Perception of advertising strategies -a qualitative study comparing Generation X and Generation Y Authors: Karlsson Sandra, 880409-4046 Kälvehed Amanda, 881120-1667 Sköld Malin, 870625-4664 Tutor: Soniya Billore Examiner: Setayesh Sattari Corse code: 2FE10E Level: Bachelor thesis Date: 28 th May 2014
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Perception of advertising strategies -a qualitative study comparing Generation X and Generation Y
The birth years for all the different generational cohorts are not set in stone and all
researchers give different examples for when they all are born. Yet, out of all the different
examples a pattern can be detected. The Pre-boomers is the oldest living generation. They are
the ones born prior to 1946, giving them the age of 67 and upwards (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009;
Finke et al. 2006). The Baby boomers are the generational cohort that is born between 1946
to around 1964, giving them the age from 50 to 66 (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009; Finke et al.
2006; Kupperschmidt 2000). Generation X are the ones born from around 1965 to around
1980, giving them the age span from 34 to 49 (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009; Frandsen 2009;
Tulgan & Martin 2001; Krahn & Galambos 2014) and Generation Y are the ones born from
around 1981 to 2000, giving them the age span from 14 to 33 (Parment 2013; Tulgan &
Martin 2001; Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009; Frandsen 2009; Wallace 2007).
1.2 Problem discussion As understood, the purpose of an advertising design is to make consumers take action
(Dahlén & Edenius 2007). Traditional outlets are said to lose effectiveness and ambient
advertising is said to be a better tool for getting consumers’ attention (Dahlén et al. 2009).
Especially in today's society where new choices, that give consumers more freedom and
alternatives, arise all the time (Parment 2009). Dahlén et al. (2009) state that consumers avoid
traditional advertising because it is not worth attending to, but Luxton and Lachlan (2000)
mention that ambient advertising can at the same time overtake the message and overshadow
it. It all depends on if the consumers recognize and understand the advertisement message
(Harben & Kim 2007). The most important factor for both advertisements according to
Parment (2009) is the need to connect with the consumers and create a relationship. He states
that the idea that consumers differ in the amount and type of effort they put into shopping has
long been established within the field of advertising. He further states that such differences
are crucial for advertisers since they influence consumers’ reactions to advertising strategies.
Gambetti (2010) mentions that advertisers need to tailor the message content to the values
and lifestyles of consumers and to encourage them to participate in the construction of brand
message and meaning. He also mentions that in ambient strategies it is even a building block
to create an experiential and relational environment around the consumer.
Beekman (2011) states, that different generations have different perspectives, attitudes,
backgrounds and motivations. So to be able to connect and create a relationship with the
consumers, it is according to him important to get an understanding of how these features
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manifest themselves. Duffy (2013) states that the context in which people grow up, and what
changes as they age and go through different life-stages, as well affect how the different
generational cohorts interpret the society. Evans et al. (2009) continue by mentioning that
how a person selects what to notice depends on their values, motives and attitudes. They
further mention that it has to do with their social situation, current interests, preoccupations
and how they perceive their surroundings. Thus, in order to tailor advertising to the values
and lifestyles of consumers, it is important to know who the consumers are and how their
perceptions about advertising play out (Evans et al. 2009). The wide differences in cultural
norms between members of a younger generation and their elders and how they distinguish
themselves can therefore be important to consider for marketers (Dunning 2006).
According to Macky et al. (2008) the generational cohorts Generation X and Generation Y
are almost identical when it comes to work motivators and attitudes toward leadership, as are
the Pre-boomers and the Baby boomers. Although both the two older and the two younger
cohorts share similarities, it will be the younger generations, Generation X and Generation Y
that will be of focus in this research. One reason for this is that other researchers give similar
statements as Macky et al. (2008) about the younger generations. For example, Reisenwitz
and Iyer (2009) as well state that Generation X and Generation Y are seen as similar, and that
many academics and practitioners in America treat Generation X and Generation Y
homogeneously as a single target market. They do this even though they belong to different
generational cohorts. Their reason for this is that the two generations have lived through
much of the same kind of changes: corporate downsizing, limited financial aid, and a weak
job market. They state that these changes have become part of the psyche of both groups and
affected them in a similar way. As well, the younger generations are of greater relevance
since they will be consumers for a greater amount of time than the two older generational
cohorts. If continuing considering Generation X and Generation Y, and the prior knowledge
found, the perceptions of advertising of these two generational cohorts should be similar. Yet,
Coulter et al. (2001) have found that the entertainment value of advertisements is better
perceived by the younger cohort (Generation Y), since they find advertising more
entertaining and amusing than the older audience. Besides, Schullery (2013), states that
Generation Y in North America has different values than the previous generations. Most of
the information about the generations, that have been found, has been conducted in the
United States. Yet, Zopiatis et al. (2012) state that the inconsistency of age spans is more
evident in Europe rather than North America due to the continent’s unique history. It would
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therefore be interesting to research how the Swedish generational cohorts perceive
advertising.
Continuously, many studies about the generational cohorts can be found, yet studies
presenting segmentation from a perspective based on a generational cohort and focus on
issues related to purchase behavior and retail strategies is according to Parment (2009) an
under-researched topic. As well, few studies have been found, to today’s date, about the
generational differences regarding advertising to consumers, encouraging a deeper
investigation of this for this research.
1.3 Purpose The purpose of this research is to examine how traditional and ambient advertising in Sweden
is perceived by Swedish consumers within Generation X and Generation Y and if there is a
difference between these two generational cohorts’ perception.
1.4 Research questions • RQ1: How does Generation X perceive traditional advertising compared to ambient
advertising?
• RQ2: How does Generation Y perceive traditional advertising compared to ambient
advertising?
• RQ3: How do Generation X’s and Generation Y’s perceptions compare to each other?
1.5 Delimitations This research will delimitate to the area of Sweden. The sample for the participants used in
this thesis will be from Sweden and the advertisements used in the study will all have taken
place in the Swedish market. Continuously, the population investigated in this study will be
of Generation X and Generation Y, not giving any interest to the other generational cohorts.
1.6 Outline of thesis The construction of this thesis is built up of seven chapters, which can be seen in the figure
presented below. The thesis opens up with the chapter “Introduction”, presenting a
background of the concepts and a problem discussion, which builds up to the purpose and
research questions of the study. Chapter one as well includes delimitations of the research.
The second chapter “Literature review” provides the study with relevant theories from prior
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research in the areas; traditional advertising, ambient advertising, perception, Generation X
and Generation Y. The chapter ends with the section conceptual framework, which presents
the model of perceptual process and the guideline for this research. The third chapter
“Methodology” presents the conduction of the research, as well justifications are provided
concerning the choices made by the authors. The fourth chapter “Empirical data” presents the
data generated through the four conducted focus groups. The data will be linked to the
presented theories in the fifth chapter “Analysis”. The sixth chapter “Conclusion” will
provide the findings generated by the research, which will answer the purpose of the study. It
will as well present the limitations of the study. Chapter seven “Research implications”,
which is the last chapter, will provide information about managerial implications, theoretical
insights and recommendations for further research.
Figure 1: Outline of the thesis, self-generated.
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2. Literature review This chapter provides a literature review of already existing research, which is of relevance
for this thesis. The first section in the chapter provides a presentation of the area, traditional
advertising. The next section examines ambient advertising. The chapter continues on with a
sections describing perception, since it is the perceptions of the generational cohorts that are
of interest. At the end two sections describing the generational cohorts are presented;
Generation X and Generation Y.
2.1 Traditional advertising As mentioned earlier, there are two types of advertising; traditional and non-traditional. The
difference between them is the placement of the advertisement (Dahlén & Edenius 2007).
