ARTICLES 1 Transformations of Society and Power in Ancient Nasca Christina A. Conlee 36 Paracas en Palpa: Los Fundamentos del Poder de la Cultura Nasca Markus Reindel, Johny Isla, Hermann Gorbahn y Heike Otten 64 Ushnus en la Provincia Inka de Vilcashuaman Yuri Igor Cavero Palomino PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGY Volume 2
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Transformations of Society and Power in Ancient Nasca
ChristinaA.Conlee
During the severalmillennia of cultural development in theNasca region thereweremanytransformations insocietythatweretiedtochanges in the foundations,structures,andrelationships of power.From semi-sedentaryhunters andgatherers of theArchaic to theincorporationoftheregionintotheIncaempire,thispaperexploreschangingaspectsofancientsocietyoveraperiodoffivethousandyears.Muchof this informationcomesfroma long-termresearchprojectattheancientsettlementofLaTizainthesouthernNascadrainage.
The Site of La Tiza
LaTizaislocatedneartheconvergenceoftheAjaandTierrasBlancasvalleysinthemiddleNascaValley (Figure1).Thesettlement issituatedonahillsideon theAjariversideof thevalleyinanareawithgoodamountsofarablelandwithfertilealluvialsoil.Thereisalsogoodaccesstowaterinthispartofthevalley,andwithinthesoutherndrainage,theAjatributaryhasthegreatestannualdischargeofwater (ONERN1971;SchreiberandLancho2003:25).However,aswithotherriversinthesouth,thereisgenerallynosurfacewaterbetweenthemonthsofMayandDecemberinthemiddlevalley(ca.400-1000masl)wheremostofthegoodagriculturallandislocated(SchreiberandLancho2003:31).Thereisyear-roundsubsurfacewaterthatpeoplewereabletoutilizeduringthedryseasonbydiggingwellsandbuildingaqueducts.NearLaTizatheundergroundwaterisclosertosurface(ca.4m)thaninmanyareasofsouthernNascasoitwouldhavebeeneasiertoaccess(SchreiberandLancho2003:94).Therewerealsoprobablyaspectsofsacredgeographythat ledtotheestablishmentofasettlement inthisparticular locationsinceCerroBlanco,adistinctivewhitesandmountain,andthemostimportantmountaindeityinNasca(Acosta1962;Reinhard1988),sitsacrossthevalleyfromthesite.ResearchbeganatLaTizain2002whenthesitewasmappedand30hectaresofarchitecturewasrecorded.Subsequentexcavations in2004,2005,2006,and2009revealed it tobeamulti-componentsitewith theearliesthabitationextendingback into theArchaicwithoccupationspanningseveralthousandyearsuntil theIncaconquestoftheregion(Table1).Thenatureofthesettlementduringeachofthemajorperiodsinwhichitwasoccupiedwillbediscussedinthefollowingsectionsandthehistoryofthesitewillbetiedinwithbroaderregionaldevelopments.
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Figure1MapoftheNascadrainagewiththesiteofLaTiza.
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Rad
ioca
rbon
dat
es f
rom
La
Tiz
a.Sample#
Context
Material
13C/12C
14CAge
2SigmaCalibration
Period
AA74717
Unit50,LevelB
Charcoal
-24.4
4827+/-41
3649-3378BC
MiddleArchaic
Beta387849
Unit52,LevelC,Feature2
Charcoal
-24.3
4710+/-30
3620-3610BCand3520-3365BC
MiddleArchaic
Beta259911
Unit49,LevelC,Feature4
Charcoal
-23.5
3940+/-40
2560-2520BCand2500-2300BC
LateArchaic
Beta25992
Unit51,LevelE
Charcoal
-23.0
3990+/-40
2580-2460BC
LateArchaic
Beta330058
Unit49,Feature3
Charcoal
-25.0
3830+/-30
2430-2150BC
LateArchaic
Beta259908
Unit5,LevelC
Charcoal
-23.5
2120+/-40
350-300BCand210-40BC
Formative
Beta259909
Unit7,LevelD
Charcoal
-22.0
2170+/-40
340-100BC
Formative
AA687737
Unit27,LevelB
Charcoal
-22.8
2069+/-37
160BC-AD75
Formative
AA68738
Unit28,LevelC
Charcoal
-22.8
2082+/-36
163BC-AD63
Formative
Beta358021
Unit58,LevelC
Charcoal
-23.0
2030+/-30
110BC-AD30andAD40-50
Formative
Beta330057
Unit46,Burial8
Tooth
-14.0
1840+/-30
AD80-240
Nasca
AA74716
Unit46,LevelB,Feature2
Charcoal
-24.0
1801+/-36
AD145-405
Nasca
Beta358019
Unit54,LevelB
Charcoal
-26.5
1670+/-30
AD260-430
Nasca
Beta358018
Unit21,LevelC
Charcoal
-25.7
1580+/-30
AD410-550
Nasca
Beta259910
Unit47,LevelC,Feature1
Charcoal
-24.2
1340+/-40
AD640-720and740-770
MiddleHorizon
AA74720
Unit45,LevelC,Feature2
Charcoal
-26.2
1367+/-35
AD652-775
MiddleHorizon
AA68744
Unit20,LevelC
Charcoal
-24.4
1323+/-36
AD664-887
MiddleHorizon
AA74722
Unit17,LevelC,Hearth
Charcoal
-26.2
1275+/-35
AD688-891
MiddleHorizon
AA68742
Tomb6
Tooth
-15.8
1160+/-44
AD782-1021
MiddleHorizon
AA74723
Unit47,Burial7
Tooth
-14.7
1149+/-44
AD783-1025
MiddleHorizon
AA74721
Unit48,LevelB,Feature2
Charcoal
-24.7
795+/-36
AD1212-1374
LIP
AA68736
Unit23,LevelB
Charcoal
-25.3
664+/-42
AD1291-1404
LIP
AA74718
Unit51,LevelC
Charcoal
-16.2
679+/-34
AD1291-1395
LIP
AA68741
Unit35,LevelC
Charcoal
-24.4
603+/-35
AD1315-1436
LIP
AA74715
Unit33,LevelB
Charcoal
-24.6
604+/-34
AD1315-1435
LIP
AA68740
Unit15,LevelC
Charcoal
-24.4
583+/-35
AD1320-1444
LIP
AA74719
Unit41,LevelB
Charcoal
-23.9
530+/-34
AD1400-1455
LIP
AA68739
Unit13,LevelC
Charcoal
-22.9
438+/-36
AD1435-1624
LateHorizon
Table1
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Archaic
