameters and thei r i ntera c t i o ns. Roc k pro pert i e s s i g n i f i ca n t l y

a ffect i ng permea b i l i ty a re g ra i n s i ze , sorti ng , or i enta t i on , pac k i ng

o f framework g ra i n s , cementa t i o n , a nd bedd i ng.

F i gure 1 4 i s presented ( from Pett i j ohn et al . , 1 9 73 ) to more

c l ea rl y i l l u strate the pr ima ry contro l s on permea b i l i ty a n d poro s i ty

for coarse s i l t stones and sandstones . I nvest i g a t i o n o f these pa rame ters

for a rg i l l a ceo u s rocks i s beyond the s cope of th i s s tudy .

Po ro s i ty

The major factors a ffec t i ng poro s i ty ( re fer to Fi g . 1 4 ) were

con s i dered whe n petrograph i c s tud i e s were perfo rme d . To ma i nta i n proper

perspecti ve , a l l poro s i ty va l ues were obta i ned f rom sampl es ta ken nea r

the s u rface : w i th i ncrea s i ng depth , poros i ty ten ds to decrea s e

( Ch i l i ngar i a n a nd Wol f , 1 976 ) .

Determ i na ti on o f Absol u te Poros i ty

There can be ser i ous errors i n the e s t ima te o f pore s pace

determ i ned by the common procedure o f po i nt count i ng due to two fac to rs :

1 ) s ubmi crosco p i c pore s pace

Po ros i ty

l . Gra i n s i ze

2 . Sorti ng

3 . Sphe r i c i ty

4 . Roundness

5 . Pac k i ng

6 . Cement

7 . C l ay content

Permeab i 1 i ty

1 . Beddi ng faci es : bed th i c kne s s , type s a nd abundance o f s ed imentary s tructure s , frequency of sha l e beds wh i ch a c t a s i mpermea bl e ba rri e rs to fl ow

2 . Texture and Fabri c : g ra i n s i ze , sort i ng , pac k i ng , s hape or i e nta t i on o f framewor k g ra i ns ( defi nes p r i ma ry pore sys tem )

3 . Sed imentary s tructures : cro s s beds , r i pp l es , part i ng 1 i nea t i on s , etc .

4 . Compo s i te sand bodi es : cha racter i s t i c s of many a l l u v i a l a nd de l ta i c sandstones

F i gure 1 4 . Factors i nfl uenc i ng poros i ty and permeab i l i ty .

62

63

2 ) edge effects resu l t i ng from the th i c kness of s l i des ( 30 m i c rons )

wh i ch a l l ows for the underes t i ma t i o n the pore vo l ume and overest imat i on

g ra i n a nd cement vo l umes ( Ha l l ey , 1 9 78 ) .

The former fa ctor genera l l y h a s a s i g n i f i ca n t effect when dea l i ng

wi th ca rbona te ro ck s , such a s m i cr i te . I t i s h i gh l y doubtful tha t the

sandstones/ s i l t stones o f the Rome a nd Conasauga have any s i gn i f i cant

subm i c roscop i c poros i ty ( Ha l l ey , 1 9 78 ) . However , the cl a st i c nature of

these l i tho l og i e s , wi th fi ne sa nd and coarse s i l t s i zes domi nat i ng , may

a l l ow edge effects to s er i o u s l y i nterfere wi th a c curate poro s i ty

determi na t i o n s . The magni tude o f e rror fo r edge effects i nc reases wi th

decreas i ng g ra i n s i ze , t i g h te r pac k i ng , i nc rea s i ng g ra i n i rreg u l ar i t i es ,

and decreased sort i ng .

Po i n t count i ng i s a va l i d p rocedu re , but the a s sump ti on tha t a reas

o f roc k el emen ts a re p roporti ona l to vo l umes o f the e l ements i s not

al ways true ; sect ion t h i ckness can c reate edge errors ar i s i ng from the

curva ture wi th i n the 30 mi c ron t h i c k nes s ( Ha l l ey , 1 97 8 ) . W i th

decrea s i ng g ra i n s i ze , l arger port i ons o f g ra i ns a nd pores a re wi th i n

the t h i n s ec t i o n s l i ce . As the a verage gra i n s i ze o f the rock ap proaches

the t h i c kness o f a sec t i on , th i n sec t i o n i ncl udes mo re po rt i o n s of

g ra i n s wh i c h i nc l ude the i r l a rge s t d i ameter ( fo r s pheri ca l g ra i ns l es s

tha n 6 0 mi c ro n s the sec t i o n i nco rporates the l a rges t d i ameter o f each

g ra i n ) . Aroun d each g ra i n i s a n " error envel ope" where the vo i ds a re

h i dden by the gra i n edge : th i s error i nc reases for sma l l er g ra i n s i zes

and p roporti o na l l y dec rea ses wi th i nc rea s i ng g ra i n s i ze . Fewer and

fewer i nte rparti c l e pores extend ent i rel y throug h the secti on a s g ra i n

s i ze decrea ses . When the max i mum pore d i men s i o n i s l es s than 30

m i cro n s , the po re " .tan i shes " by enc l os ure wi t h i n the sect i o n , or i s

64

ma s ked by ma ter i a l bel ow and a bove . Fo r l a rge r sand s i ze g ra i ns , ma s k i ng

i s not a s g reat , yet s t i l l can be s i g n i f i ca n t . I n s ome cases ,

a rti f i c i a l l y h i g h va l ues a re no t the so l e c u l p r i ts i n undere s t i ma ti ng

poro s i ty . Cements , coat i ng the g ra i ns , can a l so contr i bu te .

Several methods fo r m i n i mi z i ng edge erro r a re o ffered by Ha l l ey

( 1 978 ) , a l l o f wh i c h i nvo l ve redu c i ng the effect i ve th i c kness of t he

th i n secti ons . I n th i s s tudy , u l tra- th i n ( 1 0- 1 2 m i c rons ) t h i n s ect i o n s

were empl oyed fo r determi n i ng po ros i ty .

A b l ue p l a s t i c ma ter i a l wa s used i n the i mpreg na t i o n o f a l l s l i de s

t o a i d i n d i s t i ngu i s h i ng vo i ds . The procedure fo l l owed i n t h i n -sec t i on

prepa rat i o n o f the impregna ted sampl e i ns u red tha t a l l vo i ds

(i nte r connec ted o r not ) wou l d have the bl ue p l a s t i c i n f i l l i ng . Al though

Hal l ey po i n ts out tha t the u se o f col o red i mp regna t i on mater i a l can

resul t i n an overe s t i ma t i o n of pore space i f caut i on i s no t exerc i sed

duri ng the po i nt count i ng p roces s , i ts use i s bel i eved to have no

detri men ta l effects on the poro s i ty determi nat ion s i n th i s s tudy , s i nce

u l tra- th i n s l i des were used . W i th conven t i ona l th i n s ec t i o n s , the

co l or may be con s i dered a s po re s pace , even though i t underl i es or

overl i es g ra i ns .

Fo l l owi ng Chaye s ' ( 1 956 ) recommendat i ons for po i nt cou n t i ng

" banded" rocks , the s l i de s ( 25 X 50 mm , 1 0 mi c rons th i c k ) were counted

a t an ang l e ( 37 ° o r 57 ° ) to the ba nded fabri c ; i t i s uncerta i n i f

concentra ti ons o f vo i ds a re l ocated i n l am i n at i ons . Low poro s i t i es

were a nt i c i pated i n some i ns ta nces ; therefo re , 1 000 po i n ts per s l i de

were counted to i ns u re s ta t i s t i ca l l y va l i d res u l ts ( Va n Der P l as a nd

Tobi , 1 965 ) . Poro s i ty val ues for a l l 29 o f t he " fres h" samp l es a re

p resented i n Tab l e 7. Si nce was te i s bur i ed 4 -5 m be l ow the s u rface ,

TABLE 7

MIN ERALOGY AND POROSITY D ETERMINATION S FROM PETROGRAPHIC ANAL YSES OF THE SANDSTONE S AND SILTSTONE S

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'wea the red " s egments were not i nc l uded i n the po ro s i ty st udy . Un l i k e

certa i n p red i c tab l e trends observed i n a mi nera l o g i ca l compa r i son o f

fresh and wea the red segmen ts , there a ppea r to be no defi n i te trends

estab l i s hed fo r poro s i ty between f resh a nd wea thered s egments of the

s ame sampl e .

