PERFORMANCE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PILES UNDER THERMO- AXIAL LOADS ADRIANA ERICA AMALUDIN A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Civil - Geotechnics) Faculty of Civil Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia FEBRUARY 2015
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PERFORMANCE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PILES UNDER THERMO-
AXIAL LOADS
ADRIANA ERICA AMALUDIN
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil - Geotechnics)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2015
iii
For
My Father, Amaludin Sagi and My Mother, Latifah Yacob
&
My Brothers, Hassanel Zachary Amaludin and Nazrein Adrian Amaludin
For their love, support, encouragement and prayers
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, praise to Allah the Almighty, the Most Beneficent and the Most
Merciful. I would also like to express my deepest and sincerest gratitude to my
supervisor, Prof. Dr. Aminaton Marto who was always there to impart valuable advice,
constructive comments and to give useful guidance during the research and writing
process for this thesis.
I am thankful to the Ministry of Education and Universiti Malaysia Sabah for
being the benefactor of my Masters studies. Furthermore, I would like to thank the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia for providing the
ScienceFund (No.: 03-01-06-SF1185) for the project entitled “Shallow Geothermal
Energy Pile Bearing Capacity in Clay”. Also, I am indebted to Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia for providing the facilities required to perform the experiments involved in
this study.
I would also like to extend my appreciation to my fellow researchers in the Soft
Soil Research Group (SSERG) of Civil Engineering Faculty, especially to Dr. Nima
Latifi, Mr. Mohsen Oghabi, and Mr. Tan Choy Soon. Additionally, I would like to
thank Mr. Zulkifly and Mr. Hadiyat of the UTM Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory,
who provided assistance during the preparation of the laboratory model tests.
Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents and two
brothers who were always there for emotional support and for their prayers.
v
ABSTRACT
The geothermal energy pile system is a sustainable geostructure system
designed to meet the cooling demands of a building by storing excess heat from the
building into the soil, acting as a heat sink. Thermal loads stored in the soil will cause
thermally induced settlement, and this factor must be considered in the geotechnical
design process. This study aims to develop a preliminary geothermal energy pile
laboratory testing system in single gravity condition, to produce the load-settlement
curves generated by thermo-axial load tests. The model energy pile behaviour was
studied using a physical model consist of a soil container (450 mm height and 270 mm
diameter), model pile (15 mm diameter and 150 mm embedded length), and an axial
and thermal load control system provided by a pneumatic cylinder and a temperature
bath, respectively. Axial loads (100 N and 200 N), thermal loads (35˚C and 40˚C) and
combinations of both loads (thermo-axial loads) were applied to the model pile. The
axial load values were chosen based on the ultimate capacity of the model pile in soft
soil (about 0.5 and 0.25qu). The kaolin soil used during model testing was classified as
silt of intermediate plasticity (MI). The model soil was compacted at 80% and 90%
maximum dry density, which were classified as having soft and firm consistency. The
model pile behaviour was monitored with a linear variable displacement transducer,
load cell and wire thermocouple connected to a data logger to monitor the pile head
settlement, applied axial load and pile temperature. The pile response to thermo-axial
loads appears to be thermo-elastic and is attributed to soil consistency and magnitude
of thermal load applied to the pile. Thermal loads induced small settlement values,
whereby the highest value was about 1% of the pile diameter (0.15 mm). In general,
firm soils produce lower thermally induced settlement, due to higher restraint at the
pile head compared to soft soils. For 35˚C thermal loads, the resulting settlement did
not exceed the limiting settlement, which is defined as 10% of the model pile diameter
(1.5 mm). The highest thermo-axial settlement obtained was 1.66 mm for thermo-axial
load of 40C and 200 N (global factor of safety (FOS) of 1.9) in soft soil, and the
settlement at 100 N axial load (global FOS of 3.8) amounts to 1.59 mm. Consequently,
in firm soil and for thermo-axial load of 40˚C and 200 N (global FOS of 2.3), the
thermo-axial settlement is 1.54 mm. To ensure that the thermo-axial settlement does
not exceed the limiting settlement, the recommended global FOS used for soft soil and
firm soil should be more than 4.0 and 2.5, respectively. A laboratory scale model of
an energy pile system, specifically for cohesive soils in single gravity conditions has
been developed. This laboratory model is able to produce reliable thermo-axial load-
settlement curves in varying soil consistencies, initial axial loads and also varying
thermal loads.
