Preface Water-Quality EngineeringK
Hanaki,UniversityofTokyo,Tokyo,Japan& 2011Elsevier B.V.
Allrights
reserved.Watertechnologyhasbeenevergrowing.Itisanessentialsetof
technologies for sustainable human society. Traditionaltechnology,
or better calledjust skill, toobtain, purify,
andsupplywaterwasdevelopedintheancienterainvariousre-gions of the
world. Great efforts have been made to obtain safeandadequatewater
as anessential
resourcetohumanlife.However,still,billionsofpeopleintheworldhavenoaccesstosafe
water. Moreover, large numbers of people have
nochancetouseapropersanitationsystem,andthiseventuallydeteriorates
water quality and decreases the available safewaterresources.Water
resources are renewable theoretically. Used waterdoes not disappear
but is renewed to freshwater throughevaporationbythepower of solar
energy. Solar energyis anatural distillationsystemtoremove
impurities present inwater. However, the helpof water technologyis
neededtomaintain this renewing function in the modern world inwhich
human activity overwhelms the natural
purifyingfunction.Conventional water technologywas usedas
ablackboxthrough which water was puried without knowing
themechanisms, whichcontrol thephysical, chemical, andbio-logical
reactions used in purication. However, such empiricaluse of
technology cannot further improve or develop thetechnology. Many
researchers and practitioners have
de-velopedtheory-basedtechnology, ratherthanmereempiricalskill, for
purifying water. The function of each unit process wasstudiedandthe
mechanisms of separation, role of micro-organisms, andprocess
characteristics were claried. Asig-nicant amount of knowledge has
beenaccumulated. Thisknowledge improves process performance and
reliability.Human beingsalso developed tools to examinethe micro-
ornanoscalereaction.Moderntechnologyneedstobebasedonadeepandbroadunderstandingoftheory.Watertechnologyisnotisolatedfromothertechnologies.Manyinnovationstoupgradewater-technologyperformancehave
beentried by applying newtechnologies fromotherelds. Membrane
technology that originated in a eld such asmedical science or
chemical engineering is an example.Nowadays, water treatment is
oneof thelargest applicationareasofmembranetechnology.The purposeof
water technologyhas beenexpandedfrompuricationof water to water
generation, energy and
resourcerecovery.Thisisapracticalandimportantareatowhichnewtechnology
can be applied. Water availability is limitinghuman settlements.
The supply of water produced
fromseawaterorevenmoisturecanbreakthroughthislimitation.Therequirements
for water technologydiffer verymuchfromoneplacetotheother.
Thekeyfactorsaretarget com-pounds tobe removed, resource
andenergyconsideration,capacityof operatinghumanresources, aswell
aseconomicresources. For example,
asafewater-supplysysteminleast-developed areas needs technology,
which can be used withoutfrequent and sophisticated maintenance.
However,
suchtechnologydoesnotmeancheapandoldtechnology.Newlydevelopedinnovativetechnologyhasahigherchanceofim-plementationthanoldtechnology.Water
management needs policyandsystemtechnologyrather thansimple
connectionof unit technologies.
Adis-tributedwastewatertreatmentsystemneedsreliableandeco-nomically
and technologically reasonable treatmenttechnologies. A nutrient
removal policy for eutrophication
canberealizedbyintroducingatechnologicallyreasonablecom-binationof
secondary andadvancedtreatments. The
watertechnologyisasystemtechnology.Resource and energy limitation
has become a key factor forsustainability. Substantial amount of
material use threatensthe worlds resources, andenergy use provokes
the climatechangeproblem. Savingresourceandenergyis
nowanin-dispensableaspect of watertechnology. Thenecessityof
en-ergyandresource saving further changes water technology.The
current global situationregarding climate change andresource
limitation enhances the recovery of resource andenergy. Wastewater
contains organic matter, which is
biomass;therefore,obtainingcarbon-neutralenergyispossible.Water
technology is nowforming animportant part ofbusinessworldwide.
Everycountryneedssafewater anden-vironmental
protectionfromwastewater. Technology devel-opment, implementation,
and maintenance providesubstantialopportunitiesforbusiness.This
volume includes theory, practice, andrecent devel-opment of
thesewiderangeof watertechnologies,
althoughallsuchinnovativetechnologiescannotbeincluded.Thereisnosingleanswertoanyoftheparticularcases.Amongmanyoptions,oneshouldchooseatechnologysystemconsideringthelocalsocial,economic,andengineeringaspects.Thisvol-umewouldhelpsuchatechnologychoice.14.01
Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient
Greekand Roman CivilizationsG De
Feo,UniversityofSalerno,Fisciano(SA),ItalyLW
Mays,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ,USAAN
Angelakis,InstituteofIraklion,Iraklion,Crete,Greece&
2011Elsevier B.V. Allrights reserved.4.01.1 Aqueducts 44.01.2
Minoan and Greek Aqueducts 44.01.3 Roman Aqueducts 54.01.4 Cisterns
and Reservoirs 84.01.5 Water Distribution Systems 114.01.6
Fountains 144.01.7 Drainage and Sewerage Systems and Toilets
154.01.8 Discussion and Conclusions 19References
21ProlegomenaThepastisthekeyforthefutureHydor(Water)isthebeginningofeverythingThalesfromMiletus(c.636546
BC).Humans havespent most of their existenceas
huntingandfood-gatheringbeings.Onlyinthelastc.900010 000years,they
discovered howto growagricultural crops and tameanimals. Such
revolution probably rst took place in the hillsto the northof
Mesopotamia. Fromthere the
agriculturalrevolutionspreadtotheNileandIndusValleys.
Duringthisagricultural revolution, permanent villages replaceda
wan-dering existence. About 60007000 years ago, farming
villagesoftheNearEastandMiddleEastbecamecities.Hydraulictechnologybeganduringantiquitylongbeforethe
great works of suchinvestigators suchas LeonardodaVinci (14521519)
and Isaac Newton (16421727), and evenlongbeforeArchimedes(287212
BC)(Mays, 2008). Duringthe Neolithic age (c. 57003200BC), the rst
successful effortstocontrol
thewaterowweredriven(suchasdamsandir-rigation systems) due to the
food needs and were imple-mented in Mesopotamia and Egypt (Mays et
al., 2007). Urbanwater-supply
andsanitationsystemsaredatedatalaterstage,intheBronzeAge(c.32001100
BC).Regarding the technological principles related to water
andwastewater, todayit is well documentedthat
manyarenotachievements of present day, but date back to 30004000
yearsago. Theseachievements includebothwater
andwastewaterconstructions(suchasdams, wells, cisterns, aqueducts,
sewer-age and drainage systems, toilets, and even
recreationalstructures). Thesehydraulic works alsoreect
advancedsci-enticknowledge,whichallowedtheconstructionoftunnelsfromtwoopeningsandthetransportationof
waterbothbygravity owinopenchannels and by pressurized
owinclosedconduits. Certainly, technological developments
weredriven by the necessities to make efcient use of
naturalresources, to make civilizations more resistant to
destruc-tivenatural elements, andtoimprovethestandards of
life.Withrespecttothelatter, theGreek(includingMinoan)andRoman
civilizations developed an advanced, comfortable, andhygienic
lifestyle, as manifested frompublic and
privatebathroomsandushingtoilets,whichcanonlybecomparedto the
modern one, re-established in Europe and
NorthAmericainthebeginningofthelastcentury.Minoantechnological
developments inwater andwaste-water management principles
andpractices are not as wellknown as other achievements of the
Minoan civilization, suchas poetry, philosophy, sciences, politics,
and visual arts.However, archaeological and other evidence indicate
that,duringtheBronzeAgeinCrete,advancedwatermanagementandsanitarytechniqueswerepracticedinseveralpalacesandsettlements.
This periodwas calledbythe excavator of thepalace at Knossos, Sir
Arthur Evans, as Minoan after thelegendary King Minos. Thus, Crete
became the cradle of one ofthe most important civilizations of
mankind andthe rstmajorcivilizationinEurope.One of the major
achievements of the Minoans was
theadvancedwaterandwastewatermanagement techniquesprac-ticed in
Crete during that time. The advanced water distributionandsewerage
systems invarious Minoanpalaces andsettle-ments are remarkable.
These techniques include the con-structionanduseof aqueducts,
cisterns, wells, andfountains,the water-supply systems, the
constructionanduse of bath-rooms andother
sanitaryandpurgatoryfacilities, as well aswastewater and stormwater
sewerage systems. The hydraulic andarchitecturalfunctionofthe
water-supply and sewer
systemsinpalacesandcitiesareregardedasoneofthesalientcharacter-istics
of the Minoan civilization. These systems were so advancedthat
theycanbecomparedwiththemodernsystems, whichwere establishedonly
inthe second half of the nineteenthcentury in European and American
cities (Angelakis et al., 2010).Water
andwastewatertechnologiesdevelopedduringtheMinoan, Greek, and Roman
civilizations are considered in thischapter. Emphasis is given to
the water resources developmentsuchasaqueducts, cisterns, wells,
distributionsystems,
was-tewaterandstormwaterseweragesystemsconstruction, oper-ation,
and management beginning since Minoan times(secondmillenniumBC).
Theachievements tosupport the3hygienic and the functional
requirements of palaces and citiesduringthis timeweresoadvancedthat
couldbeparalleledonlytomodernurbanwatersystemsthatweredevelopedinEurope
andNorthAmerica onlyinthe secondhalf of
thenineteenthcentury(AngelakisandSpyridakis,1996).Itshouldbenotedthathydraulictechnologiesdevelopedduring
the Greek and Roman periods are not limited to urbanwater
andwastewater systems. Theprogress inurbanwatersupply was even more
admirable, as witnessed by severalaqueducts, cisterns, wells, and
other water facilities discovered(Koutsoyiannis et al., 2008).
These
advancedMinoantech-nologieswereexpandedtotheGreekmainlandinlaterperi-odsoftheGreekcivilization,
thatis, inMycenaean, Archaic,Classical, Hellenistic,
andRomanperiods. Inthis chapter, arather synoptic descriptionof the
mainconcepts of waterandwastewatermanagementduringtheMinoan, Greek,
andRoman civilization is attempted. The main principles
andchallengesarealsodiscussed.4.01.1
AqueductsAqueductswereusedtotransportwaterfromasourcetothelocationswherethewaterwasneeded,eitherforirrigationorfor
urban water supplies, and have been used since the BronzeAge.
Aqueduct bridgesareman-madeconduitsfortransport-ing water across
rivers, streams, and valleys. As a matter of fact,a systematic
evolution of water management in ancient
GreecebeganinCreteduringtheearlyBronzeAge,thatis,theEarlyMinoanperiod(c.