Permeab i l i ty

66

Accord i ng to C h i l i nga r i a n a nd Wo l f ( 1 976 ) , the d i s tr i bu t i on o f

shal e beds i s the mo s t i mportant facto r i n permea b i l i ty s tud i es ( see

Fi g . 1 4 ) . S ha l e s can serve as very effect i ve i mpermeabl e barri ers . I n

the outcro p s s tud i e d , the va s t maj o r i ty o f the s i l t stone and sandstone

un i ts were fa i rl y t h i n l y bedded , wi th abundant i n terca l a ted s ha l es .

There were a few notabl e excep t i o n s ( refer to F i gs . 2 a nd 3 , pages 10

and 1 5) desc ri bed bel ow .

1 ) CG 24 , FQ 3 : These un i ts a re o f p r i me concern beca use they

rep resent the uppermo s t porti on o f the Rome Fo rmat i o n . These th i c k to

med i um-bedded sandstones are not i n terru pted by s ha l ey u n i ts to a ny

s i g n i f i cant deg ree , but a re bounded by fa i rl y extens i ve a rg i l l aceo u s

un i ts .

2 ) CD 1 3 , CF 20 , FM 3 , FM 4, FM 9 : Th ese u n i ts have concentra t i on s

of th i n sandstones wi th few s ha l e bed s w i th i n t h e un i ts a nd a re o f m i nor

i mporta nce .

Seco nd i n i mportance a re texture and fabr i c . They i l l u s t rate the

comp l ex i nterwea v i ng o f poro s i ty and permeab i l i ty , a nd defi ne the

pr i ma ry pore sys tem . Petrograph i c a n a l ys i s ( the p r i nc i pa l ana l yti ca l

method emp l oyed fo r the non-arg i l l aceou s cons t i tuents ) supp l i ed abundant

da ta on fa bri c , textures , and m i c ros truc tu res : a deta i l ed d i scus s i on

of the petrog ra ph i c ana lys i s i s p resented l a ter i n t h i s chapte r .

Sedimenta ry s tructu res a re bel i eved to p l ay a re l at i ve l y mi nor

rol e , as they a re no t l a rge s ca l e a nd a re o ften i l l -def i ned ; hence

they wou l d have l i m i ted effect on the d i rect i on o f fl u i d fl ow .

67

Compos i te sand bod i es ( F i gure 1 4 ) a re not app l i ca bl e i n th i s ca se ,

s i nc e the env i ronment of the Rome and Conasa uga i s i n tert i da l to

subt i da l ( Harr i s and Mi l i c i , 1 97 7 ; Samman , 1 97 5 ) .

Resu l ts

Res u l ts a re presented i n Ta bl e 7 .

Di scus s i o n

The poros i ty o f the samp l es a na l yzed can b e attr i bu ted to fou r

maj o r fac tors :

l ) deter i o ra t i on of the mi caceous ( i . e . , muscov i te and b i ot i te ) and

g l aucon i t i c g ra i ns

2 ) mi c roscop i c vo i ds

3 ) m i c rosco p i c c racks ( d i scont i nuous )

4 ) mac roscop i c cracks ( cont i nuous and d i scon ti n uous )

Fi gures 1 5 and 1 6 p resent photographs i l l u stra t i ng a number o f facto rs

a ffect i ng poro s i ty .

Conti nuous c racks extend i ng throughout the ent i re s l i de we re

noted i n o n l y one case ( C I 35 F SL ) and were cons i dered a s vo i d s paces

i n the po i n t count . On ly 0 . 6% o f the po ros i ty va l ue ( 3% ) can be

a ttri buted to the cont i nuous c rac k .

I t i s pos s i bl e that i n the i n i t i a l cutti ng and g r i nd i ng of the

s l abs pr i o r to i mp regnat ion , some of the g ra i n s o r deter i o ra ti ng

g ra i n por t i on s ( facto rs 1 and 2 ) were p l ucked ou t , thus a rt i f i c i a l l y

F i g u re 1 5 . Deter i or at i on of g l aucon i t i c ( G ) and m i c areou s ( M } mater i a l a l l ow i ng for the deve l opment of pores ( P ) . L ength of photo represents 0 . 45 rnrn .

en co

co 0 Vl ......, c:: Q) Vl Q) 5-o. Q) 5-o ......, 0 ..c: c..

� 0 ..c: ......, en c:: Q) _J

0..

Vl Q) u 10 c.. Vl Q) 5-o c..

-o Q) c.. 0 Q) > Q) -o

.--Q) 3

Q) 5-:::::l en . ,.... LL.

69

i n crea s i ng poro s i ty va l ues . Dete r i o ra t i ng g ra i n s observed s howed no

s i gns of mechan i ca l abuse , wh i l e p l uc k i ng of s a n d g ra i ns , pa rt i cu l a rl y

i n fri ab l e sandstones , i s near l y i mpos s i bl e to d i scern from " natural "

vo i ds .

Poros i t i es o f sampl es FM 3 , FQ 1 , 2 , 3 , a nd FR 3 , may have been

a ffec ted by p l uck i ng , but i t i s bel i eved to have accounted fo r a

max i mum of 0 . 6% o f the po ro s i ty v a l ues ( FM 3 , 5 % a nd FQ 3 , 1 0 . 1 ) and

0 . 3% o f the poro s i ty va l ues ( FQ 1 , 3 % and 2 , 2 % ) , wh i c h wou l d have

l i ttl e effect on the resu l tant poros i ty va l ues .

70

Due to the f i ne- g ra i ned nature o f the sandstones a nd the numero u s

m i nute c rack s d i s persed throughout , g reat d i ffi cu l ty wa s encoun tered i n

determi n i ng the poro s i ty o f FQ 3 hence the 1 0% va l ue obta i ned may be i n

erro r by a s much a s 40% ( es t i ma ted ) i n excess o f true poros i ty . S i m i l a r ,

though co n s i derab ly l esser d i ff i cu l t i es were i nvo l ved when a na lyz i ng

FQ 1 , 2 , and FR 3 . Some s kep t i c i sm o f these poro s i ty va l ues may be

wa rranted , but t hey coul d on l y be i n max i mum exce s s of a pp rox i ma te l y 1 %

o f the poro s i ty va l ues ( FQ 1 , 3% a nd 2 , 2 % ) to 2% o f t he po ro s i ty va l ue s

( FR 3 , 9% ) .

Mea s u red poros i ty va l u es from the CARL and FR ou tcro p s i nd i ca te a

p ronounced tren d . The sandstones a nd s i l t stones o f t he FR ou tcrop have

s i gn i f i cant l y h i gher overa l l p o ro s i t i es , a s o ppo sed to the s i mi l a r CARL

l i thol og i es . Tab l e 8 s hows poro s i ty trends i n the CARL and FR ou tcrops .

Th i s trend i s be l i eved to be a ttr i butabl e to CARL be i ng a " fresher"

outcro p . F i e l d s tu d i es a nd roc k samp l es from the two l ocat i ons were

compa red mi nera l og i ca l l y i n t he fo l l owi ng segment to refute o r

substa nt i a te th i s concl us i on .

TABLE 8

PORO S I TY TRENDS I N THE CARL AND FR OUTCROPS

Poros i ty CARL

> 4% 0%

3-4 1 2

2 - 3 6

1 - 2 1 9

0 - 1 6 3

Average CARL samp l e poro s i ty = 0 . 7%

Average FR s amp l e po ro s i ty = 3 . 7%

Average CARL + F R po ro s i ty = 2 . 5%

FR

39%

1 5

2 3

1 5

8

7 1

72

Mi nera l og i ca l Determ i nati ons

Procedure

I n i t i a l l y , a l l 58 s l i des were a na l yzed a nd descr i bed . Fo rty s l i des

( 20 fresh a nd 20 weathered ) o f s ta nda rd t h i ckness were se l ec ted fo r

m i nera l og i ca l mod a l a na l ys i s ( po i nt count ) ; they represent the typ i ca l

s i l tstones a nd sandstones p resent i n the Rome a n d Cona sauga . Al l were

s ta i ned fo r Ks par ( s ee Append i x 4 ) . Four hundred po i nts per s l i de were

counted ( counts based on the s tu dy by Van Der P l a s and Tobi , 1 9 65 ) and

reco rded .

Res u l ts

Resu l ts a re presented i n Tabl e 7 , page 65 .

D i scus s i on

A bri ef des cri p t i o n o f the l i tho l og i c components ( g ra i ns , cemen t ,

a nd matri x ) i s presented bel ow to p ro v i de ba s i c i nfo rma t i o n concern i ng

the s a nds to nes and s i l tstones a na l yzed . F i g u re 17 presents the a ve rage

m i neral og i ca l compos i t i o n of the sandstones/ s i l t stones ana l yzed , and

Fi gure 18 g i ve s the mi neral frequency d i str i but i on .

