PenguinConservationaviansag.org/Newsletters/Penguin_TAG/Vol-6_No-3_October... · 2017-01-22 · PenguinConservation October, 1993 vol. 6, no. 3 In this issue A Technique for Restraining

Penguin ConservationOctober, 1993 vol. 6, no. 3

In this issue

A Technique for Restraining and Drawing Bloodfrom Humboldt Penguins 1

The Effects of Oil Pollution on Seabirds 4

European Penguin TAG Meeting 10

North American Humboldt SSP Report 13

Humboldt Penguin Studbook for North America 15

African Penguin Studbook for North America 16

Publication information:

Penguin Conservation

ISSN # 1045-0076Indexed in: Wildlife Review and

Zoological RecordSerials librarians, please note:

Previous title was SPN: Spheniscus Penguin Newsletter.Volume numbering continued from previous title.

Printed on recycled paper.

Penguin Conservation is published three times per year, with financial supportfrom the American Association ofZoological Parks and Aquariums, from the MetroWashington Park Zoo, and from its readers. Subscription is free, to those with aserious interest in penguin conservation and study. Contributions toward printingand postage costs are welcome; please make checks payable to "ConservationPublications," and send to the Editor at the address below.

The drawing which serves as our cover logo is reproduced by kind permissionof the artist, Ann Munson. The drawing on page 6, by Hans Wiborg-Jenssen, isreproduced from Timelines: Ships, Sailors and the Sea, by Richard Humble; FranklinWatts, N.Y., 1991.

Articles submitted for publication should be typed. For articles which includegraphs (such as line or bar graphs) please include a separate sheet giving the dataused to generate the graph. Authors who work on a Macintosh computer can helpour editorial process by sending their work on disk as well as paper.

All articles for the next issue must be received by Janurary 10, 1994.

Please address all correspondence to:

Cynthia Cheney, EditorPenguin ConservationMetro Washington Park Zoo4001 SW Canyon Rd.Portland, Oregon 97221 USA

Telephone: (503) 226-1561FAX: (503) 226-6836

A Technique for Restraining and Drawing Bloodfrom Humboldt Penguins

CYNTHIA CHENEY

Figure 1. Device for restraining penguin during blood drawing.

D uring the past two years, anutrition research projectconducted at the Metro

Washington Park Zoo required thatblood samples be collected from eachmember of our colony of Humboldtpenguins (Spheniscus humboldti), everythree months. In the beginning, theprocess was new and went veryslowly. By the end, a routine had beendeveloped making it possible to drawblood from more than 30 penguins ina little over two hours. Recently several zoos have inquired regarding theprocedure and restraint device used.This article describes that procedureand device, in hopes that some aspectsmay be useful to others. At other institutions, and in the field, quite differentmethods are utilized with success; theprocedure described here has evolvedover time and has worked well for theMWPZ staff and animals.

The process of blood-drawing consists of several different stages:preparing the bird, restraining it, actually drawing the blood, and finallypreparing the bird for return to theexhibit.

PreparationSince the veins become more pro

nounced when the foot is warmed,each bird was placed standing in about8 cm (3 in) of warm water for severalminutes immediately before drawingblood. For this purpose, we found thata waist-high plastic garbage canworked better than a shallow pan,since the bird did not need not be held,and was not splashing water everywhere. Water temperature waschecked carefully each time the waterwas replaced, to be sure that it was

Cynthia CheneyMetro Washington Park Zoo4001 SW Canyon RoadPortland, Oregon 97221

Portland, Oregon

warm (a little above body temperature) but not uncomfortably hot.

RestraintEffective immobilization of the bird

during blood drawing was anotherchallenge. A 5 kg (11lb) penguin canbe extremely strong when struggling,and the heavy leather gloves worn asprotection against bites made it verydifficult to hold the bird absolutelystill.

Keepers tried to design an effectiverestraint device that would hold thewedge-shaped body of a ,penguin securely, leaving the feet free. Aconference was held with one of thezoo's maintenance craftsmen, explaining the need and the solution thatkeepers had come up with. A few dayslater, he returned with two devices:one following the plan keepers hadproposed, and another, radically different, which was his own idea. Thislatter device proved ideal for the purpose, strange though it may appear atfirst sight. The device consisted of asection of sturdy plastic drainpipe, 33cm (13 in) long and 21.5 cm (8.5 in) in

please turn to page 2

Penguin Conservation October 1993 1

Restraining and Drawing Blood from Humboldt Penguins

During restraint and handling, the birds must be

carefully monitored for overheating and gaping, and it

is very important to minimize the length of time that

each bird is subjected to handling.

Figure 2. Penguin with Mod on, in position in restraint device. The device actuallyfits the birds more snugly than sMwn here.

A length of surgical tubing, securedwith a hemostat, was used around theleg as a tourniquet if needed to makethe vein easier to locate.

The skin was cleaned wi th Betadine. A 20- or 22-gauge needle wasused; bending the needle slightlymade it easier to attain the correctangle of approach. Once the needlehad been introduced into the vein,which was raised from the effect of thetourniquet, and blood began to flowinto the syringe, the tourniquet wasreleased to allow the blood to flowmore freely, and from 1 to 3 cc of bloodwas collected. If the needle was introduced into the correct area, and thetourniquet removed, quite often thesyringe filled by itself. Upon removalof the needle, a gauze pad was pressedagainst the site, and then a drop or twoof superglue applied to stop bleeding.Because the penguin was susceptibleto overheating while in the restraintdevice, birds were sometimes removed from it before bleeding hadcompletely stopped.

the cloth be of a loose enough weave topermit ample air circulation.

of the foot; the medial metatarsal veinin the leg; and the toe nail itself, byclipping down to the quick. The metatarsal vein was sometimes difficult tolocate, and the toe nail clipping oftenresulted in too little blood, or bleedingthat was hard to stop. Thus the decision was made to use the intradigitalvein.

Drawing bloodOnce in the restraint device, the

penguin was now in position for bloodto be drawn.

In our first blood-drawing session,trials were made of three differentsources: the intradigital vein on the top

diameter, with one end covered withleather or heavy rubber secured with aworm clamp or similar fastener. In thecenter of this leather or rubber cover ahole was cut. For juvenile penguins, aplastic pipe of smaller diameter (17cm/6.75 in) was used. The penguinwas placed head first into this pipe, sothat its head protruded through thehole cut in the leather or rubber. Thepipe was carefully placed into the plywood stand, with the bird's ventralside up. If necessary the pipe was secured to the stand with straps (velcrowas used in our model). Since thepenguin's flippers were pressed downagainst its body, struggling was minimized. One person tended the bird'shead, holding it still and monitoringbreathing. A second person held thefeet while blood was drawn from onefoot. This was the most strenuous task,since this person also had to keep ahand on the penguin's body within thepipe, to prevent it from rotating.