vi
ABSTRAK
Sistem cerucuk tenaga geoterma adalah satu sistem geostruktur lestari yang
direka untuk penyejukan bangunan dengan menyimpan haba yang berlebihan dari
bangunan itu ke dalam tanah yang bertindak sebagai sinki haba. Beban haba yang
disimpan di dalam tanah akan menyebabkan enapan terma, dan faktor ini perlu
dipertimbangkan dalam proses reka bentuk geoteknik. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk
menghasilkan sistem pengujian makmal cerucuk tenaga geoterma peringkat
permulaan di dalam keadaan graviti tunggal, bagi menghasilkan lengkuk beban-
enapan yang diperolehi daripada ujikaji terma-paksi. Sifat model cerucuk tenaga telah
dikaji dengan menggunakan model fizikal yang terdiri daripada bekas tanah (450 mm
tinggi dan 270 mm diameter), model cerucuk (15 mm diameter dan 150 mm kedalaman
terbenam), serta sistem kawalan beban paksi dan suhu yang dihasilkan masing-masing
oleh silinder pneumatik dan kubang suhu. Beban paksi (100 N dan 200 N), beban terma
(35˚C dan 40˚C) dan gabungan kedua-dua beban (beban terma-paksi) telah dikenakan
kepada model cerucuk tersebut. Nilai beban paksi yang dipilih adalah berdasarkan nilai
kapasiti muktamad model cerucuk di dalam tanah lembut (kira-kira 0.5 dan 0.25qu).
Tanah kaolin yang digunakan untuk ujian model diklasifikasikan sebagai kelodak
berkeplastikan pertengahan. Tanah model dipadatkan pada tahap 80% dan 90%
ketumpatan kering maksimum dan diklasifikasikan sebagai mempunyai kekonsistenan
lembut dan kukuh. Kelakuan model cerucuk dipantau menggunakan transducer
anjakan linear boleh ubah, sel beban dan wayar termogandinganyang disambungkan
kepada alat pencatat data bagi memantau enapan kepala cerucuk, beban paksi dan suhu
cerucuk. Tindak balas cerucuk kepada beban terma-paksi adalah termo-elastik, yang
bergantung kepada kekonsistenan tanah serta magnitud beban terma yang dikenakan
kepada cerucuk. Beban terma menghasilkan nilai enapan yang kecil, di mana nilai
enapan terma tertinggi adalah kira-kira 1 % daripada nilai diameter cerucuk (0.15 mm).
Secara amnya, tanah kukuh akan menghasilkan enapan terma teraruh yang lebih
rendah daripada tanah lembut disebabkan oleh tahap kekangan yang tinggi di kepala
cerucuk. Bagi beban terma 35˚C, enapan terma dan terma-paksi tidak melebihi enapan
penghad yang ditetapkan sebagai 10% nilai diameter cerucuk (1.5 mm). Nilai enapan
terma-paksi tertinggi adalah 1.66 mm bagi beban terma-paksi 40C dan 200 N, (nilai
faktor keselamatan (FOS) global adalah 1.9) di dalam tanah lembut, manakala enapan
pada 100 N beban paksi (nilai FOS global adalah 3.8) memberi nilai sebanyak 1.59
mm. Selain itu, di dalam tanah kukuh, bagi beban terma-paksi 40˚C dan 200 N (nilai
FOS global sebanyak 2.3), nilai enapan terma-paksi adalah 1.54 mm. Untuk
memastikan bahawa nilai enapan paksi-terma tidak melebihi enapan penghad, nilai
FOS global yang disarankan bagi tanah lembut dan tanah kukuh masing-masing adalah
lebih besar daripada 4.0 dan 2.5. Sebuah model berskala makmal bagi sistem cerucuk
tenaga, khas untuk tanah jeleket di dalam keadaan graviti tunggal telah dihasilkan.