35002150BC)(Myersetal., 1992; Mays,2007). Starting the Early Minoan
period II (c. 29902300 BC),a variety of technologies such as wells,
cisterns, and aqueductswereused(Mays,2007).4.01.2 Minoan and Greek
AqueductsThe water distribution systemat Knossos, as well as
themountainous terrain and available springs made
possibletheexistenceofanaqueduct(Mays,2007;Maysetal.,2007).The
Minoaninhabitants of Knossos dependedpartially
onwells,andmostlyonwaterprovidedbytheKairatosRivertotheeast of
thelowhill of thepalace, andonsprings. Indi-cations suggest that
thewater-supplysystemof theKnossospalace initially relied on the
spring of Mavrokolybos (called soby
Evans),alimestonespringlocated450msouthwest
ofthepalace(Angelakisetal.,2007; Evans,19211935;
Maysetal.,2007).Inlaterperiodswiththeincreaseofpopulation,othersprings
at further longer distances were utilized. Thus,
anaqueductmadeofterracotta pipecouldhave crosseda bridgeonasmall
streamsouthof the palacewhichcarriedwaterfroma perennial spring on
the Gypsadhes hill (Graham,1987;Mays,2007).Asecondexampleof
anaqueduct
wasfoundinTylissos(seeFigure1(a)).Partsofthestoneaqueduct,withthemainconduit
at the entrance of the complex of houses, andother secondarysystems
ledthewater toacisterndatedatc. 14251390 BC (Mays et al., 2007).
Other aqueducts were inGournia, Malia, and Mochlos. These
technologies were furtherdeveloped during the Hellenistic and Roman
periods in Crete,andweretransferredtocontinental Greeceas well as
otherMediterranean locations (Angelakis et al., 2007; Angelakis
andSpyridakis,2010).IntheArchaicandtheClassicalperiodsoftheGreekcivil-ization,
aqueductswerebuilt similartotheonesbuilt bytheMinoansandMycenaeans.
Oneofthemostrenownedwater-supply systemsis the tunnel of Eupalinos
on Samos Island.Infact, it is the rst deep tunnel in history that
was dug from
twoopeningswiththetwolinesofconstructionmeetingataboutthe central
point of the distance. The construction of this
tunnelwasmadepossiblebytheprogressingeometryandgeodesythat was
necessary toimplement twoindependent lines ofconstruction that
would meet (Koutsoyiannis et al., 2008; Mayset al., 2007). The
Samos aqueduct system includes the
1036-m-longtunnelandtwoadditionalpartsforatotallengthgreaterthan2800m.
Its constructionstartedin530BC,
duringthetyrannyofPolycratesandlasted10years.
ItwasinoperationuntilthefthcenturyAD(Koutsoyiannisetal.,2008).Figure
1 Ancient Minoan and Greek aqueducts: (a) aqueduct entering
Tylissos showing the stone cover and (b) Peisistratean aqueduct
consisting ofterracotta pipe segments and elliptical pipeopenings
ineach pipe.Copyright permission withLW Mays.4 Water and Wastewater
Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman
CivilizationsObviously, there are several other acknowledged
aqueductsinGreekcitiessincewatersupplywasregardedacrucialandindispensable
infrastructure of every city (Tassios, 2007).Aqueducts (either
tunnels or trenches) were always
sub-terraneanduetosafetyandsecurityreasons. Usually, at theentrance
of the city, aqueducts would branch out in the city tofeedcisterns
andpublic fountains incentral locations. Theaqueducts were pipes
(usually terracotta) laying in the
bottomoftrenchesortunnelsallowingforprotection. Oneormorepipes
inparallel wereuseddependingupontheowtobeconveyed. The terracotta
pipes (2025cm in diameter) t intoeachotherandallow
accessforcleaningandmaintenancebyelliptic openings that were
covered by terracotta covers (Mays,2007;Maysetal.,2007).Water
conveyed by aqueducts typically originated
fromkarsticsprings.Asthehistoryteachesus,thepresenceofnat-uralspringswasaprerequisitefortheselectionofanareatosettle.
As a matter of fact, the Acropolis at Athens hadanaquifer
andaspringnamedClepsydra.
Withtheintensiedurbandevelopmentaswellastheincreaseofpopulation,thenatural
springs were not able to cover the water demand. Thus,the
increasing water scarcity was remedied by transferringwater
fromdistant springs byaqueducts, diggingwells,
andconstructingcisternsforrainwaterstorage.InAthensallthesealternatives
coexisted: the Peisistratean aqueduct
(seeFigure1(b))constructedbytheendofthesixthcenturyBCwas
accompaniedwithnumerous wells andcisterns. Legis-lative
andinstitutional tools were developedinAthens
inordertowiselyandeffectivelymanageawater-supplysystemwith public
and private elements (Mays et al.,
2007;Koutsoyiannisetal.,2008).Subsequently, the technologies
developed in ancientGreece were transferred to the Greek colonies
both to the eastin Ionia (Asia Minor, nowadays Turkey) and to the
west in theItalianpeninsula, Sicily, andotherMediterraneansites,
mostofwhichwerefoundedduringthearchaicperiod.AbrilliantexampleofthiswasthefoundingofSyracuse(onSicily)asacolonyofCorinthin734
BC(Maysetal.,2007).Later, duringtheHellenisticperiod,
furtherdevelopmentswere accomplishedby the Greeks inthe
constructionandoperationofaqueductsduetotheprogressinsciencewhichledanewtechnical
expertise. Hellenistic aqueducts usuallyusedpipesaswell
astheycontinuedtobesubterraneanforsafetyreasons(war, earthquakes,
etc.). Thescienticprogressinhydraulic(especiallyduetoArchimedes,
Heroof Alexan-dria) allowedthe constructionof invertedsiphons at
largescales toconveywater across valleys (lengths of
kilometers,hydraulicheadsofhundredsofmeters)(Koutsoyiannisetal.,2007,2008;Mays,2007;Maysetal.,2007).4.01.3
RomanAqueductsSprings, byfar, werethemost commonsourcesof
waterforaqueducts even with the Romans. Water sources for the
GreeksandRomansystems includednot onlysprings, percolationwells,
and weirs on streams, but also lakes that were
developedbybuildingdams. Atancient AugustaEmerita, at
present-dayMerida, Spain, theRomanwater
systemincludedtworeser-voirs createdby the constructionof the
CornalvoandtheProserpina dams. The Proserpina damis
anearthendam,approximately 427m long and 12 m high. The Cornalvo
damisanearthendam,approximately194 mlongand20mhighwith an 8 m dam
crest width. Both of these dams are still usedinthe present day,
obviously withmodications over theyears. Dams were built in many
regions of the Roman Empire.Aqueducts consisted of many components,
including openchannelsandpipes.
ThemaintypesofconduitsusedbytheRomansare:(1)openchannels(rivipercanalesstructiles),(2)leadpipes(stuliplumbei),
(3)earthenware(terracotta)pipes(tubilictiles),and(4)woodpipes.Openchannelswerebuiltusingmasonryorwerecutintherockandowsweredrivenby
gravity, while the leadpipes were usedfor pressurizedconduits
includinginvertedsiphons. Aschemerepresentingthe general pathofa
wholeaqueductwith the basicelementsis presentedinFigure2.
Obviously, therearemanysystemcongurations that were built by the
Romans andGreeks;however, the drawing presents the major
components, in-cluding the siphon (inverted siphon) which was used
in somesystems. Various types of pipes constructedbythe
Romansincludedterracotta,lead,wood,andstone.Oneof themost
impressiveRomanaqueductsinRomanGreeceis that
intheAegeanislandLesvos (Figure3). It isprobablyaworkof late
secondor early thirdcentury AD.It was mainlyusedfor water supplyof
Mytilenetown, thecapital of theisland, andfor water
supplyandirrigationofthe southeastern area of the island, by
transporting water fromthe lake of Megali Limni (big lake), at the
Olympus mountain, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 10Figure 2 Flow sheet and
components of a Roman aqueduct: (1) source caput aquae; (2) steep
chutes (dropshafts); (3) settling tank; (4) tunnel andshafts; (5)
covered trench; (6) aqueduct bridge; (7) inverted siphon; (8)
substruction; (9) arcade; (10) distribution basin/castellum aquae
divisorium;(11) water distribution system. From DeFeo G and Napoli
RMA (2007) Historical development of the Augustan aqueduct in
Southern Italy: Twentycenturies of works from Serino toNaples.
WaterScience and Technology:WaterSupply 7(1): 131138.Water and
Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman
Civilizations
5wheretheconstructionbegins.Theaqueductwasalsofedbyother
secondarysprings, suchasthespringsat theAgiassouarea(i.e., Karini).
It was passedthroughaveryanomalouslandscape relief; thus, it
includes parts onthe soil
surface,tunnels,andbridges.ThetotallengthoftheLesvosaqueductis
26km, withauniformslopeof 0.0096mm1. Its depthranges from 0.65 to
1.10 m and its width from 0.35 to 0.64 m(Karakostantinou, 2006).
Itsmaximumcapacityisestimatedtobeof25000m3d1aalongthedistanceof26
km,aroutethat wasentirelysupportedbygravity. Today, themaximumwater
supply of the town (15000m3d1) is pumpingfromsprings of Ydata
located ina lower level of that ofKarini (MytileneMunicipal
Enterprisefor Water SupplyandSewerage, 2009, personal
communication. Mytileni, Greece).Its remains at the village of
Moria are 170 m long and 27 m inheight and consist of 17 arches,
also called Kamares laying
ontheircolumn(Figure3(a)).Eachopeningisdividedinthreesuccessive
arches based oncolumns. The masonry is
con-structedwiththeuseofemplektonsystem(Karakostantinou,2006).
Thecolumnsandarcheswereconstructedfromlargeblocksof
graymarbletakenfromtheisland; thesematerialswere verystrong
andresistant todecay(Figure 3(b)). Thedistribution of the arches
along the openings consists of threeat a time up and down for every
opening. The openings aredelimitedby
columns,andeachcolumnhasanabacus.Siphons(Figure2(g))werebuilt
bytheRomansalso, infact manyof the siphons may very well have
beenstartedbytheGreeks andcompletedbytheRomans. Thesiphonsincludeda
header tankfor transitioning the openchannelow of the aqueduct into
one or more pipes, the bends calledgeniculus, the venter bridge to
support the pipes in the
valley,andthetransitionofpipeowtoopenchannelowusingareceivingtank.Locations
of siphons included Ephesus, Methymna,Magnesia, Philadelphia,
bothAntiochias, Blaundros, Patara,Smyrna, Prymnessos, Tralleis,
Trapezopolis, Apameia, Akmo-nia, Laodikeia, and Pergamon (Mays et
al., 2007; Tassios,2007). Thesesiphonswere
initiallybuiltwithterracottapipesor stone pipes (square stone
blocks towhicha hole wascarved) such as the inverted siphon at
Patara (Turkey), showninFigure 4 (Haberey, 1972). As showninthe
gure thissiphonwasconstructedfromcarvedstonesegments.
Never-theless,theneedforhigherpressuresnaturallyledtotheuseof metal
pipes, specically fromlead. One of the largestsiphons was the
Beaunant siphonof the aqueduct of the GierRiver whichsuppliedthe
Romancityof Lugdunum(Lyon,France). This siphon had nine lead pipes
with a total length of2.6 km. This siphon was 2600m long and 123m
deep with
anestimated(Hodge,2002)dischargeof25000m3d1.PergamonwasacityinwesternTurkeyatthepresent-daycityof
Bergama. TheHelenistic aqueducts constructedwerethe Attalos, the
Demophon, the Madradag, the Nikephorium,andtheAsklepieion.