Prior to placing the penguin intothe restraint device, a black cloth hoodwas put over the bird's head to calm itand keep it from biting. One of the

keepers made hoods, tailored to a triangular shape to accommodate thebeak, out of fairly heavy black cloth.The hoods were 28 cm (11 in) long.Width at the open end measured 18cm(7 in) for smaller birds or 23 cm (9 in)for full-grown adults. The closed enddid not taper to a point since thatwould not allow the bird's beak toopen, but was squared off about 3.8cm(1.5 in) wide. It was important that

2 Penguin Conservation October 1993

Preparation for return to exhibitAfter being removed from the pipe

and un-hooded, each penguin was putinto a pan of ice and water about 8 ern(3 in) deep for several minutes, to reverse any overheating, stop bleeding,and permit observation. A bird thatwas gaping or appeared distressedwas held in the ice water longer,though this was not a common occurrence. When ready to be released, thebird was returned to the exhibit.

DiscussionThe whole process, from catching a

bird from the group in the holdingarea, to retuming it to the exhibit, tookfrom five to eight minutes. While onebird was having blood drawn, the previous one was standing in ice water,and the next one was in the warm water pan. A team of six people wasneeded: one at the warm water con-

Figure 5. While the veterinarian (behind the lamp) draws blood from one foot, akeeper holds the bird's otherfoot. The bird's hooded head is held by another keeperwho also monitors the bird's breathing.

Figure 4. Insertion ofneedle intointradigital vein of right foot.

tainer, one to draw blood, one each atthe bird's head and feet, one at the icewater container, and a sixth personpreparing and labelling blood containers.

No health problems resulted fromblood drawing; one bird had slightscarring at the point of venipuncture,probably due to minor infection. Themajor risk appears to be that associatedwith handling and stress. Humboldtpenguins are perhaps more intolerantof handling than other species. Duringrestraint and handling, the birds mustbe carefully monitored for overheatingand gaping, and it is very important tominimize the length of time tha teachbird is subjected to handling. Birdswhich are molting, or in the stage ofpre- or post-molt, should probably notbe subjected to the stress of being re-

strained and having blood drawn; thesame is true of females believed to beabout to lay. Following blood drawing,it was not unusual for our colony tohave a reduced appetite for a day. Inaddition to the handling and blooddrawing itself, the birds were gatheredup from the pool after it had beendrained, and herded into a holdingarea where they were compelled to bein closer quarters with one anotherthan usual. lhis experience may havecontributed to the penguins' negativereaction. ,


The Effects of Oil Pollution on Seabirds

Many human-caused even ts can adversely effect seabirds: depletion offish andkrill stocks, disturbance ofnesting areas, predation by human-introduced animals orby man himself, pollution of land and water. In this article, reprinted with permission from Thylacinus (vol. 18 (2), Winter 1993), Stephen Jackson gives an overviewof marine oil pollution and its consequences for seabirds.

According to one estimate (U.S. National Research Council, 1985: Oil in theSea), 3.2 million metric tons of oil enter the world's oceans each year. About 13%of this oil comes from oil spills (tanker ship wrecks or groundings). Other aspects oftransportation and tanker operations-including spillage at terminals and intentional dumping, both on the high seas and near terminals, ofpetroleum-contaminatedwaste water- contribute about 32%, according to the NRC's figures. Waste andrunofffrom refineries and other industrial plants, and from munidpal and urbanareas, accounts for another 37%.

While the long-term effects ofoil spills and other forms of oil pollution on themarine environment are not well understood, there is no question that the immediate effects ofa big spill may include the deaths of thousands ofseabirds. Dependingon the characteristics ofagiven population, such losses may be very serious or oflittleimportance. Ifaspecies is long-lived, with arelatively low reproductive rate, and hada small and localized total population to begin with, the effects of an oil spill couldconceivably be quite serious. Several penguin species fit this category.

-Editor

Considerable concern regarding the effects of oil pollution on bird populations

has arisen, from both the scientific andpublic communities, in the past as wellas in the present. In 1753 pollution of theCaspian Sea by oil was observed, and asearly as 1876, oil was considered a hazard to birds (Bourne, 1976).

Public attention has traditionallybeen focused on the oiling and subsequent death of large numbers of birds,primarily from oil spills, whose frequency has been steadily increasingwith increased oil transportation (Button, 1971 ). Disasters such as the TampicoMaru in Maja, Torrey Canyon, PooleHarbour, Pagham Harbour. DoverBeach, Medway (Nelson-Smith, 1968;Bourne, 1968) and the well-publicizedExxon Valdez disaster have been extensively documented. Journals such as theMarine Pollution Bulletin are continuallydescribing deaths of birds due to oil pollution.

In the north-east Atlantic for example, it has been suggested that asmany as several hundred thousandbirds are oiled each year (Clarke, 1968).Unlike most other organisms in the sea,birds are harmed through the physicalproperties of floating oil and the toxicityof its constituents.

In recent years much information hasbeen published on the effects of oil onthe physiology and behavior of birdssuch as feeding, reproduction and migration. With this has been the need todevelop methods of treating oiled birdsand to reduce its incidence.

What is oil?Petroleum is a complex mixture of

hydrocarbons that contain reduced carbon chains and rings that can be straight,

Stephen JacksonTaronga ZooMosnum,NSWSydney, Australia

Sydney, Australia

branched or heterocyclic, such as aromatic and unsaturated compounds.These molecules are relatively chemically stable in the absence ofoxidants, soare slow to break down (Button, 1971).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH) are also present in oil, with someknown to be potent carcinogens. Sulphur and vanadium compounds arealso included in crude oil and non-hydrocarbons may represent up to 25% ofthe oil (Clarke, 1968; Bu tton, 1971;Nelson-Smith, 1977).

The principal sources of hydrocarbon in the marine environment areaccidental oil spills, fuel and lubricantlosses, primary phytotoxic planktonproduction and natural oil seeps (Button,1971).

STEPHEN JACKSON

Crude petroleum and other heavyoils differ from most substances whichpollute aquatic environments in thatthey are largely insoluble and persistent,forming insoluble, coherent masseswhich float on the surface (for great distances) or become stranded on the shore.They all therefore cause damage at aconsiderable distance from their pointofrelease.

Freshly spilt crude is chemicallytoxic; with time, the low boiling pointaromatic hydrocarbons and watersoluble components such as some petroleum acids leach out, leaving a residuewhich has a greatly reduced toxicitythough can still cause undesirable effects(Nelson-Smith, 1971. 1977).

Behavior and vulnerability of seabirds to oil

Oil pollution presents a particularlyserious hazard to sea birds because theoil floats on the water where it comesinto contact with swimming birds(Boume, 1976).