Gra i ns . 1 ) Qua rtz : Nea r l y a l l the quartz was monocrysta l l i ne ,

we l l - rounded to s ub rou nded , and s ubequant to s l i g h t l y e l ongate . I n

mo s t s amp l es ( except C I 3 3 and CB 4 ) , quartz was the pr i n c i pa l mi nera l

co nst i tuen t , compos i ng about 58% o f the roc k ( refer to Tab l e 9 ) .

2 ) Fel d spa r : I n the samp l es anal yzed , the fel d spa r gra i ns observed

range from subrounded to angu l a r and tend to be sub-e l ongate i n fo rm .

Commo nl y , fe l ds pa rs exhi b i t c l eavage and twi n n i ng . Al l s l i de s were

sta i ned ( see Append i x 4 ) , however , to a i d i n the i dent i fi cat i o n of Ks pa r .

1 0 0 -

LLJ ...J 0. 9 0 -� � 8 0 -z

I- 7 0 -

z LLJ ::> 60 -r-I-en 5 0 -z 0 0

4 0 -...J <{ a: LLJ 30 -z �

2 0 _ � 0

1 0 -

0 -

Q K S P MAT C E M G LAU PLAG M I S C M U S B l OT

Fi gure 1 7 . Mi nera l ogi ca l compo s i t i on of the average Rome a nd Co nasauga sandstone/ s i l tstone . ......, w

...... z L&J ::::> t-t-Cl) z 0 (.)

...J <( 0:: w z -� (!) z -z -<( t-z 0 (.)

C/) w ..J a.. � <{ C/) LL. 0

� 0

1 0 0 -

90 -

80 -

70 -

60

50 -

40 -

Q MAT M I S C K S P PLAG CEM M U S Bl O T G LA U

F i gure 1 8. Mi neral d i s tri buti o n o f the sands to ne s a n d s i l t stones . "'-J +=>

TABLE 9

AVERAGE M I N ERALOG I CAL COMPOS I T I ONS OF THE SANDSTONES AND S I LTSTONES ANALYZED W I TH R ESPECT TO DEGREE

OF WEATH eR I NG , OUTCROP LOCAT I ON , AND G EOLOG I C U N I T

Q Ks par Pl ag Mus B i o C l au �1a t Cem

Fresh

CARL Outcrop

a . Rome 58% 1 8% 2% 1 % . 5% 2% 1 3% 3% b . Cona 38 . 5 2 1 . 5 2 3 3 0 4 c . R + C 55 1 5 2 1 . 5 4 1 6 3

F R Ou tcrop

a . R + C 69 24 2 . 5 0 8 3

CARL + FR Outcrops 60 1 8 2 . 5 2 1 3 3

Wea thered

CARL Outcro p

a . Rome 57 1 9 3 1 . 5 2 1 1 6 b . Cona 44 . 5 2 1 1 24 2 3 5 c . R + C 55 1 6 2 1 . 5 4 1 3 6

FR Outcro p

a . R + C 57 30 . 5 . 5 0 6 4

CARL + FR Outcrops 56 2 1 2 . 5 4 1 0 5

AMC* 58 20 2 . 5 3 1 0 4

*

average mi nera l og i ca l compo s i t i o n overa l l

Cona - Cona sauga

Accordi ng to Van Der P l a s and Tob i ( 1 965 ) , v a l ues a re l - 5% dependi ng o n the percentage ca l cu l a ted .

75

t� i sc

2 C/ ;o

. 5 2

4

2

1 . 5 1

. 5

76

At t i me s , o rtho c l a se i s not eas i l y d i s t i ngu i s hab l e from qua rtz , and

mi c ro c l i ne ' s twi nn i ng (when observed ) i s o ften d i ffi cu l t to d i s ce rn

from the twi nn i ng o f some p l a g i o cl a se . Ortho c l a s e a nd mi c rocl i ne were

the two types of Ks par presen t , a l though they were not separa tel y

ca tegor i zed i n the moda l ana l ys i s . Ks par i s g eneral l y the s econd mo s t

abundant component , about 20% . No a ttempt was made to d i s c r i m i nate

between the pos s i bl e types of p l ag i oc l a se presen t , as they tota l ed o n l y

2 % on t h e a ve rage . The presence of cal c i c p l a g i oc l ase wa s s u s pected

i n a few i ns tances , a s evi denced by deter i ora t i ng p l a g i oc l ase g ra i ns

i nt i ma te l y a s s oc i a ted wi th ca l c i te .

3 ) Muscov i te : Mu scov i te f l a kes were found i n 85% o f a l l sampl es

but on l y cons t i tu ted 1 % o f the total m i ne ra l og i ca l compos i t i o n . I t

appears that the vast majo r i ty o f muscov i te contri bu tes heav i l y to the

ma tri x materi a l ; i t i s no t s urpr i s i ng that so few o f the del i cate fl a kes

a re preserved a s i n d i v i dual g ra i ns .

4 ) B i o t i te : B i ot i te wa s found i n appro x i mate ly 55% o f the s ampl e s

genera l l y a s a t race m i neral ( 0 . 5% ) . Mos t b i o t i te fl a kes obse rved were

fa i rl y deteri o ra ted . On rare o ccas i ons , wel l - p res erved , euh edral

b i o t i tes we re noted ( s ampl es CG 24 F, C I 32 F, C I 35 F , FM 9 F, FQ 3 F ) .

Euhedral b i o t i te may be ev i dence for vu l ca ni sm ( S i r i bha kdi , 1 9 7 6 ) .

5 ) Gl aucon i te : Gl a ucon i te was observed i n two var i et i es :

pel l e tal and mi caceous . The fo rmer accou nted fo r o ve r 95% o f the

mi neral noted i n the th i n sec t i ons . I n several cases , mi no r quant i t i es

of g l auco n i te cou l d be di s cerned a s pa rt o f t he ma tri x . Qu a nt i ti es o f

t h e m i nera l were no rma l l y l ow ( 2- 4% ) , wi th a few notab l e excepti ons

( C H 2 8 a nd C I 33 : 23- 24%) . Term i nol ogy a s soc i a ted wi th g l aucon i te i s

exceed i ng l y confu s i ng and can be m i s l ea d i ng . Frequent ly i t i s a general

term fo r a ny sma l l , g reen i s h , rou nded pel l ets observed i n the fi el d ,

w i th no s pec i f i c mi neral compos i t i on . There a re two majo r s chool s of

thought regard i ng the mi ne ra l og i ca l na tu re of t rue g l aucon i te ( and

g l aucon i t i c pel l ets ) :

l ) Accord i ng to Thompson and Hower ( 1 975 ) , g l a ucon i te i s an

i ron-r i ch , mi xed- l ayer i l l i te -smecti te , genera l l y composed a l mos t

enti rel y o f i l l i te .

77

2 ) The o nce a ccepted i dea of g l aucon i te be i ng a s u b s pec i es o r

va ri ety o f i l l i te wa s refuted by Vel de a n d Odi n ( 1 9 75 ) , w i th t h e cl a i m

that g l auco n i tes a re not chem i ca l l y rel a ted to i l l i tes . The i r ana l ys es

o f smect i te- g l aucon i te and smecti te- i l l i te mi xed- l ayers do reveal

c rystal l ograph i c s i mi l ar i t i es .

Cements . Three type s o f cements were encountered i n the s l i des

ana l y zed : qua rtz , hemat i te , and ca l c i te . Average cement content wa s

approx ima tel y 3- 5% . The true cement content o f ma ny samp l es may be

g reater than th i s ra nge . Due to the f i ne- g ra i ned na ture o f mos t

sampl es , q u a r t z overg rowths were p robab l y pres ent , but were n o t cou n ted

a s cement because o f poo r reso l u t i on .

l ) Quartz : Qua rtz overgrowths were the mo s t abundant a nd wi de ly

di str i buted cemen t type . Deta i l ed reso l ut i on was frequent l y d i ffi cu l t

due to the f i ne g ra i n s i zes , but wa s common ly i n ferred by the

i nterl o c k i ng pattern o f the q u a rtz g ra i ns .

2 ) Hemat i te : Al thoug h hema ti t i c cement i s fa i rl y ubi qu i tou s ,

i t consti tu tes a very m i no r quant i ty i n nearly a l l sampl es . One

excepti o n , however i s the FL 4 samp l e ser i es ( fresh a nd wea thered ) ,

where i t i s the domi nant cement . Mi n i s cu l e amounts o f h emat i te cement

o ften preceeded qua rtz overg rowths .