TheRomanaqueductsconstructedwerethe Madradag channel, the Kaikos,
and the Aksu. TheMadradag aqueduct whichhada triple pipeline
(terracottapipe)ofmorethan50kmlongincludedaninvertedsiphon(madeoflead)longerthan3.5
km withamaximumpressurehead of about 190m (Mays et al., 2007;
Tassios, 2007). It tookanother 2000years later before another
pipeline was
con-structedthatcouldbearahigherpressure(Fahlbusch,2006).In
particular, the Attalos aqueduct was the rst pipeline(buried of red
clay, and 13 cm inner diameter) in Pergamon,anditwas
probablyconstructedinthemiddleorsecondhalfofthethirdcenturyBC,
bringingwaterfromaspringinthemountains north of Pergamon
(Fahlbusch, 2006; Mays, 2007;Oziz,1987,1996).The Romans built mega
water-supply systems includingmany magnicent structures. As a
matter of fact, Romanaqueducts became very famous all over the
world, with Romeswater-supplysystembeingconsideredoneof
themarvelsoftheancient world(Hodge, 2002; DeFeoandNapoli,
2007;DeFeoet al., 2009b; Mays, 2007; Mayset al., 2007). Infact,the
Romans were urban people and consumed enormousamount of
drinkingwater inorder tosupplybaths, publicanddecorativefountains,
residences, gardenirrigation, ourmills, aquatic shows, and swimming
pools (Hodge, 2002;Tolle-Kastenbein, 2005; De FeoandNapoli, 2007;
De Feoet al., 2009b; Mavromati and Chryssaidis, 2007). However,
theFigure 3 Part of theimpressiveRoman aqueductrises 600 m
westMoria, aLesvian village at6 km from Mytilene town: (a) general
view oftheremains and (b) thebase of columns. Copyright permission
withAN Angelakis.6 Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in
the Ancient Greek and Roman CivilizationsRoman aqueducts were not
built with the primary purpose
ofprovidingdrinkingwater,nortopromotehygiene,butrathertosupply the
thermae andbaths or for military purposes(Hodge, 2002; De Feo and
Napoli, 2007; De Feo et al., 2009b).The descriptionof the ancient
Romanwater-supply systemiscontainedinsomerecommendationsof
theLatinwriters:Vitruvius Pollio (De Architectura, book VIII),
Plinio theElder (Naturalis Historia, bookXXXVI), andFrontinus
(DeAquaeductuUrbisRomae).Romanhydraulicengineeringborrowedfromtheexperi-encesandtechniquesoftheGreeksandEtruscans.
However,thesizeof theworksaswell
asthetechnical-organizationalfeatures of distribution started with
them. The common Greekpractice was based on underground conduits,
followingcoursesdeterminedby
terrainfeatures(MartiniandDrusiani,2009). The Etruscancivilization
ourished incentral Italyfrom the VIII century BC onward. The
Etruscan talent for waterandlandmanagement
ishighlightedbytheexistenceof animposing number of works (tunnels
andchannels) spreadover their territories of Latium and, to a
lesser amount, of
theotherEtruscanareas(Bersanietal.,2010).Theconstructionof
anancient Romanaqueduct wasnotdifferent fromthe modern practice,
with several moderntechnologiescomingfromRomanengineering.
Thebuildingof anaqueduct startedwiththe searchfor a spring.
Waterwas collectedafter permeating throughvaults andwalls
ofdrainingchannelsandsettled. Fromthespring,
waterowedintoanopenchannelow and airwas presentoverthe
watersurface(Monteleoneetal.,2007).Thewaterintheaqueductsdescended
gently through concrete channels. During theroute,
thereweremultitieredviaducts, invertedsiphons, andtunnels
toexceedvalleys or steeppoints. At the endof itscourse, the channel
enteredintoaso-calledpiscinalimaria,a sedimentationtanktosettle
particulate impurities. Then,thechannel
owedintoapartitioningtankcalledcastellumdivisoriumwherethereweresomewallsandweirstoregulatethewaterowingintotheurbanpressurepipes(DeFeoandNapoli,2007;Monteleoneetal.,2007).RomeoriginallyusedwaterdirectlyfromtheriverTiberaswellaswellsandmanysmall
springs existed inside its town area, such as AcqueLautole, Acque
Tulliane, Fonte Giuturna, and Fonte Lupercale.However,
sincethefourthcenturyBC,
Romegraduallybuiltaqueducts(BonoandBoni,1996).Aqua Appia was the
rst aqueduct built in Rome in 312 BC.It was entirely underground
for a total length of around16.561 km, equivalent to 11190 passus
(1 passus 1.48 m) andanaverageow rate
of73000m3d1,correspondingto1825quinariae (1 quinaria B40 m3d1)
(Table 1; Panimolle, 1984).It isimportant tospecifythat
aquinariahasnot beenscien-ticallydened. Asamatteroffact,
aquinariawasapipeof2.3125
cmdiameterandthereisnounanimityonhowmuchwater is aquinaria(Rodgers,
2004). DuringthesubsequentFigure 4 Inverted siphons. (a)Inverted
siphon atPatara (Turkey) made of stone pipes. (b)Reconstructionof
siphon of the aqueduct ofGier,near Beaunant, France that supplied
water to Ancient Lugdunum, showing ramp of siphon with header tank
on the top and the nine lead pipes of thesiphon. (a) From MaysLW
(ed.)(2010) Ancient WaterTechnologies.Dordrecht: Springer and (b)
From Haberey W(1972) Die romischenWasserleitungen nach Koln.Bonn:
Rheinland-Verlag.Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in
the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations 7500 years, 10 more
aqueducts were constructed. The last
greataqueductbuiltinRomeinancienttimeswasthe22-km-longAquaAlexandrina.Onthewhole,the11ImperialAgeRomanaqueductshadatotal
owrate of 1.13 106m3d1andatotal
lengthofmorethan500km.SincethepopulationofRomeattheendoftherstcenturyADwasabout500000inhabitants(Bonoand
Boni, 1996), a mean specic discharge of
B2000linhabitant1d1wasproduced.Thisvalueisextraordinaryifcomparedwiththecurrent
specicwateruseof B200300linhabitant1d1.Nowadays, the popular but
inaccurate image is that Romanaqueducts were elevatedthroughout
their entire lengthonlines of arches, called arcades. Roman
engineers, as their Greekpredecessors, were very practical and
therefore wheneverpossible the aqueduct followed a steady downhill
course at orbelowground level (Hansen, 2006). As a matter of
fact,Table 1 shows that on average 87% of the length of the
Romesaqueductsystemwasunderground.The longest aqueduct in the Roman
world was
constructedintheCampaniaRegion,inSouthernItaly.ItistheAugustanAqueduct
Serino-Naples-Miseno, which is not well known
duetotherebeingnoremainsofspectacularbridges,butitwasamasterpiece
of engineering. The Serinoaqueduct was con-structedduringthe
Augustus periodof the RomanEmpire,probably between 33 and 12 BC
when Marcus VipsaniusAgrippawascurator aquaruminRome,
principallyinordertorefurnishtheRomaneetofMisenumandsecondarilytosupply
water for the increasing demand of the importantcommercial harbor
of Puteoli as well as drinking water for
bigcitiessuchasCumaeandNeapolis.ThemainchanneloftheSerino aqueduct
was approximately 96 kmlong, and hadseven mainbranches to towns
such as Nola, Pompeii, Acerra,Herculaneum, Atella, Pausillipon,
Nisida, Puteoli, Cumae,
andBaiae(DeFeoandNapoli,2007;DeFeoetal.,2010).InsummarytheRomansmadegreatcontributionstotheadvancement
of the engineering of aqueducts. Fahlbusch(2006)pointsout
thefollowingfromexaminationof manyaqueducts:1.
sizeoftheaqueductchannelwaschosenaccordingtotheestimated discharge
and the size varied along the course oftheaqueduct;2. the cross
sectionwas large enoughfor people towalkthroughthechannel
forrepairandmaintenance,
particu-larlytoremovecalcareousdeposits;and3. the cross section was
kept constant allowing manifold usesfor encasings, especially the
soft scaffoldings for the
vaultsinakindofindustrializedconstruction.4.01.4 Cisterns and
ReservoirsIngeneral,cisternswereusuallyconstructedinordertostorerainwater
for domestic use (private houses), with a volume inthe order of
dozens of cubic meters, while reservoirs
wererealizedinordertostoreowingwaterwithavolumeintheorder of
thousandsof cubicmeters(Tolle-Kastenbein, 2005;DeFeoetal.,2010).The
MinoanandMycenaeansettlements usedcisterns a1000years before the
classical andHellenistic-Greek cities.Cisterns were used to supply
(store runoff from roof tops andcourt
yards)waterforthehouseholdsthroughthedrysum-mers of the
Mediterranean. In ancient Crete, in particular, thetechnology of
surface andrainwater storage incisterns
forwatersupplywashighlydevelopedandhascontinuedtobeusedinmoderntimes.One
of the earliest Minoan cisterns was found in the centerof a
pre-palatial house complex at Chamaizi dating back to theturn of
the second millennium BC. It is located on the summitof ahill
andits rooms weresituatedaroundasmall
opencourtwithadeepcircularrock-cutcistern,3.5
mindeepandwithadiameter of 1.5 m, linedwithbrickworkinitsupperpart
(Davaras, 1976; Mays et al., 2007; Angelakis andTable 1
Characteristicsof the11 Imperial Age Roman aqueductsLocation Dating
Length(km)Underground length(km
(%))Averageslope(mkm1)Flowrate(m3d1)Aqua Appia 312 BC 16.561 16.472
(99.5%) 0.6 73 000Anio Vetus 273 BC 63.640 63.312 (99.5%) 3.6 175
920Aqua Marcia 144 BC 91.331 80.286 (87.9%) 2.7 187 600Aqua Tepula
127 BC 17.800 5 17 800Aqua Julia 33 BC 22.830 12.470 (54.6%) 12.4
48 240Aqua Virgo 19 BC 20.875 19.040 (91.2%) 0.2 100 160Aqua
Alsietina 2 BC 32.882 32.814 (99.8%) 6 15 680Aqua Claudia 52 AD
68.977 53.620 (77.7%) 3.8 184 280Anio Novus 52 AD 86.876 72.964
(84.0%) 3.8 189 520Aqua Traiana 109 AD 58.000 3.8 113 100Aqua
Alexandrina 226 AD 22.000 1 21 025Average 45.616 43.872 (86.8%) 3.9
102 393Total 501.772 350.978 1 126 325From Panimolle G (1984) Gli
Acquedotti di Roma Antica (The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome). Rome:
Edizioni Abete; Adam JP (1988) LArte di Costruire presso i Romani.