Model ujikaji ini mampu menghasilkan lengkuk beban-enapan bagi beban terma-paksi
di dalam kekonsistenan tanah, beban paksi awal, serta beban terma yang berbeza.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TOPIC
PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF APPENDICES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Research 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Research 4
1.4 Scope of Work 5
1.5 Significance of Research 6
1.6 Thesis Outline 7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Ground Source Heat Pump System 10
2.2.1 Vertical Ground Source Heat Pump 11
2.2.2 Shallow Geothermal Energy Piles 14
viii
2.3 Drilled Shafts Foundation 16
2.4 Energy Pile Design Standards 18
2.5 Energy Pile System Models 18
2.5.1 Single Gravity Model Tests 19
2.5.2 Centrifuge Model Tests 21
2.5.3 Full-Scale Tests 22
2.5.4 Summary of Energy Pile Model Tests 28
2.6 Thermo-axial Response in Energy Pile System 32
3 METHODOLOGY 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Selection of Materials 40
3.3 Determination of Physical and Engineering
Properties of Soil
41
3.3.1 Sieve Test 42
3.3.2 Hydrometer Test 42
3.3.3 Particle Size Analysis 43
3.3.4 Atterberg Limits Test 45
3.3.5 Specific Gravity 45
3.3.6 Thermal Needle Test 47
3.4 Determination of Mechanical Properties 48
3.4.1 Standard Proctor Compaction Test 48
3.4.2 Unconfined Compression Strength
Test
50
3.4.3 Vane Shear Test 51
3.5 Physical Model of Energy Pile 53
4 PHYSICAL MODELLING 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Design of Experimental Setup 56
4.2.1 Soil Testing Chamber and Energy Pile
Model Design
56
4.2.2 Fabrication of Loading Frame 58
ix
4.3 Load Testing Assembly 59
4.3.1 Axial Load Control System 59
4.3.2 Thermal Load Control System 61
4.4 Data Measurement Methods 62
4.4.1 Linear Variable Displacement
Transducer
62
4.4.2 Thermocouple Strain Gauge 63
4.4.3 Thermocouple Wire 65
4.4.4. Thermocouple ProbeType K 65
4.4.5 Load Cell 66
4.4.6 Data Acquisition System 67
4.5 Energy Pile Model Testing 68
4.5.1 Testing Programme 68
4.5.2 Model Soil Preparation 69
4.5.3 Model Pile Installation 69
4.5.4 Energy Pile Model Testing Procedure 71
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 73
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Physical Properties Of Soil 74
5.2.1 Particle Size Distribution 74
5.2.2 Atterberg Limits 75
5.2.3 Specific Gravity 76
5.2.4 Thermal Conductivity of Soil 77
5.2.5 Summary of Soil Physical Properties 77
5.3 Engineering Properties of Soil 78
5.3.1 Standard Proctor Compaction Test 78
5.3.2 Unconfined Compression Strength
Test
79
5.3.3 Vane Shear Test 81
5.3.4 Soil Consistency 82
5.4 Model Energy Pile Test 83
5.4.1 Bearing Capacity Test 83
x
5.4.2 Thermal Load Test 85
5.4.3 Thermo-Axial Load Test 95
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 109
6.1 Conclusion 109
6.2 Future Research Recommendations 110
REFERENCES 112
Appendices A-F 118-128
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Summary of tests to investigate the effect of thermal loads 28
on the axial response of single piles
3.1 Typical specifications of S300 kaolin 40
3.2 Summary of soil characteristic tests 41
4.1 Energy pile testing programme 68
5.1 Comparison of value of physical indices of silt 78
5.2 Unconfined compression strength test results for S300
kaolin at 0.9 MDD 80
5.3 Unconfined compression strength test results for S300
kaolin at 0.8 MDD 80
5.4 Vane shear test results for model soil compacted at
0.9 MDD 81
5.5 Vane shear test results for model soil compacted at
0.8 MDD 82
5.6 Summary of results for the undrained shear strength of
compacted kaolin 83
5.7 Factor of safety for chosen initial axial loads 85
5.8 Summary of results for time series of thermal load test 86
5.9 Thermal settlements with respect to the settlement
at ultimate load 92
5.10 Thermo-axial settlements with respect to settlement
at ultimate load 107
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Closed-loop ground-source heat pump system 10
2.2 Three types of closed loop ground-source heat pumps 11
2.3 Ground source heat exchanger system 12
2.4 A typical GSHP system used for heating purposes 13
2.5 Heat exchanger tubes integrated into a bored pile 14
2.6 The scheme of an energy pile system 15
2.7 Load-settlement curve for thermo-axial tests on model
piles in dry Fontainebleau sand 20