TheearliestoccupationsofLaTizawereduringtheMiddle(6000-3000BC)andLateArchaic(3000-1800BC).Duringthisperiodthereare indications that theregionexperienced increasedaridityaftertheearlyandmid-Holocenewhenconditionsweremorehumid(EitelandMächtle2009:23).Peoplebegantosettleinareasalongtheriverswheretherewasmorereliablewater.Asdiscussedabove,LaTizaissituatedinaparticularlygoodlocationtotakeadvantageofwaterandotherresources.TheArchaicoccupationwasconcentratedintheeasternareaofthesettlementinthelowestelevationsofSectorsIandII(Figure2).Theearliestdateisaround3600BCinadeflatedareainsideofalargesquarestructurethatwasmostlyconstructedinlaterperiods(Units50,52,and53). InthisMiddleArchaicareatherewerenoceramicsandthecontents includedash,charcoal,shellbeads,obsidian,groundstone,shell,acorncob,unidentifiedbotanicalmaterial,andunidentifiedanimalbone (Figure3).Therewasalsoonesmallcottontextile fragment. InUnit52ahearthwasdugintothesterilesoilandconsistedofasemi-circleoffirecrackedrockswithcharcoalandburntbone in the interiorandapieceofgroundstonesimilar toamano.TwelvepiecesofobsidianfromUnit50wereanalyzedusingx-rayfluorescence(XRF)inordertodetermine the source fromwhich theywereobtained.All of thepieceswere sourced toQuispisisa,whichistheclosestobsidiansourcefromtheAjaValleywithastraightlinedistanceof85.7km(Eerkensetal.2010:Table2).ThesmallcorncobinUnit50wasidentifiedasConfiteChavinenese,whichisoneoffiveearlyorprimitiveracesofmaizeintheAndesandisapopcorn(Grobmanetal.1961:138).TheearliestcornrecordedinthecoastalAndescomesfromthesitesofParedonesandHuacaPrietaonthenorthcoastofPeruandhasMiddleArchaicdates(ca.6700BP)(Grobmanetal.2012).ThecontextthecornwasfoundinatLaTizawasnotinafeaturebutfromthetopoftheMiddleArchaiclevel,whichmayhavehadsomemixing.LateArchaicdatescomefromthebottomlevelsoftwostructures(Unit49and51)thatarejusttothewestoftheMiddleArchaiccontextsandrangefrom2580-2300BC.Thematerialinthesecontexts issimilar to that found in theMiddleArchaiconeswith theadditionofchalcedonylithicmaterialalthoughtherewasquiteofbitofmixingsincethisareawasoccupiedby laterNascacultureandLate IntermediatePeriodpeople.There isnoclearevidenceofchange inlocalsocietyduringtheLateArchaicalthoughthereiscurrentlynotenoughdatatosufficientlyevaluate.InothercoastalareasofPerupeopleintensifiedfishingandcottongrowingbytheendoftheMiddleArchaic (StothertandQuilter1991:41). InNasca,bytheendoftheLateArchaictherewasprobablymoreofafocusonplantcultivation.ItislikelytherewassporadicoccupationoftheeasternareaofthesettlementbyhuntersandgatherersthroughouttheArchaic.TheArchaicoccupationatLaTizaissimilartothatfoundatotherinteriorsitesinNascasuch
asPernilAlto,LaEsmerelda,andUpanca (Isla1990;Reindel2009;VaughnandLinares2006).Foraginggroupswerehuntingvariousanimalsandcollectingplant remains.Tools includedgroundstoneforprocessingplants,andlithicartifactsthatwereusedforhuntingandprocessingfood.Obsidianwasobtained from theQuispisisa source inAyacuchopossibly aspart of aseasonalroundor fromtradewithgroups inthehigherelevationsof thedrainage.Shellbeads
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Figure2MapwiththeArchaicunitsexcavatedatLaTiza.
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wereused forornamentation.There is possible evidencefor cultigens suchas cottonand corn.Thepeople atLaTizamay have been semi-sedentary, occupying thesettlement for part of theyearandmovingtothecoast,lomas , andhighlandsduringother times. However, theextent of theirmobility andthesizeofterritorythattheycoveredareunknown.Duringthe Archaic it is possiblethatpeoplecametogetheratcertain timesof theyear forritual and social activitiesat places such asCahuachi.People in theNasca regionpracticedArchaicwaysoflifelonger than inotherareasofthePeruviancoastprobablyb e c au s e o f t h e g r e a t e rdistances between resourcezonesand theoverall sparsenatureoftheresources.Littlecanbesaidaboutthedevelopmentofpowerrelationsduringthistimeperiod.
Formative
Thereareno indicationsofoccupation inthesouthernNascadrainageoratLaTiza inthefollowingInitialPeriod (1800-800BC)althoughhabitationof this timehasbeendocumented inthenortherndrainage(Reindel2009:444).ThefirstlargeandwidespreadoccupationtobefoundthroughouttheNascadrainagewasduringtheEarlyHorizon(800BC-AD1).Inthenorth,thereisevidenceforoccupationfromearlyintheperiodwithadramaticincreaseinpopulationbytheend.Inthesouth,theredoesnotappeartohavebeensignificantoccupationuntilEpoch8,whichbeginsaround400BC(SchreiberandLancho2003:13).SomeresearcherssuchasVanGijseghemandVaughn(2008:115)usethetermFormativeforthisperiodbeforetheflorescenceoftheNascaculturebecausetheregionwasoutsideoftheChavínareaofinfluence,whichishowtheEarlyHorizonhastraditionallybeendefined.Thatprecedentisfollowedhere.Thereisnoevidencefor
Figure3Artifacts found in theMiddleArchaiccontexts inUnits50and52includingahandheldgrindingstone,shellbeads,andobsidian.