The Argo Merchant broke up in December 1976 after rnnning aground near Nantucket;most of its 200,000 barrels ofoil went into the ocean. (Photo: US Coost Guard)

Although a wide variety of birdsmay be affected, the greatest impact is onthose species which spend a great deal oftheir time on the surface of the sea anddive into the water for their food.

Birds are generally land based andcome into contact with the sea, and thusmarine pollution, only during short foraging expeditions along the shore. Onmeeting oil, birds are often defencelessas it is an unnatural hazard againstwhich they have no innate defence. Theextent to which the bird is oiled when itencounters a floating slick depends onthe behavior of the bird (Bourne. 1968).

As mentioned previously, the majority of information regarding the effectsof oil on birds is from the northern hemisphere. Many of the effects can beextrapolated however to southern hemisphere species due to a similarity intaxonomy and migratory patterns, assome species cover both hemispheresduring migratory flights.

Gulls, terns and waders spend muchof their time on the shore and rarely govery far out to sea. When swimmingalong the surface towards oil they usually take off before receiving any seriouscontamination unless taken by surprisein the dark, as in the Medway disaster.Along the shore they appear to get oiledfairly frequently, although comparatively few are killed by it.

Gannets, fulmar, shearwaters andpetrels fly over the sea for great distances, rarely approaching land exceptto breed. Fortunately these birds are asmall minority in most marine pollutionincidents,and appear to avoid divinginto oil.

Diving birds such as cormorants andshags swim beneath the surface moreefficiently than they can fly, and can often suffer locally during pollutionincidents.

Auks and divers float low in thewater and so may readily become completely covered. They may also come tothe surface into the oil after swimminglUlderneath, thus coating the head, backand wings (Nelson-Smith, 1972). It has

been noted by Nelson-Smith (1972) thattheir reaction to this, as to most hazards,is to dive again. In any large scale pollution this would almost certainly result intheir surfacing into more oil.

Penguins are very good swimmers,both on the surface and lUlder water, butare completely flightless, so are likely tobe affected during an oil spill. The various swans, ducks and other typicallyfresh water birds often travel into estuaries or coastal lagoons where they aremore likely to encolUlter oil or solventemulsifiers than in rivers or lakes(Nelson-Smith, 1972).

Aerial species are unlikely to pllUlgeinto oil deliberately, and appear to seldom become oiled at sea. Coastal speciesmay paddle over oil pollution orsquat in

it on the shore with minimal damage.Swimming species appear to be compelled to bathe in oil, perhaps becausethe sea appears smoother or has an appearance similar to that created by ashoal of fish (Nelson-Smith, 1972:Bourne, 1968; Wardley-Smith, 1983).Bourne (1968) fOlUld through his ownobservations that swimming speciessimply do not notice oillUltil they swiminto it.External effects of oil on birds

The effect an oil spill has on a birdcommunity depends on the volume ofthe oil, the type of oil and its state. Agiven volume of oil may have differenteffects according to whether it reachesliving organisms as thin oil films, thick




oil slicks, water in oil emulsions or oilin water emulsions. Oil films or waterin oil emulsions may coat organismson the shore and have a direct toxic orphysical smothering effect (Baker,1976).

Birds maintain a constant high temperature and their feathers are used toinsulate the body. The fluffy downfeathers make up a spongy layer offlattened cells which are streamlinedand water-proofed by an outer layer offlattened contour feathers. Although theoily secretion of the preen gland contributes to this water-proofing, the waterrepellent property of a bird's plumage islargely a function of the tightly interlocking microstructure of feather barbulesand barbicels in the contour feathers(Nelson-Smith, 1972: Leighton, 1982;Royal Comm. on Envir. Pollution,198).

The feathers of birds, like mammalian hairs and reptilian scales, arekeratinized and hydrophobic. Howeverthey are also oleophilic (unlike mostother aquatic animals) so that any oilthat comes in contact with the bird adheres well instead of washing off. Fresh,thin oil (that easily penetrates feathers) ismost likely to occur in quantity at thesurface of the sea, where the birds spendmuch of their time (Nelson-Smith, 1972).

This oil penetrates and soaks into theouter layer of down causing the fineelements of the plumage to adhere together (Bourne, 1968). The disturbanceof the structure (which doesn't requiremuch oil) enables water to enter the airspaces between the feathers and breaksdown the capacity of the feathers to insulate them from the cold water(Leighton, 1982; Wardley-Smith, 1983).This reduces insulation and buoyancy,as the bird is physically weighed downso that swimming is impeded and flightbecomes impossible, especially for birdsthat are clumsy fliers (Nelson-Smith,1972).

In an attempt to counter the loss ofheat and maintain their body temperature, oiled birds have to raise theirmetabolism of energy reserves at a time

when already sick. This can amount totwice the normal rate of metabolism.Even in lightly oiled birds this can causea substantial increase in metabolism.Nelson-Smith (1971) found that duckswith oil-impregnated plumage are under the same temperature stress at+15°C as a normal bird at -29°C.Hartung (1967) demonstrated a dose dependent decrease in the thermalinsulating capacity of oiled plumage inducks, and a compensatory increase inbasal metabolic rate in these birds whenthey were exposed to cold temperatures.

The increase in metabolism is notbalanced with a corresponding increasein the food intake. As a severely oiledbird is unable to hunt and catch its food,it rapidly becomes emaciated, cold andill. Fat stores become depleted, resultingin death from exhaustion and exposureeven in the absence of other factors(Bourne, 1976; Hartung, 1967; NelsonSmith, 1972; Royal Comm. on Envir.Pollution, 1981: Wardley-Smith, 1983).

After a light oiling, the food reservesmay be quickly depleted so that birdswith a moderate level of previously accumulated organochlorine insecticides,related industrial chemicals (such asPCB's) or heavy metals (such as lead)can become ill, as these can be mobilizedin lethal quantities. It appears highlylikely that one or more of these can actsynergistically with the oil to produce alethal result (Browne, 1982; NelsonSmith, 1972).

Internal effects of oil on birdsAs birds have a water-proof

skin and breathe air, the opportunities for the toxic components ofthe oil or emulsions to exert aphysiological effect are largelylimited to ingestion duringfeeding, inhaling toxic fumesor irritation of the eyes or exposed mucous membranes.

When oil penetrates orclogs the plumage, the birdattempts to preen itselfclean. In doing so it disturbsthe feathers even further and

swallows a considerable quantity of oil.This can result in serious internal effects(Nelson-Smith, 1971).

Birds have a highly developed andeasily disturbed nervous system sothat a small quantity of active hydrocarbons may have much more severeeffects than in "lower" animals(Nelson-Smith, 1972). Effects includerespiratory and gastrointestinal irritation, pulmonary congestion,adrenocortical hyperplasia, fluid andelectrolyte loss, and fatty liver. The absorption of toxic material from the oilcan lead to damage of the liver, pancreas, kidneys and adrenals, amongstother organs (Royal Comm. on Envir.Pollution, 1981; Hartung & Hunt,1966).