78

3 ) Ca l c i te : Rel at i ve ly u ncommon i n mos t s l i des , ca l c i te cemen t

genera l l y occurs i n l ocal i zed patches and i s o rd i nar i l y a s s oc i a ted wi th

ca l c i te ve i ns and ve i n l ets ; cathodo l umi nescence frequent ly defi nes and

enhances th i s rel a t i on sh i p . M i nor quant i t i es o f the cement were fou nd

on ly i n the fo l l ow i ng samp l e s : CB 6 f , w ; CB 9 f , w ; C E 1 7 f , w ;

C F 1 9 f , w ; C F 2 0 f , w . I n C B 4 , i t i s the domi nant cement . Al l

sampl es conta i n i ng ca rbona te c ement are from the CARL outcro p . Perhaps

no ca rbona te cement was noted i n the FR sampl es , e i ther because there

was con s i derab ly l es s cal c i te cementa t i on at that l o ca ti on o r the FR

outcro p wa s more wea thered , thus a l l owi ng for the d i s s o l u t i on of a ny

ca l c i te tha t m i g h t have been present . Samp l es drawn from core samp l e s

cou l d pos s i b l y p rov i de an answe r .

Ma tri x . I n th i s s tudy , matr i x was defi ned a s any mate r i a l l e s s

than s i l t s i ze ( 0 . 063 mm ) wh i ch cou l d n o t b e c l ea rl y reso l ved us i ng an

o rdi nary petro g rap h i c mi c ro s cope . The va s t maj or i ty o f the matr i x can

be ca tego r i zed a s " pseudoma tr i x , " ( D i c k i ns on , 1 97 0 ) whe re g ra i ns a re

s u ffi c i ent ly deformed to form matr i x . The pseudoma t r i x a ppea rs to be

composed pr i nc i pa l l y of m i caceous mater i a l s such as muscov i te , b i o t i te ,

ch l ori te , a nd g l aucon i te . Frequen tl y , hemat i te and l i mo n i te a re

d i ssem i nated t h roughout the ma tr i x , impart i ng a yel l owi s h to deep

reddi s h hue . Average ma tri x content i s approx i ma te ly 1 0- 1 3% (wi th s ome

excep ti ons ) .

M i s cel l a ny . Th i s g roup i ncl udes apat i te , z i rcons , dol omi te rhombs ,

roc k fragments ( extreme ly u ncommo n ) , and a ny other g ra i ns wh i ch do not

bel ong i n a ny prev i ou s ly des i gnated category . The p r i nc i pa l

" mi sce l l a neous " components a re z i rco n a nd do l omi te rhombs . T he typ i ca l l y

wel l - rou nded var i ety of z i rcon predom i nates , a l though there a re a few

79

notab ly angu l a r and euhedral g ra i ns . Do l omi te rhombs a re bel i eved to be

of d i agenet i c o r i g i n .

Data Ana lys i s

Procedure

The data were exami ned f rom a petro l og i c a nd mi nera l og i c v i ewpo i nt

to e stab l i sh a ny trends between the :

l ) Rome and Cona sauga

2 ) CARL and FR ou tcro p l oca t i ons

3 ) fresh and weathered s egments o f t h e same r o c k samp l e

Rome a nd Conasa uga

Rome . The maj o r i ty o f the no n -arg i l l aceous u n i ts o f the Rome

co ns i s ted of wel l - sorted , ma ture , very f i ne sandstones to s i l ty

sa nds tones . The a ve rage sands tone i s subarko s i c ( ba sed on Fol k , 1 9 74 ) .

Da ta fo r a l l 1 7 samp l es i s br i ef ly l i s ted i n Tab l e 1 0 . Refer to Tab l e

l l for compo s i t i ona l c l a s s i fi ca t i ons .

Co nasa uga . Genera l l y , the p redomi na n t l i tho l og i es of the

Conasauga were mo dera tel y so rted , immature sandy s i l tstones to s i l ty

sandstones . Refer to Ta bl e 7 , page 65 .

compos i ti ona l c l a s s i f i c a t i on s .

Refer to Tab l e l l fo r

Mi nera l og i c . Accord i ng to Van Der Pl as and Tob i ( 1 965 ) , the re i s

a rel a t i ons h i p between the number o f po i n ts counted and the accura cy of

the res u l ts when pe rfo rmi ng moda l a na l ys i s on th i n s ec t i ons . I n th i s

i nvesti gat i on , 400 po i nts were coun ted per thi n sect i o n , there fo re the

resu l tant percen tages determi ned for ea c h mi nera l had a var i a t i on of

+ 1 % to + 5% ( depe nd i ng on the ca l cu l a ted percentage of that mi nera l ) .

TABLE 1 0

D I STRI BUTION O F GRA I N S I ZE , SORT I N G , AND TEXTU RA L MATUR I TY I N THE ROME SAN DSTONES ( BASED ON FOL K , 1 97 4 )

80

Gra i n S i ze So rt i ng Textura l Matu r i ty

medi um sand 4% very we l l 31 % s u perma ture 3%

fi ne sand 8 wel l 4 1 mature 5 7

very f i ne 46 mod . wel l 1 4 s u bma ture 9

s i l ty s a nd 2 3 mo derate ly 1 4 i mma ture 31

sandy s i l t 1 9

81

TABLE 1 1

COMPOS I T I ONAL CLASS I F I CAT ION O F THE SAN DSTON ES/ S I LTSTONES ( BASED ON FOL K , 1 9 74 )

Sampl e

CA l F CA l �J

CA 2 F CA 2 W

CB 4 F CB 4 W

CB 8 F CB 8 W

CB 9 F CB 9 W

C D 1 3 F C D 1 3 W

C E 1 7 F C E 1 7 W

C F 1 9 F CF 1 9 W

CF 20 F C F 20 W

CF 2 2 F C F 22 W

CG 24 F CG 24 W

CH 28 F CH 28 W

C I 33 F C I 33 W

FL 4 F FL 4 W

Quartz

74% 67

66 95

48 34

69 63

99 99

7 5 65

73 7 1

66 7 1

76 77

78 76

80 70

94 96

96 97

56 68

Fel dspar C l a s s i fi cat i o n

26% a rkose 33 a r kose

34 a r kose 5 o rthoqua rtz i te

52 a rkose 66 a r kose

3 1 a r kose 37 a rkose

l o rthoqua rtz i te l orthoqua rtz i te

25 suba rkose 35 a r kose

2 7 a r kose 29 ar kose

34 a rkose 29 a rko s e

24 suba r kose 23 suba rkose

22 s uba rkose 24 suba rkose

20 s uba rkose 30 a rkose

6 s uba rkose 4 o rthoquartz i te

4 orthoqua rtz i te 3 o rthoquartz i te

44 arkose 32 a rkose

82

TABLE 1 l ( co nt i nued )

Samp l e Qua rtz Fel d spar Cl a s s i fi cat i o n

F M 3 F 62% 38% a rko s e FM 3 W 6 1 39 arkose

FM 5 F 64 36 a rkos e FM 5 W 58 42 a rkose

Ft� 8 F 66 34 a rkose FM 8 W 68 32 arkose

FN 7 F 80 20 s uba rkose FN 7 W 55 45 a rkose

FQ 3 F 81 1 9 suba rkose FQ 3 W 74 26 arkose

FR 3 F 79 2 1 suba rkose FR 3 W 73 27 a rko s e

83 These var i a t i ons were cons i dered when a na lyz i ng the data fo r a ny trend

i n mi nera l og i c compos i t i o n s between the vari ous g roups .

Some d i f ferences di d a r i s e between the Rome a n d Cona sauga when

compa r i ng the non-arg i l l aceous mater i a l s . I n ana l yz i ng the da ta o f

Tabl e 1 2 , t h e fo l l owi ng s ta tements concern i ng these spec i f i c m i nera l og i ca l

d i ffe rences c a n b e made . The pr i nc i pa l d i fference i s tha t the Rome

conta i n s a g reater percentage Kspar and the Conasauga a g reater

pe rcen tage of ma tri x and g l a uco n i te . Th i s may be a man i fes ta t i o n o f

the tec to n i c o r env i ronmenta l changes .

The s i x rema i n i ng compone nts i l l u stra te no s i g n i f i ca n t d i fferences

between the Rome and Conasauga .

CARL a n d FR

L i tho l og i c . The re i s o n l y one apparent l i thol og i c d i fference

be tween the CARL and FR o u tc ro p s : the FR l ocat i o n appears to be mo re

i ntense ly wea thered than CARL . Th i s f i e l d-observed c haracteri s t i c i s

refl ected i n s everal samp l es , p art i cu l ar l y i n the uppermos t 30 m

( Fi g . 3 , page l 5 ) , s ampl e s FO 1 t hroug h FR 3 .