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EarlyorMiddleFormativeatLaTizaasthereisatsitesinthenorth.OccupationbeginsintheLateFormative,aperiodcalledLateParacas(370-200BC)andInitialNasca(120BC-AD90)inthenorth(Reindel2009),andPuntilla(400-200BC)andMontana(200BC-AD1)inthesouth(SchreiberandLancho2003:13-14).ThefirstsubstantialandpermanenthabitationatLaTizadates370BCtoAD75whenthefirstfarmerslivedatthesettlement.Thesiteisnotsituateddefensivelylikemanyothersofthetime;however,pilesofsling-stonesarelocatedontheridgeoverlookingSectorIwherethemajorityoftheLateFormativearchitectureisfound(Figure4).Inthissectorthereisagglutinatedcompoundarchitectureconstructedofangular fieldstonewithoutmortarandperishablematerial for theroofsandpartsofthewalls.Thereisaseriesoffree-standingroundstoragestructureslocatedalong thebaseof theridgenext to thedomesticstructures.Adjacent to theLateFormativecompoundarchitecturetothesoutharetwoplazasthatmayhavefirstbeenusedinthisperiod.InSectorIItothewestthearchitectureismorevariableandconsistsofbothcompoundareasandfreestandingroundpatiogroups.During theLateFormativeLaTizapeopleweregrowingmost of the crops theywouldcontinueto farmthroughoutprehistory.Besidesfarming,peoplealsokeptcamelidsandguineapigsatornearthesiteaswellasprocuredwildresourcessuchasdeer,bird,andshellfish.Theyweremanufacturingandusingavarietyofgoodssuchaspottery,textiles,andlithictools.Theyobtainedobsidianthroughlongdistancetradewithallbutoneofthesampledobsidianartifacts(n=16)comingfromQuispisisa.Onepoint fragmentwas identifiedfromJampatilla,whichafterQuispisisaisthenextclosestsourcetoNasca,althoughitisarelativelyminorone.Thepeopleofthisperiodalsoparticipatedinregionaltradeinvolvingmarineresourcesandpottery.TherewasavarietyofceramicstylesinuseatLaTizaduringtheLateFormativeincluding
Paracas fineware,plainwares thatwereproduced locally,Tajoplainand incised, andNasca1 (Figure5).There isevidenceofsocialdifferentiationwith theParacas finewaresrestrictedtoSector II, although theywere found inverysmallnumbers.Compositional analysisusingInstrumentalNeutronActivation (INAA) on a small sample of 28 sherds identified threecompositionalgroups.ThemostcommonwastheGroup1Macro,whichcomprised64%ofthesample (n=18).Thisgroup isdescribedas representing thecompositionalvariabilityofclayresourcesfromsouthernNascaandcanbeconsideredlocalfromaregionalperspective(BoulangerandGlascock2008).ThisgroupcontainsavarietyofpotterytypesincludingTajodecorated,Tajoplainware,Ocucaje8red-slipped,andNasca1redslippedbowls.Sherdsclassifiedasoutliersorunassignedmakeupthesecondmostcommoncategory,andconsistof22%of theassemblage(n=6).Thisgroupalso includesavarietyof types includingParacasfineware,anOcucajered-slippedvessel,Tajodecoratedsherds,andaNasca1red-slippedbowl. Thesearevesselsthatwere likelyproducedoutsideof thesouthernNascaregionorcomefromunidentifiedsources.ThethirdmostcommongroupwasGroup1(n=4)at14%,whichhasbeenidentifiedbypreviousresearchaspossiblycomingfromaclaysourcenearCahuachi(VaughnandNeff2004;Vaughnetal.2006).ThisgroupalsocontainedavarietyoftypesincludinganOcucaje8redslippedvessel,anunidentifiedLateFormativesherd,aNasca1bowl,andanincisedTajosherd.
During the Late Formative thefoundationswere laid for the large,complex regiona l cu l ture thatflourishedduring theensuingEarlyIntermediate Period. This was atransformativetimewhentherewasa continuation of older traditions,alongwith new innovations, andwavesofpeople settling theregion.ThesiteofCahuachiappearstohavehad a ceremonial function by thetimeNasca 1 ceramicswerebeingproduced in the Late Formative(Silverman and Proulx 2002:164;VaughnandVanGijseghem2007:816).Therewasavarietyofcommunitiesthatwere established during thistimewithrelativelysmallsitessuchasLaTizaandlargeronessuchasLaPuntilla thatwas located justacrossthevalleyandhadmoreevidenceofsocialdifferentiation(VanGijseghem2006).IthasbeenproposedthatNascasocietywasbornfromthefrontierprocessthatallowedfor
empire(Carmichael1995;IslaandReindel2006;Massey1986;Orefici2011a,b;Reindel2009;Rowe1960;Schreiber1999;SchreiberandLancho2003;Silverman1993;SilvermanandProulx2002;Vaughn2009).Therearedifferencesinhowarchaeologistswhoworkinthenorthversussouthhaveviewedpolitical complexityandpower relationsduring thisperiod.The southduringEarlyNascahasbeendepictedaspopulatedprimarilybysmallvillages located in theuppervalleyswherewaterwasavailable(Schreiber1999;SchreiberandLancho2003,Silverman1993;SilvermanandProulx2002;Vaughn2009;VaughnandLinares2006).Thesevillagesaredescribedas self-sufficient,with some evidence of social differentiation, and integrated through theceremonialcenterofCahuachi,andasharedreligioustradition.Theassessmentofsociopoliticalorganization fromthesouthhasgenerallybeen thatNascawasachiefdomorother typeof“middle-rangesociety.”This is incontrast to thenorthwhere researchershaverecordedahierarchyofsiteswithhamlets,smallvillages,andcenterswithcivic-ceremonialfunctions(Browne1992;IslaandReindel2006;Reindel2009).ThearchaeologistswhoworkinthisareaconcludethatNascawasmorecomplexandstratified.ScholarswhoseresearchisfocusedatCahuachi(Orefici2011a,b;Strong,1957),withtheexceptionofSilverman(1993),proposeNascawasmorelikelyastatelevelsociety.TheNascacultureoccupationofLaTizabeganinEarlyNascaandextendedthroughMiddleNasca.Muchofwhatinitiallyappearedtobecemeterywasfoundtobedomesticandritualareas,andthesizeoftheNascasettlementisatleastthreetimeswhatwasinitiallythoughtbeforeitwasexcavated(Conlee2014).InEarlyNasca,thesitegrewinsizefromtheLateFormativeandincludedareasofSectors II, III,andVtotalingover8hectares (Figure6).RadiocarbondatesplacetheoccupationatAD80-550.ThemajorityoftheEarlyNascapotteryisNasca3and4,andthetwophasesarefoundtogetherinmostcontextssuggestingthattheyarecontemporary.TheMiddleNascapotteryisintheNasca5styleandisassociatedwithburialandritualareasandoftenmixedwiththeEarlyNascapottery.ArchitectureofthisperiodwasdifferentthanduringtheLateFormative.PeopleinbotherasusedagglutinatedcompoundsbuttheNascaarchitecturewasmoreregular,andtherewasuseofcutorshapedstoneinadditiontonaturalfieldstone,andthefirstuseofdoublecoursedwalls.Thereisalsoagreaterdealofarchitecturaldiversitywithdifferenttypesofarchitectureindifferentsectorsofthesite.Subsistenceevidence indicatesacontinuationofpractices from theLateFormativewith