Leighton (1982) discussed severalother effects of ingested oil pollution inbirds including repressed growth and afailure in the adaption of salt secretionfrom the nasal gland. Rockeetal. (1982)suggested that the possibility of oil induced immuno-suppression should beconsidered during oil spill clearing upoperations and in the management ofwaterfowl populations in persistentlypolluted waters.

The toxicity of oil may be alteredthrough interactions with other com-


pounds and this is of particular importance when considering mixeddischarges such as refinery effluents.Factors which may cause variation intoxicity of the oil by increasingor reducing the stress to particular organismsinclude salinity, pH, sulphides, phenols,ammonia compounds, suspended material, dispersants and temperature (Baker,1976).

Effects of oil on reproductionOnly small quantities of petroleum

need to adhere to the plumage or nestingmaterials of breeding birds to be transferred to their eggs during incubationand prevent successful hatching bykilling the developing embryo. Permeability of the shell is reduced so thatrespiration through the shell is blocked(Bourne, 1976; Clark, 1968; Hartung,1965; Nelson-Smith, 1971, 1972).l.ewis &Malecki (1982) found a significant reduction in the hatching success of twospecies ofgulls using as little as 20 ilL ofpetroleum.

Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhyru:hos)that were oiled showed abnormallysmall oviducts and ovaries and contained a large number ofatretic follicles.Fewer follicles in the later stages of differentiation suggested that ingestedpetroleum hydrocarbons may interferewith ovarian steroidogenesis (Gorsline,1982). Gorsline went on to suggest thecombination of an extended period ofgonadal development and ovipositionleads to an overall prolongation of reproductive cycle in contaminated birds.Albers (1982) found a reduction in eggproduction, reduced fertilization, decreased eggshell thickness andphysiological abnormalities in ducklingsas a result of female Mallard ducks beingexposed to oil. Such abnormalities causeincubation to occur late in the reproductive cycle and could adversely effect thebreeding success of the species of birdsliving in a contaminated environment.Therefore, reproductive success of acolony may be depressed by reducingthe number of eggs laid and preventingthe hatching of others (Oark, 1968).

Bird populationsPelagic bird populations are particu

larly vulnerable to pollution as they arehighly mobile, and large numbers ofbirds from a wide area are liable togather to feed, roost, breed, moult orpass through vulnerable bottlenecks onmigration where oil pollution could occur. The damage may be very persistentas many pelagic sea birds are long livedwith low reproductive rates. Many pelagic birds seldom breed before they areseveral years old or rear more than onechick per year, so that losses are not easily replaced. Wardley-Smith (1983)suggests oil is therefore likely to causemore damage to bird populations thanto any other form of wildlife. Upollutionis not controlled, it may already be limiting bird numbers in some highlypolluted areas.

It is important to consider population dynarnics to show the importance ofexamining the long term effects of oilpollution on bird populations ratherthan concentrating on the actual numbers of dead or affected birds.

Generally, animals overproduce, often by an enormous margin, eventhough each pair of animals only needsto produce two young in their life timeto replace themselves. Larger sea birdssuch as auks, which are often badly effected by oil pol1ution at sea, areincapable of recovering quickly fromheavy mortality. Although they are along-lived bird with few, if any, naturalpredators, they have an exceptionallylow replacement rate. Auks first breed atthree years of age and usually lay onlyone egg per year (Bourne, 1968; Clark,1968).

Like auks, guillemots don't breeduntil they are about three years old. Notall members of the adult populationbreed every year and the breeding success of those that do is astonishingly low,so that if high mortality occurs it is impossible for the losses to be replacedquickly (Oark, 1968).

Birds killed by oiling at times otherthan breeding season will obviously notcontribute to the reproductive effort of

their colony or species (Albers, 1982).Albers (1982) suggests that as long as themortality is not too extensive, most of thedead breeding birds will be replaced byyounger birds or immigrants. If breeding birds are killed by oiling duringincubation or the nestling stage, thenthe reproduction of that year could bereduced because mid-season displacements, if available, would probably havelimited reproductive success.

The full effects of oiling on sea birdsare best understood if changes in the sizeof breeding population in polIuted andunpolluted areas are compared. Whilstthe continuing mortality attributable tooil pollution is distressing, ornithologistsand conservationists are predominantlyconcerned by the possibility that oilmight lead directly to the extinction ofanimportant colony of sea birds or even arare species.

Two reasons for concern over the effects of oil pollution on birds are: chronicmortality of birds from continual discharges of oil; and that breeding andoverwintering populations, some ofwhich represent the majority of a globalor regional population, are increasinglyplaced at risk by oil-related development(Royal Comm. on Evir. Pollution, 1981).

A reduction in the size of breedingcolonies after an oiling disaster may, initself, hinder their recovery. Egg layingis sometimes dependent upon the female bird receiving adequate visualstimulation from the male during hiscourtship displays. In larger groups afemale receives this visual stimulationfrom both her mate and other displayingmales.

Scattered colonies are also morelikely to suffer a greater loss of eggsfrom predation by gulls than largecolonies where some degree of mutualprotection is given by the birds incrowded colonies (Clark, 1968).




Rehabilitation of oiled birdsSeabirds have been rescued and re

habilitated for decades. This is achievedby removing the oil from the plumageand restoring the water-repellent microstructure of the feathers and thereforethe insulating capacity of the plumage.

The process of cleaning oiled birdsinvolves a lot of work and is very timeconsuming. Storage facilities are required for both oiled and cleaned birds.In order to develop a more efficientcleaning process for oiled birds, variouscleaning agents have been tried to helprestore the insulating properties ofcleaned plumage (Jenssen & Ekker,1989). Kerley et al. (1985) induced moltin an attempt to rehabilitate an oiledJackass penguin. However, this was unsuccessful.

The success ofamateur efforts to helpoiled birds is very low. In professionallysupervised cleaning stations the successis not much better, as in even the mostfavorable conditions, only 0.8% of allbirds affected by oil can be rescued (Marine Poll. Bulletin, 1984). The proportionof birds successfully cleaned varies withthe species and the degree of damage tothe bird, both internal and external. Thebest results occur when the birds receivecareful individual attention, startingwith rest, seclusion, warmth, and cleanfresh food, and progressing slowly toclean open surroundings. Bourne (1968)suggested that rehabilitation of birds hasbeen rarely successful. He goes on to saythat birds don't normally allow themselves to be caught until they aremoribund, so that the attempt is usuallyhopeless from the start. This howevervaries greatly with the species. He goeson to say that there is little evidence thatwashing ever does any good as it leadsto further distress and exhaustion.