Materiali eTecniche(RomanBuilding: MaterialsandTechniques).Milan:
Longanesi; BonoPandBoni C(1996)Watersupplyof
Romeinantiquityandtoday. Environmental Geology27:126134; Hodge AT
(2002) Roman Aqueducts &Water Supply, 2nd edn. London: Gerald
Duckworth; Rodgers RH (2004) Sextus Iulius Frontinus. On the
Water-Management of theCityof Rome.
DeAquaeductuUrbisRomae.Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress.8 Water
and Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and
Roman CivilizationsSpyridakis, 2010). Four of the earliest Minoan
structures
whichmaybeconsideredtobelargecisternswerebuiltinthersthalf of
thesecondmillenniumBCat Pyrgos-Myrtos(Ierape-tra), Archanes,
Tylissos, andZakros (Cadogan, 2007; Mayset al., 2007;
AngelakisandSpyridakis, 2010). While, at Phai-stos, water supplied
to cisterns depended onprecipitationcollectedfromrooftopsandcourts,
asupplementarysystemwasneededtosatisfytheneedsofwatersupply,especiallyinthis
particular area where agriculture was widely practiced.Thus, water
was probably taken fromwells in a locationsouthwest of
thepalacewhichwasrichingroundwaterandsurfacewater,
andfromtheriverIeropotamoslocatedtothenorth, at thefoot of
thePhaistos hill (Gorokhovich,
2005;Maysetal.,2007;AngelakisandSpyridakis,2010).Therewerealsocisterns
onthehighgrounds abovetheMinoanpalace inMalia, ina site lying ina
narrowplainbetweenthemountainsandthesea. AtthefamousPhaistospalace,
cisterns depended on precipitation collected fromrooftopsandyards.
Asupplementarysystemofwatersupplywasneededtosatisfytheneedsofwatersupply,especiallyinthoseareaswhereagriculturewasintensive.Thecisternswereconnectedtosmall
channels collectingspringwater
and/orrainfallrunofffromcatchmentareas.Theuseofcisternspre-cededchannelsoraqueductsinsupplyingthepalaceandthesurroundingcommunitywithwater(Maysetal.,2007;Ange-lakisandSpyridakis,2010).Most
Greek houseshad a cisternsupplied by rainwater forpurposes of
bathing, cleaning, houseplants, domestic
animals,andevenfordrinkingduringshortagesofwater.
Mostlikely,thewater was of aqualitythat
wouldbesubpotableusingtodaysstandards.AristotleinhisPolitics(vii,1330b)writtenaround320BCassertedthat
cities needcisterns for safetyin war. During this time a severe
25-year drought required thecollection and saving of rainwater.
Also about this
timecisternswerebuiltintheAthenianAgoraforthersttimeincenturies
(Crouch, 1993; Mays, 2007). Inparticular,
intheancientGreekcityofDrerosonCrete, thereisarectangular-shaped
cistern with dimensions of approximately 13.0 5.5 6.0
m3(Antoniouetal.,2006;Mays,2007).Inancient Crete, thetechnologyof
surfaceandrainwaterstorage in cisterns is continued to be used even
today. Four ofthe earliestMinoan structures which may be considered
to belargecisterns werebuilt intherst half of
thesecondmil-lenniumBC(thetimeoftherstMinoanpalaces)atPyrgos-Myrtos(Ierapetra),
Archanes, Tylissos,andZakros(Angelakiset al., 2010). The Tylissos
cistern is shown in Figure 5(a).
ThistechnologyhasbeenfurtherimprovedduringtheHellenisticandRomanperiods.
Animpressive pillar of twointercon-nected cisterns, 40m deep cut in
the rock, has been discoveredinancient cityEleutherna(Figure5(b)).
Thedimensionsofthetwocisternsare40 25 m2andthedepth4.5
m.Thecityourished inthe early Christiantimes andthe water
wastransported from a spring through an aqueduct of about 3kmlong
to the cisterns. The water supply of the city including
thethermeswastransportedthrougha150-m-longchannel
withdimensionsof1.52.0
m2.Theadvancedwater-supplytech-nologiesdevelopedinMinoanCretewereexpandedandim-provedduringthe
Romandominationof theGreekworld.Two suchexamples witha relatively
small but impressivecistern in Minoan city and one of the two huge
cisterns(of about 3000m3each) in Aptera city in the western Crete
areshowninFigures5(c)and5(d),respectively.Duringtheclassical
age(theperiodbetweentheArchaicand Roman epoch), the political
situation was characterized inthe Greek world(mainly Greece andAsia
Minor) by warsamongthevariouscities. Inthisperiod, nospringsor
deepwells existed, socisterns wereconstructedtocollect
rainfallduringthe winter season. These cisterns
weredugintotherockandweremostlypear-shapedwithat least
onelayerofhydraulic plaster that prevented water loss. The cisterns
variedinsizefrom10 m3tothousandsofcubicmetersand possiblysupplied
more than 10000-people baths and thermes.
Topreventcontaminationofwaterthemouthofthecisternwascovered to keep
out dust and debris, and to prevent light
fromentering,avoidingthegrowthofbacteriaandalgae.Reservoirs
constructed by the ancient Romans were setlow in theground,or
actually underground,and roofedover,bymeansof concretevaulting.
Theroongvaultsweresup-portedbyrowsofcolumns,piers,orwallpiercedwithdoorstoallowthewatertocirculate.
Insomecases, theoor wasslightly concave with a drain in the middle,
to permit
cleaning(Hodge,2002;DeFeoetal.,2010).Ingeneral,intheRomanworldthereservoirs
had two functions:a reservoir couldbe areservefor
usewhentheaqueduct ranlowor
byaddinginalittlefromthetankeverydaytosupplement suppliesuntilthe
aqueduct discharge picked up again. When the
dailyconsumptionexceededwhat theaqueduct couldbringin, atleast
inthehours of daylight, thereservoir was toppedupeverynight tomeet
thenext days demands (Hodge, 2002;DeFeoetal.,2010).An example of a
Roman reservoir is the Bordj Djedidat Carthage inTunisia,
intowhichthe Carthage
aqueductemptiedafterarunofnolessthan90.43kmfromitssource.This great
reservoir was oblong, 39.0 154.6 m2, the size of
anentirecityblock,andsubdividedinto18transversecompart-ments.
Itscapacitywas2500030000m3,representingaboutadayandahalfsdischargefortheaqueduct
(Hodge, 2002;De Feo et al., 2010). Remaining in Tunisia, in the
center of thecity of Dougga/Thugga, there are twovery large
reservoirs.TherstoneistheAinElHammanreservoirwithveaisles,whilethesecondoneistheAinMizebreservoir
withsevenaisles.Thetworeservoirshaveacombinedstoragevolumeof15000
m3(Tolle-Kastenbein, 2005; De Feo et al., 2010). Largereservoirs
wereconstructednot
onlyinNorthernAfricabutalsoinEurope,especiallyinItalyandinTurkey.Since
a Roman thermae required an enormous quantity ofwater for its
functioning, a huge reservoir hadtobe con-structed. As a matter of
fact, the reservoir of the Baths
ofCaracalla(locatedinanareaofover100 000m2)couldcon-tainover80
000m3inthenumerouscells, situatedintotwoparallel aisles and onto
two oors. The oldest baths of Traianoreceivedwater
supplyfromareservoir of around10000
m3(Tolle-Kastenbein,2005;DeFeoetal.,2010).ThegreatestbathsofDiocletianoccupiedaboutthesamearea
as those of Caracalla (a rectangle of about 356316 m2)andclosely
resembledtheminthe plans. The reservoir bywhich the baths were
supplied was fed by the aqua Marcia, thevolumeof
whichwasincreasedbyDiocletian. It wastrape-zoidal in shape, 91 m in
length, with an average width of 16 m.This reservoir, called Botte
di Termini (Barrel of Termini), wasWater and Wastewater Management
Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations
9destroyedduring1876inordertobuildtheTermini railwaystation,
whosenamederivesfromthat of thebaths(DeFeoetal.,2010).In the three
centuries of the Roman imperial age,
thereservoirsweredesignedinalmostallthearchitecturalformsandinalmost
all the techniques of masonry known: arcs(especiallytransversal
arcs), turned(especiallybarrel vault),carrying pillars or groups of
pillars, walls of stones and
bricks,opuscaementicium;whilecolumnswerestillnotused.Infact,thecolumns
wereintroducedbyarchitects famous for theirworks of hydraulic
engineeringinthepresent-dayIstanbul.Theycreatedahost of columns
hiddenintheheart of thecapital of the Roman Empire
(Tolle-Kastenbein, 2005; De Feoet al., 2010). As a matter of fact,
the name of the rst reservoirmeans with a 1001 pillars. It is the
Binbirdirek reservoir whichwas built under the order of
Philoksenos, a Senate member intheConstantinusI periodof
thefourthcentury. DuringtheRomanperiod, Istanbuls water
requirements were met bywater brought fromdistant partsof Thrace.
For thisreason,the Byzantines built large reservoirs inorder tobe
able
towithstandlongsieges(DeFeoetal.,2010).TheBinbirdirekreservoircoveredanareaof3640
m2andhada capacity of around32 500m3of water. It measured66 56
m2andwas carriedby 224columns consisting of16rows,
eachonehaving14columns,allofwhichareequalin length, and every
column carries the signature of its master(1001 was used to
emphasize the great number of columns).There is a thick overlapping
astragal running round thecolumns carryingthevaults andarches
andtheyareintheformof a truncated pyramid and are without
decoration.Thereliefcrossononeofthecolumnsisgoodproofthatthereservoirwasbuiltinthefourthcentury,
aftertheByzantinesacceptedChristianity.Inordertoconstructceilings1415m2high,
asecondlayer of columns was xedover themarblerings onthe rst layer
of columns. Whenthe palace wasdestroyedinthesixthcentury,
thecisternwasrestored. Afterthe Ottomanconquest of Istanbul in1453,
newreservoirswerebuilt andtheBinbirdirekwasnolonger
used(DeFeoetal.,2010).One of the magnicent historical constructions
of IstanbulistheYerebatanSaray(orBasilicaCistern),
locatednearthesouthwest of Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia). This huge
reservoirwas rebuilt by the emperor Justinian (527565) after the
Nikarevolt (532). It is a large, vaultedspace; the roof rests
on12rows of 28marblecolumns, whichareabout 9 mhigh.Asthetotal
surfaceis65 138 m2, themaximumcapacityisalmost 85000m3, whichwas
brought tothis cisternfroma well B20kmaway witha newaqueduct, also
built byFigure 5 Minoan, Hellenistic, and Roman water collection
and storage cisterns: (a) Minoan at the ancient town of Tylissos;
(b) Hellenistic at the city ofEleutherna; (c)Roman atthe Minoa
town; and (d) Roman attown of Aptera. Copyright permission with
ANAngelakis.10 Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the
Ancient Greek and Roman
CivilizationsJustinian.Itwasusedtoprovidewatertotheimperialpalace(hence
the name, imperial cistern). The 336 columns (246 arestill
visible)werebrought totheBasilicaCisternfromolderbuildings.