According to Dahlén and Edenius (2007) and Pfeiffer and Zinnbauer (2010), traditional
advertising is advertisements that are presented in television, radio, the Internet, print and
billboard campaigns. Bezjian-Avery et al. (1998) also states that in traditional advertising the
presentation of products is featured one after another in a linear flow and the consumer is
passively exposed to the product/service information. He also mentions that the consumer has
no control over the order in which they are exposed to the advertisements. As a consequence,
the consumer will become familiar with these kinds of advertisements and the advertisements
will lose their power to attract attention (Hutter & Hoffmann 2011). This is the reason why
traditional advertising forms of communication appear to be losing effectiveness
(McNaughton 2008; Trusov et al. 2009; Hutter & Hoffmann 2011). Consumers today have
also, according to Dahlén et al. (2009), become successful at avoiding traditional advertising
because of new technology or mentality. They state that consumers screen out most
advertising because its perceived value is so low that it is not considered worth attending to.
2.2 Ambient advertising Ambient advertising is a media that is non-traditional to character and often very cost
effective for the organization (Reyburn 2010; Shanwar & Brett 1999). Gambetti (2010),
states that ambient advertising includes three different media types. The first one he states is,
2-D traditional, innovative print and pictorial media, which includes advertising components
such as classical billboards (banners), new high-tech billboards (digital billboards and
displays) and new street furniture. Within these new street furniture, for example stairs,
shopping carts, gas pumps, road signs, building facades, as well as busses, trains and taxi cars
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can be cited as new ways of carrying out a message. The second media he mentions is 3-D
artefact based media, which refers to when organizations places objects in unusual contexts.
He states that the objects can be everything from key rings, bags, plastic cups etc. He also
informs that this can occur at one or a number of occasions, which is often located in
connection to where the brand is distributed. The third media he mentions is 4-D motion
based/interactive media, and it concerns the advertising where the consumers interact and
participate, and where they also are involved in spreading the message further.
Ambient advertising makes use of already existing elements in the environment and often
plays out in unexpected places. It is sometimes even explained as unexpected place-based
marketing (Reyburn 2010). But what is seen as unusual locations differs from time to time;
places can lose their unusually character especially if the process is repeated (Luxton &
Lachlan 2000). The location for ambient advertising can be both inside for example train and
subway stations, airports and shopping malls, as well as located outdoors (Gambetti 2010).
The selection of location is as important as the messages fit with the consumers. The better
the fit is with the context and the consumer, the bigger is the chance that it will turn out
successful (Reyburn 2010). According to Gambetti (2010) ambient advertising is targeting
smaller groups that are in movement, because it is easier to get them involved than the big
mass audience. Yet, it is usually still effective and enables a broad reach according to him,
because of its natural spread through word-of-mouth. He states that consumers are seen as a
part of the advertising strategy. He mentions that this occurs through that a two-way road is
created between the organization and the consumers and in this way the consumers become
co-creators. He further states that this makes it difficult for the target audience to avoid the
advertisement.
The reasons why advertising strategies such as ambient advertising have increased in spread
are according to Gambetti (2010) due to that how people live their lives have changed. He
explains that people nowadays are spending more time travelling to and home from work,
encouraging marketers to take advantage of this by putting advertising in new places. He also
explains that it is also due to that new technology enables new solutions. Other variables that
have resulted in the spread are the possibilities of targeting specific groups, point-of sale
(Gambetti 2010; Shanwar & Brett 1999) and the cost effectiveness (Gambetti 2010). Ambient
advertising is a strategy that is not designed to move the consumers closer towards a
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purchase, yet instead to reinforce the brand and the relationship (Luxton & Lachlan
2000).
For an ambient advertising strategy to work it is important that it is newness within the idea
(Luxton & Lachlan 2000). Creativity is therefore a very important requirement according to
Gambetti (2010), but it is significant that the idea follows with the already existing brand
concept. He also states that ambient advertising can elicit responses through all human senses
(hearing, taste, touch and smell) or by creating feelings and/or emotions. He continues
describing that the advertising can involve the consumers in a thinking process where the
consumers for example should solve a problem. It can as well take form as a physical
experience, where the consumer can use its own creativity and create products especially
suitable for the persons own lifestyle (Gambetti 2010). But ambient advertising is not as
straight forward as explained above, Luxton and Lachlan (2002) state that there is a risk that
the message will be hidden, due to that media takes over and overshadows it. They continue
stating that there are as well problems with the measuring of the effect of the ambient
advertising. The measurements normally used in connection to traditional advertisements
cannot be applied because they are using different tactics (Luxton & Lachlan 2000).
2.3 Perception Perception is the process in which people select, organize and interpret senses (sight, smell,
sound, taste, texture) (Solomon 2009) and it is concerned with how each individual sees and
makes sense of their environment (Fill 1995). The study of perception focuses on what
people add to these raw senses in order to give them meaning (Solomon 2009). Almost our
entire understanding of the world is experienced through our senses, and they are as well our
link to memory and they can tap right into emotion (Lindstrom 2005). How a person select
what to notice depends on their values, motives and attitudes as well as their social situation,
current interests and preoccupations (Evans et al. 2009; Keshari et al. 2013).
2.3.1 Visual perception
Most of our decisions in daily life are based upon sight impressions, which make sight one of
the most important senses to influence when it comes to advertising (Hultén et al. 2009).
According to Krishna (2010), when it comes to consumer behavior, visual imagery has
shown to be of big help in assisting product information processing and in facilitating
memory and persuasion. She continues; a lack of imagery-facilitating visual input may
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nevertheless have negative effects on persuasion. She further states that when an
advertisement is not presented in a visual vivid way, it impairs the fluency of consumption
imagery. It also impairs the ease for consumers to generate their own imagery of their
consumption experience, making the appeal to the advertisement negative (Krishna 2010).
Marketers rely heavily on visual elements in advertising and meanings are communicated on
a visual channel through a product’s size, styling, brightness and distinctiveness compared to
others (Solomon et al. 2010). Hultén et al. (2009) state that sight can help consumers perceive
contrasts and differences between for example small and big, light and dark, or thin and thick.
Therefore the sense of sight according to them makes it easier for consumers to notice the
changes and differences that characterize design, a different look, or a new commercial. They
mention that everyone can notice and observe events, colors, forms, materials, texture, things
or people. The colors used in advertisements are especially crucial for what responses and
perceptions the advertisements will elicit (Labrecque & Milne 2012).
Gorn et al. (1997), state that colors can be divided into the different variables; hue, chroma
and value. According to them hue is the pigment of the color for example blue, red, yellow
etc. Chroma can be explained as how much color it is in the specific tinting and value
concerns how bright or dark the color is. They continue stating that research has shown that
colors that have a high value create and increase relaxation feelings among the receivers.
Colors that instead have a high level of chroma generate excitement feelings among the
viewers. Advertisements that contain both high levels of chroma and hue result in positive
attitudes towards the ad. Also the specific choice of color is crucial for what responses it will
create, since advertisements containing red instead of blue generate stronger feelings (Gorn et
al. 1997).
An advertisement can continuously, according to Krishna (2010), have different modalities in
which visual information is provided, which includes the relative picture/word ratio.
According to her advertisements with higher word content have the goal of having consumers
read and examine them. Meanwhile advertisements with a higher pictorial content she states
are those that consumers likely view and glance at. Advertisements can continuously,
according to her, have semantical value; inferring meanings according to brand message.
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2.3.2 Perception vs. attitude
Evans et al. (2009), state that when consumers interact with advertisements they usually
follow the sequence of exposure, attention, perception, learning, attitude, action, and post-
purchase. This means that consumers first have to be exposed to an advertisement and give it
attention to notice it. After this they state that consumers’ senses help in forming a perception
about the advertisement and teach them something new. From this new exposure the
consumer forms a good or bad attitude about the advertisement, which then helps the
consumer to take action and buy the product/service or not. According to Kotler &
Armstrong (2008) a consumer’s perception and attitude about an advertisement are similar
and connected with each other. However they also mention, as stated above, perception is the
stage where consumers notice and interpret the advertisements and from this perception the
consumer learns and forms an attitude towards an object or idea. Therefore the perception of
consumers influence and decide their attitude toward an advertisement (Evans et al. 2009).