farmingthecentralpartof theeconomy.Botanicalremains fromNascacontexts includecorn(Zeamays), limabean (Phaseolus lunatus ),peanut (Arachishypogaea ),pacay(IngaFeuillei ),yucca (Manihotesculenta),guava (Psidiumguajaba), sweetpotato(Ipomoeabatatas), squashes(Curcurbitamaxima,Curcurbitamoshata),huarango(Prosopissp. ),andindustrialplantssuchascotton (Gossypiumbarbadense),gourds (Langenariasiceraria),andreeds (Phragmitescomunis).Carbonandnitrogen isotopicanalysisofenamelandbonecarbonateonall of theexcavatedburialsatLaTizafoundthatC4plants,maizebeingthemostprevalent,madeupthemajorityofthefoodsourcesofpeoplelivingatthesite(Buzonetal.2011,2012).Farmingwassupplementedby the use of domestic animals primarily camelids and guinea pigswith the continuedconsumptionofshellfish.
valleytothesouthonanalluvialfanjustabovetheTierrasBlancasriver.There isaMiddleNascacomponentassociatedwithNasca5potterythat isprimarily foundwithburialsbuttherearenodocumentedMiddleNascadomesticareas(Figure8).ThehighestpercentageoffinewareatthesitewasinUnit8(81%),whereadecapitatedbodywasburiedinacircularstonelinedtombwithaNasca5headjar(Conlee2007).Theindividualwasmaleaged22-29yearsandstrontiumandoxygen isotopicanalysis indicateshewasfromthe localregion,andhisheadwaslikelymadeintoatrophyheadalthoughnotrophyheadshavebeenfoundatthesite (Conleeetal.2009).Adjacentdownslopewasanothertombofsimilarsize,shape,andconstruction,whichhadbeenlooted.Onlythefeetofthebodyburiedinthetombwereintactbutotherbonewasscatteredthroughoutthestructure.Itwasestimatedthattheindividualwas18-22yearsoldandpossiblyfemale(Buzonetal.2012).Becauseofthesimilarityinceramics,andtombtypes,thetwoburialswere likelycontemporary.Excavations furtherdownthe slope revealed thatthe tombswereplacedonan artificial terrace, andthat therewasprobablyaramp leadingup to them.Two eno rmous i n t a c tceramicvesselswerefoundthat appear to havebeenplacedwhentherampandterracewere constructed.Pairedofferingsare foundin other Nasca culturecontextsatthesiteandareinterpreted asdedicatoryofferings.Itisprobablethiswasanareawhereritualscontinuedafter the initialinterments. In addition tothe ritual area associatedwith these burials, therearetwoplazasinthelowerelevation of Sector I thatappear to date toMiddleNasca.Noexcavationswereconducted in the plazasbut the pottery found in Figure8TwoMiddleNascatombsfoundinSectorII;topUnit8withdecapitated
body;bottomUnit55withintactfeet.
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looterspitsandonthesurfacewasprimarilyNasca5.Inspectionofthelooterspitsrevealedthattheplazaareascontainedquiteabitofmaterialincludingashandorganics.Thissuggeststhesespaceswerethefocioffrequentandcontinuedactivity.Thereareseveral linesofevidence fromLaTiza thathave implications for thenatureofintegrationandsociopoliticalcomplexityof theNascaculture.Oneof themoststriking is thattheEarlyNascaoccupationofLaTizaspreadoverat least8ha,making it larger thanothercontemporaryhabitationsitesrecordedinthesouth.ItcontrastswithothersouthernsitessuchasMarcaya(1ha.),Upanca (5ha.)andUchuchuma(2ha) thatareconsideredvillages (Vaughn2009;Vaughn andLinares 2006). LaTizawas adifferent kind of settlement and couldbeconsideredatownduringthisperiod.ThelargesizeofLaTizaandthepresenceofadifferenttypeofarchitecture,andgreateramountofhighstatuspottery,indicatethesettlementwasthehomeofpeoplewithagreaterdegreeofsocialdifferentiationthanatthesmallvillageslocatedintheupperelevations.LaTizamayhavegrownlargerbecauseofitspositioninanareawithalotofarablelandandeasieraccesstogroundwater.TheconstructionofpuquiosorothercomplexirrigationsystemsbythepeopleofLaTizaduringEarlyNascamayhavecontributed to thedevelopmentofmoredifferentiationamongsettlements intheregionthanpreviouslyproposed.Moreinformationaboutfarmingandirrigationpracticesoftheperiodarenecessarytoassesthisideabut it isquitepossible thatpeopleheregainedmorewealthandprestigebecauseof theadvantageouslocationandintensifiedagriculturalpractices.Onaregional level, theresearchatLaTiza indicates thatEarlyNascapopulationhasbeenunderestimatedinthesouth.Particularly,sitesinthemiddlevalleysarehardtorecognizeandareprobablyunderreported. Ithasbeennotedthat theNascapeopleoftenburied theirdeadinearliersettlementsandthat tracesofhabitationaredestroyedby looters lookingfor tombs(Carmichael1995;Hecht2009:227;Silverman2002:46).Destructionofearlierhabitationwouldbeparticularlynotablewherehouseswereconstructedprimarilyofwattle-and-daub,whichmayhavebeenthecase inpartsof themiddlevalley. It is likelythatmanyplacesthathavebeenrecordedasNascacemeterieswereactuallydomesticsitesaswell,andthatpopulationhasbeenunderestimated.Inaddition,themiddlevalleysarewheremodernpopulationisconcentratedandhavebeenthemostimpactedbydisturbancefromexpandingtownsandmodernagriculture.LaTizawasnottheonly largersettlement inthesouththat likelyhadotherfunctionsthan