Mi nera 1 cg i c . A l l the d i fferences noted between the mi nera l

quant i t i e s o f CARL and FR samp 1 es ( refer to Tab 1 e 9 , page 75 ) were no

g reater than 6 % , w i th the vas t maj or i ty fal l i ng b e l ow tha t max imum .

Therefore , no d i s ti nct ions ca n be ma de between the CARL and FR outcrops

on a mi ne ra l og i ca l ba s i s .

Fresh and Wea thered

M i nera l ogi c . The da ta o f a l l 20 pa i rs of samp l es ( see Ta bl e s 7

and 9 , pages 6 5 a nd 7 5 ) were carefu l l y s c ru t i n i zed to detect a nd

eval uate any o f the fo l l owi ng trends : f > w , f = w , f < w ( f = fresh ,

Ks pa r : Rome

TABL E 1 2

S I GN I F I CANT M I NERA LOG I CAL D I F FERENCES B ETWEEN THE ROME AND CONASAUGA

o*

2 2 . 3% 1 0 . 3 Conasauga 7 . 7 1 1 . 3

Gl aucon i te :

Rome 4 . 1 1 . 3 Co nasauga 1 5 . 3 1 2 . 4

Matri x :

Rome 7 . 6 1 0 . 5 Cona sauga 1 8 . 8 1 4 . 1

* one s tanda rd dev i a t i o n

t**

3 . 6 1 1 . 3

0 . 5 1 2 . 4

3 . 7 1 4 . 1

** t d i s tr i but i on ca l cu l a ted at a 95% p robab i l i ty ( acco rd i ng to

Fo l k , 1 9 74 )

84

85

w = weathered ) . No trends were e s tabl i shed for the fo l l owi ng mi nera l s :

quartz , gl aucon i te , bi oti te , ma tri x , Ks par , a n d cement . However , there

a re a few perti nent observat i o n s concern i ng the fre s h a n d wea thered

a s pects o f some o f the a fo rement i o ned const i tuen t s :

1 ) cemen t : H i gher cement abundances were noted i n samp l es l ower i n

the stra ti gra p h i c col umn ( bo th CARL and FR )

2 ) g l auco n i te : No g l aucon i te was observed i n a ny samp l e a t the FR

outcrop , wh i l e a noma l o us ly h i gh va l ues were noted i n two sampl i ng

l ocat ions a t CARL :

a ) a l l of the Conasauga samp l e s ( CH 28 f , w ; C I 33 f , w ) ranged

from 1 8- 29% g l a u coni te con ten t

b ) the Rome sampl es ( CA 1 f , w ; CA 2 f , w ) ra nged from 3 -22%

g l auconi te conten t

S i nce the CARL and FR ou tcrops a re be l i eved to be fa i r l y

correl at i ve , t h e to ta l absence o f g l aucon i te a t F R i s s omewhat unusua l .

G l auco n i te pel l et forma t i o n i s thou ght to requ i re spec i f i c cond i t i o n s

to form . There a r e numero us p ropo sed modes o f o ri g i n ( s umma r i zed by

Burs t , 1 9 58 ) , howeve r , forma t i o n by smal l - sca l e phenomena i n vol v i ng

chemi ca l tran sfer i n a mi croenv i ro nment i s present ly the accep ted

p roces s ( Vel de a nd Odi n , 1 975 ) . Norma l l y , g l auco n i te pel l ets a re formed

i n l oca l i zed zones . Qu i te po ss i b l y , opt imum cond i ti on s d i d not e x i s t

i n the F R v i c i n i ty . Perha ps wea theri ng mi ght have e l i mi nated the

g l aucon i te . Note the s i gn i fi cant l y l ower ma tr i x l evel s (a ma ter i a l

expected to behave s i mi l arl y ) between the two l oca t i o n s ( CARL 1 5% ,

FR 7 % , s ee Ta bl e 9 , page 75 ) . Fu rther su pport for th i s hypo thes i s i s

found i n a n ear l i e r p hase o f th i s i nves t i g a ti o n ; determi nat i ons

suggested fou r fac tors for the deve l opmen t of poros i ty , one o f wh i ch

wa s the deteri ora t i o n of mi caceou s a nd g l a uco n i te g ra i ns .

Fo r the rema i n i ng con s t i tuents , i t i s d i ff i cu l t to a scerta i n the

exi s tence of a trend . The i r l ow o vera l l content can y i e l d a 1 00% d i fference between fresh a nd wea thered va l ues ( i . e . , i f f = 1 % a nd

w = 2 % ) . S i g n i f i ca n t d i fference , i n s uch cases , i s ques t i o nab l e .

Compo nents s ha ri ng th i s dub i ou s s ta tus o n fres h/weathered trends a re

p l ag i oc l a s e , muscov i te , and mi s ce l l aneous ma te r i a l s . There i s very

l i ttl e mi nera l og i ca l d i ffere nce between the fresh a nd wea thered

86

segments as i l l u s trated i n 70% of a l l sampl es . The no tewo rthy excep t i o n s

a re F N 7 , FM 3 , FL 4 , C I 33 , C B 4 , a nd CA 2 .

CHAPTER I V

SUMMAT I ON AND CONCLUS IONS

Pu rpose

Th i s i nves t i gat i on wa s i ntended to p rov i de fu ndamen tal i n fo rma t i o n

concern i ng the petrol og i c , mi neral og i c , a nd i o n exc hange characte r i s t i cs

o f the Rome Format i o n and Co nasauga Sha l e . Low- l eve l rad i oact i ve wa s te

i s presen t l y bei ng bur ied i n the Cona sauga Group , wh i ch d i rect ly

overl i es t he sands tones o f t he Rome Fo rma t i o n .

The i nfo rmat i o n s u pp l i ed by th i s s tudy wi l l a i d i n a s ses s i ng

potenti a l ha za rds a s soc i a ted w i th wa ste buri a l and hyd ro fracture

operati ons i n the Pumpk i n Va l l ey Sha l e , a nd the po tenti a l r i s k of an

aqu i fe r , wi th the Uppe r Rome sandstones bei ng the po rous un i t ,

sa ndwi ched between i mpermeab l e s ha l es .

Summa t i on

Argi l l aceo u s Un i ts . The two methods empl oyed i n the a na lys i s of

the a rg i l l a ceous u n i ts we re XRD and CEC determ i na t i o n s . X- ray

d i ffra c ti o n a na l yses i nd i c a te the p resence of the fo l l ow i ng mi nera l s :

i l l i te , g l a u co n i te , kao l i n i te , ch l o ri te , b i oti te , mus cov i te , qua rtz ,

hema t i te , ca l c i te , do l omi te , Ks pa r , and p l ag i oc l ase . Da ta gathered

were treated e s sent i a l l y o n a qua l i tat i ve bas i s , a s quanti fi cat ion of

s ha l es i s g rea tl y compl i ca ted by the d i ffract i on characteri s t i cs o f

c l ay mi nera l s . The occurrence of a few broad pea ks i n the patterns

( thought to i nc l ude pea ks of i l l i te , muscovi te , bi o ti te , a nd/o r

g l aucon i te ) , suggests the occurrence o f e i ther ra ndom l y m i xed- l ayer

cl ays , d i s c re te cry s ta l l i tes , or a comb i na t i o n . No exact cause for the

broad pea ks cou l d be c i ted from the work done i n th i s i nves ti gati on .

87

88

CEC v a l ues for the arg i l l a ceous s amp l es ra nged from 5 . 52 to

33 . 6 1 meq/ 1 00 g . A trend , bel i eved to be d i rec t l y l i nked to the overa l l

c l ay content ( s i nce c l ays a re the maj o r contr i bu tors to CEC ) , exi s ts

between CEC va l ues a nd l i tho l o g i c g roup : ( pre sented i n o rder o f a verage

decrea s i ng CEC va l ues ) cl ays tones , s ha l es , s i l t s tone s , and sandstone s .

The sandstones ana l yzed genera l l y had CEC val ues a t o r be l ow the l owes t

va l ue for s i l t stones .

Non-Arg i l l aceous Uni ts . Petrograph i c s l i des were u t i l i zed i n the

s tudy of the s a nd s tones and coa rse s i l ts tones : determ i na t i on s o f the

mi nera l ogy a nd poro s i ty were the p r imary goal s . Qua rtz , Ks pa r , ma tri x ,

cement ( q ua rtz overg rowth s , hema t i te , ca l c i te ) , g l aucon i te , p l a g i oc l a se ,

m i s cel l any , mu s cov i te , and b i ot i te were the co n st i tuents . Quant i f i ca t i o n

of data ( po i nt co unt i ng ) perm i t s the determi na t i on o f a n " average"

compo s i ti on for a l l sampl es ana l yzed : qua rtz = 58% , Ks par = 20% ,

ma t r i x = 1 0% , cement = 4% , g l auco n i te = 3% , p l ag i oc l a se = 2% ,

mus cov i te = 1 % , m i s ce l l aneous = 1 % , b i oti te = trace .