Armstrong et al. (2009) mention that the only way to change a customer's attitude towards a
product is to change the product itself or change the consumers perception towards it. They
continue, if customers do not purchase a new product, they do not perceive a need for it.
Marketing managers can according to them influence this by launching advertisements that
trigger a need that helps the consumer to solve a problem.
2.3.3 Perception of advertisement message
According to Coulter et al. (2001), attitudes toward advertising are a function of a consumer’s
perceptions of the various aspect of advertising, such as its informational value and its use of
idealized images. Harben & Kim (2007) also mention that advertising attitude is based on
consumer’s perceptions towards different elements of the advertisement, such as model,
celebrity, endorser, colors, layout and text message. Coulter et al. (2001) state that findings
spanning three decades have indicated that consumers perceive advertising as encouraging
unnecessary purchases and promoting materialism. They also indicate that advertising are
corrupting society’s values by reinforcing stereotypes and promoting undesirable behaviors.
According to them it has been viewed as less than truthful, often misleading and insulting to
consumers’ intelligence. Harben et al. (2007) state that recognition and understanding of an
advertisement message influences consumer’s attitude. They mention that the advertisement
message needs to be in agreement with the brand and product, since how consumers perceive
the message in the advertisement may influence their advertisement attitude. Research has as
well shown that advertisements that bring in nostalgic features elicit favorable responses, this
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regardless of the readers past experiences of the brand (Muehling et al. 2014). Yet, According
to Braun-LaTour (2007) the responses are stronger if the earlier experience was positive.
They as well state that the response will be more powerful if the experience origin from the
persons early childhood.
2.4 Generation X Generation X is defined by Reisenwitz and Iyer (2009) as those born from 1965 to 1975.
Frandsen (2009), states that it is the population born from 1965 to 1980. Tulgan and Martin
(2001) describe Generation X as those born within 1963-1977 and Krahn and Galambos
(2014) give the description of Generation X as born within 1966-1980. For purposes of this
research Generation X is defined as those born during the years 1965-1980, meaning people
that are 34 to 49 years old.
The name Generation X comes from the best-selling novel by Coupland in 1991; Generation
X: Tales for an Accelerated culture (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009; Krahn & Galambos 2014).
Reisenwitz and Iyer (2009) state that Generation X is a generation that has been working for
a while and continues to develop their careers and increase their income. They continue
describing this generation as a generation with greater brand/product loyalty than members of
Generation Y. They are less committed to traditional institutions and are more dissatisfied
than other generations (Krahn & Galambos 2014).
2.5 Generation Y The age of Generation Y varies a lot from researcher to researcher. According to Parment
(2013) Generation Y is described to be the population born from 1977 to 1990. Tulgan and
Martin (2001) describe Generation Y to be born within 1978-1984. In another source,
Parment (2009) states that Generation Y is born from 1980 and upwards, not giving an end
year. According to Reisenwitz and Iyer (2009) Generation Y is described as the population
born within 1977-1988. Frandsen (2009), states that it is the generation born from 1981 to
2000 and according to Wallace (2007) Generation Y is the population born from 1982 to
2005. Parment (2009) also states that it is not perfectly clear who is included in Generation Y
and that it is not critical to know. For purposes of this research Generation Y is defined as
those born during the years 1981-1995, meaning people that are 19 to 33 years old.
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The concept of Generation Y was first introduced in 1993 by the magazine Advertising Age
(AdAge) as a successor to Generation X (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009; Wallace 2007; Parment
2009). The Generation is described as more inclined to value traditions than prior generations
(Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009). Wallace (2007) also describes them as technological liberate,
creative, independent and adoptable. Generation Y are labelled as a generation of multimedia
and as the multitasking people (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009). They have a good knowledge of
how the Internet and new technology works, as well as the desire to fulfil themselves and
give meaning (Parment 2009).
Parment (2009) gives the description of Generation Y as having both a critical approach and
an automatic screening of the information that passes. He as well states that they are used to
making decisions faster and more naturally than other generations and they have big social
networks. He also mentions that Generation Y is faster at adopting new opportunities.
Generation Y’s loyalty is said to change quickly, yet they are fashion-, trend-, and brand-
conscious, focusing on style and quality versus price (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009). It is hard to
create customer loyalty among them, since there is a clear attitude that it is the experience
that decides who will capture their purchasing power (Parment 2009). Schullery (2013)
brings forward that Generation Y is reluctant to give whole-hearted efforts to anything they
find less-than-meaningful work and that they have gained a reputation of being entitled,
rather than fight for something. For Generation Y, work should be fun and they see no clear
dividing line between work and fun, meaning that they will job-hop if not engaged (Schullery
2013).
2.6 Conceptual framework Based on the literature review discussed above the authors have designed the following
conceptual framework; a model of perceptual processing. The model is based upon Priya
Raghubir’s model “A model of visual processing” that is presented in Krishna’s book
Sensory marketing (Krishna 2010:202). The authors used the appearance and the basic
meaning of the model, but change some of the concepts and adopted it to better fit this
research.
As the authors of this thesis are focusing on the concept of perception, this will be of focus in
the model. The model starts with the advertising properties (1). These are built up from the
theoretical chapter of this thesis and will later be the building blocks of the analysis. The
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advertising properties are built up from theories that are said to affect consumers in different
ways. The next step of the model shows how these properties are being processed by
perception, which is the mediating role in focus. In other words how consumers select,
organize and interpret these properties (2). This step will also be the measurements that are
used in the data collection; to build up the focus group guide (See appendix 2). There are two
sets that can make the link between the advertising properties and the perception contingent
(5). The first set includes the context, meaning the cases being analyzed (the ambient- and
traditional advertisements) (3), whereas the second set focuses on the individual differences,
meaning the generational cohorts being studied (Generation X and Generation Y)(4). This
means that it is the sets; the generational cohorts and the advertisements, which are being
scrutinized through the processes of perception (2) in accordance with the advertising
properties (1). In the end it is the processes (2) that dictate the end perception (5).
Figure 2: A model of perceptual processing, adopted from Priya Raghubir.
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3. Methodology This chapter explains how the research of this thesis is structured and conducted, by giving
an explanation of the following sections; research approach, research design, research
strategy, data sources, data collection method, data collection instruments, sampling, data
analysis method and finally quality criteria. Each section further contains a justification
concerning the choices the authors have conducted.
3.1 Research approach
3.1.1 Inductive vs. deductive research
How research and theory is connected can according to Bryman and Bell (2011), take on two
conflicting views; deductive and inductive approach. They state that the deductive approach
is the most commonly used. It is presented as an approach used to test already existing
findings where the theory guides the research, and hypotheses are generated, which steers the
collection of data. The deductive approach is most commonly used in quantitative research
(Bryman & Bell 2011). Inductive approach on the other hand, according to Bryman and Bell
(2011) and Chambliss and Schutt (2010), uses research to generate new findings that can be
turned into theories. Here the hypotheses and themes are generated out of the gathered
material and therefore the used hypotheses can constantly be changed. The inductive
approach is mostly associated with qualitative research (Wallén 1996; Bryman & Bell 2011).
The final phase of an inductive approach can sometimes take on a deductive approach, to test
the findings. As well can the deductive approach include elements of an inductive approach
(Bryman & Bell 2011).
This research will in the greatest extent take the form of a deductive approach; this due to that
the theories used will work as a base for the investigation. The perception theory will provide
variables that are used to guide the construction of the data collection. The theories will as
well provide an understanding for the concepts themselves.
