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TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE 641 003
SST 602 INSITUANDEXSITUCONSERVATION OF GERMPLASM (2+1)
TERM PAPER ON
PERMAFROST SEED STORAGE
Submitted by
S. SATHISH
10-614-003
DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
EXTERNAL EXAMINER COURSE TEACHER Dr.A.John Joel
Professor & Head (PBG)
COURSE ASSOCIATEDr.S.Ganesh Ram
Assoc. Professor (PBG)
Department of Plant Genetic Resources
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PERMAFROST SEED STORAGE
The world's seed collections are vulnerable to a wide range of threats - civil strife, war,
natural catastrophes, and more routinely but no less damagingly, poor management, lack of
adequate funding, and equipment failures. An in vitro root and tuber collection was lost in
Cameroon due to a weekend power outage. Temperature in Italys genebank in Bari, home to
80,000 samples, shot up from 20C to 22C in July 2004 when the refrigeration equipment
malfunctioned. The national genebank of the Philippines was severely damaged in a typhoon
in September 2006. Genebanks in Afghanistan and Iraq were destroyed in recent years, both
victims of chaos and looting during war. Unique varieties of our most important crops are lost
whenever any such disaster strikes, and therefore securing duplicates of all collections in a
global facility provides an insurance policy for the worlds food supply.
The global seed vault on permafrost (a layer of soil that is permanently frozen, in very
cold regions of the world) is an answer to provide the best possible assurance of safety for the
worlds crop diversity, and in fact the idea for such a facility dates back to the 1980s.
However, it was only with the coming into force of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources, and an agreed international legal framework for conserving and accessing crop
diversity, that the seed vault became a practical possibility.
What is permafrost?
Permafrost is defined as ground (soil or rock and included ice or organic material) that
remains at or below 0C for at least two consecutive years. Lowland permafrost regions are
traditionally divided into several zones based on estimated geographic continuity in the
landscape. A typical classification recognizes continuous permafrost (underlying 90-100% of
the landscape), discontinuous permafrost (50-90%) and sporadic permafrost (0-50%)
(http://ipa.arcticportal.org/).
Ground thermal regime
A typical example of ground temperatures within permafrost in the Yellowknife
region is shown in the figure below. The annual range in ground temperatures is shown by the
warmest and coolest temperatures occurring at depth. With increasing depth in the ground,
the seasonal difference in temperature decreases. The point at which there is no discernable
change in temperature is termed the "depth of zero annual amplitude". In Yellowknife, this
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depth occurs at about 15 m. Below this depth, temperatures change very little during the year.
Each year a portion of the ground at the surface rises above 0C for part of the year. This part
of the ground, termed the active layer, freezes and thaws with the changing seasons.
An illustration of the range in temperatures experienced at different depths in the
ground during the year. The active layer (shown in grey) thaws each summer and freezes
each winter, while the permafrost layer remainsbelow 0C (http://cgc.rncan.gc.ca/).
Both the thickness of permafrost and the active layer depend on local climatic
conditions, vegetation cover and soil properties. The thickness of permafrost can be altered by
changes in the climate or disturbance of the surface. Permafrost thins and the active layer
thickens when ground temperatures increase. Permafrost thickness is also a function of a
number of factors, including ground surface temperatures and the rate of temperature increase
at depth. Because rock deep beneath the earth's crust is hot and molten, the temperature
beneath the earth's surface increases with depth. This change of temperature is known as the
geothermal gradient (http://cgc.rncan.gc.ca/).
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Types of permafrost
There are two types of permafrost namely discontinuous and continuous permafrost
Discontinuous permafrost
Typically, the below ground temperature will be less variable from season to season
than the air temperature, with temperatures tending to increase with depth. Thus, if the mean
annual air temperature is only slightly below 0 C (32 F), permafrost will form only in spots
that are sheltered, usually with a northerly aspect. This creates what is known as
discontinuous permafrost. Usually, permafrost will remain discontinuous in a climate where
the mean annual soil surface temperature is between 5 and 0 C (23 and 32 F).
In the moist wintered areas mentioned before, there may not be even discontinuous
permafrost down to 2 C (28.4 F). Discontinuous permafrost is often further divided into
extensive discontinuous permafrost, where permafrost covers between 50 and 90 percent of
the landscape and is usually found in areas with mean annual temperatures between 2 and 4
C (28 and 25 F), and sporadic permafrost, where permafrost cover is less than 50 percent
of the landscape and typically occurs at mean annual temperatures between 0 and 2 C (32
and 28 F).