habitation.TherearesomelargersettlementssuchasCantalloq,Jumana,andPuebloViejothathavebeencharacterizedasceremonialcenters (Orefici2011a:87;Reindel2009:452;SchreiberandLancho2003:146)butwhoseroles in integrationof theregionremainunclear. Acloserexaminationof thesesiteswouldaid indevelopingaclearerviewofEarlyNascasociopoliticalorganization.The investigations atLaTiza indicate thatbesidesa largerpopulationandmorediversetypesof sites in thesouth than formerlyproposed, therewasalso likelyagreaterdegreeofinequalitythanpreviouslydescribed(Conlee2014).Therearealsoimplicationsfortheperceiveddifferencesbetweenthenorthernandsoutherndrainage.Thenorthhadfarmoresettlementsandmore locationswithcivic-ceremonial lociandthismayinpartbebecausethenorthwasmore
ByAD650thesiteofLaTizawasinhabitedbyMiddleHorizonpeopleanditwasonceagainusedasadomestic site, andalsoasanextensiveburialground.At this timegreatchangesoccurred in termsofpoliticalorganizationandpowerrelationships.Nascawas incorporatedinto the largerWaristate,based in thehighlandsofAyachucho,andnewtypesofalliances,entanglements,andresistanceswerecreatedwith importantaspectsof localsocietyremainingintact.TherewasacloserelationshipbetweenthetworegionsgoingbacktotheperiodbeforeWariexpansionwhen in theEarly IntermediatePeriodHuarpapeopleadoptedmuchof the
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Nascaceramictradition (Cook1984-85;Knobloch1983;Menzel1964).TheWari imperialstylesalso incorporatedaspectsof thewide-spreadandprestigiousNasca styleandsuggests theyadoptedpartsoftheNascareligioustraditionaswell(Conlee2006;Menzel1964).InNascatherewasadiversityofresponsestoandinteractionswiththeWaristate.Notabledifferencesexistedbetweenthenorthandsouthvalleysinthenumberandtypeofsettlementsbothintermsoflocalsitesand intrusiveWarisites. In thesouth, in theNascaValleyproperthere isevidenceofafairlydirectrelationshipbetweenWariandlocalpeople.IntheupperelevationsnewWarisites,PataryaandIncawasi,wereestablishedthatmayhavefunctionedasimportantoutpostsalongamajorroadcontrollingtradebetweenthehighlandsandthecoast(Edwards2010;EdwardsandSchreiber2014;Schreiber2001). Inthelowervalley,notfarfromCahuachi, thesiteofPachecowasestablishedthatwasaritualcenterthatcontainedalargeceramicofferingdepositbutwasalsolikelyanadministrativesite(Menzel1964;Schreiber2001).AtLaTizatherewasasmallMiddleHorizonhabitationareameasuringaroundthreehectares
insizethatconsistsofmuchofSectorIVandasmallareaineasternSectorV(Figure9).Thedomesticstructuresarerectangularhousesbuiltonterracesandvariable insize.Thepotteryfound in thesecontextswas localMiddleHorizonandrestricted tostyles thatMenzel (1964)proposedwere from the firsthalf of theperiod.Newmortuarypracticeswereestablishedthatconsistedof familymausoleumsthatwereplasteredandpainted.Atotalof70havebeenidentifiedatthesiteandtheyspananareaofabout4hectaresbetweenSectorsIIIandV(Conlee2010,2011). Inthesetombsmultiple individualswereinterredincludingadultmenandwomen,children,and infants (Figure10).Elitegravegoods inthetombs includedSpondylus shell,finepottery,andtextiles.Also for the first timemetalartifactsmadeofarsenicbronzeorcopperwere foundat thesiteand includedshawlpins,ornaments, tweezers,andfigurineswithmostassociatedwiththisnewtombtype.Therewerealsoaccesswaysdocumentedinmanyofthesestructures.Tombswithmultiple internmentsarereported inotherareasofNascaatthistimeandthisbecameacommonnewburialtype(Carmichael1995; Isla2001).ElaboratetombswithmultipleburialsandevidenceofreentrytoplaceadditionalbodiesandgravegoodswerealsocommonintheWariheartland(Isbell2001,2004;IsbellandCook2002).Thesenewpracticesarethoughttobeindicatorsofancestorvenerationorworship,whichwasfocusedonthedeceasedelites(IsbellandCook2002:287–288).AneliteidentitymayhavedevelopedintheMiddleHorizonthatwassharedacrossavastareathatincludedNasca,andWari,andwasreflectedinthenewburialpractices.Strontiumandoxygen isotopicanalysissuggests therewereactual foreignerslivingatLaTizawhowereburied in themausoleumsduring thisperiod (Buzonetal. 2012;Conleeetal.2009).Twowomen in theirearly20swere identifiedasnonlocalandofpossiblehighlandorigin.TheymayhavemarriedintothecommunityasawayofestablishingalliancesbetweenthehighlandWaristateandlocalelites.OtherareasoftheNascadrainagehaddramaticallydifferentresponsestoWari.Inthenorth
therewerenoWarisitesandtherewasadecreaseinlocalsettlements,andthemajorityofthoseidentifiedarecemeterieswithlittleevidenceforhabitation(Browne1992;Reindel2009;Silverman2002).Despite the lowdensityofMiddleHorizonsites inthenorth, therewerenewmortuary
practicessimilar to thosedocumentedatLaTiza thatconsistedof largetombswithmultipleburialsofadultsandchildren,andsuggestsanewpoliticalandsocialorderthatwasinfluencedbyWari(Isla2001,2009).Intheveryfarsouthnewsettlements,includingthelargelocalsiteofHuacadelLorowereestablished indicatingthata factionof thepopulationmovedawayfromWarisites,perhapsresistedthestate,andnevercameunder itscontrol (ConleeandSchreiber2006;Schreiber2001).Evidence fromLaTizaandothersites intheregion indicatethatagriculturaland irrigationpracticesremainedstable in theMiddleHorizonwiththehealthanddietofpeoplerelativelysteadyalthough there is someevidence to suggest that atLaTizamaizeconsumptionandthedietarybreadthof thepopulation increased (Buzonetal. 2012;KellnerandSchoeninger2008).ThepuquiosconstructedduringtheNascaculturecontinuedtobe inuse in thesouth.Theabandonmentofmuchof thenorthmayberelatedtothe lackofapuquiosysteminthisarea,which leftpeoplereliantonsurface (asopposedtosurfaceandsubsurface)water,whichdecreasedstartingattheendoftheNascaculture.