The " typ i ca l " Rome sandsto ne i s a ma ture , wel l -so rted , s ubarko s i c ,

very f i ne sandstone to s i l ty sandstone . Sandy s i l tstones to s i l ty

sa ndstones , wh i ch a re modera te l y sorted a nd i mma ture , domi nate the

Conasauga ' s non - a rg i l l a ceous s egment .

There are a few d i s t i nct i ve d i fferences between the Rome a nd

Conasauga sandstones/ s i l ts tone s . S l i g h tl y h i g her percentages o f

g l auco n i te ( 1 1 % h i gh e r ) a n d ma t r i x ( 1 1 % h i gher ) were fou nd i n the a verage

Conas auga samp l e , whereas s l i g h t l y greater percentages o f Ks par ( 1 4% )

were noted i n the a verage Rome sampl e s . These va r i a t i o ns a re bel i eved

to be a refl ect i o n of the g radua l tec ton i c or env i ro nmenta l changes

experi enced i n the a rea .

89

I n compa r i ng fresh a nd wea thered s egments of the same s amp l e ,

a pp rox ima te l y 70% had the s ame const i tuents i n very s im i l a r p roporti o n s .

Po ros i ty o f the samp l es exam i ned were a ttr i bu ted to

1 ) de te r i ora t i o n o f the g l a uco n i t i c a nd m i caceous g ra i ns

2 ) m i c rosco p i c vo i ds

3 ) d i s con t i nuous m i c roscop i c c ra c ks

4 ) mac ro scop i c cracks ( con ti nuo us a nd d i scon t i nuous ) Poro s i ty val ues ra nged from 0 % to 1 0% , wi th the a verage bei ng o n l y 2 . 5% .

There i s a d i s ti nc ti ve d i fference between the overa l l po ro s i ty va l ues

of the CARL a nd FR outcrops ; average poro s i ty o f CARL u n i ts = 0 . 7% ,

FR un i ts = 3 . 7% . Th i s s i g n i f i cant d i f ference i s bel i eved due to the

fact that the FR ou tcrop i s mo re wea thered a s compa red to CARL .

Wea theri ng tends to destroy cement i ng agents a nd fac i l i ta tes the

deteri o ra t i o n o f part i cu l arl y s u scept i b l e gra i n s such as m i caceo u s a nd

g l aucon i t i c mater i a l s ( i nc i p i ent pore s pace ) .

Conc] u s i on s

The m i ne ra l og i c , pe tro l o g i c , a nd i o n excha nge da ta gathered i n

th i s s tudy was i ntended to pro v i de i nforma t i on o n the sandstones ,

s i l t s to nes , a nd s ha l es o f the Rome and Conasa uga . The compo nents o f

the l i tho l og i c u n i t s mus t b e known i n o rder t o u nders tand a n d accurate l y

p red i c t any react i o ns o r i nte rac t i ons , s ho ul d a ny seepage o f wa s te

ma ter i a l occur , espec i a l l y i n to the Rome sands tones .

CEC va l ues a re i mporta n t i n the event of wa s te f l u i d com i ng i n to

conta ct wi th a l i tho l og i c u n i t . Genera l l y , C EC va l ues are d i rect ly

p roporti ona l to the c l ay m i nera l content . Stud i es i nd i ca te t he

c l ays tones have the h i ghest C EC ' s , fol l owed by s ha l es , s i l t s tones , a nd

sandstones .

90

Poro s i ty a nd permeab i l i ty a re the two maj o r fac tors i nvol ved i n

the a s s e s sment o f a potenti a l aqu i fe r . Al though no d i rect mea su rements

o f permea b i l i ty were made i n t h i s s tudy , va l uab l e i ns i g ht i n to th i s

fac to r was prov i ded by the da ta gathered o n poros i ty o f t he sandstones

a nd s i l t stones . Whi l e permeab i l i ty i s a comp l ex concep t , i t i s h i g h l y

dependent upon the l evel of effect i ve poros i ty . Abso l u te poro s i ti es

were de term i ned i n th i s i nves t i ga t i o n ; effect i ve po ro s i ty i s near l y

a l ways l ower than a bso l ute poro s i ty .

The uppermo s t sandstone u n i ts o f the Rome a re compo sed pr i nc i pa l l y

o f quartz a nd fe l d spa r , wi th l es s than 5 % cement a n d ma t r i x , a nd no

g l aucon i te . S i nce the l a rge s t number o f pores observed were a ttr i butabl e

to deter i o ra ti ng mi caceous ma teri a l , there i s l i ttl e threa t o f a

s i zeab l e poros i ty i ncrease i n that manne r . Un l es s there i s a drama t i c

i nc rea s e i n the extent o f fractur i ng ( genera ted by man -made o r na tura l

means ) , t here a ppears to be l i ttl e need for concern for a poro s i ty

i nc rea s e above the current 3% . The uppermo st s a ndstone u n i t o f the

Rome i s bou nded by s ha l e l ayers . I n the event o f seepage o f wa s te

ma teri a l , i t s hou l d be rea l i zed tha t s ha l es a re several t imes mo re

effect i ve i n remov i ng ca t i ons , as wel l as be i ng fa i r l y i mperv i ous .

I f any was te fl u i d doe s reach the sandstones of the Rome , i t i s h i g h l y

u n l i ke l y that a n aqu i fer sys tem cou l d devel op , s i nce the s a ndstones

have very l ow poro s i t i es ( sugge s t i ng l ow permeabi l i t i es ) . I n add i t i o n ,

thei r pr ima ry mi neral con s t i tuents a re qua rtz and Ks pa r , not un stab l e

mi nera l s nor compo nents eas i l y a l terabl e by m i grat i ng f l u i ds .

9 1

Sugge s t i o n s for Fu rther Studi es

Th i s i nves t i gat i o n wa s des i g ned to p rov i de i nfo rma t i on o n bul k

roc k sampl es . I n the case of the a rg i l l aceous components , a more

deta i l ed study wou l d be des i rab l e . Separa t i o n i n to va r i ou s s i ze

fract io ns , wi th s pec i a l empha s i s o n the c l ay s i ze fract i o n , wo u l d a l l ow

for more thorough character i za t i o n of the c l ay m i nera l components a nd

for a mo re q uant i tati ve a pproach . Due pr i ma r i l y to c l ay m i neral s ,

c l ays tones and s ha l es have the mo s t e ffect i ve exchange capab i l i t i e s o f

a l l l i tho l og i es s tud i ed . A more prec i s e unders tand i ng o f c l ay

i nterstrat i f i ca t i o n ( i f any ) , textures , fabr i cs , a nd a s sorted phys i ca l

a nd chem i c a l prope rt i es o f t h e a rg i l l a ceou s u n i ts wou l d b e benefi c i a l

i n understand i ng the i r i nteract i o n s wi th wa s te fl u i ds .

Duri ng the course of thi s i nves ti gat i o n , i t wa s not poss i b l e to

ma ke d i rect mea s u reme n ts o f permeab i l i ty . Such da ta wou l d hel p to

refu te or confi rm the petrogra p h i ca l l y e s tab l i s hed concl u s i o n tha t mo s t

Rome sandstones a re l i kel y t o have l ow permeab i l i t i es ( samp l e s of these

roc k s a re s ti l l a va i l ab l e a nd coul d po s s i b l y be used i n permeab i l i ty

determi nati ons ) .

Actual po s i t i o n o f the Rome sandstones wi th re s pect to e stabl i s hed

as wel l as futu re buri a l s i te s shou l d be determ i ned . A l though i t i s

bel i eved tha t these s a ndstones have l ow poros i t i es / pe rmeab i l i t i es ,

they a l so have fa i rl y l ow CEC va l ues . I f for a ny rea son ( i ncrea sed

fractu r i ng , etc . ) , wa s te fl u i d s shou l d enter these sandstones , they

woul d be the l ea s t capabl e l i tho l ogy to remove haza rdous cat i ons .

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Pearson , M . J . , 1 9 78 , Quant i ta t i ve c l ay m i nera l o g i ca l ana l yses from the bul k c hemi s try of s ed imentary roc k s : C l ays a nd C l ay Mi neral s , v . 26 , p . 423-433 .

97

Petti john , F . J . , 1 970 , I nt roduc t i on , i n Stud i e s of Appa l a c h i a n Geo l ogy , central a nd sou thern ( F i s her , et a l . , eds . ) p . l - 3 .