Many action plans have been developed throughout the world to helpincrease the efficiency and effectivenesswhen trying to clean birds in the event ofbirds being affected by oil. In Australia,the National Parks and Wildlife Divisionin Victoria has prepared the State Plan todeal with Wildlife Affected by an Oil Spill

(1990). In America, books such as theOiled Bird Response Workbook (no date)and Saving Oiled Seabirds (1978) havebeen produced.

Areas at risk and precautions againstdamage

The effect of oil pollution on birdpopulations appears to cause the mostdamage in cool climates and duringwinter. Oil tends to persist in a toxic liquid state for a longer period than inwarm climates and during summer,when it is soon converted into residuesthat are solid, inert and comparativelyinnocuous to birds (Wardley-Smith,1983). Accordingly, the largest and mostvulnerable bird populations are locatedat sea at high latitudes, especiallyaround the ice in both hemispheres, andalso where biologically rich cold currents move into low latitudes along thecontinental coasts.

1his includes areas such as the coastofnortheast Asia, northeast North America,southeast and western South America,California, west and southwest Africa,Southeast Australia and New Zealand(Wardley-Smith, 1983). Few or no swimming species that are vulnerable to oilpollution occur far out to sea in the midlatitudes, especially in the tropics, thoughlarge numbers may occur in endosed waters such as the Gulf of California and thePersian/ Arabian Gulf.

Bourne & Chir (1970) argued that themost effective way of combating suchreductions is by further control of pollution and by the conservation of breedingstock to allow restocking of the population, rather than rehabilitation ofindividual birds. However, it seemsdoubtful that this procedure could everbe carried out on a sufficient scale to influence the outcome markedly.

Ideally the best and most economicdefence for bird populations is to avoidpollution. When an oil spill is found tobe heading toward concentrated areas ofbirds, the oil needs to be either isolatedor dispersed. Wardley-Smith (1983) suggested that it may be possible to scare thebirds away before the slick arrives by us-

ing boats, hovercraft, helicopters, or lowflying aircraft and trying to guardagainst their premature return. TheRoyal Commission on EnvironmentalPollution (1981) however suggested thatthis isn'ta realistic possibility for reducing sea bird casualties especially whenthe first indication ofan oil slick is the appearance of oiled birds on the shore.

In Australia, a National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil (1988) hasbeen produced in an attempt to reducethe possible effects of an oil pollutionincident. The Great Barrier Reef MarinePark Authority has also produced a planfor pollution in the Great Barrier Reef.

ConclusionOver the past several hundred years

there has been an increasing concernover the effects of oil pollu tion on pelagicbirds from both the scientific and generalcommunities, due to the large nwnbersof seabirds found dead each year as a result of oil pollution.

Oil causes problems directly by disrupting the water-proofing of thefeathers, resulting in a loss of buoyancy,heat loss and an inability to hunt efficiently. This ultimately ends in the bird'sdeath from exhaustion and exposure.

Our understanding of the indirectpathophysiology of oil intoxification inbirds has advanced considerably overthe past 20 years. Several organ systemshave been shown to be damaged whena variety of oils are ingested by variousbird species. Most of the observed toxiceffects have been sublethal, yet can actsynergistically with other environmental stressors and contribute to lethality.

It is becoming increasingly important for countries to have an effectivestrategy to deal with bird populations inthe event of an oil spill. This needs toextend from more effective treatment ofoiled birds to the prevention of birds andother wildlife being oiled.

There needs to be the developmentof stricter controls in the transport of oiland oil products, more severe penaltiesfor breaches in regulations in the case ofan oil spill, and the development of an


efficient clean up operation that must becontrolled on a regional basis, not justby the company involved.

ReferencesAlbers, P.H. (1982). Effects of oil on

avian reproduction: A review and discussion. The Effects of Oil Pollution onBirds-A Multidiscipline Symposium.Rosie, D. & Bames, S.N. (eds).l'ri-StateBird Rescue & Research, Inc.,Wilmington. pp 78-97.

Baker,J.M. (1976) Effects of oil on themarine environment. Prevention andControl ofMarine Pollution-Techniml Papers. Regional Marine Oil PollutionConference at the University ofQueensland. pp 1-8.

Bourne, W.RP. (1968). Oil pollutionand bird populations. The Biologiml Effectsof Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities.Carthy, J.D. & Arthur, D.R (eds). FieldStudies Council, London pp 99-121.

Bowne, W.R.P. (1976). Seabirds andpollution, in: Marine Pollution. Johnson, R (ed).Academic Press, London pp 403-502.

Bourne, W.RP. &Chir, B.(1970). Oilpollution and bird conservation. Biological Conseroation 2(4) 300-2.

Browne, J. (1982). Lead poisoningIs it the limit on oiled bird survival. TheEffects of Oil Pollution on Birds-AMultidiscipline Symposium. Rosie, D. &Bames, SN. (eds). Tri-State Bird Rescue& Research, Inc., Wilmington. pp 41-7.

Button, D.K. (1971). Petroleum-Biological effects in the marineenvironment. Impingement ofMan 011 theOceans. Wood, D.W. (ed). WileyInterscience, Sydney. pp 421-9.

Clarke, R B. (1968). Oil pollution andthe conservation of seabirds. Oil Pollution of the Sea. Report of proceedings ofan international conference in Rome.

Clarke, RB. (1970-). Marine PollutionBulletin. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Craik, W. (no date). Seabird Cleaningand Rehabilitation in the Great Barrier ReefMarine Park. Great Barrier Reef MarinePark Authority, Townsville.

Gorsline, J. (1982). Effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on adrenocorticaland ovarian function in laboratory

maintained Mallard Ducks (Anasplatyrhynchos). The Effects ofOil Pollutionon Birds-A Multidiscipline Symposium.Rosie, D. & Barnes, S.N. (eds). Tri-StateBird Rescue & Research, Inc., Wilmington. pp 48-57.

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (no date). Reef Plan-MarinePollution Contingency Plan for the GreatBarrier Reef. Dept. of Transport andCommunication.

Hartung, R (1965). Some effects ofoiling on reproduction of ducks. JournalofWildlife Management 30(3) 872-4.

Hartung, R (1967). Energy metabolism in oH-covered ducks. Journal ofWildlife Management 31(4) 798-804.

Hartung. R & Hunt, GS. (1966). Toxicity of some oils to waterfowl. Journal ofWildlife Management 30(3) 564-9.

International Bird Rescue ResearchCentre (1978). Saving Oiled Seabirds.Berkeley, California. Jenssen, B.M. andEkker, M. (1989) Rehabilitation of oiledbirds: a physiological evaluation of fourcleaning agents. Marine Pollution Bulletinvol. 20, no. 10.

Kerley, GJ.H., Erasmus, T. and Mason, RP. (1985) Effects of moult on crudeoil load in a Jackass Penguin Spheniscusdemersus. Marine Pollution Bulletin vol.16, no. 12.