EconomicincentivesprobablyplayedanimportantroleinWari'sinterestinNascawherecropsdesiredbythestate,suchascottonandcoca,weregrownandwhosecultivationinvolvedlocalpeople.Muchofthisagriculturemayhavebeenlocallymanagedsincethehighlandstatewouldhavehadlittleexperiencewithlocalcoastalfarmingpractices.Thereisevidenceforincreasedinteractionacross largeareasof theAndesduringtheMiddleHorizonwithWaripotteryandtextiles tradedandcopied inmanyregions.Duringthisperiod therewas intensified tradeofitemssuchasobsidianandSpondylus(Burgeretal.2000;Pillsbury1996).Metallurgyexpandedwiththedevelopmentofbronzealloysandmetalartifactswerealsotradedacross largeareas(Lechtman2005). Intensified tradeof these items is seenatLaTizawhere thequantityofobsidianincreasedfromtheNascacultureandtherewasevenlessbipolarreductionindicatingtheyhadgoodaccesstothematerial.AlloftheobsidiantestedfromthisperiodcamefromtheQuispisisasource,whichwaslocatedinWariterritoryandlikelyunderitscontrol.AnewpotterycompositionalgroupwasdefinedthroughINAAthatwasrestrictedtotheMiddleHorizonatLaTiza.ThisMicaTemperedgrouprepresents15%ofthetestedMiddleHorizonassemblage(n=54)andisdistinctiveforthehighquantityofmica,andwasnotpresentintheearlierNascacultureassemblagenorwasitfoundinthepotteryoflaterperiods.Wariappearstohave invested insomeareas, inparticulartheNascaValleyofthesouthern
drainage,andnot inothers.Herethestate likelyruledthrough local leadersandnewtypesofintermediateeliteswereestablishedwhoobtainedpowerthroughtheirassociationwithWari.ThepeopleofNascabecamepartofastate levelsociety for thefirst timeandwereexposedtopowerandpoliticalorganizationona largescale.The localpoliticalhierarchywaschangedto includenewtypesofeliteswhoacquiredpower indifferentwaysthanpreviouslyandthisprobablyforeverchangedthenatureoflocalsociopoliticalorganizationandpowerrelationships(Conlee2003,2006).Immigrantsareidentifiedintheregionduringthisperiodandintermarriagewithforeignerswasapracticepossiblynewlyestablished.ThedisintegrationandpoliticalcollapseofWaribyAD1000,combinedwithlocalissues,ledtogreatdisruptioninNascathatresultedinabandonmentoftheregion.Thelastcurrentlyknowndate for theMiddleHorizon in thenortherndrainage isAD820 (ReindelandWagner2009:Figure1.2)andinthesoutherndrainageit isaroundAD920withevidenceofsomeburialsaslateasAD1000(Conlee2011;Edwards2010).Itisunknownhowlongtheprocessofabandonmenttookplace,anditappearstobevariableindifferentareasofthedrainagewiththenorthhavingearlier abandonmentand reoccupationdates than the south.AtPatarya theWari sitewasceremoniallyclosed inaneventatwhichtimecorridorsweresealed,ceramicswereplaced incaches,fireswerelitincorners,andafinelayerofsandwasplacedoverthesurface.Thelatestradiocarbondatefromthesite isAD922andit isproposedthatafterthisperiodthesitewasabandoned(Edwards2010:44).ThereisnoevidenceatLaTizatosuggestasimilartypeofeventbut it toohadbeenabandonedbyAD1000. It isunclearwherepeoplemovedtoat this timealthoughitissuspectedthatmanymigratedtoareasinthehigherelevations,orfurthernorthupthecoastwheretheriversarelargerandhavemoreregularwater.Therelativelysuddenandseverechangethatoccurredastheresultofabreakdowninthe
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Waripolitical systemwas likelycoupledwithmore local issues, including increasedaridity.Paleoclimaticdata fromEiteletal. (2005) showthatbeginningaroundAD600until the14thcenturyinsomeareasofNascatherewasincreasedaridificationandthedesertmarginshiftedeast,whichlimitedagriculturalland.LakecoresfromLagunaPumacochaintheCentralAndesalso indicateaperiodof“markedaridity”fromAD900-1100(Birdetal.2011:8587). InstabilitywascreatedbytheseclimaticchangesandlocalsocialissuesthatincludedpossiblerejectionofthereligioussystemsinceitwasintertwinedwiththeWarireligion,anddistrustofsomelocalleaders,especially thosecloselyassociatedwithWari (Conlee2015).Thiscouldhave led toasituationwherecertainleadersandfamilieslostpowerandprestige,andledtofragmentationofthelocalpoliticalhierarchy,aprocessthathasbeennotedinotherareasaftercollapse(Faulseit2012:421).