3.1.2 Quantitative vs. qualitative
The research design of a study can, according to Bryman and Bell (2011), take on a
qualitative or quantitative strategy, or a combination of them both. They describe that the
quantitative strategy has an emphasis on numbers and is intensely associated with the
deductive approach. They further explain that the strategy usually takes the view of the
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researcher, which will examine and explain the behavior. According to them potential
research methods in a quantitative study are structured observations and interviews, where
variables and the conduction are predetermined. A qualitative research is as they continue
often associated with an inductive approach that collects data with emphasis on words. Here
the researcher is interested in the participant’s views, to get access to their perspectives. This
strategy will not only according to them examine the behavior, but as well the meaning of the
behavior. Therefore it will take the form as an unstructured research that enables the
researcher to be flexible. Chambliss and Schutt (2010) explain further that participant
observations, semi- and unstructured interviewing and focus groups are commonly used
research methods in qualitative research, where the researcher does not have predetermined
variables.
The research in this thesis will take on a qualitative research strategy. Bryman and Bell
(2011) state that a qualitative research strategy gives the possibility to more deeply examine
how respondents will react to the different types of advertising. This is the reason for why the
researchers chose this research strategy. The research is as well qualitative to character since
variables will be looked for in the gathered material.
3.2 Research design There are three main types of research design in a qualitative research according to
Christensen et al. (2010); exploratory-, descriptive- and causal design. They describe that in
an exploratory research the researcher has no prior or little knowledge beforehand about the
topic that is being studied. The researchers therefore make a journey of discovery and are not
certain where the research will take them. Shukla (2008) explains that an exploratory design
is most commonly used in a qualitative research and Christensen et al. (2010) mention that
the design concerns the questions what, how and why. A researcher that carries out an
exploratory research design according to them is required to act with curiosity, creativity and
attention, since this research design is dependent on the researcher as a person and not on
systematic techniques or statistical calculations. It is therefore the researcher that needs to
discover the small differences and patterns in the collected data and develop an overall
understanding of the research.
The descriptive design is appropriate when the researcher already possesses prior knowledge
about the topic, but is missing a clear picture and/or new updated information (Christensen et
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al. 2010). According to Shukla (2008) it concerns the questions how, who and when. He
mentions that the descriptive design is mostly used in quantitative researches. In a descriptive
design the researcher is more interested in describing, than exploring, new phenomenon’s
(Christensen et al. 2010).
When the researcher is familiar with the topic of the study and possesses prior knowledge a
casual design is, according to Christensen et al. (2010), appropriate. This since the researcher
probably is interested in why the phenomenon functions the way it does. Therefore it
concerns the question why (Christensen et al. 2010) and is usually used in a quantitative
research (Shukla 2008). According to Christensen et al. (2010) a casual design is based on
exploratory and descriptive designs, but it identifies and explains the reason of the
phenomenon by looking for casual relationships through different variables. They continue
describing the fact that the different variables can both be dependent and independent
variables. They also state that with a causal research design it is possible to study the
relationship of how the dependent variable changes when the independent variable is
changed.
This research has an exploratory research design. This is the case since the generational
differences, when it comes to advertising to consumers, is a relatively under researched topic
in Sweden. Therefore the researchers possess very little knowledge about the topic that is
being studied. It is also the most suitable alternative when a qualitative study is conducted.
The research questions used in this study are how questions, which are connected to both the
exploratory- and the descriptive- research design. But it is not a descriptive design since the
authors do not possess prior knowledge about the topic. A casual design is not suitable for
this research either, since the aim is not to discover the relationship between different
variables and how they affect each other.
3.3 Research strategy A research strategy can be explained as a general orientation about how the research will be
conducted (Bryman & Bell 2011). Zikmund et al. (2010) argue that there are no strategies
that are simply the best; instead the researcher has to make a decision about which method
will be the most suitable for the specific research purpose. Yin (2014) provides a framework
that helps to outline which research strategy that will be best suited for the study, namely
which method should be used. This can be seen in the figure below. He states that the
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decision is based on the three variables; what type of research question is used, if the
researcher must be able to control behavioral events or not and if there are a focus on
contemporary events or not.
Method Form of research question
Requires Control of Behavioral events?
Focuses on Contemporary Events?
Experiment How, why? Yes Yes
Survey Who, what, where, how many, how much?
No Yes
Archival Analysis
Who, what, where, how many, how much?
No Yes/no
History How, why? No No
Case study How why? No Yes
Figure 3: Relevant situations for different research methods (Yin 2014).
What can be inferred from the figure above is that since the research will use “how”
questions, the following methods will be useful; experiment, history and case study. But since
the researchers do not need to have control over behaviors, the experiment method is
considered as not potential for this aim. Also the history method can be deselected since all
the data will be gathered in the same point of time and not over a long time period. The
remaining method is then the case study method and according to this framework it will be
best suited for answering this research’s research questions.
This research has two different focus points that the research strategy has to take into
account; the advertisements that are being used and the population that is being investigated.
As stated above a case study design is best suited for both focuses because of the research
questions. But there are some differences between the two case strategies. The focus of the
advertisements lay on the specific cases and their unique contexts, and Bryman and Bell
(2011) therefore give the advice that this strategy should be conducted as a multiple-case
study, as it will. They also give the advice that when the population’s focus on the other hand
lays on producing general findings, with little regard for the unique context of each of the
19
advertisements, it should be conducted as a cross-sectional design. Therefore this strategy
will be conducted as a cross-sectional design. At the end a comparative design will be used,
both to compare the perception from the population about the different advertisements and to
compare the perceptions between the different generations.
3.3.1 Case study
A case study is preferred when contemporary events will be examined, it is as well important
that the relevant behaviors concerning the investigation will not be possible to manipulate
(Yin 2014). A case study will in depth examine both the complexity and the nature of the
case in question (Malhotra 2010; Bryman & Bell 2011). Case studies are strongly associated
with qualitative research due to the methods used in the process of collecting data (Bryman &
Bell 2011). The most common data collections in case studies are participant observations
and unstructured interviewing (Yin 2014; Bryman & Bell 2011). According to Yin (2014)
case studies are able to process a very broad variety of data, but they also have some
restrains. He states that case studies are time consuming and the risk of generating too much
data that are not useful for the research, are always present. Another constraint with a case
study according to him is the lack of generalizability of the finding when only one case is
being used. Therefore the findings should be considered more generalizable to theoretical
propositions instead of to populations or universes.
According to Bryman and Bell (2011) a case study does not need to consider only one case. It
can as well concern multiple or collective groups of cases, which enable the possibility of
exploring a general phenomenon, also called a multiple-case study design. They state that a
multiple-case study presents the possibility to contrast and compare the information from the
different cases. They mention that here the researcher is interested in the cases and their
unique context. The conclusions of a multiple-case study is often seen as convincing since it
is based on more information than just a single-case; this also makes it more generalizable to
the target population (Yin 2014). When choosing the advertisements and conducting the
multiple-case design in this research the cases will be limited to only traditional and ambient
advertising, seven of each, one brand represented in both categories. It will also include five
ambient advertising video clips. The advertising cases and their unique context is the focus of
this design since the researches aim is to develop a rich understanding recurring Generation X
and Generation Y’s perception about advertising.
20
Another strategy available when using multiple cases is according to Bryman and Bell (2011)
the cross-sectional design. They state that the cross-sectional design collects data on more
than one case at a single point in time, this to seek similarities and differences. This enables
the cross-sectional design to focus on producing general findings. The cross-sectional design
is according to them mostly used in quantitative studies, because it focuses to a great extent
on quantification. They continue that when it is used in qualitative studies the process of
gathering material is often carried out through unstructured or semi-structured interviews, as
in this research through focus groups. In this research this strategy will be used when
choosing the population since the emphasis of the population is to produce general findings
about advertising, with little regard for the unique contexts of each individual. The cross-
sectional material will be gathered through four focus groups, which will enable the
researchers to look for patterns between how Generation X and Generation Y perceive
traditional and ambient advertisements.