Pett i j ohn , F . J . , Potter , P . , a nd S i ever , R . , 1 97 3 , Sa n d a nd Sa ndstones : Spr i nger- Verl a g , New Yo r k , 6 1 8 p .

P i erce , J . W . a n d S i ege l , F . R . , 1 969 , Quanti f i c a t i o n i n c l ay m i neral s tud i e s o f sed ime n ts and sed i menta ry roc k s : Jou r . Sed . Pet . , v . 39 , p . 1 87 - 1 93 .

Purto n , M . J . a nd Youel l , R . F . , 1 969 , An x- ray i nve st i ga t i on of some arg i l l a ceous roc ks from the Sk i pton Anti c l i ne , York s h i re : C l ay Mi neral s , v . 8 , p . 29-37 .

Res ser , C . E . , 1 9 38 , Cambri a n sys tem ( restr i cted ) o f the south ern Appa l a c h i a n s : Geo l . Survey Amer . Sp . Paper 1 5 , 1 40 p .

Reyno l ds , R . C . a nd Hower , J . , 1 97 0 , The nature of i l l i te i nte rl ayer i ng i n mi xed- l ayer i l l i te-mo n tmor i l l on i tes : C l ays a nd C l ay Mi nera l s , v . 1 8 , p . 25-36 .

Ri ch , C . I . a nd Kunze , G . W . ( eds . ) , 1 964 , So i l C l ay Mi nera l ogy : A Sympo s i um : Un i v . No . C a ro l i na Pres s , Chapel H i l l , 330 p .

Rodgers , J . , 1 953 , Geol og i c ma p o f Ea s t Tenne s s ee wi th exp l anatory text : Tenn . D i v . Geol . Bu l l . 58 , part 2 , 1 68 p .

Rodgers , J . , 1 956 , The known Camb r i a n depo s i ts of the so uthern and centra l Appa l ach i a n Moun ta i ns : I nt l . Geo l . Congres s , XX Sess i on , Mex i co C i ty , v . 2 , p . 353- 384 .

Safford , J . , 1 869 , Geo l ogy of Ten nessee , State o f Tennes see , Na shv i l l e , 550 p .

Samma n , N . F . , 1 975 , Sed imenta t i o n a nd Strat i g raphy o f the Rome Fo rma t i on i n Ea s t Tennes see : unp . Ph . D . d i s s erta t i o n , Un i v . Tenn . , Knoxvi l l e , 336 p .

Sawhney , B . L . , 1 9 70 , Po ta s s i um and ces i um i o n se l ect i v i ty i n rel a t i o n to c l ay m i nera l s tructu re : C l ays a nd C l ay M i nera l s , v . 1 8 , p . 4 7 -52 .

Schu l tz , L . G . , 1 958 , Quant i ta ti ve x- ray determ i nat i ons o f s ome a l umi nous c l ay mi nera l s i n roc k s : C l ays a nd Cl ay M i nera l Proc . , 7 th Conf . , p . 2 1 6-225 .

Schu l tz , L . G . , 1 964 , Quant i ta t i ve i nterp reta t i o n o f m i nera l og i ca l compos i t i on f rom x- ray a n d chem i ca l da ta for the P i erre Shal e : U . S . Geo l . Su rvey Prof . Paper 391 - C , 30 p .

Shaw , D . B . a nd Wea ve r , C . E . , 1 965 , The mi neral og i ca l compos i t i on o f s ha l e s : Jour . Sed . Pet . , v . 35 , p . 2 1 3-2 2 2 .

S i bl ey , D . F . and B l a tt , H . , 1 9 76 , I ntergra nu l a r pres s ure so l u t i on and cemen ta t i on of the Tuscaro ra o rthoqua rtz i te : Jou r . Sed . Pet . , v . 46 , p . 881 - 886 .

98

S i ever , R . and Kastne r , M . , 1 9 72 , Shal e p etrol ogy by e l ectron m i c roprobe ; pyr i te-c h l o r i te re l a t i on s : Jou r . Sed . Pe t . , v . 42 , p . 350-355 .

S i r i bha kd i , K . , 1 976 , Ev i den ce for Camb r i a n pyroc l a st i c vu l can i sm preserved i n the Rome Forma t i o n nea r Oak R i dge , Tennes see : unp . M . S . thes i s , Un i v . Tenn . , Knoxv i l l e , 50 p .

S p i ga i , J . J . , 1 963 , A s tu dy o f the Rome Forma t i on i n the Va l l ey a nd R i dge o f Ea st Tennessee : unp . M . S . thes i s , Un i v . Ten n . , Knoxv i l l e , 1 79 p .

Sto kke , P . R . and Ca rso n , B . , 1 97 3 , Va r i a ti on i n c l ay mi nera l x- ray d i ffract i on resu l ts w i th the quant i ty of samp l e mounted : Jo u r . Sed . Pet . , v . 43 , p . 957-9 64 .

Suchec k i , R . K . , Perry , E . a nd Hubert , J . , 1 97 7 , C l ay petro l ogy of Camb ro- Ordov i c i a n conti nenta l ma rg i n , Cow Head Kl i ppe , wes te rn Newfound l a nd : C l ays and C l ay Mi neral s , v . 2 5 , p . 1 63- 1 7 0 .

Tammemag i , H . Y . , Ga l e , J . E . and Sa nford , B . V . , 1 97 7 , Underground d i sposa l of Canada ' s nuc l ear wa s te : Geo s c i e nce Canada , v . 4 , p . 7 1 - 7 7 .

Tamura , T . and Jacobs , D . G . , 1 960 , Structura l i mp l i ca t i ons i n ces i um sorpt i on : Hea l th Phys i cs , v . 2 , p . 391 - 398 .

Tank , R . W . a n d McNee l ey , L . , 1 970 , C l ay m i neral s a ssoc i ated wi th the Precambr i a n Gowganda Forma t i o n of Ontar i o : C l ay Mi nera l s , v . 8 , p . 47 1 -477 .

Tettenho rs t , R . a nd Gr im , R . E . , 1 9 75 , I nters tra t i f i ed c l ays : Am . M i nera l og i s t , v . 60 , p . 49- 60 .

Thompson , G . R . and Hower , J . , 1 975 , The m i nera l ogy o f g l aucon i te : C l ays a nd C l ay M i nera l s , v . 23 , p . 289-300 .

T i en , P . L . , 1 9 74 , A s impl e dev i ce for smea ri ng c l ay o n g l a s s s l i des fo r quant i tat i ve x-ray d i ffract i on s tud i e s : C l ays a nd C l ay Mi neral s , v . 22 , p . 367- 368 .

Towe , K . M . , 1 9 74 , Qua nt i ta t i ve c l ay p etro l ogy : The trees but not the fore s t? : C l ays and C l ay Mi nera l s , v . 22 , p . 375-378 .

Va n Der P l a s , L . and Tob i , A . C . , 1 965 , A chart for j udg i ng the rel i ab i l i ty of po i nt co unt i ng res u l ts : Am . Jou r . Sc i e nce , v . 263 , p . 87-90 .

van O l phen , H . and Fri p i at , J . J . (eds . ) , 1 9 79 , Data Handboo k for C l ay Mi nera l s a nd Other Non-meta l l i c Mi neral s : Pergamo n Pre s s , Oxford , 346 p .

Vel de , B . and Hower , J . , 1 963 , Petro l og i ca l s i g n i f i ca nce of i l l i te po l ymorp h i sm i n Pal eozo i c s ed i mentary roc k s : Am . Mi nera l og i s t , v . 48 , p . 1 239- 1 254 .

99

Ve l de , B . and Odi n , G . S . , 1 975 , Further i nfo rma t i on re l a ted to the o ri g i n of g l a ucon i te : C l ays a nd C l ay Mi nera l s , v . 2 3 , p . 376- 381 .

Vel de , B . , 1 9 76 , The c hem i ca l evo l u t i on o f gl aucon i te pe l l e ts a s seen by m i c roprobe determi na t i o ns : M i n era l og i ca l Maga z i ne , v . 40 , p . 753- 760 .

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Wars haw , C . M . , 1 9 58 , Exper i mental s tud i e s of i l l i te : C l ays a nd C l ay Mi nera l Proc . , 7th Con f . , p . 303- 3 1 7 .

Weave r , C . E . , 1 957 , The di s t r i bu t i o n and i dent i f i ca t i on o f mi xed- l ayer c l ays i n s e d i mentary rocks : Am . t� i nera l o g i s t , v . 4 1 , p . 202- 2 2 1 .