Continuous permafrost
There are exceptions in un-glaciated Siberia and Alaska where the present depth of
permafrost is a relic of climatic conditions during glacial ages where winters were up to 11 C
(20 F) colder than those of today. At mean annual soil surface temperatures below 5 C (23
F) the influence of aspect can never be sufficient to thaw permafrost and a zone of
continuous permafrost (abbreviated to CPZ) forms. There are also "fossil" cold anomalies in
the Geothermal gradient in areas where deep permafrost developed during the Pleistocene that
still persists down to several hundred metres. The Suwaki cold anomaly in Poland led to therecognition that similar thermal disturbances related to Pleistocene Holocene climatic
changes are recorded in boreholes throughout Poland.
A line of continuous permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere (Frozen Ground 28,
2004, p5) is formed from the most northerly points at which permafrost sometimes thaws or
is interrupted by regions without permafrost. North of this line all land is covered by
permafrost or glacial ice. The "line" of continuous permafrost lies further north at some
longitudes than others and can gradually move northward or southward due to regional
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climatic changes. In the southern hemisphere, most of the equivalent line would fall within
the Southern Ocean if there were land there. Most of the Antarctic continent is overlain by
glaciers.
In the Andes at Atacama Desert permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4,400
metres and is continuous above 5,600 metres.
SVALBARD GLOBAL SEED VAULT
Introduction
The world's seed collections are vulnerable to a wide range of threats - civil strife, war,
natural catastrophes, and more routinely but no less damagingly, poor management, lack of
adequate funding, and equipment failures. Unique varieties of our most important crops are
lost whenever any such disaster strikes, and therefore securing duplicates of all collections in
a global facility provides an insurance policy for the worlds food supply.
The global seed vault on permafrost (a layer of soil that is permanently frozen, in very
cold regions of the world) is an answer to provide the best possible assurance of safety for the
worlds crop diversity, and in fact the idea for such a facility dates back to the 1980s.
However, it was only with the coming into force of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources, and an agreed international legal framework for conserving and accessing cropdiversity, that the seed vault became a practical possibility.
Location
Svalbard archipelago was located 1000 km away from north pole governed by
Norway government.
History
The history of Svalbard Global Seed Vault starts as early as 1983.The first initiativefor the creation of a safety deposit for seeds in permafrost was taken by the Nordic Genetic
Resource Centre (NBG) as early as the early 80s. Svalbard, along with Greenland and the
Jotunheim mountains, was assessed as a possible location at an early date. NBG visited
Svalbard in 1983 and it was eventually decided to store seeds 300 metres inside a disused
mine, mine 3, near Longyearbyen, where there was a permafrost of minus 3-4 degrees.
NBGs positive experience of Svalbard led to the question of similar safety deposits
being taken up by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and the UNs
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Food and Agriculture Organisation and a meeting between the board and the Norwegian
authorities was arranged.
In 1989 IBPGR started surveying the relevant alternative sites in Svalbard. Norway
offered to take care of the actual construction of the vault, while FAO and IBPGR would take
care of the administrative operating costs through the creation of a fund based on capital from
external donors.
After the FAOs International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture came into force in 2004. A group of Nordic and international experts under the
direction of Noragric at the Norwegian University of Life Scientists (UMB) were appointed
to carry out a preliminary study. In September 2004 the group put forward an unambiguously
positive report, which concluded that suitable locations were to be found in Svalbard. In
November 2004 the report was presented at FAOs Commission for Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture.
The Norway government backed the initiative and in 2005 an interdepartmental
steering group was set up for the project, consisting of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food
(LMD), the Ministry of the Environment (MD), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (UD), the
Ministry of Justice (JD) and the Consumer and Administration Ministry (FAD). Statsbygg, as
constructor, also participated on the steering group as an observer. The group is chaired by
and has its secretariat in the LMD. Planning commenced in autumn 2005 and building
commenced in May 2007. The facility was inaugurated on 26th February 2008.
Ownership
It is Norway which formally owns the seed vault, with Ministry of Agriculture and
Food (LMD) as the responsible authority for Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Nordic Genetic
Resource Centre is responsible for scientific operation, whilst Statsbygg operates the
technical plant. Construction has cost almost NOK 50 million and has been entirely financed
by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (UD), LMD and the Ministry of the Environment (MD).
The Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT) has also been brought in as an active partner and
will finance a substantial amount of the annual operating costs of the vault. The other
operating costs will be financed by the government, through LMD. GCDT is also helping to
secure operations by assisting developing countries in the packing and despatch of seed
samples to Svalbard.