At last since both the case strategies will be compared in some way a comparative design will
be applied. According to Bryman and Bell (2011) a comparative design entails that the study
will use more or less identical methods of two or more contrasting cases. They explain that
the design uses comparison, in that it implies that social phenomena can be better understood
when it is compared to two or more meaningfully contrasting cases. They further explain that
the design can be used in both quantitative and qualitative design and the key to the
comparative design is its ability to allow the distinguishing characteristics of two or more
cases to act as a springboard for theoretical reflections about contrasting findings. By making
a comparison between the traditional and ambient advertising the researchers want to see if
they are perceived differently by the population. By making a comparison between
Generation X and Generation Y, the researchers want to further find out if the perceptions
will differ between the generations. By making comparisons information that otherwise
would not have been recognized may be revealed.
3.4 Data sources According to Malhotra (2010) and Zikmund et al. (2010) data in research can take form in
two different ways, namely as primary data or secondary data. They explain that secondary
data is collected by somebody else and for another purpose, but is very suitable as
background information. This due to that it can be collected quickly and at a low cost for the
researcher. One disadvantage with secondary data is, according to them, that it has been
21
collected for another purpose. Therefore the fit with your research may not be completely
suitable, since it may have used other methods and reached other conclusions. Some other
problems they state can be that the sources are not up to date and there can as well be a lack
of accuracy and dependability of the sources. Secondary data can, according to Zikmund et
al. (2010), be divided into internal data and external data. They describe that internal data is
data that have been created, generated or recorded by the organization itself. They further
explain that external data is information about the organization that has been generated or
recorded by someone else than the organization itself, often information that is presented in
newspapers or journals.
According to Zikmund et al. (2010) primary data is sources of information that is collected by
the researchers themselves, with the specific purpose in mind. They explain that it therefore
will provide more exact and useful data in the research area than the secondary data has
potential to do. The process of collecting primary data should according to them not be
started until the secondary data has been fully analyzed. Some disadvantages with primary
data they mention is that it is very time consuming and also more expensive than secondary
data. Malhotra (2010), states that the case for this is because it includes the processes of
sampling and collection of data, which is more comprehensive.
The data collection included in this thesis will cover both secondary data and primary data.
The secondary data collected provides an understanding for the concepts, as well as it
provides the different traditional and ambient advertisements that have been chosen for this
research. The different cases collected cover both external and internal data since some of the
information is provided by the companies themselves, and others are presented by external
sources. The primary data will be collected through the conduction of the focus groups,
which will generate more specific information to the research.
3.5 Data collection method The data needed in a research can, according to Bryman and Bell (2011), be collected in
multiple ways. Yet they state that it is important that the data collection process will not start
until that the research questions are clearly stated and elaborated. They further state that the
literature review of the thesis should as well have been carried out. Which data collection
method that is best suitable for a research strongly depends on if it will take on a quantitative
or qualitative approach (Christensen et al. 2010; Bryman & Bell 2011). Since this research is
22
based on a qualitative approach, methods that let the respondent to be free and not very
controlled in his or hers answers or behaviors are suitable. The most commonly used methods
in qualitative research are; participant observations focus group (Christensen et al. 2010;
Bryman & Bell 2011), ethnography and semi- or unstructured interviews (Bryman & Bell
2011).
In both ethnography, and participant observations, the researcher immerses himself in the
setting of the case for a longer period of time (Bryman & Bell 2011). Since this thesis will be
conducted on cases that have already taken place, these two methods will not be suitable in
this research. The method of interviews will also be deselected, due to that the researchers
wants to get a deeper understanding of the participants feelings and reactions, than an
interview can give. As Bryman and Bell (2011) explain focus groups can help the researcher
get a better understanding about how the respondents reaches their answers, because the
respondents can question each other’s answers. There is also according to them the possibility
that the participants will end up with a statement that they would not have been able to
generate on their own. Based on this information, the best suited research method for this
thesis will be focus groups. But the research will as well include documents as sources of
secondary data. The documents consists of the advertisements used in the focus groups and
the important information about the different concepts presented in the thesis.
3.5.1 Documents
Documents can, according to Bryman and Bell (2011), be used as sources of data; it is most
potentially used in qualitative research as secondary data. They state that the documents used
can take on many different variations and be produced for a broad variety of purposes. They
highlight that it is important to keep in mind that text does not only concern words when
using documents as sources. It includes everything that can be read. Documents can
according to them be divided into the three categories, to make a clear distinction; personal-,
public- and official documents.
Bryman and Bell (2011) more deeply explain that there are six different kinds of documents
that can be used as sources of data. Personal documents; concerns diaries and personal letters.
This type of material can be used as information on its own; it is as well potential to
complement other types of data. Public documents; is material provided by the state. The
state does often provide a lot of contextual data, which can potentially be used in research.
23
Organizational documents; companies do often provide information about the organization
that everyone can access, such as annual reports, mission statements, press releases,
advertising etc. They often produce documents for internal use, that the researcher needs
permission to access. Mass media outputs; takes the form of newspapers, magazines etc.
When using this type of data there is rarely a problem of representativeness. Visual
documents; is data in the form of photographs and films. This type of data is often widely
spread, especially on the Internet. The documents can be used as data on their own or as a
complement to documents built up by words. Virtual documents; is data that is provided on
the Internet. This kind of data is potentially growing.
When using documents as sources of data, Bryman and Bell (2011) further explain that the
search process for the right documents can be very time consuming and as well frustrating.
They also mention that when this kind of material is used it should be deeply evaluated. The
credibility, representativeness and also whose view is presented should according to them be
taken into consideration.
For this thesis the authors have chosen to include a broad variety of different types of
documents, in the collection of data. The advertisements gathered are both organizational
documents and mass media outputs, since some of the organizations themselves provide the
advertisements, but some of the advertisements are provided by others than the organization.
The organizational documents that are provided by the companies are all available for public
consumption. The advertisements used, are presented as visual documents, namely
photographs and movies. They are as well virtual documents, since they all are provided on
the Internet. The scientific articles that have been collected for the research also take the
shape of virtual documents. Literary data presented in books are as well included in the
thesis. Even if the literature documents do not fit into any of the above given explanations of
the different document categories, it can be considered as documents of sources.
3.5.2 Focus group
A focus group is according to Bryman and Bell (2011) a tool for collecting data, from a group
of respondents, not only to elicit how they feel about a given topic but also why. This is
according to them something that will be brought forward through the group discussion. They
explain that it often is reflected in how a person is saying something instead of what exactly
is said. This type of data collection can as they explain be potentially used in both
24
quantitative and qualitative research, since it can be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured. Cohen and Garret (1999) state that it most commonly is conducted as
unstructured, which allows the moderator to ask follow-up questions on new subjects that are
brought up by the respondents. Christensen et al. (2010) explain that the moderator in a focus
group can affect the respondent with his or her behavior or with a leading question, which is
called an interview effect. They further explain that errors can be a result when the
interviewer perceive and interpret the respondents answers in a wrong way. The interaction
that takes place between the participants can result in revealing new, unexpected or
uncovered information (Gaižauskaitė 2012). It can also result in findings that would not have
been possible to generate by a respondent alone, since it has developed during the process of
the group (Christensen et al. 2010).
The number of participants in a focus group is recommended to vary between six and twelve
respondents (Christensen et al. 2010; Gaižauskaitė 2012), this due to that everyone must be
able to share their meanings (Gaižauskaitė 2012). The number of participants in a focus
group can though, according to Bryman and Bell (2011), vary depending on variables such as
time and resources. They explain that if the number of participants increases the possibility to
handle the group gets harder. They therefore state that it sometimes is recommended not to
carry out focus groups bigger than eight people, since if it is larger than eight it is often
harder for people to deeply express their thoughts. It is as well important that the participants
are comfortable in the environment where the focus group is conducted; otherwise there is a
risk that the participants will not fully contribute to the discussion (Krueger & Casey in
Krueger et al. 2001). Focus groups can, according to Bryman and Bell (2011), either be
conducted with respondents that know each other or not know each other beforehand. They
state that there is no wrong or right answer which is best suited, but both have their positive
and negative aspects. Their reason for this is that when using people that know each other,
there can be a risk that every detail is not fully described. Instead the group of people may
use taken-for-granted assumptions. Yet they state that it is very useful in exploring shared
meanings in a group. A group of people that do not know each other are according to them
better suited when understandings that are built on taken-for-granted assumptions are
required. They further recommend that a focus group session should be recorded and then
transcribed, since it enables the researcher to refer back to exact material, and who said what.