Again,itis narratedthat7000 slaves worked intheconstructionof
thecistern. Infact, thecisternborroweditsname fromIlius Basilica
inthe vicinity (Lendering, 2008;Ku ltu
r,2008;DeFeoetal.,2010).Another huge Roman reservoir in ancient
Constantinopolis(todaysIstanbul)istheSultansCistern.Wedonothaveanyveriablescienticevidencefor
its constructiondate; at theearliest, it
couldbelatefourthcenturyAD,
judgingbythepresenceofcrossescarvedintothe upperpartsofthe
columnheads. It has a rectangularplan and the wholeis dividedintove
equal rectangular parts by the use of 28 columns, with 7
ingraniteand21
inmarble,placedequidistantfromeachother,alsosupportingtheroof
withvaultedarches(DeFeoet al.,2010).The last Roman underground
hydraulic marvel is thespectacular Piscina Mirabilis inMisenum,
inthe SouthernItaly.
ThePiscinaMirabilisislocatedinthepresent-dayMu-nicipality of
Bacoli, in Miseno (the ancient Misenum),up thehill
facingtheseainthebayof Naples. It was constructedduring the
AugustanAge inorder to supply water to theClassis Praetoria
Misenensis (Adam, 1988; Hodge, 2002;DeFeoandNapoli, 2007; DeFeoet
al., 2010). ThePiscinaMirabilis is a gigantic reservoir 72 m long
and 27 m large, withavolumetriccapacityof 12 600m3of
water(Figure6). It isdug in a tufa hill and has two step entrances
in the
northwest,theAncientRomanentranceandsoutheastcorners,thelatterclosed.
Forty-eight pillars, arrangedonfour rows servingasa support to the
barrel vault, divide it into ve principalaisles on the long sides
(Figure 7(a)) and 13 secondary aislesontheshort sides(Figure7(b)),
givingit themajesticlookof acathedral. Thelongwalls werebuilt
inopus
reticolatum(reticularwork)withbrickbondingcoursesandbythetech-nique
of the tufa stone pillars, bothcoveredwitha thickwaterproof layerof
opussigninum(poundedterracotta).Thereis abasinof 1.10m,
probablyapolishingpool, whichis awaste bath for the maintenance of
the reservoir, in the oor ofthenave. It wasusedasaPiscinalimariafor
theperiodicalcleaningof thereservoir (Figure7(c)). Thewater
wasliftedthroughaseries of openings (doors)inthevault
alongthecentral nave, hydraulicallytothecoveringterraceof
theres-ervoir,andfromthere,owedinchannelstotheurbanarea.These doors
appear casually opened in the roof (Figure 7(d)),with an irregular
realization being noted (Adam, 1988;
Hodge,2002;DeFeoandNapoli,2007;DeFeoetal.,2010).Russo and Russo
(2007) estimated a total daily demand of12000 m3of waterfor
Misenum, including4000 m3for theeet and 8000m3for daily demands and
for the thermal bathsand gardens (based upon daily individual
requirements of 100liters per capita and equal requirements for
thermal baths andgardens). Theestimatedtotal
dailydemandissimilartothecapacity of the Piscina Mirabilis. Close
to the Piscina Mirabilisare two other large cisterns, probably
belonging to large
villas,theGrottaDragonariaandCentoCamerelle(Neronesjail).InPozzuoli,
theaqueductservedseveralcisterns,notablythePiscina Cardito(55 16m2)
fromthe secondcentury, andthePiscinaLusciano(35 20m2)fromtherst
centuryAD(DeFeoandNapoli,2007;DeFeoetal.,2010).4.01.5 Water
Distribution SystemsWater distribution systems are aimed at
distributing waterfromreservoirs or aqueducts totheendusers.
Themodernsystemsarebasedontheuseofpipes.
Regardingthisaspect,theMinoansocietywassurprisinglymodern.
Asamatteroffact, in the Knossos palace, the water supply was
furnished bymeans of a networkof terracotta pipe conduits (6075
cmangedtot intooneanother andcementedat thejoints)beneath the oors
at depths that vary from a few cm up to 3 m(Koutsoyianniset al.,
2008; AngelakisandSpyridakis, 2010).Possibly, the piping systemwas
pressurized (Mays, 2007).Similar terracotta pipes were discovered
in some other
Minoansites.Inparticular,TylissoswasoneoftheimportantcitiesinAncientCreteduringtheMinoanera,ourishing(20001100BC)asaperipheral
centerdependent onKnossos.
Fromtheaqueduct,secondaryconduitswereusedtoconveywatertoasedimentation
tank (Figure 8; Mays, 2010) constructed
ofstonebeforeitsstoragetothecisternshowninFigure5(a).Terracotta
pipes have also been found at Vathypetro, as well asin the
Caravanserai (Guest House), south of the Knossospalace withsome
alsohaving
beenfoundscatteredinthecountryside(AngelakisandSpyridakis,2010).Thestudyof
theruins of Pompeii givesaclearer under-standing of a Roman urban
water distribution system. But thisstatement does not mean that all
Roman cities are identical toPompeii. The ending point of a
Romanaqueduct was
thecastellumdivisoriumwhichhadthedoublefunctionofservingasadisconnectionbetweentheaqueductandtheurbandis-tribution
network as well as dividing the water ow to
varioususesand/orgeographicalareasofthecity(Figure9).Inthebeginning,Pompeiiwas
notsuppliedby theSerinoaqueduct. As there were no springs in
Pompeii, wells were dugtosupplywater. It is alsoverylikelythat
Pompeii receivedwaterviaanaqueduct fromthemountainsduenortheast
ofAvella. The town must have had a long-distancewater supply,quite
some time before the Augustan Age, probably around 80BC. Whenthe
Serinoaqueduct was built under Augustus,it crossed the course of
the older Avella aqueduct between theApennines andMount Vesuvius,
andbothaqueducts
wereunitedintoasinglesystem(DeFeoandNapoli,2007).The
castellumdivisoriumof Pompeii was housed
insidealargebrickbuildingnear theVesuviangate(Figure10(a)).The
supply channel entering the building is 3025cm(Figure 10(b)). The
owinthis distributionstructure wasallowedtoexpandintoawide,
shallowtank, separatedintothree equal compartments (masonry
structures) (Figure 10(c)).Flowfromeachcompartment
enteredaleadpipe.
Somefeelthatthethreepipeswereconnectedseparatelytopublicfoun-tains,thesecondtothethermalbathsandthethirdtoprivateusers
(Hodge, 2002; Russo and Russo, 2007). From the exits
thewaterowedintoleadpipes. Thereisalsothedistinct possi-bility that
the three pipes were directed to different geographicalareas of
Pompeii. Assumingthat thepipes didconveywaterseparately to the
three major uses as presented by Hodge(2002), thecentral
pipewasdirectedtothepublicfountainsandhada30cmexternaldiameter,whereasthetwosideoneswere
25cmin diameter. The three gates were of differentheights. Thus,
thehighestgate,whichwasthatservingprivatehouses, cut off their
supplies until and unless the water level inWater and Wastewater
Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman
Civilizations 114.31.2
4.94.94.34.34.34.34.34.34.34.34.34.34.91.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.21.24.9
4.0 4.0 4.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.210.4 1.29.42.01235A41Inlet
waterAncient Roman entrance - 2Ancient Roman entrance - 1Piscina
LimariaOutlet washing waterLegendPlan of the Roman Piscina
MirabiliisLongitudinal section A-AA2 3 4 5ABBTrasversal section
B-B( Measures in meters )11.411.43.01.272.027.0NFigure 6 Plan and
sections of the Piscina Mirabilis.Modied from De FeoG, DeGisi S,
Malvano C, and DeBiase O(2010) The greatest waterreservoirs in
theancient Roman world and the PiscinaMirabilis inMisenum.
Water,Science and Technology: Water Supply 10(4) (in press).12
Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek
and Roman Civilizationsthe main body of the castellum rose high
enough to spill over itand start owing down the channel; on the
contrary, the lowestgate (that in the center) governed access to
the public fountains,which, if thewaterlevel sank, werethustheleast
todryup.The private users had no minimum water entitlement until
theneeds of the public fountains andthermal baths
hadbeensatised(Hodge,2002).From the castellum divisorium, the three
pipes lead the
watertodifferentpartsofthecityllingwatertowers:thecastellumsecondariumor
castellumprivatum(Figure10(d)). Thewatertowers wereleadtanks
positionedontopof brickmasonrypillars, 6mtall, locatedat
crossroadsandconnectingsmallnumbersof customers.
Theyalsosuppliedpublicfountains.Thesingleuserhadtopaytoobtainwaterforhispremises.The
water was metered by means of bronze orices, the
calicesconnectingthecustomers pipes
(usuallyquinariaepipes)tothecastellumprivatumleadtank.In Pompeii,
casecaliceswereplacedat the bottomof the leadtanks, andpipes t
intocavities left inthe brick pillars (Hodge, 2002;
Monteleoneetal.,2007).Figure 7 Piscina Mirabilis: (a)a cross
aisle;(b) alongitudinal aisle;(c) internal piscina limaria; and
(d)a holein the barrelvaultedroof.Water and Wastewater Management
Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations
13Theleadtank onthewatertoweracted
asadisconnectionbetweenthesystemat
highpressureupstreamandthecus-tomers pipes downstream. Connecting
water derivation pipeselsewhere in the castellum privatum was
against the
regulations.Theonlyconnectionavailablehadtobearrangedwiththewater
ofcediscussingthequantities for consumption. Thiswater-supply
systemclearly shows that water towers couldbreak from the pressure
built up in the mains descending fromthe initial
castellumdivisoriumat the toppoint of the city,withexcess water
overowingintostreets drains. As showninFigure9, themaximumheight of
wateroverthetapwasabout 6m, without
accountingforthepressurelossesinthedeliveringpipes(Hodge,2002;Monteleoneetal.,2007).Leadpipes
(Figure11)inPompeii areof thesamecon-struction and appearance as
found in other Roman cities. Thewater taps found in Pompeii were
also similar to those foundinother Romancities. Onlyasmall number
of houseshada water pipe that supplieda private bathor basins
inthekitchen,inthetoilet,orinthegarden.4.01.6 FountainsThe Minoan
civilization gave an extraordinary contribution tothe development
of water management practices also in termsof fountains. The
mainexamples of Minoanfountains
aresubterraneanstructuressuppliedwithwater directlyorfromsprings
via ducts. The construction of steps or alternatively theshallow
basins indicates that water was taken out with the useof
acontainer. Thisrecalls thetypeof fountainof thelaterClassical and
Hellenistic period called arykrene. The
mosttypicalofthemisthatoftheZakropalace.AnotherfountainsimilartotheTyktewasfoundattheGuestHouse(Caravan-serai)ofKnossosintheSpringChamber.AritualfunctionofAqueductHead18
m CastellumdivisoriumCastellumsecondariumHead6 m Figure 9 Flow
sheet of a Roman urban water distribution systems based on Pompeii.