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Facilities
Svalbard Global Seed Vault lies about 1 kilometre from Longyearbyen Airport, at
about 130 metres above sea level and consists entirely of an underground facility, blasted out
of the permafrost (at about minus 3-4 degrees Celsius). The facility is designed to have an
almost endless lifetime.
The location takes into account all known scenarios for rising sea level caused by
global climate changes. The facility has also been located so deep inside the mountain that
any possible changes to Svalbards climate, which we know about today, will not affect the
efficacy of the permafrost. This will be a temporary temperature back up in the event of
technical failure, such as loss of power supplies for a period.
Underground chambers
The facility consists of three separate underground chambers. Each chamber has the
capacity to store 1,5 million different seed samples. With the aid of its own electric
machinery, powered by electricity from the local power station at Longyearbyen, it will
maintain a constant interior temperature of minus 18 degrees Celsius. The chambers will have
storage shelving for prepacked samples of food seeds from the depositors (donor countries).
Portal and Tunnel
The storage chambers themselves are reached via an access tunnel about 100 metres
long, with an entrance portal on its outside. The entrance portal will be the only visible part of
the facility. It is in the form of a long, narrow concrete fin, with an entrance of brushed
steel. An artistic decoration on the outer roof surface and on the upper part of the front will
partly reflect the polar light and partly give off a muted, glowing light.
The outer half of the entrance tunnel is constructed as a steel pipe with a diameter of
about 5 metres. This will pass through the layer of snow and ice and the loose rocks, into
solid Mountain. The innermost part and the storage chambers will be blasted out of the
mountain using tunnel drilling and rock blasting techniques. The mountain is secured with
bolts and spray concrete. The permafrost will also contribute to stability. The interior floor is
of asphalt. There is electric lighting throughout and the facility will be secured against forced
entry and will have TV surveillance.
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Areas for filing and other administrative work of a temporary nature will be located
beside the entrance tunnel. These will be heated to normal room temperature while work is
going on. The total floor area of the facility is just under 1,000 square metres.
Management and Operations
Depositor agreement including other regulations and procedures are available through
the website (http://www.nordgen.org/ngb/ ) by the Nordic Genebank.
Seed storage
The seed samples stored in the Seed Vault are spare copies of samples stored in the
depositing genebanks. The act of depositing seeds in the Seed Vault does not diminish the
samples stored in the genebanks. Ideally each unique seed sample held in genebanks
worldwide would have a spare copy in another genebank able to conserve and to distribute
that sample effectively, as well as a copy in Svalbard. The Vault in the ideal global system
acts as a further safety backup for these genebanks.
Sleeve to protect tunnel
from erosion and
climatic changes
Seed Vault
Portal
Office &
handling area
Seed vaults
Permafrost(-3 to -4C)
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Priority for storage will be given to samples of crops that are important for sustainable
agriculture and food security. It receives samples from the international genebanks of the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), as well as certain
national genebanks. The focus will be on safeguarding as much of the worlds unique genetic
material as possible and on avoiding duplication in seed vault. Among the types of seed
samples held at Svalbard will be traditional varieties/landraces, modern varieties, and wild
species related to crops.
Free of cost
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault will provide facilities free of cost for safety deposits
under black box conditions on request from public or private holders of seeds of distinct
genetic resources that are important to humanity. Priority will be given to the safety deposit
of plant genetic resources of importance for food security and sustainable agriculture.
Packaging and shipment
Seed samples prepared and packaged for storage in the Seed vault must be dried to
low moisture content (~5%) and packaged in sealed, airtight aluminum foil pouches. The
pouches are stacked in standard sized deposit boxes and accompanied with an electronic
inventory with a set of descriptors of each individual sample. When the seed boxes arrive at
Svalbard, NordGen staff receives and registers each box in the storage system and updates the
database and its public interface at www.nordgen.org/sgsv accordingly.
Costs pertaining to the packaging and shipping of the deposited seeds will be borne by
the depositors. However, in the case of developing countries and international genebanks, the
Global Crop Diversity Trust is funding the costs of preparing, packing and shipping their
seeds to Svalbard. The material deposited will be maintained in permafrost conditions
supplemented by refrigeration in accordance with internationally agreed standards.
International regulations
The depositors who will deposit material will do so consistently with relevant national
and international law. The Seed Vault will only agree to receive seeds that are shared under
the Multilateral System or under Article 15 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic
resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) or seeds that have originated in the country
of the depositor.
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GMO-seeds
Import and storage of GMO seeds according to Norwegian legislation will require
advance approval. Certain other criteria will apply to "sealed internal use" for research
purposes and indoor storage of GMO, for example with regard to the risk of spreading GMO.