The focus groups that will be carried out in this thesis will take on a semi structured format,
since some specific questions and topics will be brought up and covered during the process.
25
The semi-structured design will as well enable the respondents to enter topics that they find
interesting in the discussion connected to the head topic. The design enables the interviewer
to follow up new directions and discussions with follow-up questions, which would not have
been possible with a structured design. The semi-structure of the focus groups will guarantee
the possibility of comparisons, even if in a limited way. Since both Generation X and
Generation Y will be examined in this thesis four focus groups, where the generation
categories are separated, will be conducted. This will be conducted to enable the researchers
to compare the two groups with each other. In this way the different age categories will not
affect and influence each other. The focus groups in this research will be conducted with
respondents who both know and do not know each other beforehand. By doing this the
respondents were more relaxed, but at the same time the discussion could not be built on
taken-for-granted assumptions.
3.6 Data collection instruments
3.6.1 Translation of focus group
Since the thesis is written in English and the focus groups are carried out with Swedish
respondents, the authors decided to translate the interview guide including the questions into
Swedish. To ensure that the translation was conducted in a referable way, two people were
asked to translate the document. The two were selected on the basis that they were a third
party and that they possessed knowledge in both the Swedish and the English language. The
questions were first translated by the authors themselves, from English to Swedish and then
back to English. The two persons who were asked to translate the documents carried out the
same procedure as the authors, and then all the translated documents were compared. If there
were any differences, the authors changed the questions according to the translators.
3.6.2 Operationalization
According to Bryman and Bell (2011) and Holme and Solvang (1997) the operationalization
and operational definitions are crucial for the research and its measurements. They state that
it should show how theory will be measured in reality and it describes activities to be
performed to be able to empirically establish the degree of existence of what is defined by the
concept. Without defining theory and concepts it is not possible to relate them to gathered
data (Ghauri & Grønhang 2005). They state that it is therefore important to map empirical
observations and theory to relate findings to the knowledge base
26
The process of operationalization is critical for a qualitative research (Cohen et al. 2011) and
Arbnor and Bjerke (1994) state that the operationalization process involves the
transformation of concepts into measurements. They also mention that the data collection
should not begin until the concepts are clearly defined.
Since this research is based on the concept of perception, the perceptual building blocks,
selection, organization and interpretation, served as the foundation for the operationalization.
The building blocks were identified in the literature review and were then visualized in the
conceptual framework (see section 2.6). First, a conceptual definition was created of each
building block, to provide information of the meaning of the building blocks, and to relate
them to the gathered data. Secondly, an operational definition was defined, to better be able
to relate the building blocks to the gathered data, and to explain how they were applied to
gain the data needed. Finally, workable questions were operationalized out of the building
blocks.
Table 1: Operationalization, self-generated.
Concept
Conceptual definition
Operational
definition
Measures
Selection
“The act or an instance of selecting or the state of being selected” (Thomson 2012:1508).
It gives meaning of how consumers select what to remember, what to give attention to and what they find interesting.
-Write down the first 5 advertisements you remember, with both brand name and what the advertisement is about. -Write down the advertisements you remember. -Which advertisements do you perceive as the most interesting? -Which advertisements do you perceive as least interesting? -Do you often pay attention to advertisement and in what situations? -What kind of advertising caught your attention the most; traditional or ambient advertising? -Would this have caught your attention in real life? -Would it affect your future purchases?
27
Organization
“The act of organizing or the state of being organized” (Thomson 2012:1175).
How consumers choose to organize what they see, to create meaning.
-Which ones did you notice right away and why? -Divide the pictures into two piles, depending if you can see any similarities or connections in their visual appearance. -Please try to divide the advertisements into two different piles, one for traditional advertisements and one for ambient advertisements.
Interpretation
“The act or process of interpreting or explaining; elucidation” (Thomson 2012:851).
How consumers choose to interpret and give meaning to the different advertisements.
-Can you please write down five keywords about what you associate with these advertisements (adjectives). -What was your first thought when you saw the advertisements? -Why were that/those advertisements interesting? -Why were that/those advertisements the least interesting? -Do you know what traditional and ambient advertising are? If yes, can you explain them? -Have you experienced any traditional advertising before? If yes, can you describe your experience? -Have you experienced an ambient advertising before? It yes, can you describe your experience? -Do you think that ads have any emotional connection with your past? -Which sort of advertising do you think that you will remember for the longest time? Why? -Do you sometimes perceive advertising as negative? If yes, in which way? -Did you understand for which brand and what product the advertising was conducted? -Did you understand the message of the ambient advertising? -What did you think about this advertisement?
28
As seen in the literature review (see chapter 2), the perceptual building blocks are only a
small part of the theory building of this research. Yet, as described in the conceptual
framework (see section 2.6) these building blocks are the basis of perception. The other
concepts will later be analyzed through the data collected from the focus groups. Thus, the
gathered data will examine the generational cohorts’ perception of the advertising strategies
and their advertising properties. Through doing this, all the concepts in the literature review
will be covered.
3.6.3 Pretesting
When conducting an interview, a focus group or a survey it is important to pretest the
questions before the final use (Christensen et al. 2010). As Chambliss & Schutt state
(2010:169); “The only good question is a pretested question”. It is important to ensure that
the questions are correctly formulated so the respondents understand them completely
(Chambliss & Schutt 2010; Christensen et al. 2010). The questions should be easy to
understand and possible to answer (Christensen et al. 2010). According to Bryman and Bell
(2011) pretesting has a role of ensuring that the chosen research instrument functions well.
They further state that it even provides the interviewer with more confident and helps the
researcher to see if the instructions are clearly presented. To pretest the questions and
documents with a focus group enables the authors to check for consistent understanding of
the terms and identify the range of events or experiences which the participants will be asked
to report (Chambliss & Schutt 2010).
In this research the pre-test concerned testing the questions and the documents (pictures and
video clips), to examine which to use in the final focus groups. The pre-tested focus group
consisted of six persons, four women and two men, three of them belonging to Generation X
and three of them belonging to Generation Y. The researchers decided to mix the generations
in the pre-test focus group, since it was the questions and documents that were of interest.
The pre-tested focus group started with an unaided recall test where the participants were
asked to write down advertisements they remembered, and then keywords that described
those advertisements. The participants were later exposed to 20 pictures of both traditional
and ambient advertisements. They discussed freely and were then asked to write down which
ones they recalled. After this the moderator presented the different types of advertisement,
traditional and ambient. Then according to this description the participants were asked to
divide the pictures into two different piles. Afterwards they were asked to write down five
29
keywords about the different types of advertisements. In the end of the pre-test the
participants were exposed to eight different video clips about ambient advertising and they
were asked different questions connected to them.
From the pre-test the authors discovered things that needed to be changed before the real
focus groups were conducted. Clearer instructions, for when the participants are asked to
write down the keywords are needed. In the pretest the participants had a hard time
understanding what they were supposed to write, which led to a lot of questions. Therefore
the authors added the description that the words needed to be adjectives. The authors as well
added a clearer description for when asking the participants to write down advertisements. In
the real focus groups, the participants will be asked to write down both the brand and the
appearance/performance of the advertisement. This since most participants in the pretest only
wrote the brand, or the appearance. The advertising pictures were reduced from 20 to 14,
since some of them were diffuse and drew too much or too little attention. The moderators
continuously decided to let the participants write the aided recall test before a discussion,
since the discussion in the pretest made it really easy for them to remember almost all
advertisements. The video clips of ambient advertisement were reduced from eight to five,
since the participants thought that they were too many and therefore lost their focus. The
authors decided to keep the ones that produced the best discussions. Continuously, many of
the questions connected to the different parts were reformulated or deselected, since some of
them reached the same answers.