Modied from Hodge AT (2002) Roman Aqueducts &WaterSupply,2nd
edn. London: GeraldDuckworth.Figure 8 Water system atTylissos,
Crete, Greece with sedimentationtank inforeground with stonechannel
connecting tocistern inbackground.(Mays, 2010,Copyright permission
withLW Mays).14 Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the
Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizationsthe particular fountains is
alsoargued, as artifacts of ritualcontent have also been unearthed.
Another type known in laterperiods as rookrene, which constantly
provided
freshwater,wasalsofoundinZakrowithtwozoomorphicwaterspouts.Finally,
a remarkable fragment froma fresco compositiondepicting a fountain
of a supposedly Minoan gardenwasfoundintheHouseof Frescoes
inKnossos (Angelakis andSpyridakis,2010).DuringtheRomanperiod,
publicfountainswereusuallylocatedinthestreet. For example,
inPompeii
thefountainswerelocatedatfairlyevenlyspacedintervalsofabout100
m,anditwasrareforanyonetocarrytheirwaterformorethan50m (Hodge,
2002). The simplest form of street fountain wasnormally equipped
with an oblong stone basin, typicallyabout 1.51.8 m2and 0.8mhigh,
into which the spoutdischarged, andwhichpresumably was normally
full.
Thefountainsweredeliberatelydesignedtooverowinordertocleanthestreet(Hodge,2002;DeFeoetal.,2010).Not
far from the city of Pompeii, in the District of
Salerno,thereisaRomangalleryinrockinthevillageofSantEgidiodel
MonteAlbinointheSarnoRiver basin. Thegallerywasconstructed in order
to supply a public fountain which standson the structure of an
ancient Roman villae (the Helviusvillae). The Helvius fountain was
a public fountain, but it wasquitedifferent
fromthepublicfountainsinnearbyPompeii(Figure12(a)).
Asamatteroffact, theHelviusfountainwasconstructedneitherbymeansof
matchedslabsnorinlime-stonenorinVesuvianstone.
Itwasbuiltasasingleblockofwhite marble. Moreover, there is another
particular
aspectwhichdifferentiatestheHelviusfountainfromthePompeianfountains(Figure12(b)).
TheHelviusfountainhasasculp-tural decoration on the three available
sides
representingtheriverSarnoalongitspathfromthespringtowardthesea(DeFeoetal.,2010).Figure13showstwoadditionalRomanfountainsthatarequite
different from those previously mentioned. Figure 13(a)shows a
fountain in Chersonesos (Crete) and Figure 13(b) theFountain of
Trajan in Ephesus (Turkey), dedicated by Aristion,AD102/114.4.01.7
Drainage and Sewerage Systems and
ToiletsDrainagesystemswereusedforthedisposalofsurpluswater,and were
found both in cities (to carry rainfall, overow fromfountains
andbathrooms) andinthe country (topreventFigure 10 Pompeii: (a)
brick building near the Vesuvian gate housing the castellum
divisorium; (b) inside castellum divisorium; (c) supply channel;and
(d) acastellum secondarium.Water and Wastewater Management
Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations
15oodingintheelds). Seweragesystems wereusedfor
theconveyanceofdomesticwastewater, andwereonlyfoundincities, where
theywerenecessaryduetoahighpopulationdensity (Hodge, 2002).
However, inmost cases,
combinedsystemsofowratescomposedmainlyofrainfallrunoffandwastewaterwereapplied.TheMinoancivilizationalsogaveanextraordinarycon-tribution
to the development of water management prac-tices in terms of
drainage and sewerage systems. As a matter offact, Minoan palaces
were equipped with elaborate stormdrainage and sewer systems
(MacDonald and Driessen,
1988).Openterracottaandstoneconduitswereusedtoconveyandremove
stormwater and limited quantities of wastewater.Pipes, however,
were scarcely usedfor this purpose. Largersewers, sometimes large
enough for a man to enter and clean,were used in Minoan palaces at
Knossos, Phaistos, and Zakro.These large sewers may have led to the
conception of the ideaof thelabyrinth,
thesubterraneanstructureintheformof
amazethathostedtheMinotaur,ahybridmonster.The end section of the
main part of the sewerage system ofthe Knossos palace is shown in
Figure 14(a). The outlet of thePhaistos palacesystemappears
tobesimilar (Figure9(b)).Notethat Evans (192135)
andDarcqueandTreuil (1990)considered that the main part of the
system had been
plannedandconstructedoriginallyinMiddleMinoantime.Themaindisposal
sites at the Knossos and Zakros palaces were directedFigure 11
Components oflead pipe system found in Pompeii:(a) lead pipe and
joint found along the street; (b)junction box; and (c)
manifold.Copyright permission withLW Mays.16 Water and Wastewater
Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman
Civilizationstothe Kairatos River andtothe sea, respectively.
However,thereareindicationsthatinthepalaceofPhaistosandinthevilla
of Agia Triadha, cisterns were also used as disposal sites
ofsurfacewater, alongwithappropriatelandforms. Particularlyin the
palace of Phaistos, agricultural land located in the southsiteof
thepalacewas usedas disposal siteof theboththewastewater
andstormwater insteadof
theriverIeropotamoscrossingthenorthernsiteofthePhaistoshill. Inall
casesofpalaces andcities, thereisanincreasedslopeof
thecentralsewers toward of their outlets; thus, anaerobic
conditions
havebeenmaintainedandtheodorshavebeenavoided.Inadditiontothe very
effective drainage andseweragesystems, some palaces had toilets
with ushing systemsoperatedbypouringwater inaconduit. However,
thebestexampleof
suchaninstallationwasfoundontheislandofThera(Santorini)
intheCyclades, Greece. This is themosteloquent
andbest-preservedexamplebelongingtotheearlylate-Minoan period (c.
1550BC) in the Bronze Age settlementof Akrotiri, whichshares
thesamecultural context of Crete(AngelakisandSpyridakis,2010).At
thebeginning, for somecenturies, thecollectionanddischarge of
rainwater runoff was managed by separate sewers.Asamatteroffact,
rainwaterwascarriedinsimplechannelscarved
intotherockincitieswithbedrock(i.e.,theAcropolisofAthens).Otherwise,thechannelswerecoveredwithrocks.Asystemfor
the simultaneous discharge of
bothrainwateranddomesticsewagewasinventedduringtheGreekperiod(Tolle-Kastenbein,2005).Ancient
drainage and sewerage systems were usuallydevelopedonfour levels.
Theinitial channels comingfrombuildings (rst order) ended in street
channels of secondorder, which prosecuted in principal channels
with an increas-ingsize(thirdorder) andendedinanal
hugecollectionchannel(fourthorder),usuallypresentonlyinbigcities.Thegreat
drain of Athens was rst designed as a rainwater drainagesystem.
However, intherst quarterof thefthcenturyBC,it
receiveddomesticsewageandendedinahugecollectionchannel(fourthorder)similartotheRomanCloacaMaxima(Tolle-Kastenbein,2005).The
Cloaca Maxima is the best-known ancient urban
drain.TraditionascribesitsconstructiontoTarquiniusPriscus,kingof
Rome616578 BC. The Cloaca Maxima (4.2m high,3.2 mwide) was
coveredbystonevaulting, whileits bottomwaspavedwithbasaltpavers.
ItcombinedthethreefunctionsofFigure 12 Publicfountains: (a)
inPompeii (matched slabs) and (b)in the basinof the Sarno
river(single blockof white marble).Figure 13 Roman fountains: (a)
fountain in Hersonissos (Crete) and (b) remains of the fountain of
Trajan in Ephesus (Turkey), dedicated by Aristion,AD, 102/114.
Copyright permission with LW Mays.Water and Wastewater Management
Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations
17wastewaterandrainwaterremovalandswampdrainage.Asitis well known,
the exit from the Cloaca Maxima drain into
theriverTiberstillexistsinRome,butnowpartlyhiddenbythemodernLungotevereEmbankment(Hodge,2002).The
street drains of Pompeii are very famous. At the time
ofthefamousVesuviuseruption, thedrainsexistedonlyinthearea around
the forum. The streets were a sort of open channelconveying water
coming frompublic fountains, rainwater,and segregate sewage.
Therefore, as shown in Figure 15, streetshadraisedsidewalks (5060
cmhigh) withsteppingstones(pondera)at thestreet
cornerstoenablepedestrianstocrossfromonesidetotheother without
steppingdown(Hodge,2002).Toiletshavealonghistory. Therst evidenceof
thepur-poseful construction of bathrooms and toilets in Europecomes
from Bronze Age Minoan (and Mycenaean) Crete in
thesecondmillenniumBC(Vuorinenetal.,2007). Inthepalaceof Knossos,
rainwater was
probablyusedtoushthetoiletneartheQueensHall(Figure16;Angelakisetal.,2005).TheHellenisticperiodisconsideredmoreprogressiveforthesanitaryandpurgatoryengineeringduringtheantiquity,although
the considerable spreading of these systems
occurredduringtheRomanera.
TheRomansappliedtheearliertech-niquesinlarger constructions,
usingtheadvantagesof theirbuilding methods withconcrete walls
andvaultedroong.Moreover,duetotheirimprovedaqueducttechnologies,theycouldprovidenaturalwaterowinmostpubliclatrines.Itisalsoevident
that suchstructures andinstallations havesur-vived until the end of
the ancient world and have beenimplementedduringthebeginningof
theByzantineperiod.Thecustomsofthenewreligion,Christianity,modiedsomeof
the structures in terms of privacy in bathing
facilities(AntoniouandAngelakis,2009).During the Hellenistic era
lavatories improved
signicantly,followedbytheirspreadthroughouttheRomanEmpire.Thefeatures
of the typical ancient lavatory are the bench-type
seatswithkeyhole-shapeddefecationopeningsandanunderneathditch.Theditchwas
botha water-supply conduitforushingandasewer. Figure17shows remains
of apublictoilet inEphesus (Turkey) illustratingthebenchseats,
thedefectionopenings, and the small channel on the oor for cleaning
thesponghia.
Thelavatorywasusuallysituatedintheareaofthebuildingmost convenient
forwatersupplyand/orsewerage.Inmanycases, thewater for theushingwas
reusedeitherafterotherdomesticorcommunal activities.
Despiteprivacy,lavatories were used in antiquity by many people
simul-taneously, fromtwotothree people inthe small domesticlatrines
andup to60 people inthe larger public latrinesFigure 14 Outlet of
the central Minoan sewerage and drainage systems: (a) palace of
Knossos and (b) palace of Phaistos. Copyright permission withAN
Angelakis.18 Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the
Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations(Antoniou, 2010). Lavatories
were used throughout theRoman Empire, with a more or less
monumental
appearance.ThereaderisreferredtoAntoniou(2010)foradetaileddis-cussionofancientGreeklavatories.Toilets
during the Romanera canbe dividedinto twogroups: public and
private. A public toilet was frequently builtnear to or inside a
bath so that it was easily entered from
bothinsideandoutsideofthebath. Theabundanceofwaterthatwas
conductedtothebathcouldalsobeusedtoushthetoilet. Pipedwater for
ushingprivatetoiletsseemstohavebeen a rarity. The Romans, however,
lacked something similartoourtoilet paper.