Leighton, F.A. ( 1982 ). The pathophysiology of petroleum oil toxicity inbirds: A review. The Effects of Oil Pollution on Birds-A MultidisciplineSymposium. Rosie, D. & Barnes, S.N(eds). Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research,Inc., Wilmington. pp 1-28.

Lewis, S.J. & Malecki, RA. (1982).Reproductive success of Great Blackbacked and Herring Gulls in response toegg oiling. The Effects ofOil Pollution onBirds-A Multidiscipline Symposium.Rosie, D. & Barnes, S.N. (eds). Tri-StateBird Rescue & Research, Inc., Wilmington. pp. 98-106.

National Parks and Wildlife Service(1990). State Plan to Deal with Wildlife Affected by an Oil Spill. Dept. ofConservation and Environment, Victoria, Australia.

Nelson-Smith, A. (1968). Biologicalconsequences of oil pollution and shorecleansing. The Biological Effects ofOil Pollution on Littoral Communities. Carthy,J.D. & Arthur, D.R (eds). Field StuctiesCouncil, London.

Nelson-Smith, A. (1971). Effects ofoilin marine plants and animals. Water Pollution by Oil. Hepple, P. (ed). ElsevierPublishing Co., Amsterdam.

Nelson-Smith, A. (1972). Oil Pollutionand Marine Ecology. Elek Science, London.

Nelson-Smith, A. (1977). Biologicalconsequences of oil spills. Environmentand Man, Volume 5: The Marine Environment. Lenihan, J. & Fletcher, W.W. (eds).Blackie, Glasgow.

New South Wales Supplement Operations and Procedures Manual (1988).National Plan to Combat Pollution ofthe Seaby Oil.

Rocke, T.E., Yull, T.M. & Honsdill,RD. (1982). Oil and related contaminanteffects on waterfowl immune defences.The Effects of Oil Pollution 011 Birds-AMultidiscipline Symposium. Rosie, D. &Bames, SN. (eds). Tri-State Bird Rescue& Research, Inc., Wilmington. pp 58-63.

Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1981). Chaired bySir HansKornberg. Eighth Report. Oil Pollution ofthe Sea. Her Majesty's Stationery Office,London.

The Wildlife Centre (no date). OiledBird Response Workbook-lnternal and External Effects, Treatment, Protocols,Facilities and Operation. Tri-State BirdRescue and Research, Inc., Possum Hollow.

Transport and Communications (nodate). Protections of the Sea: Conventionsand Legislation in Australia.

Wardley-Smith,J. (1983). The ControlofOil Pollution. Graham & Trotman Publishers, London...


Captive Management Programs: Europe

1993 Meeting of the EEP Penguin TAGMIRANDA STEVENSON

The meeting was held inSalzburg, Austria onMonday 28th June 1993.

Present: Taxon Advisory Group (TAG)Chair: Miranda Stevenson, Edinburgh.Members: Clemens Becker, Karlsruhe;Christiane Bohm, Vienna; DuncanBolton, Bristol; Dick Decker, Amsterdam; Bengt Holst, Copenhagen;Vladislav Jirosek, Jilhava; AchimJohann, Rheine; Karin Linke, Rostock;Sean McKeown, Fota; Gerard Meijer,Rhenen; Martina Muller, Walsrode;

Dr. Miranda Stevenson, TAG ChairCurator ofAnimalsScottish National Zoological ParkMurrayfieldEdinburgh EH12 6TSUnited Kingdom

Peter Muller, Leipzig; Theo Pagel,K61n; Gunther Sc.hleussner, Walsrode;John Stronge, Belfast; Ellen Thaler,Innsbruck; Simon Wakefield, Marwell.

Summary of MeetingSurvey Results

Figures 1 and 2 present data fromthe survey sent out by the NationalFoundation for Research in ZoologicalGardens (NFRZG) early in 1993. Thiscomprises returns from 57 Europeancollections. [In addition, informationfrom additional collections known tohold species was added: these werecollected for Scandinavia by BengtHolst and for German-speaking nations by Achim Johann. However, thisinformation was not used in the analysis illustrated here.]

Although the questionnaire askedfor information on enclosure numbers,it was not possible owing to ambiguous wording, to ascertain whichenclosures were shared by other species and which were not. Also mostinstitutions did not differentiate between subspecies of rockhopper;therefore this information is not currently accurate for some collections.

Fig. 1 shows the numbers of eachspecies maintained. Taking a ball parkfigure of 200 birds as being a viablenumber for successful captive propagation, it can be seen that only twospecies, Blackfooted (African) andHumboldt, occur in sufficient numbers. They also occur in the greatestnumber of institutions.

800

600

400

200

a

King Gentoo Short--Cresled Long--Crested MacaroniRockhopper Rockhopper

Blackfoot Humboldt Magellanic Little. Blue

Figure 1. Number of individuals ofeach species maintained in European Zoos


At the Penguin Conservation andAssessment and Management Plan(CAMP) held in New Zealand in 1992,only two species merited high priorityas regards captive programs, Humboldt penguins were given highest andBlackfooted second highest priority.However, penguins are a popular andeducational exhibit and many collections are building new enclosures. Wetherefore require co-ordinators foreach of the species that we intend tomaintain in Europe. We also needmore details of collections not coveredin the present survey, and more detailsof potential holding capacity.

A rough estimate from the presentsurvey is that there is space for eightspecies of penguins, but whether this issufficient to keep all species in viablenumbers is not known.

Fig 2 shows the number of institutions keeping each species and thepercent that have bred the species atleast once since 1987. Thus this measure does not indicate that thecollection is currently breeding thespecies or that significant numbers ofyoung are surviving. It is importantthat this information is collectedthrough studbooks.

Spheniscid SpeciesThe two most commonly held spe

cies in European institutions areHumboldt (5pheniscus humboldti) andBlackfooted penguins (5. demersus);these are also the species with thelargest populations in European collections. Currently 793 Humboldt and591 B1ackfooted penguins have beenrecorded. Pierre de Wit, the EuropeanEndangered Species Programme (EEP)studbook keeper for Humboldt penguins, was not able to attend themeeting but had reported that to datehe had over 800 birds recorded withapproximately 500 of these unbanded.


I0 Number of Institutions 0 % Breeding

King Gentoo Short- Long- MacaroniCrested Crested

Rockhopper Rock hopper

Blackfoot Humboldt MageJlanic Little. Blue

Figure 2. Number of institutions holding each species, and percentage of institutions where breeding has occurred (since 1987).