Norwegian genetechnology legislation was formulated before the Svalbard Global
Seed Vault (SGSV) was set up, and therefore fails to take into account the vault's special
status, or the low risk related to handling seeds in sealed packaging. Until changes can be
made to the rules or exemptions can be provided from them, long-term storage of GMO seeds
in the SGSV will not be approved.
Replacement policy
The Seed Vault will not have the opportunity to test the viability of the seeds, but will
accept new shipments of seeds when the duplicate samples at the depositors possession have
lost fertility.
Black boxes
"Black box arrangements" mean;
that the deposit of the seeds will not affect any property or other rights pertaining to
the material;
that the deposited seeds will remain in sealed envelopes, unless otherwise agreed with
the Depositor;
That the Svalbard Global Seed Vault will take no action to further transfer the
material except back to the original Depositor or the Depositors successor in title, or
in accordance with the Depositors instructions.
ADVANTAGE OF LOCATION
Spitsbergen was considered ideal due to its lack of tectonic activity and its permafrost,
which will aid preservation.
Svalbard is remote and yet accessible. Seeds can easily be transported to and retrieved
from Svalbard, and the area has good communications links.
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Infrastructure is excellent. Locally mined coal provides power generation. Even if the
equipment fails, a considerable time will elapse before the temperature rises to the 3
C (27 F) of the surrounding sandstone bedrock.
The location guarantees stable permafrost for the foreseeable future and provides
stable storage conditions for seeds.
It is high enough above sea level to secure the facility against any rise in sea level as a
result of global warming.
The political situation is stable. The local government is highly competent and
helpful. The local community also is small and supportive.
Military activity is prohibited in the region under the terms of the Treaty of Svalbard
(1920).
FIRST ANNIVERSARY DEPOSITS (26 February 2009)
As part of the vault's one year anniversary, more than 90,000 food crop seed samples
were placed into storage, bringing the total number of seed samples to 400,000. Among the
new seeds includes 32 varieties of potatoes from Ireland's national gene banks and 20,000
new samples from the U.S. Agricultural Research Service. Other seed samples came from
Canada and Switzerland, as well as international seed researchers from Colombia, Mexico
and Syria. This 4-tonne shipment brought the total number of seeds stored in the vault to over
20 million. The vault now contains samples from one-third of the world's most important food
crop varieties. Also part of the anniversary, experts on food production and climate change
met for a three-day conference in Longyearbyen.
Institutions Expected to Deposit Seeds on the Opening Day:
Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR):
Africa Rice Center (WARDA), Benin
Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Colombia
Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), Mexico
Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Peru
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Ethiopia
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International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya
Centre for Genetic Resources (CGN), The Netherlands
Institute of Agri-Biotechnology and Genetic Resources, Pakistan
Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, University of
The Philippines Los Baos, Philippines
Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany
N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry, Russia
National Genebank of Kenya, Kenya
Nordic Gene Bank (NGB), Sweden
Plant Gene Resources Canada, Canada
Seed Savers Exchange, USA
United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service
(USDA/ARS), National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation, USA
World Vegetable Centre (AVRDC), Taiwan
List of Crops for Deposit in Svalbard Global Seed Vault (from inventory lists as of
February 1, 2008)
Alfalfa
Amaranth
Asparagus
Azuki bean
Bambara groundn
Barley
Basil
Bean
Beet
Blackberry
Brassica
BroccoliBrussel sprouts
Cabbage
Cajanus
Calendula
Cantaloupe
Caraway
Carrot
Cauliflower
Celery
Chickpea
Chicory
Chinese cabbage
Chinese kale
Chives
Clover
Collards
Coriander
Cowpea
Crambe
Cranberry
Cress
Cucumber
CurrantEggplant
Endive
Faba bean
Fenugreek
Finger millet
Flax
Forages
Foxtail millet
Grasspea (Lathyrus)
Groundnut
Hops
Jackbean
Jerusalem artichoke
Kale
Leek
Lentil
Lettuce
Leucaena
Lima bean
Loofah
Maize
Marrow
MelonMint
Mizuna (brassica)
Mung bean
Mustard
Oat
Okra
Onion
Oregano
Pak choi (brassica)
Parsley
Pasture grasses
Pea
Pear
Pearl millet
Pepper
Pigeon pea
Potato
Proso millet
Soybean
Spinach
Squash
Strawberry
SunflowerSweet potato
Tomatillo
Tomato
Tree seed species
Trefoil
Triticale
Turnip
Water spinach
Watermelon
Wheat
Wing bean
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CASE STUDY
In order to compare the germinability loss of the Svalbard collection with that of the
base collection held at the NGB in Alnarp, a 100-year testing programme was set up
(http://www.kew.org/msbp/).