Wi l son , M . D . a nd P i t tman , E . D . , 1 97 7 , Auth i gen i c c l ays i n sands tone s : recog n i t i o n and i nfl uence o n res ervo i r p ro pert i es and pa l eoenv i ronme n ta l ana l ys i s : J our . Sed . Pet . , v . 47 , p . 3-3 1 .

Young , A . , Low , P . a nd Mclatch i e , A . S . , 1 964 , Permea b i l i ty stud i es of arg i l l aceous roc ks : Jou r . Geophys i ca l Researc h , v . 69 , p . 4237-4245 .

APPEND I C ES

APPEND I X 1

G R I ND I NG STUDY

I n order to determi ne the opt imum gr i nd i ng t i me , a " typ i ca l "

sampl e ( CH 29 W SH ) wa s se l ected a nd g round mecha n i ca l l y for 0 . 5* ,

1 . 0 , 2 . 0 , 4 . 0 , a n d 8 . 0 hou rs . * ( One ha l f ho u r of mecha n i ca l g r i nd i ng

wa s the m i n i mum t i me requ i red for obta i n i ng s u i ta bl e pa rt i c l e s i ze for

prepara t i o n of the smear mou n t and/or sed imented s l i de fo r x - ray

d i ffract i on . ) Each samp l e wa s ana l yzed by x- ray d i ffra c tome try

( co nd i t i o n s : CuKa , 35 kv , 1 7 ma , 1 0 cps , TC 2 , l / 2 °/mi n . ) . The re su l ts

obta i ne d i nd i cate the fo l l owi ng :

1 ) E i g h t ho urs of mec han i ca l g r i nd i ng d i d not adverse ly a ffect the

c rys ta l l i ne s truc tures of a ny of the mi nera l components presen t .

2 ) A l though there were no s i g n i f i cant mea su rabl e d i fferences i n t he

i nten s i ty and s ha rpnes s , the p ea ks genera ted from the samp l e s g round

for 1 a nd 2 hou rs a ppea red to be very s l i g h t l y super i o r . I t s hou l d be

noted tha t i de n ti ca l re su l ts may not be obta i ned when u s i ng a gr i nder

other than t he one emp l oyed i n th i s s tudy ( F i sher 1 0 v/60 cyc l e ) .

1 0 1

APPEND I X 2

SMEAR MOUNT PREPARAT I ON

A smal l quant i ty o f the mecha n i ca l l y ground port i o n of the s amp l e

wa s mi xed wi th d e i o n i zed wa ter u n t i l a " pa sty" co n s i s tency evo l ved .

To ach i eve re l a t i ve l y con s ta n t cons i s tenc i es throughou t p repa ra t i o n of

a l l sampl e s , there wa s no further add i t i on of wa ter when the pa ste

a tta i ned the ab i l i ty to form s t i ff peaks . A dol l op o f " pas te" wa s

p l aced o n a fros ted s l i de a n d smea red over the s l i de ' s ent i re s u rface .

To i n s u re u n i fo rm thi c kne s s of the smear over the s l i de , a s wel l a s

ma i n ta i n i ng the same th i c kne s s i n a l l s l i des , a s pec i a l s l i de hol der

wa s prepared . At ea ch end of a l a rge ( 2 X 3 ) petrograph i c s l i de wa s

mou n ted a sma l l ( 1 X 2 ) s l i de , l ea v i ng j u s t enough space for a sr.1ea r

mount s l i d e . A to p t h e two sma l l s l i des were g l ued cover s l i d e s . Thus ,

wi th a s l i de i n p l ace , between the two sma l l e r s l i des , the pa s te can be

ea s i l y a nd eve n l y d i s tr i buted over the en t i re s l i de i n a few mo t i o n s

wi th a nother s l i de , p l ast i c ru l er , or a ny oth e r r i g i d , smooth , fl a t

obje c t . A meta l dev i ce of s i mi l a r des i g n i s descr i bed by T i en ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

1 02

APPEND I X 3

DETERM I NAT I ON OF CEC VALUES

I n the p rocedure out l i ned by Busenberg and Cl emency ( 1 9 7 3 ) , t he

fo l l owi ng equa t i o n wa s used to determi ne the C EC val u es :

C EC = ( cl (v } TWfTfT

C EC = c a t i o n exchange capac i ty i n meq/ 1 00 g .

c = concentra t i o n of ammo n i a i n mo l es/ 1 .

Th i s va l u e wa s o b ta i ned grap h i ca l l y , from rea d i ng the ca l i b ra t i o n c u rve

wh i c h wa s p repa red u s i ng k nown sol ut i ons o f ammo n i um c h l o r i de . The

ammon i a concen tra ti ons ( i n mo l ewl) were p l otted aga i n s t the ammon i a

e l ec trode pote n t i a l ( i n mv ) .

v = vol ume o f water ( 1 00 ml s a dded i n eac h case o f th i s s tudy ) .

w = we i gh t o f sampl e i n mg .

f = convers i on factor ( e nabl es f i na l res u l t to be expressed i n

- 5 meq/ 1 00 g ) . I n th i s s tudy , t h i s fa ctor wa s 1 0 .

1 03

APPEND I X 4

STA I N I NG FOR KSPAR

The ori g i na l proced ure of R . N . H i scott a nd F . B . Ke l l er ( pers .

comm . , 1 98 0 ) wa s mod i f i ed s l i g htl y for th i s pa rt i cu l a r s u i te o f samp l es .

Importa n t : E tc h i ng and i mmers i on t imes may va ry wi t h the reagents u s ed

and the type o f roc k .

Caut io n : When wo rk i ng wi th HF u se an adeq ua te hood , exerc i se ca u t i o n

when hand l i ng , a nd di spose o f p roperl y .

1 ) F i l l a few compa rtments ( to ma tch area of s urface to be e tc hed ) of

a l a rge cube ice tray , or o ther s u i tabl e conta i ner , 3/ 4 fu l l wi th HF

( 5 2-55% ) . Be certa i n a c i d i s fa i r l y fresh . P l ace s l i de ( roc k s i de

down ) over fumes , s h i fti ng peri o d i ca l l y wi th tongs to a s sure tota l

expos ure , for 2 - 2 l / 2 m i nutes .

2 ) Us i ng tong s , tran sfer the s l i de to s atu rated Na-coba l t i n i tr i te

s o l u t i o n , and i mme rse for 5 m i n u tes . The so l u t i o n s hou l d be fres h l y

prepared ( no t more than 2 days o l d ) . S i nce l a rge quant i t i es o f

Na- coba l t i n i tr i te powder are requ i red , i t i s a dvantageou s t o m i n im i ze

the amount of so l u t i o n for s ta i n i ng . A petri d i s h ( 1 00 X 1 5 mm s i ze )

ho l ds approx imatel y 2 5 ml s o f so l u t i o n a n d comfortab ly a ccomodates a

2 X 3 s l i de . Of course , o ther conta i ners may be emp l oyed .

3 ) L i ft s l i de from so l ut i o n w i th tongs , and swi s h s everal t i mes i n a

bea ker of c l ea n , cool wa ter . The s l i de can now be safe l y hand l ed

wi tho u t tongs .

4 ) R i n se s l i de i n cool ta p wa ter fo r 20-30 seconds to e l i mi na te a ny

exces s s ta i n .

5 ) Set o n c l ean pa per or c l oth towel i ng ( rock s i de u p ) to d ry .

1 04

V I TA

I n 1 9 56 , Jan i ne Gajda S l edz was born on Fri day , January 1 3th , i n

Ch i cago , I l l i no i s . Upon g radu at i ng f rom Ch i cago ' s Lourdes H i g h School

i n Augu st 1 9 7 2 , s he a t tended Wes tern I l l i no i s U n i vers i ty , Macomb . After

recei v i ng a BS deg ree i n Geo l ogy i n February 1 9 7 6 , s he wo rked fo r two

yea rs a s a n a s s i s tant techn i ca l res ea rcher a t Na l co Chemi ca l Compa ny .

I n September 1 978 , s he accep ted a teac h i ng a s s i s tants h i p i n the Geo l ogy

Department a t The Un i vers i ty of Tennes see , Knoxvi l l e , enrol l i ng i n the

Ma s ter of Sc i ence program . The fo l l ow i ng yea r , s he wa s p l aced on the

ORNL/ UT research p rogram , wh i c h s ponsored her gra duate s tud i es . I n

December 1 980 , s he rece i ved t h e MS degree i n Geo l ogy .

S i nce September 1 9 76 , s he has been happ i l y mar r i ed to J i m Sl edz ,

i n s p i te of the " profes s i o na l handi cap " of be i ng ma r r i ed to a fel l ow

geol o g i s t .

1 05

Petrologic, Mineralogic, and Ion Exchange Characteristics ...

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