1993 EEP Penguin TAG Meeting

The North American Penguin TAGrecently issued a statement that theyrecommended their collections nolonger maintain MageUanic penguins(5. magellanicus) and manage existingbirds to extinction. In Europe there areto date 43 Magellanics registered innine collections, with six of these holding less than six birds each. It wasdecided not to recommend phasingout the species as there was no evidence at this stage that the species wastaking up space designated for the twomore endangered spheniscids.

However, it was agreed that arecommendation be made that the collections keeping less than 6 birdscombine them either together or inother colonies.

Amsterdam agreed to find a coordinator for Blackfooted penguins as itwas agreed that this species shouldhave an EEP.

BandingIt was agreed that collections be

recommended to fIi pper band theirbirds, and that some work needed tobe carried out on types of band andproblems encountered (including broken plastic bands and bands becomingtoo tight during moulting). Some collections use flipper tags, as used forhoofstock.

Sexing BirdsAnother problem was the number

of unsexed birds and more workneeded to be done on methods in sexing penguins. It was decided to ask theresearch group for advice on this matter and to liaise with work beingcarried out in North America.

The U.K. TAG was also lookinginto this problem.

Remaining ( non-Spheniscid)species

It was agreed that co-ordinatorswould not be sought for the remainingspecies at present but that more information was required. This wasespecially the case with rockhoppersas the original space survey had notdistinguished between long-crested(Eudyptes crestatus moseleyO and shortcrested (Eudyptes c. crestatus).

Duncan Bolton agreed to design aquestionnaire form and this would besent to collections with the next EEPmailing from the executive office.

The questionnaire will collect infor-mation on:

Number of birdsSexesTagged with what and how suc

cessful

Breeding data each year for pastthree years

(Numbers laid/hatched/reared totwo months)

Enclosures shared with other penguin species or non-penguin species

Are enclosures indoor or outdooror both

Proportion of land to waterParent rear or hand-rear

The question of how to assess penguin space was addressed. It wasagreed that the best method was to askthe maximum number of adult birdsthat the collections could accommodate for the species and theapproximate number of pairs breeding.

Husbandry GuidelinesThese were required initially for

Humboldt and Blackfooted andshould be carried out in conjunctionwith the North Americans. Emmenand Amsterdam wiJlliaise over this.•


Captive Management Programs: North America

Humboldt Penguin SSP Report PATRICIA MCGILL

1An additional transfer of 5 eggs was recommended and completed.

2 During 1992 and prior to July 1993.

1990 1991 1992

Participating Institutions 11 10 10

Captive Population 85.86.38 90.81.74 92.92.68

# SSP animals managed 209 243 252

# SSP animals not required to 0 0 0meet goals

# animals in non-participant <10 <10 <10collections but desirable SSP

Total # of births in SSP program 56 92 42

# surviving to 30 days 39 68 28

# SSP recommended births 56 92 28

# of non-recommended births 0 0 0

# of deaths of SSP animals 26 56 33

# transfers recommended 12 81 13

# transfers completed 12 81 32

# of imports 0 0 0

# of exports 0 0 0

# of founders with represented 61 62 64descendants

The status of the Humboldtpenguin population andprogram is essentially un-

changed since last year. However,there are some significant challengesnow facing the program. The 31 December, 1992, Species Survival Plan(SSP) population was 252 penguinshoused in ten zoos and aquariums inNorth America. The first masterplanning session targeted maintenance of90% of the genetic diversity for 200years as a goal; this leads to a minimum viable population ofapproximately 200 birds. However,little emphasis was placed on discussions of these targets and theirrelevance for this species. Rather, inthe early stage of this developing SSP,the first challenge was to resolve theslow population decline and stabilizethe population. At the present time,finding space for existing and newbirds is a critical issue.

Current Population StatusThe SSP population is slowly in

creasing and appears to have reachedthe original target Minimum ViablePopulation (MVP). However, many ofthe existing individuals are older than15 years, and have not reproduced.The present captive population is thehighest ever; during the past ten yearsthe population has fluctuated between160 and 200, but since 1987 has slowlybut steadily increased.

Although there are a number ofbirds identified as surplus to theirpresent institutions, and no additionalspaces are available at presently participating institutions, there are noHumboldt penguins considered to besurplus to the SSP population.

Patricin McGill, SSP CoordinatorCurator of BirdsChicago Zoological SocietyBrookfield, lIlinois 60513USA

Demographic TrendsReproduction is occurring in the

population and many founders or potential founders are surviving. During1992,20 pairs hatched 42 young. Ofthose, 28 survived more than 30 days.Life table analysis of the studbook

population indicates a populationgrowth rate (r) of 0.007 (up from -omin 1990). The generation time is 12years and the reproductive rate pergeneration (Ro) is 1.09. The key factorsthat produce this slow population



Humboldt SSP Report

growth are an average 35% mortalityprior to 30 days age, and an age distribution with 22% of the-populationover 15 years. Breeding is possible between ages 3 and about 23, but peakproduction of young occurs between10 and 22 years. Despite a maximumrecorded lifespan of 30, very few penguins live beyond 22. Of the 33 deathsduring 1992, 20 were young of theyear, and 13 were older birds.

Population GeneticsThe genetic profile of the popula

tion remains very encouraging. Of theoriginal 226 potential founders of thepopulation, there are 79 still living,with 64 of those having living descendants. In addition, 56 of those have twoor more descendants, and improvingsurvival of young continues to increase this number. However, sixpotential founders died during 1992and four of those are unrepresented byliving descendants.

Mean kinship (MK) values currently range from 0 to 0.027; the MK forthe population is 0.0153. Although thefounder contributions do not approachparity, until now it was decided tocontinue breeding the relatively represented birds because of the unstabledemographic picture and aging population. Now, recruitment of poorlyrepresented or unrepresented founders must become a major focus.

Gene drop analysis indicated apresent retention of 81% of the founderalleles (with a potential for 93%). Theanalysis shows 98% of the wild genediversity retained at this time.

In the entire studbook of 651 birdsonly 10 individuals have inbreedingvalues greater than O.

Special ConcernsNew concerns

Two significant challenges continue to be focused upon this year:identifying adequate space for thepopulation and sexing new birds priorto their first move.

+space. There is a shortage of spacefor existing and new birds. Two significant events, coupled withimproved breeding success, have contributed strongly to this: 1) pastdecisions, by institutions which had facility and medical problems, towithdraw from the SSP; and 2) newmanagement strategies at Sea WorldSan Diego which have identified numerous surplus birds at that colony.

+identifying sexes. Because of therecognized risk following transportand the difficulty of managing propergenetic pairing in a colonial species, itis imperative that the sexes of birds canbe correctly iden tified prior to theirmoves into breeding colonies.

+Creative strategies for managinggenetically related birds in a colonialsetting need to be pursued.