Late Intermediate Period
After aperiod of 200years theNasca regionwas once again inhabited anddespite theseveredisruptiontherewasafluorescenceoflocalsociety.InnorthernNasca,settlementswereestablishedbyAD1155(ReindelandWagner2009:Figure1.2)andinthesouthbetweenAD1200and1300.Agreaternumberofsiteswereestablishedinthisperiodthaneverbeforeandmanyconsistedof largevillagesandtownsthatranged from8to25hectares (Browne1992;Conlee2003;Reindel2009;SchreiberandLancho2003).Settlementsweremorevariedinlocationwithsitesfoundonhillsides,hilltops,andthevalleybottom.Sitetypevariedfromlargesettlementswithseveralinternaldivisionstosmallerrelativelyhomogenoussettlements.Manysitesduringthisperiodareindefensivelocations,andlargewalls,andpilesofsling-stonesarecommon.Resettlementof thedrainageduring thisperiodmay inpartbedue to improvedclimaticconditions.Thisperiod isclassifiedassemi-aridwithreliablerainfall in thehighlandsas thesummermonsoonal rains increased (EitelandMächtle2009;Eiteletal. 2005:153;OrtloffandKolata1993).Thefavorableclimaticconditions ledtoanarrowingofthedesertandthis likelyplayedarole in therepopulationof theregionasagriculturebecamemoreviable.Fieldsandirrigationsystemsusedpreviouslywererevived.There issomeevidencethat thenumberofpuquiosincreasedduringthisperiodandreachedtheirmaximumnumber(SchreiberandLancho2003:150).Theirrigationsystemwouldhavebeencentralinreestablishingsuccessfulagriculturalyieldsandinthegrowthofpopulation.LaTizawasat its largest,at least15ha,duringtheLateIntermediatePeriod.Architectureextended into thehighestelevationsof thesiteandupthe largequebradas inSectorsVandII,whichweredenselyoccupied (Figure11).Bothof thesesectorscontained largewalls thatspannedthemiddleelevationsandprotectedareasofdomesticarchitecture.Therearepilesofsling-stonesassociatedwiththeLateIntermediatePeriodarchitectureinbothSectorsIIandV,andtheyareespeciallyabundantaroundUnit41aritual/lookoutareaatthetopofthesite.Inadditiontothesling-stones,astonemacehead(doughnutstone)possiblyusedasaweaponwasfound inUnit13. Thisallsuggestsmoreconflictor threatofconflictduringthisperiodthan
previouserasatthesite.TherewasavarietyofarchitecturalstylesatLaTizaduringtheLateIntermediatePeriod,moreso than identifiedduringearlierperiods.Thedomesticareashaveageneral layoutofrectangularstructuresbuilton largeterraces.Non-domesticarchitecture is foundintheupperelevationsofthesiteandconsistsofplatformsandroundstructures.Thereweremanydifferentarchitecturalfeaturesandmasonrystyles.Featuresincludedstairways,externalsquarestoragebins,external largeroundstoragestructures,androundstoragebins found in the interiorofhouses.Patternsofmasonryvaryfromrelativelysimplestackedstone,todoublecoursedwallswithshapedstonesandrublefill.MudplasterwasfoundremaininginfewplacesinSectorVbuttherewaslikelywideruseofthismaterialthathassinceeroded.Itmustbenotedthoughthatthearchitectureofthisperiodismuchbetterpreservedsovariationiseasiertorecognize.SubsistencepracticesweresimilartothoseduringtheNascacultureandtheMiddleHorizonwiththesametypesofplantsbeingfarmed,animalsbeingraised,andwildresourcesprocured.ThecarbonandnitrogenisotopicanalysisoftheLateIntermediatePeriodburialsindicatesthedietremainedconstantwithalotofmaizeconsumed(Buzonetal.2012).Evidenceofhighmaizeconsumptionwasalsofoundinthecariesanddentalabscessesinanadultfemale(Burial3)andindicationsofinfectiousdiseasewasfoundinaninfant(Burial6)withorbitallesions.Therearesomeindicationsofsurplusproduction,perhapsofagriculturalproducts.This isevident intheincreaseinthenumber,type,andsizeofstorageareasatLaTizaduringthisperiod.Previousstudies indicatedthatneweconomicactivitiesandrelationshipsdeveloped in the
Late IntermediatePeriodwhenmanydifferentcommunitiesproducedgoodsandexchangedthemmoreintensivelythaninprevioustimes(Conlee2000,2003;Vaughnetal.2006).Therewasafocusontheproductionofutilitariangoodssuchasplainwarepottery,cottonyarn,andplaintextiles.Thiscontrastswithearlierperiodswhentherewas focusonfinepotteryandtextiles.Compositionalstudies(INAA)ofpotteryindicatethereweremoreclaysourcesbeingusedthanpreviouslyandmorecommunitiesproducingpottery.AtLaTizaanewPlainware/Utilitariancompositionalgroupwasdefinedandcomprised11%of the sample thatwasanalyzed. It ispossiblethatthisgroupcomesfromaclaysourcenearbyandmayhavebeenproducedatthesettlementbutmoredataisnecessarilytoassessthisidea.Obsidiancontinuedtobe themostcommonmaterialused forstonetoolsatLaTiza.Therewasadecrease inquantitiesofobsidianbuttherewas littleevidenceofbipolarreductionandtheassemblagewasdominatedby informaltoolssuggestingthattherewasasufficientsupplyof thematerial (Johnson2009).Allof thesamplesofobsidian testedusingXRF (n=27)werefromtheQuispisisasource.Spondyluscontinuedtobeobtainedthroughlong-distancetradeandwasassociatedwithahighstatushouseholdandaritualareaatLaTiza.TherewerenometalobjectsfoundinanyoftheLateIntermediatePeriodcontexts,incontrasttotheMiddleHorizonwhentheywerefoundinseveral tombsandsomedomesticareas.Overall, therewas lessself-sufficiencyamongcommunitiesandhouseholds,andmoreinvolvementinregionaltrade.ThisisapatternfoundthroughouttheCentralAndesatthistime.Manyof thereligiouspracticesassociatedwith theNascacultureand theMiddleHorizon