2.8 Comparison of load-settlement (t-z) curves for foundations
under cycles of heating, cooling and baseline test 21
2.9 Soil profile and instrumentation of the EPFL pile 23
2.10 Thermo-mechanical loading for different stages of
construction 24
2.11 Soil profile and pile geometry of the Lambeth College
energy pile 26
2.12 Observed and free thermal strain profiles due to
thermal loads: (a) Lambeth College energy pile, and
(b) EPFL energy pile 27
2.13 Stress and strain response in thermo-active foundations
during heating (a) Schematic of stress/strain changes
during heating; (b) Measurements of strains during heating 33
3.1 Flow chart of research methodology 39
3.2 Hydrometer Test 43
3.3 Particle size analysis device, CILAS 1180 44
3.4 Pycnometer bottles used in specific gravity test 46
xiii
3.5 Schematic diagram of the thermal needle test apparatus 48
3.6 Standard Proctor Compaction test equipment 49
3.7 Unconfined compression strength (UCS) test machine 51
3.8 Location of vane shear test (Plan view) 52
3.9 Vane shear test apparatus 52
3.10 Schematic of physical model of geothermal energy
pile system 53
3.11 Physical model of geothermal energy pile system 54
4.1 Soil and energy pile dimensions: (a) Prototype and
(b) Model 57
4.2 Soil testing chamber 58
4.3 Loading frame 59
4.4 Axial load control system 60
4.5 Temperature bath 61
4.6 Thermostat used for thermal load control 62
4.7 Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
for displacement measurement 63
4.8 Schematics of instrumented energy pile model 64
4.9 Instrumented energy pile model with pile cap 64
4.10 TSK Circular-type load cell 66
4.11 Portable data logger (UCAM-70A) 67
4.12 Soft soil preparation and model pile installation 70
4.13 Model pile behaviour monitoring equipment setup 72
5.1 Particle size distribution curve of S300 kaolin 74
5.2 Liquid limit value obtained via cone penetration test 75
5.3 Classification of S300 in the USCS plasticity chart 76
5.4 Specific gravity value of S300 kaolin obtained via
CILAS 1180 machine 77
5.5 Standard Proctor compaction curve for S300 kaolin 79
5.6 Bearing capacity of model pile for firm soil and soft soil 84
5.7 Time series of temperature change due to heating for
soft soil 86
5.8 Time series of temperature change due to heating for
firm soil 87
xiv
5.9 Time series of temperature change due to heating for
both types of soil and thermal loads 88
5.10 Pile head settlement due to thermal load at 35˚C and
40 ˚C for soft soil 90
5.11 Pile head settlement due to thermal load at 35 ˚C and
40˚C for firm soil 91
5.12 Thermal settlement values for tests conducted in firm
and soft soil 92
5.13 Pile head settlement due to thermal load at 35 ˚C for firm
and soft soil 93
5.14 Pile head settlement due to thermal load at 40 ˚C for firm
and soft soil 93
5.15 Thermo-axial load test at 35°C thermal load for soft soil 96
5.16 Thermo-axial load test at 40°C thermal load for soft soil 97
5.17 Thermo-axial load test at 100 N axial load for soft soil 98
5.18 Thermo-axial load test at 200 N axial load for soft soil 99
5.19 Thermo-axial load test at 100 N and 200 N axial load
for soft soil 99
5.20 Thermo-axial settlement in soft soil with respect to
ultimate load settlement 100
5.21 Thermo-axial load test at 35°C thermal load for firm soil 101
5.22 Thermo-axial load test at 40°C thermal load for firm soil 102
5.23 Thermo-axial load test at 100 N axial load for firm soil 103
5.24 Thermo-axial load test at 200 N axial load for firm soil 103
5.25 Thermo-axial load test at 100 N and 200 N axial load
for firm soil 104
5.26 Thermo-axial settlements in firm soil with respect to
settlement at ultimate load 105
5.27 Thermo-axial settlements in firm and soft soil 107
5.28 Thermo-axial settlements with respect to settlement
at ultimate load 108
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Atterberg Limit Test
118
B Specific Gravity Test
119
C Particle Size Distribution
120
D Standard Proctor Compaction Test
121
E Thermal Loads Settlement
122
F Thermo-axial Loads Settlement
126
xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASHP - Air-Source Heat Pump
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
BS - British Standard
BSCS - British Soil Classification System
GSHP - Ground Source Heat Pump
HVAC - Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning
IGSHPA - International Ground Source Heat Pump Association