Past concernsThe key concerns that had been

identified were hybridization withother Spheniscus species (now eliminated), and medical risks, primarilyavian malaria and aspergillosis. During the 1990 masterplanning workshop, a number of other concerns wereidentified:

+high post-shipment mortality. Attimes in the past, episodes of posttransfer mortality reached as high as50%. Because a number of strategieswere identified to reduce this risk,post-transfer mortality is now low.

+high post-hatching mortality.Over the entire studbook, mortalityduring the first 30 days is 35% and insome years has been as high as 45%. In1991, this dropped to a new low of26%. However, improvements stillneed to be made to reduce early mortality in parent-reared birds; a move toincreased hand-rearing was largelyresponsible for the higher survival.

+aging population, particularlyunrepresented founders. With 22% ofthe population over 15 years of age,

breeding of unrepresented foundersmust be a high priority.

+medical challenges. AI though significantly moderated, aspergillosiscontinues to be a periodic threat toboth indoor and outdoor colonies. Increased interest in the pr blem hasturned attention to improving diagnostic, treatment and prophylacticprotocols. Attention to the threat ofavian malaria has reduced that risk,but there remain periodic outbreaks.

ResearchResearch in nutrition continues to

focus on levels of supplementation, resultant levels of nutrients in the blood,and levels of key nutrients in commonly fed fish. The ConservationEndowment Fund (American Association of Zoological Parks andAquariums) awarded grants towardcontinued studies in nutrition andcomparisons with levels of nutrients inthe blood of wild penguins, and thedevelopment of titers for detectingaspergillosis.

Progress Toward GoalsProgress toward mutual goals was

slower than desired, but the followingactivity toward accomplishing our established goals took place during thepast year:

+Some recommended moves wereaccomplished. Unfortunately, becauseof decreased space available and increased surplus, we were not able torecommend as many transfers as areneeded. In addition, recommendationsfor transfers were slowed becausemany young birds still remain unsexed.

+Working with the Penguin TaxonAdvisory Group (TAG) has heightened the awareness of managers ofpenguin collections of the need foradditional space for the Humboldtpenguin SSP. During 1993 the TAGdistributed a recommendation that


breeding Magellanic penguins inNorth American collections be halted,and that consideration be given togradually switching to Humboldtrather than Magellanic penguinswhere feasible.

+Recognition should be extendedto aU the participating institutions whoworked hard to improve the stabilityof the population and to continue tohouse birds in dense colonies while we

work toward increasing numbers ofspaces available.

Short-term Goals for UpcomingYear

1. Identify at least 3 to 5 new institutions to join the SSP in order toprovide spaces for up to 50 penguins;develop a small subcommittee withinthe propagation group to work with

potential new institutions to understand and meet husbandry guidelines.

2. Accomplish sexing of all youngbirds by the time they are 6 to 12months of age; determine sexes of allpresently unsexed penguins.

3. To the extent that space permits,breed unrepresented founders as soonas possible.

4. Continue to accomplish transfersas possible to optimize management ofall existing colonies.•

Humboldt Penguin Studbook for North America, 1993 UpdateGAIL PERKINS

T he 1992 North American Regional Studbook for theHumboldt Penguin con-

tains 252 (92.92.68) living specimens.This is a net increase of seven birdsover the 1991 total of 245 (90.81.74).These birds are maintained in 10 SSPmember institutions.

DeathsThe deaths of 13 (7.3.3) established

birds (birds ~ 1 year old at death) arerecorded in this edition. Five (4.1) ofthese birds were founders, of which 2(2.0) are survived by a total of 8 (2.2.4)living offspring.

HatchesIn 1992, per SSP recommendation,

breeding was reduced in the NorthAmerican captive Humboldt penguin

Gail Perkins, Studbook KeeperChicago Zoological SocietyBrOOkfield, Illinois 60513USA

population due to limited space available for housing. This edition of thestudbook records 42 hatches; 28(66.6%) of these chicks survived ~ 30days. [In 1991,92 hatches were recorded, with 69 (75%) chicks surviving~ 30 days.]

Chick SurvivalOffspring age at death in 1992

ranged from 1-25 days with a mean ofseven days. Thirteen of the 14 chicksthat survived <30 days, died withinthe first 14 days (92.8%); of these, ninedied within the first seven days(69.2%). Peak hatch months in 1992were April (18) and March (8); all othermonths had four or fewer hatches(most had only two or none).

Twenty pairs of Humboldt penguins hatched chicks in 1992. Fourteenof the pairs have parent-raised 16 outof 29 young (55%) to fledging (90days). In five of these successful pairs,both members of the pair werefounders; and in an additional three of

the successful pairs at least one member of the pair was a founder. Thirteenchicks were hand-reared, of whicheleven survived to fledging (84.6%).Three of these chicks are offspring offounder pairs and five chicks are offspring of pairs containing at least onefounder.

TranslocationsThree translocations of Humboldt

penguins involving two institutions(Metro Washington Park Zoo and St.Louis Zoological Park) occurred in1992.•


African Penguin Studbook, 1993 Update

FREDERICK B.C. BEALL

The 1992 North American RegionalStudbook for the African Penguin(Spheniscus demersus) contains historical information on 1,678 specimens.The living population as of 31 December 1992 was 590 (156.170.264). Thisrepresents a net gain of 51 specimens,or9.5% increase over the 31 December1991 population.

Deaths numbered 101 specimens.Forty-three, or 42.5%, of deaths were ofindividuals greater than one year old.One of the twelve imported birds(#1522) was lost within three monthsof arrival.

First year mortalities number 58, or57.5%, of all 1992 deaths. Chick mortalities that occurred between hatchand three months of age numbered 52.This represented 89.6% of first yearmortality. Forty-two, or 72.4%, of allchick mortalities occurred within thefirst two weeks of life. This is a 21.5%increase for this age class when compared to the same age class for 1991.

Seventy (15.13.42) transfers occurred both nationally andintemationaJly. There were twelve registered imports from a single facility inSouth Africa.All twelve were F] captivehatches from rehabilitated wild stock.Four 1992 hatched birds were exportedto Korea.

Egg production was realized in 29of the 41 holding institutions. A total of133 pairs produced 473 eggs. Sixty-sixpairs were successful at hatching oneor more offspring. The number ofknown fertile eggs was 209, resultingin a 44.1% fertility rate for all eggs produced. Of the eggs that were fertile,144, or 68.8%, hatched.

One hundred sixty-eight, or 35.5%,of aJl eggs were determined to be infertile. An additional 96, or 20.2%, were ofunknown fertility. t

Frederick B.c. BeallBurnet Park ZooSyracuse, NY 13204-2504USA

16

1990 1991 1992

LIVING 1 JANUARY 454 498 539

Number of Imports 0 0 12

Number of Exports 0 26 4

Number of Hatches 122 144 144

Number of Deaths 78 77 101

LIVING 31 DECEMBER 498 539 590

Penguin Conservation October 1993

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