Theyprobablyusedspongesormossorsomethingsimilar. Inpublictoilets,
thefacilities werecom-mon to all. They were cramped, without any
privacy, and hadnodecentwaytowashoneshands.
Theprivatetoiletsmostlikelylackedrunningwaterandtheywerecommonlylocatednear
the kitchens. All this created an excellent opportunity
forthespreadingofintestinalpathogens(Vuorinenetal.,2007).Hygienicconditionsinbothtypesof
toiletsmust havebeenverypoor,andconsequentlyintestinaldiseaseswere
diffused.Dysentery, typhoidfever,
anddifferentkindsofdiarrheasarelikely candidates for diagnoses.
Unfortunately, descriptions ofthe intestinal diseases in the
ancient texts are so unspecic
thattheidenticationofthecausativeagentisaveryproblematicventure.
Studiesofancientmicrobial DNAmightoffersomenewevidence for the
identicationof microbes
spreadbycontaminatedwater(Vuorinen,2010).4.01.8 Discussion and
ConclusionsInthe Minoan, Greek, andRomancities, andother
settle-ments, water supply varied according to local
conditions,determinedbyclimate(mainlyrainfall),
surfaceandgroundwater, and terrain. In these periods, various
water-supplyand wastewater systems and techniques were developedand
applied, such as collection and storage facilities, wells
andgroundwater abstraction aqueducts, water distribution anduse,
constructionanduse of fountains, sewers, bathrooms,and other
sanitary facilities and even recreational uses ofwater.
Theseadvanced technologies, whichhave beenusedinprehistoric Crete
since about 4500 years ago, were sub-sequently expanded during the
Mycenaean and then theArchaic, Classical, andRomanperiods. Inlight
of thesehis-torical and archaeological evidences, it turns out that
theprogressofpresent-dayurbanwaterandwastewatertechnol-ogies as
well as comfortable andhygienic living is not assignicant as we
tend to believe (Angelakis and Koutsoyiannis,2003). However, a
burst of achievements in water andDoorjambWoodenseatGypsum
floorFlushingconduitDoorsSewerSeatSewer1 mHoodFigure 16 Section and
plan ofground-oortoilet inthe residentialquarter ofpalaceof Minos.
From Angelakis AN, KoutsoyiannisD, andTchobanoglousG(2005) Urban
wastewater and stormwatertechnologies inancient Greece.
WaterResearch39: 210220.Figure 15 Stepping stones (pondera)
inPompeii.Water and Wastewater Management Technologies in the
Ancient Greek and Roman Civilizations 19wastewater technology was
accomplished throughout thecenturies of the ancient Greek and Roman
civilization. With afewexceptions, the basis for present-day
progress
inwatertransferisclearlynotarecentdevelopment,butanextensionandrenementofthepast.Infact,thesurprisingfeaturesarethesimilarityof
ancient water methodologies withthoseofthepresent
andtheadvancedlevel of water
andwastewatermanagementusedbytheancients.Greek
andRomantechnological developments
inwaterandwastewatermanagementprinciplesandpracticesaswellas other
achievements of thosecivilizations, suchas
poetry,philosophy,sciences,politics,andvisualarts,arenotknown.To
put in perspective the ancient water and wastewaterachievements
discussed in this chapter, it is important toexamine their
relevance to modern times and to harvest somelessons.
Therelevanceof ancient hydraulicworksshouldbeexaminedintermsof
theevolutionof technology, thetech-nological advances, homeland
security, and managementprinciples.The Romans, whose empire
replacedthe Greek rule inmost part of this area, inherited the
technologies anddevelopedthemfurther bychangingtheir
applicationscalefromsmall
tolargeandimplementingthemtoalmosteverylargecity.
TheGreekandRomanwatertechnologiesarenotonly a culturalheritagebut
alsotheunderpinningofmodernachievements in water and wastewater
engineering andmanagement practices. Apparent characteristics of
technolo-giesandmanagementpracticesinmanyancientcivilizationsaredurabilityandsustainability.
Also, therehavebeeninte-grated management practices, combining both
large-scale andsmall-scale constructions and measures that have
allowedcitiestosustainformillennia.Currently, engineers use
returnperiodfor the
designofhydraulicstructuresasdictatedbydesignstandardsandeco-nomic
considerations. Sustainability, as a design principle,
hasenteredtheengineeringlexiconwithinthelast decade. Nat-urally, it
is difcult to estimate the design principles of ancientengineers
but it is notable that several ancient works haveoperated for very
long periods, some until recent times. Thus,wastewater and
stormwater drainage systems were functioninginBronzeAgesettlements
andcontinuedduringtheGreekand Roman periods. These include the
construction and use ofbathroomsandothersanitary
andpurgatoryfacilities,aswellaswastewaterandstormsewersystems.Infact,thehydraulicandarchitectural
functionof sewer systems inpalaces andcities are regarded as one of
the salient characteristics ofMinoancivilization.
Theyweresoadvancedthattheycanbejustlycomparedwiththeirmoderncounterparts.Thedurabilityofsomeoftheconstructionsthatoperatedup
to present times, as well as the support of the technologiesand
their scientic background by written documents,
enabledthesetechnologiestopasstopresentsocietiesdespiteregres-sions
that have occurredthroughthe centuries (i.e., intheDarkAges).
Thedevelopment of scienceandengineeringisnot linear but often
characterized by discontinuities andregressions. Bridges fromthe
past tothe future are alwayspresent, albeit oftentimes they are
invisible to those who crossthem!Thus, inadditiontomanyancient
constructionsthathave been continuously or intermittently in
operation to date,substantial information fromancient Greek and
Romanwrittensourceshasalsobeenpreserved(AngelakisandKout-soyiannis,2003).
Thus,themajorachievementswereaccom-plished during the Greek and
Roman civilizations. As a
result,theyrepresentthestate-of-the-artstructuresthatweretechni-cally
feasible at that time. For example, the aqueduct ofancient Samos,
called&mj istomon or bi-mouthed (thuspointing out that it was
constructed from two openings), is animportant hydraulic monument,
indicatingthat it was pos-sibleintheancient
worldtodesignandconstruct technolo-gically advanced water
transportation projects on a large scale.Figure 17 Public toilet in
Ephesus (Turkey): (a) the bench-shaped seats were constructed of
stone slabs with another vertical stone slab that coveredthe
opening from the void between the oor and the seat and (b) the
small channel (half-pipe-shaped cross-section) on the oor in front
of the seathad a continuous ow of water forcleaningthesponghia(the
toilet paper ofthe time). Copyright permission withLW Mays.20 Water
and Wastewater Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and
Roman CivilizationsFromthe preceding synoptic discussion,
certainconclu-sionsmightbesuggestedforfurtherreectionandsystematicinvestigation:1.
The water andwastewater hydraulics works inMinoan,Greek, and
Romancivilizations are sometimes not
toodifferentfromthemodernpractice,sincepresenttechnol-ogiesdescenddirectlyfromthattimesengineering.2.
Minoan, Greek,
andRomanwaterandwastewaterpublicworksarecharacterizedbysimplicity,
robustnessof oper-ation,andtheabsenceofcomplexcontrols.3. The
meaning of sustainability inmoderntimes shouldbe reevaluated in
light of Minoan, Greek, and Romanhydraulic works andwater
andwastewater managementpractices.4. Technological
developmentsbasedonsoundengineeringprinciplescanhaveextendedusefullives.5.
Inareasofwatershortage,developmentofacost-effectiveandenvironmental
friendlywater resources managementpractice, based on Minoan, Greek,
and Roman
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Management Technologies in the Ancient Greek and Roman
Civilizations4.02 Membrane Filtration in Water and Wastewater
TreatmentY Watanabe and K
Kimura,HokkaidoUniversity,Sapporo,Japan& 2011Elsevier B.V.
Allrights reserved.4.02.1 Membrane Application to Water Purication
234.02.1.1 CurrentStatus 234.02.1.2 MembraneFouling 234.02.1.2.1
Mainfoulant 244.02.1.2.2 Afnityofmainfoulant formembranes
304.02.1.3 MembraneFiltrationSystemsforControllingFouling
364.02.1.3.1 Channel occulationinmonolithceramicmembrane
364.02.1.3.2 Pre-coagulation/sedimentationinhollow-berUF/MFmembrane
404.02.1.3.3 HybridsubmergedMFmembranesystem 434.02.1.3.4
PVDFMembraneltrationwithpre-ozonation 454.02.2 Membrane Application
to Wastewater Treatment 474.02.2.1 CurrentStatusofMBRs 474.02.2.2
MechanismofMembraneFouling 484.02.2.2.1 Effect
ofmembranepermeateuxonfouling 494.02.2.2.2 Effect
ofmembranematerial onfouling 544.02.2.2.3 Foulingpotential of
carbohydrateassessedbylectinafnitychromatography 57References
604.02.1 Membrane Application to Water Purication4.02.1.1 Current
StatusThe mainstay of water purication technology in the
twentiethcenturywas sandltration, but sincethelate1980s,
mem-braneltrationtechnologyusingRO/NF/UF/MFmembraneshasbeenappliedtothewaterandwastewatertreatment,
de-salination, andwater reuse(RO, reverseosmosis; NF,
nano-ltration;UF,ultraltration;MF,microltration).Figure1showsthehistorical
development of membranetechnology in the water and wastewater
treatment. Membraneltrationhas small foot print, extremely
highsolidliquidseparationability, anditsmaintenanceis easy. Water
puri-cationplants intheUnitedStates, theNetherlands,
France,Australia, and Japan have introduced the membrane
ltrationprocess.Figure2showstherecentincreaseintheamountofwater
producedbythemembraneltration,
whichincludeswaterpurication,desalination,andwastewatertreatment.35003000250020001000John
F. Kennedy1950195519601965197519801985199019952000200519701500500If
we could produce fresh water from salt water at a low cost that
would indeed be a great serviceto humanity, and would dwarf any
other scientific accomplishment 0Global accumulative amount of
permeate (104 m3 d1)Water /wastewatertreatment(UF/MF)Brackish
waterdesalination/wastewaterreuse (NF/ RO)Sea
waterdesalination(RO)Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee
(1993)Start of RO research in USA (1953)President J.F.Kenedy
approved RO desalination as a national project (1961)Enhanced water
works law in Japan (2001)Enhanced regulations of surface water in
USA (1998)Figure 1 Development of membrane ltration.
MF,microltration; NF,nanoltration;RO, reverese osmosis;
UF,ultraltration.23Table 1 shows the large-scale water purication
plantsusingmembraneltration. AllplantsinthetableusetheUFmembrane
but a plant using monolith ceramic MF
membranewiththecapacityof173000 m3d1isunderconstructioninJapan.
Therehasbeenasignicant
progressinthedevelop-mentofnewrobustMFmembraneswithnewpolymerssuchas
PVDE and FTFE for water and wastewater treatment.Combiningrobust
MFmembranes andthe other processessuch as coagulation, ozonation,
biological/chemical oxi-dation, and powdered activated carbon
adsorption andchemically enhancedphysical cleaning makes very
efcientwater puricationsystem.