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culturewereabandoned in thisperiod.These include theelaborate iconography (includingdepictionofsupernaturalbeings)onpotteryandtextiles.IntheLateIntermediatePeriodartissimple,non-representational,andgeometric,andathreecolorschemeofblack,white,andredpredominates.There is littleevidencethatthepracticeoftrophyheadtakingcontinuedanditappearsthegeoglyphswerenolongerinuseinthenortherndrainage(Lambers2006)althoughthereissomeindicationoftheircontinueduseinthesouth(Clarkson1990).Therewerealsonolargeceremonialcenterswithmonumentalarchitecture. Instead, small ritualareasare foundatmanysiteswhereprimarilycommunityor familybasedactivities tookplace (Conlee2003).RitualactivitiesatLaTizaappear tobeconfined to small ridgeandhilltopstructures thatoverlookthevalleyandCerroBlanco(Units38,39,41,42).Oneroundstructure(Unit41)locatedat thehighestpointof thesettlementhadafirebox in thecenterwhichcontainedSpondylus .FromthisstructurethereareunobstructedviewsupanddownthevalleyaswellasofCerroBlanco. It seems likely thiswasbotha lookoutandaplace forritualactivity thatmayhaveinvolvedmountainworship.Anotherroundstructure(Unit39)alsowithexcellentviewsofthemountainandvalley,hadseverallargegrindingstonesinsideandnearby(Figure12).RidgetopsthroughouttheLateIntermediatePeriodsectorshadlargequantitiesofbrokenbowlsandjars.Burialpracticesreturnedtothelocalstyleofflexedindividualsburiedinpitswithminimalgrave
people.InSectorII,Unit23wasawell-preservedhousewithstairwayandlargewallsthatwouldhavetakenmoretimeandskillinconstructionthanmostoftheotherhousesatthesite(Figure13).Thisstructurehadbeenkeptcleansotherewasnota lotofculturalmaterialbut itwasassociatedwithotherstructures (acookingarea,ritualarea,andstoragestructure) thatwereprobablyusedbythesamefamily,andwhichcontainedagreateramountofmaterial.Inaddition,thishouseandassociatedstructureswerelocatedhighupinSectorIIandinagooddefensibleposition. InSectorVthehouseassociatedwithUnit35 isnotablebecauseof theamountandkindsofculturalmaterial foundwithin it. It is theonlyplaceduring thisperiodbesides theritual/lookoutarea(Unit41)whereSpondyluswasfound, ithadthe largest faunalMNI, therewereantarafragments,apieceofawhistleortrumpet,afigurine(theonlyonefromthisperiod)andsixIcadishes(animportedpotterystyle),whichwasmorethananyotherunit.ItisproposedthatthishouseandassociatedstructureswerealsooccupiedbyahighstatusfamilyIntheLateIntermediatePeriodreligiousresourceswerenolongertheprimarymeanstobuild
poweras theywereduringtheNascaculture,possiblybecausesuchresourceswereseenasunstableandtoo intertwinedwiththebreakdownoftheWaripoliticalsystem.It is likelythatthesyncretismbetweenWariandNascaresultedinaseveredisruptiontotheNascaideologicalsystemwhenWaricollapsed.Thissituationmayhaveledfuturepopulationstorestructurethe
aregionlevelthereweremajorcentersandsecondarycentersinboththenorthandsouthandtwo levelsofhierarchyabovethevillage level (Conlee2006).Urton (1990:195)hasdocumentedthatpeoplelivingintheNascaregionatthetimeofSpanishcontactweregroupedintoayllus ,parcialidades ,andmoieties.Hesuggeststhat in lateprehispanicandearlycolonial timestherewereat least fourparcialidades thatconsistedofmanyayllus . Theparcialidadeswere thengroupedintotwomoieties,oneinthenorthandoneinthesouth,eachwithacaciqueprincipal .Urtonalsoproposes that twoadditionalmoietiesexistedthatdividedupriveranddownriverayllusandcrosscut thenorth/southmoieties. The implications forprehispanicsociopoliticalorganizationarethattherewereatleastthreelevelsofintegratedorganizationduringthelateprehispanicandearlycolonialperiod(Urton1990:196).Giventhecomplexityofregionalsettlementpatterns,andgreaterlevelsofsocialdifferentiationat all sites, it appearsas if thenumberandkindsof statuses increasedduring thisperiod.Therewasanexpanded,andprobablydiffused,politicalhierarchyandelitesofdifferenttypesparticipatedinabroadrangeofactivitiessuchastheproductionofutilitarianitems,exchange,feasting,community/exclusiveritual,andwarfareanddefense(Conlee2003).Duringthisperiodtheresourcesofpowerweremorevariableresultinginamoresegmentedsocietywithdiversewaysofrankingandclassifyingpeople (Conlee2005a). Intheabsenceofreligionplayingsuchan importantcentralizingrole,expandedeconomicrelationshipsandregional trade,alongwithnewpolitical structuresworked to integrate the region.Overall, thepolitical structurewasfundamentallydifferentthanitwasduringtheNascacultureandtheMiddleHorizon.Oneof thekeyquestions in the resettlementofNasca in theLate IntermediatePeriod is
whetherthesepeoplewererelatedto thepeople that livedherebefore.RecentmitochondrialandY-chromosomalDNAresearch suggests thereweremajorchanges that occurredearlyin theLate IntermediatePeriod.GeneticdistinctionbetweencoastandhighlandpopulationswasverymarkedduringtheNascacultureandMiddleHorizon,andtherewerenosignificantgeneticchangesbetweenthesetwoperiodsasmeasuredbycoastalpopulationsinthenorthernNascadrainage (Fehren-Schmitzetal. 2010,2011). ComparisonsofMiddleHorizonandLateIntermediatePeriodhighlandpopulations(inareasadjacenttothenorthernNascadrainage)tomodernPeruvianpopulationsshowlowgeneticdistances,andthere isnodistinctionbetweenmodernPeruviancoastalandhighlandpopulations,whichsuggests therewassomepopulationprocess that ledto thehomogenizationof theregionstarting in theLate IntermediatePeriod
2010 Archaeological InvestigationsatPataraya:AWariOutpost in theNascaValleyofSouthernPeru.UnpublishedPh.D.dissertation,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara.
History in theValleys of Palpa, Peru.NewTechnologies forArchaeology:Multidisciplinary Investigations inPalpa andNasca ,Peru, editedbyMarkusReindelandGüntherA.Wagner,pp.439-461.Spinger-Verglag,Berlin,Heidelberg.
Reindel,MarkusandGüntherA.Wagner2009 Introduction-NewMethods and Technologies of Natural Sciences for