3.6.4 Conduction of focus group
The focus group will begin with that the moderator welcomes the participants and thanks
them for participating. The participants will then be told that their behavior and discussions
will be recorded throughout the entire process, to get their consent.
The focus group will start with an unaided recall test. The participants will without any prior
discussion or help write down five advertisements that they remember. They need to write
down both the brand and what the advertisement symbolizes, in order for the moderators to
understand which they mean in retrospect. After this the respondents will be asked to write
down five key words about the advertisements they wrote. This will give the researchers an
understanding about the general perceptions about advertising before any impact has been
made. The introduction will after this continue with an explanation of the aim of the focus
30
group; advertising. Pictures of 14 advertisements (see appendix 1) will be presented on the
table in front of the respondents. All the pictures will be of the same size, A5, and they will
be presented simultaneously. By doing this no advertisement will get a bigger or longer focus
than another. The placement of the advertisements will also be presented alike in all the focus
groups to insure the repeatability and to insure that the perceptions of the respondents will not
differ because of differences in the presentations. After that the participants have viewed the
advertisements for two minutes they will be cowered. The participants will then be asked to
write down which advertisements they remember. The focus group will continue on with a
discussion about the pictures shown, to investigate what the participants think about the
advertisements and if they have any specific opinions. This was the first step out of three that
will be covered.
In the second step the participants will be asked to divide the different advertisements into
two piles, depending on what they see, and how they interpret the advertisements. This will
be done to get an understanding about how consumers select and divide advertisements. What
the participants do not know is that two pictures from each brand will be represented, one of a
traditional advertising and one of a non-traditional ambient advertising. The reason for this is
to be certain that the brands themselves will not affect the participants in any direction. After
they have piled the advertisements the moderator will present what traditional advertising and
ambient advertising are. After the explanation has been given, the participants will together
place the different advertisements in two different piles again, one for which they think is
ambient advertisement and another for which they think is traditional advertisement. This
will be done, for the moderators to see if the participants understood the differences in the
concepts and if it is possible to distinguish the two. After this the participants will once again
be asked to write down keywords, but this time five keywords describing traditional
advertising and five words describing ambient advertising.
The third step of the focus group will begin with that movie clips of different ambient
advertisements will be shown and afterwards discussed. Through doing this the moderators
get a chance to ask the participants about their perceptions about ambient advertising in detail
and to have a discussion about the concept. At the end of the focus group there will be a
discussion about what the participants have experienced in real life. The presented cases will
all be advertisements that have taken place in the Swedish market.
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3.7 Sampling A sample refers to the segment of the population that is selected for research (Bryman & Bell
2011). It is a subset of a population used to study the population as a whole (Chambliss &
Schutt 2010). According to Bryman and Bell (2011) the researchers need to decide what kind
of population is suited to the investigation of the topic and find a sample that is generalizable
to that population. In order to be able to generalize the findings from the sample to the
population from which it was selected they state that the sample must be representable. They
further describe that it is important that your sample is not biased; meaning that it does not
represent the population from which it was selected. According to them it is very difficult to
remove bias altogether, but it has to be ensured to keep it to a minimum.
Since the purpose of this research is to investigate Generation X’s and Generation Y’s
perceptions of ambient and traditional advertising in Sweden, the researchers selected this
segment as their population. These two generations were sampled because of their said
similar backgrounds (Reisenwitz & Iyer 2009) and the researchers’ interest in finding out if
this would give them the same perceptions toward advertising. The reason for sampling
Swedish consumers within the two generation was the lack of data found on this topic in
Sweden and that the placement of the study is in Sweden.
The advertisements chosen for this research were sampled on the basis that each company
represented had to have both an ambient advertisement and a traditional advertisement. The
reason for this was that the advertisements would not be able to affect the participants
differently according to which brands were represented, either as ambient or traditional
advertising. The advertisements were also required to be presented in a “real” environment,
meaning that the pictures of the advertisements had to show the advertisements as they were
shown in real life. Since showing advertisements in different settings can also affect the
participants differently. Also all the advertisements needed to be non-gender products since
the population consists of both males and females. The advertisements also had to have been
shown in Sweden since the Swedish consumers were the target audience. The advertisements
chosen did not need to represent a Swedish brand, but it had to live up to the criteria that it
had been shown in the Swedish market.
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3.7.1 Sampling frame
A sampling frame is the listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be
selected (Bryman & Bell 2011). It is a representation of the elements of the target population
and a list of directions for identifying the target population (Malhotra 2010). Bryman and
Bell (2011) mention that it is of great importance that the sample frame is as representative as
possible for the specific population. They state that if it is not comprehensive or is in some
way inaccurate, the sample might not be representable.
According to Chambliss and Schutt (2010) as well as Christensen et al. (2010) a sample can
be decided through either a probability sample or a non-probability sample. They explain that
a probability sample allows the researcher to know beforehand how likely it is for any
element of a population to be selected. They further describe that in a non-probability sample
the elements are not known beforehand. In qualitative research a non-probability sample is
according to them the most common and so is the case in this research as well. When a
sample is made, whichever the method, it will, according to Christensen et al. (2010), never
fully represent your population. Therefore the generalizability and representability of the
study will be highly affected by the conformance of your sample and your study. Malhotra
(2010) states that a non-probability sample relies on the personal judgment of the researcher
and can yield good estimates of the population´s characteristics. Yet, he mentions that
because there is no way of determining the probability for the selection of the sample, the
sample will not be statistically projectable to the population.
When doing a non-probability sampling, four common sampling methods are available;
availability sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling
(Chambliss & Schutt 2010). Availability sampling, or convenience sampling as Zikmund et
al. (2010) calls it, refers to sampling by obtaining people or units that are conveniently
available. It is based on the fact that the sample is available and easy to find (Chambliss &
Schutt 2010). In purposive sampling, or judgment sampling according to Zikmund et al.
(2010) each sample is chosen for a purpose, usually the unique position of the sample
elements (Chambliss & Schutt 2010). In a quota sampling Chambliss and Schutt (2010)
explain that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in
the population. They further explain that a snowball sampling is when the researcher
33
identifies one member of the population and then asks him/her to identify another from the
same population and so on, then the sample “snowballs” in size.
The sample of the participants in this research consists of a purposive sampling, since the
researchers decide who is going to participate in the research according to the population.
This is a common sample in qualitative research, when the researcher is not interested in
measurements; instead the focus is to generate a deeper understanding of the phenomena
(Christensen et al. 2010). The participants need to meet the requirements of belonging to the
right age group, be willing to talk and contribute to the focus group.
The sampling of the different cases of traditional and ambient advertisements will be selected
through a non-probability sample. When sampling the cases a purposive sampling method
will be used. Purposive sampling will be used since the researchers themselves will choose
which cases should be included or not. The cases that will be selected have to live up to some
criteria that have been set up by the researchers. Namely that the advertisements have to have
been conducted in the Swedish market and that they include both traditional and ambient
advertising. The advertisements have to target both the female and male population and they
should not be conducted by leading brands on the market. The brands of the advertisements
does not need to be Swedish brands, they just have to have been carried out on the Swedish
market. Based on this, 20 different cases where collected for a pre-test, where they later were
limited to the 14 best representative. Also five ambient advertising movie clips were included
in the sample.
3.7.2 Sampling selection and data collection procedure
Four focus groups were conducted, two with Generation X and two with Generation Y, to get
broad representative sample of the populations being researched. The focus groups were also
conducted in four different cities, Lund, Växjö, Halmstad and Uppsala, to get a wide spread
of responses. The purpose of the study was to capture general perceptions of the population
being researched and therefore the identification of the respondent per se is not important.
The names of the respondents are therefore of ethical aspects kept undisclosed. Although a
brief description of the sex and age will be presented to get a good understanding of the
samples.