Theyareveryeffectiveintheap-plicationtothelarge-scalewaterpuricationplant.The
trend toward membrane ltration is expected to spreadworldwide
during this century. However, there are severallimiting factors
applying the UFmembrane andMFmem-brane to the water purication.
Among them, fouling inmembrane is a major obstacle to widespread
use of
thistechnology.Theauthorshavebeenstudyingthemechanismandcon-trol of
membrane fouling inwater treatment. This chaptersummarizes the
authors research on membrane application
tothewaterpurication.4.02.1.2 Membrane FoulingSeveral physical
membrane cleaning methods such ashydraulic backwashing and air
scrubbing have been developedand used routinely in many existing
membrane plants tominimizemembranefouling.
Despiteroutinephysicalmem-branecleaning,
membraneltrationresistancegraduallyin-creases over a long period of
operation, indicating
thatmembranefoulingcannotbecompletelycontrolledbyphys-ical
cleaning. Foulingthat cannot becontrolledbyphysicalcleaning is
dened here as physically irreversible
fouling.Controlofphysicallyirreversiblefoulingisimportantforthereductionof
operationcost inamembraneprocessbecausethis type of fouling
develops even when a very efcientphysical cleaningiscarriedout.
Physicallyirreversiblemem-brane fouling canonly be canceled by
chemical cleaning.However, chemical cleaning of the membrane should
belimitedtoaminimumfrequencybecauserepeatedchemicalAmount of water
(m3 d1)SWRONF+BWROLP+MF+UFIncrease by 25% each year32 000 000 m3
d1, 200635 000 00030 000 00025 000 00020 000 00015 000 00010 000
0005 000
000199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520060Global
amount of water produced by membrane processesFigure 2 Increase
inpuried water bymembraneltration. BWRO, brackish water reverese
osmosis; LP,low pressure; MF, microltration; NF,nanoltration;SWRO,
seawaterreverese osmosis; UF,ultraltration.Table 1 Large-scalewater
purication plants in world wideCountry Place (plant name) Capacity
(103m3d1) Constructionyear Membrane WatersourceUSA
Minneapolis(Fridley Plant) 360 2011 (to bebuilt) UF SurfaceCanada
Mississanga, Ontario 302 2006 UF LakeSingapore Chestnut 273 2003 UF
SurfaceUSA Minneapolis(Columbia Heights) 265 2005 UF SurfaceUSA
Racine, Wisconsin 189 2005 UF SurfaceUSA Thornton,Colorado 187.5
2005 UF SurfaceCanada Kamloops,British Columbia 160 2005 UF
SurfaceUK Clay Lane 160 2001 UF GroundGermany Roetgen/Aachen 144
2005 UF ReserviorUSA San Joaquin, California 136 2005 UF
SurfaceSource: JapanWaterResearchCenter, HotNewsinwaterworks,
No.56.24 Membrane Filtration in Water and Wastewater
Treatmentcleaningmayshortenthemembranelifetimeanddisposalofspentchemicalreagentsposesanotherproblem.Membranefoulingstrongly
dependsuponthestructureofmembrane (average size, size distribution,
and density ofpores). Surface morphology and roughness are surely
involvedinit.However,thischapterdescribestheeffectofonlynom-inalporesizeandmaterialsofmembraneonthemembranefouling.4.02.1.2.1
MainfoulantInanumber of previous studies onfoulingof membranesused
for water treatment, natural organic matter (NOM),composed of a
variety of nonbiodegradable organic com-pounds including humic
substances, has been shown to be themajorconstituent
causingmembranefouling. However, it isstill not clear which
fraction of NOMcauses
membranefouling.Inearlyworks,hydrophobicfractionsofNOM,suchas humic
substances, wereconsideredtobethemajor fou-lants. Hydrophobic
interactionandelectrostatic
interactionweretheexplanationsforthebindingbetweenhydrophobicNOM
and membranes. More recently, hydrophilic NOM
withfeaturesofcarbohydrateorproteinhasbeenreportedbysev-eral
researcherstobethemajorfoulant.
AsexplanationsforthebindingbetweenhydrophilicNOMandmembranes,vander
Waals attraction and hydrophobic interaction
betweenmembranesandhydrophobicdomainsinhydrophilicNOMhave been
suggested. In addition to NOM, metals and metalNOMcomplexes
havebeenreportedas theconstituents
af-fectingmembranefouling(Yamamuraetal.,2007a,2007b).Physically
reversible fouling and physically irreversiblefouling have not been
distinguished in many previous
studies.Inaddition,manypreviousstudieswerebasedonshort-termexperiments,whicharenotsufcientforobservingphysicallyirreversiblefouling.
As aresult, knowledgeof
physicallyir-reversiblefoulingoccurringinmembraneltrationindrink-ingwatertreatment
isverylimited; therefore, furtherstudiesneedtobecarriedout
withspecial emphasis onphysicallyirreversiblefoulingfor moreefcient
useof membranes. Inparticular, investigationof thecharacteristicsof
componentsthat causephysicallyirreversiblefoulingwouldbeuseful
fortheestablishmentofanewprotocoloffoulingcontrol.In this study,
three MF/UF membranes that had beenfouled in long-termltration of
surface water used as adrinkingwater source wereinvestigatedinterms
of the re-coveryof water permeability bychemical cleaning
andthecharacteristics of the foulant causing physically
irreversiblefouling. Based on the results obtained from various
analyses, ahypothesis regardingtheevolutionof
physicallyirreversiblefoulingisproposed.Threedifferenthollow-bermembraneswereusedinthisstudy.Twoofthem
wereMFmembranesandtheotherwasaUFmembrane.
ThetwoMFmembraneshadthesamenom-inal poresizeof 0.1mmbut
weremadefromdifferent poly-mers such as polyethylene (PE;
Mitsubishi Rayon, Tokyo,Japan) and polyvinylidene uoride (PVDF;
AsahikaseiChemicals, Tokyo, Japan). The UF membrane had a
molecularweight cut-off of 100 000Da and was made
frompoly-acrylonitrile (PAN; Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan).
Usingthese three different membranes, pilot-scale
membraneltrationtestswerecarriedout inparallel
usingtheChitoseRiversurfacewater.Thisriverowsthroughpeatareaanditssurfacewater
containsmanyhumicsubstances. Theconcen-trationrangeof total
ironandaluminumwas 0.71.7and0.05and0.7 mg l1. About 75%of themwere
larger than0.45 mm. The PVDF and the PE membranes were submerged
inseparate tanks andwereoperatedunder vacuum. The PANmembranewas
housedinavessel andwas operatedunderpressure.Allmembraneswere
operatedinthe outside-inowmode. The three membranes were operated
with identical runcycles(ltration: 30 min; airscrubbing: 30s;
hydraulicback-washing: 60 s)atthesameconstantuxof0.65
m3m2d1.Hydraulic backwashing was not accompanied by the additionof
chlorine. Whenmembranefoulingbecamesignicant inthe submerged MF
membranes despite the implementation ofperiodical backwashing,
membranemodulesweretakenoutfrom the tanks and were cleaned by
spraying pressurized wateronthemembranesurface.The average quality
of the feed water and that of
membranepermeatesareshowninTable2.Inthefeedwater,largepor-tions of
aluminum(78%) andiron(75%) werepresent assuspended solids (40.45
mm), while manganese, calcium, andorganicmatterweremainlypresent
indissolvedforms. Alu-minumand iron were effectively removed by the
testedmembranesduetothestrictsolidliquidseparation. Ontheother
hand, removal of manganese, calcium, and organicmatter was not
signicant inany of the membranes. Thisimplies that thesizesof
manganese, calcium, anddissolvedorganic carbon (DOC) were smaller
than the pore sizes of
thetestedmembranes.TheUFmembraneshowedslightlyhigherrates of
removal of DOC and UV absorbance than those of thetwoMFmembranes,
reectingthedifferencebetweenmem-braneporesizesoftheMF
andUFmembranes.However,theconcentration of aluminumin the PAN
membrane wasslightly higher than the concentrations in the MF
membranes.Noreasonableexplanationforthisisavailableatpresent.Figure
3shows the changes intransmembrane
pressure(TMP)inthethreemembranes.TheratesofincreaseinTMPinthethreemembranes
wereconsiderablydifferent. As ex-pected, the tightest membrane
(PAN) showed the highest rateof increase in TMP. The rates of
increase in the two MFmembranesweredifferent despitethefact that
theyhadthesamenominal poresize. This clearlyindicates that
thema-terialsof themembranehaveasubstantial inuenceontheTable 2
Average rawwater quality during experimentTemperature(1C) 11.5pH
7.11Turbidity (NTU) 16.54UV absorbance at220 nm (cm1) 0.411UV
absorbance at260 nm (cm1) 0.099TOC (mg 11) 2.43DOC(mg 11) 2.29THMFP
(mg 11) 0.086Manganese (mg 11) 0.100Soluble manganese (mg 11)
0.074Ammonia Nitrogen (mg 11) 0.22DOC, dissolved organic matter;
THMFP, trihalomethane formation potential; TOC,
totalorganiccarbon.Membrane Filtration in Water and Wastewater
Treatment 25evolutionofmembranefouling. Interestingly,
theresultsob-tainedinthisstudyshowingthatthePEmembranewaslessfouled
than the PVDF membrane are opposite to the results ofa previous
study focusing on membrane fouling in
membranebioreactors(MBRs)usedformunicipalwastewatertreatment.This
implies that characteristics of foulants inthe case ofdrinking
water treatment were different from those in the caseof wastewater
treatment. Further investigationis neededtounderstand the inuence
of membrane material on the rate offouling.
Inallofthetestedmembranes,increaseinTMPwasnot constant
andrapidincreases
inTMPwereseenseveraltimes.AftertherapidincreasesinTMP,however,thevalueofTMPgraduallydeclineddue
tothe periodical backwashingexcept for the case of the PVDF
membrane. On days 31 and 41,an additional physical cleaning
(spraying pressurized water
onthemembranesurface)wasneededtomaintainthepermea-bility of the
PVDF membrane. This additional physicalcleaning worked well and
substantial reduction in TMP in
thePVDFmembranewasseenaftercleaning. Chemical cleaningwasnot
carriedout at that time. Basedontheobservationsmentionedabove, it
is assumedthat the rapidincreases
inTMPshowninFigure3werecausedbytheaccumulationofcake on the
surfaces of the membranes. The three dashed linesshown in the gure
are assumed to represent the evolution
ofphysicallyirreversiblefoulinginthethreemembranes,whichaccumulatedandremaineddespiteoftheimplementationofperiodical
backwashingandadditional physical cleaning. AsseeninFigure 3, the
rates of occurrence of physically
ir-reversiblefoulinginthethreemembranesweredifferent.Toinvestigate
the features of constituents that were re-sponsiblefor
physicallyirreversiblefouling,the
foulantsweredesorbedfromthefouledmembranesat theterminationofthe
operationand thentheir chemical characteristics
wereanalyzed.Whenthepilotoperationswereterminated,fouledmembranes
were taken out fromthe ltration units. Themembraneberswere