The experiment was initiated in 1987 in coal mine situated at Longyearbyn in
svalbard. The material consists of a number of cultivars from a range of species presented in
Table 1. Each cultivar is represented by 25 sealed glass ampules each containing 1,000 seeds.
All 25 ampules originate from the same seed lot. Every 2 years during the first 15 years and
subsequently every fifth year, the viability of the stored seeds is being checked according to
the International Seeds Testing Association (ISTA) method using 4 100 seed examples. In
addition, occurrence of pathogens on the seed surface is being checked during the first 20
years of the experiment. Statens Frkontroll in Norway carry out all analyses.
Table 1. Nordic cultivars and their species used at storage experiment in permafrost
Plant species Nordic cultivar
Hordeum vulgare Inga Abed ,Tunga
Triticum aestivum Vakka,Solid
Secale cereale Pektus ,Vioma
Lolium perenne Pippin,RiikkaPhleum pratense Tammisto,Bodin
Poa pratensis Annika,Hankkijan Kyosti
Trifolium pratense Jokioinen,Molstad
Pisum sativum Weitor parti 10468,Hankkijan Hemmo
Beta vulgaris 70500,Hilleshog 81458
Brassica napus Jupiter,Linrama
Allium cepa Hamund,Owa
Lactuca sativa Hilro,Attraktion
Cucumis sativus Gigant,Rhensk
Daucus carota Nantes Fancy,Regulus
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Savit,Pari
Results and Discussion
The first data on germination of the seed samples is illustrated in Figures 1 to 6. The
viability of the different plant species and cultivars under permafrost storage conditions has
during the last 12 years been very close to their initial value although some fluctuation of
the germination percentage has occurred. Some genotypes seem to lose their viability
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relatively fast, such as Secale cereale cv. Vioma in Figure 2. As a consequence, such
genotypes should be replaced with a new sample more often in the safety base collection.
Some of the samples show an apparent large decrease in viability followed by an increase
(Figures 1, 3 and 4). This would appear to be due to the differing interpretation of
abnormal/normal germinating seeds over time. As a consequence, these results should be
viewed with caution.
The permafrost trial will be evaluated in more detail in the future. So far, the results
are promising. It should be emphasised that using permafrost storage is a safe and cheap way
to maintain plant genetic resources for the future.
Fig 1: The germination percentages for cereal crops at Svalbard in permafrost conditionsduring 12 years.
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Fig 2: The germination percentages for grass crops at Svalbard in permafrost conditions
during 12 years.
Fig 3: The germination percentages for legume crops at Svalbard in permafrost conditions
during 12 years.
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Fig 4: The germination percentages for beet cv.and Brassica crops at Svalbard in permafrost
conditions during 12 years.
Fig 5: The germination percentages for vegetable crops at Svalbard in permafrost conditionsduring 12 years.
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Fig 6: The germination percentages for cucumber and carrot crops at Svalbard in permafrost
conditions during 12 years.
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Seed samples at SGSV by continent for the country of collecting or source
The map shows the number of seed samples deposited at Svalbard Global Seed Vault split bycontinent of the country of collecting or source. This is the continent of the country where the
source germplasm originally comes from, not the country who have deposited the seeds. Themap is dynamic and displays the current status for the SGSV portal. For each continent the
number printed on the map shows the number of seed samples originally from this continent.
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Seed samples at SGSV by Country of collecting or source
The map shows the number of seed samples deposited at Svalbard Global Seed Vault split by
country of collecting or source. This is the country where the source germplasm originallycomes from, not the country who have deposited the seeds. The map is dynamic and displays
the current status for the SGSV portal. For each country the number printed on the mapshows the number of seed samples originally from this country.
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REFERENCES
http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/lmd/campain/svalbard-global-seed-vault/front-
page.html?id=462227
http://www.nordgen.org/sgsv/.
http://www.croptrust.org/main/arctic.php?itemid=211
http://www.statsbygg.no/Aktuelt/Nyheter/7201/
www.nortrade.com/index.php?cmd=show_news&id=3667]
science.howstuffworks.com/.../doomsday-vault.htm
http://www.kew.org/msbp/scitech/publications/SCTSIP_digital_book/pdfs/Chapter_5
0.pdf
http://cgc.rncan.gc.ca/permafrost/whatis_e.php
http://ipa.arcticportal.org/resources/what-is-permafrost.html
The Hindu, 2010. http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/17/stories/2010021755451100.htm