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Focus group 1 was conducted with Generation Y, in Lund, on Thursday the 8th of May. Here
six respondents were included in the focus groups, ranging from age 21 to 28 years old, two
males and four females. One of the respondents has an occupation and five of the respondents
are students, all within different areas.
Table 2: Participants in the focus group conducted in Lund. Participant Age Gender Occupation Participant 1 28 Male Medical student Participant 2 21 Male Nursing student Participant 3 24 Female Graphic design student Participant 4 24 Female Economics student Participant 5 27 Female Social worker student Participant 6 23 Female Nurse
Focus group 2 was conducted with Generation Y in Växjö on Friday the 9th of May. Here
eight respondents were included in the focus group, ranging from age 22 to 30 years old, four
males and four females. Two of the respondents have occupations, five of the respondents are
students and one respondent is unemployed.
Table 3: Participants in the focus group conducted in Växjö.
Participant Age Gender Occupation Participant 1 24 Female Economics student Participant 2 25 Male Nursing student Participant 3 26 Male Science in engineering
student Participant 4 28 Male Industrial management
- No knowledge about the concept ambient advertisement. - Traditional advertisement experienced; advertisement on mail, TV and radio. - Ambient advertisement experienced: people as walking signs and tastings at the supermarket. - Believes that a combination of ambient and traditional advertisement will be best remembered. - Believes that both concepts are able to provoke the same responses. - Not interested in a too big commitment, regardless of the price.
- Knowledge about the concept ambient advertisement. - Traditional advertisement experienced: Internet, vehicles, bus stops, radio and TV. - Ambient advertisement experienced: broad range of examples. - Believes that ambient advertisements will be best remembered. - Strong sense of ambient advertising as being better than traditional advertising. - Would not give a wholehearted effort to less than meaningful work.
Color
- Remembers colourful advertisements better than according to the advertising concepts.
- Remembers advertising better according to the concepts than according to color.
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- Remembers advertisements with clear colours best (yellow, red and blue). - Remembers advertisements that have a high value of chroma best (much pigment). - Remembers advertisements with a high value best (much white).
- No clear pattern can be discovered concerning if clear or dull colors are best remembered. - No clear pattern can be detected. - Best remembers advertisements with a high value (much white).
Format
- Easiest to recall pictorial advertisements. - Hard time remembering advertisements that builds on semiotics.
- Easiest to recall pictorial advertisements. - Hard time remembering advertisements that builds on semiotics.
Nostalgia
- Advertisements that include nostalgic aspects help Generation X with retrieval.
- Advertisements that include nostalgic aspects help Generation Y with retrieval.
Placement
- Mostly notice advertisements on the TV, radio, and flyers you get home. - They mostly notice advertisements in traditional environments.
- Mostly notice advertisements on TV, internet and on places you stand and wait such as bus stops. - They are more open-minded to advertisements in new environments.
People
- Big retrieval concerning advertisements including celebrities.
- Big retrieval concerning advertisements including celebrities. -Better retrieval of objects than Generation X.
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6. Conclusion This chapter will present the conclusions that can be drawn from the analysis concerning this
research. The conclusions stated will answer the purpose of this research. The chapter will
as well include the limitations of the study.
The conclusion that can be inferred from this research is that Generation Y perceives ambient
advertising better than Generation X, since they are more open for this type of advertising.
They are more amenable for interaction with events such as advertisements campaigns.
Ambient advertising is as well suitable for targeting Generation X, but not to the same extent
as Generation Y. Generation X perceives traditional and ambient advertising as similar, when
it comes to persuasion. They do not perceive one as better than the other, based on the
placement and the concepts. Which advertising strategy that is best suited to target this cohort
depends more on the particular advertisement; from case to case.
According to the advertising properties, advertisements for Generation X should include clear
and bright colors with a high value, which means that it contains a big amount of the color
white. The advertisement should as well be pictorial; mostly containing pictures instead of
texts. This due to that Generation X finds advertisements containing too much written
information boring and uninteresting. A preferable variable to bring in is celebrities, due to its
positive effect on the generation’s retention power. The cohort does not have a positive
preference concerning involvement with advertising events. Companies targeting Generation
X should therefore not demand involvement from them in advertisement campaigns.
Advertisements that best targets Generation Y should as well include a high value, but the
advertisements can here build on both clear and dull colors. The advertisements should as
well use a pictorial format, and include small amounts of text, since Generation Y better
understands and appreciates the advertisement when small amounts of information are given.
But there is a fine line between the two, since too much information is perceived as boring
and uninteresting by the cohort. For this age generation celebrities are as well preferable to
include, since the retrieval of the advertisement increases when celebrities are incorporated.
The generation cohort is open to interaction, but it is important for them that the effort that
they put in also generates a return of the same value or more.
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6.1 Limitations A limitation for this research was the narrow time frame given to carry out this research,
which affected the sample. The sample for this research consisted of 30 participants, which is
not generalizable to the whole population of Generation X and Generation Y in Sweden. Yet,
as stated, a qualitative research approach usually includes a rather small and deep sample size
that is not generalizable, since it is the underlying patterns that are the goal of the research.
Another limitation to this research is that during the conduction of the focus groups one error
was found. The part where the participants were exposed to the different advertisements and
asked to write down which they remembered, some of the participants did it incorrectly. They
were asked to write down both the brands and a description of the picture, but some of the
participants misunderstood this and only wrote down the brand or only the description. Some
of the participants as well wrote answers that were unclear and impossible to read. According
to Christensen et al. (2010) those answers need to be removed since they are incorrect. This
led to a loss of, and a reduction of, the answers in the aided recall test.
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7. Research implications In this chapter managerial implications will be provided, which includes for whom the
findings can be potential to use. The chapter as well includes theoretical insight, stating what
contributions the research has generated to the area. The chapter ends with presenting
further recommendations.
7.1 Managerial implication From this research the authors wanted to find out if it is appropriate to create the same
advertisements for both generations in Sweden, or if the different generational cohorts
demand different advertising strategies. The empirical findings provided empirical evidence
of how the two generational cohorts perceive advertising, and if there is a difference to the
cohorts’ perception about the advertising strategies.
As could be seen after the analysis, there are no big differences between the cohorts. Yet
there are some. Generation Y is the only cohort of these two who perceive ambient
advertising as superior. Generation X perceives the two strategies as equal. Therefore
ambient advertising should work better with Generation Y. Generation X finds it more
important that the fit between the brand and the advertising message match. Generation X
also appreciates bright and strong colors, better than dull ones. Generation Y does not care
about colors at all.
These findings could be used as a guide for marketing managers, when creating
advertisements for Generation X and Generation Y. The findings correspond with theory
when it comes to the importance to create and uphold a relationship between the companies
and the consumers. By doing this marketers need to know their consumers. This research can
help in creating and upholding this relationship, since when advertisements correspond with
consumers’ perception, they are better received.
7.2 Theoretical insights This research can contribute to the research field, since the topic of how Generation X and
Generation Y perceive traditional and ambient advertising in Sweden is relatively under
researched. Most of the research about Generation X and Generation Y is from and within the
USA, not much research from and within Sweden.
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The model, “A model of perceptual processing”, is adapted and uniquely transformed to this
particular research and therefore it is a contribution to the research field. When using the
model “A model of perceptual processing”, it contributes with information to the research
field about how Generation X and Generation Y perceives ambient and traditional
advertisements through the variables; color, format, nostalgia, placement and people. This
model can be adapted into other situations within the advertising research area. It is possible
to change the variables in the model to better fit other researches particular contexts and
individual differences; hence the model is useful in many situations.
7.3 Direction for further research According to the findings, the authors recommend others to further research all the cohorts,
since this research only covered the two youngest generational cohorts. It would also be
interesting to examine how consumers perceive advertising in real life, to see if consumers’
perceptions about advertising are true to reality. This could be done conducting a quantitative
research, using an experimental research design, in order to collect a broader and more
generalizable result.
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