PEKA Chemistry

Sekolah Tuanku Abdul Rahman,Ipoh

PEKA Chemistry

Topic 9:Manufactured Subtances In Industry

Nama:Muhamad Irfan bin Razuki Class :4 science A No IC :941215-01-5897

Acknowledgement

First and foremost,I,Muhamad Irfan bin Razuki from 4scA would like to thank the God for giving me blessings to complete this folio just in time.Even I faced a lot of difficulties when doing this project,I managed to overcome it by the God’s blessing .

Besides that, thanks to my chemistry teacher Madam Yip Yin Leng for being such a good guider while doing this project.She had given us appropriate information about this project in order to make us understand more about this project.

Also a great thanks to my friends and family members especially my father and mother who tried their best to give their support for me, either by giving me a lot of encouragement while doing this project or helping me to gather the data required for the project.I hope all of you enjoy reading my masterpiece that make me does not sleep for two days.

Thank you

Objective

Assalamualaikum,

First of all,thiswonderful masterpiece is dedicated for the student to understand more about this topic,Manufactured Subtances In Industry.Besides that,this folio is one of the easy ways to memorize science fact because it contains mind map and attractive picture for the student view.Thus,this will make the folio less boring than the usual ones.

Student also can find additional facts about this topic based from the given references at the end of the folio.Besides giving the student extra knowledge about this topic,this masterpiece also increase the understanding of the topic and make the student easier to score in examination especially SPM.

Topic 9:Manufactured Subtances in

Industry

3.1:Sulphuric AcidManufacture of sulphuric acid

Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid.

Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :- sulphur air water.

Contact process consists of 3 stages:

~ Production of sulphur dioxide ~ Conversion of sulphur dioxide is sulphur trioxide. ~ Production of sulphuric acid

Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide

(a)Sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

(b)Burning of metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide and lead sulphide also produces sulphur dioxide. 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2ZnO(s) 2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2PbO(s)

(c)The sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air.The mixture is dried and purified to remove impurities such as arsenic compounds.

(d)Arsenic compounds found in sulphur will poison the catalyst in the converter, making the catalyst ineffective.

Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide

(a)The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is passed through a converter.The sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

(b)Optimum conditions used are as follows. (i) Temperature : 450°C (ii) Pressure : 1 atmosphere (iii) Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide,V2O5

(c)About 97% conversion occurs under these optimum conditions.

Stage III : Production of sulphuric acid

(a) The sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7

SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(l)

(b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid.This is because reaction between sulphur trioxide and water is very vigorous and produces a large amount of heat.The reaction causes the production of a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist.The mist is corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.

(c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid of about 98%.

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Flow chart of Contact process.

burns in air

O2V2O5,450°C, 1 atm

concentrated H2SO4

water

water

Figure 1 : The manufacture of sulphuric acid through the Contact process

Figure above shows three step in the manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Sulphur

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Oleum,H2S2O7

Properties of sulphuric acid

Molecular formula H2O4SMolar mass 98.08 g mol−1

Appearance Clear, colorless, odorless liquidDensity 1.84 g/cm3, liquid

Melting point10 °C, 283 K, 50 °F

Boiling point337 °C, 610 K, 639 °F

Solubility in water miscibleAcidity (pKa) −39(very strong)Viscosity 26.7 cP (20 °C)

Uses of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is used as:

to manufacture fertilisers

to manufacture paint pigment

to manufacture detergents

to manufacture synthetic fibre

to clean metals

to manufacture plastics

as an electrolyte in car batteries

to manufacture other chemicals

There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are: a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

b) Ammonium sulphate

c) Potassium sulphate

Other Uses

1) To manufacture paint pigmentsThe white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The neutralization of sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.

2) To manufacture detergentsSulphuric acid reacts with by-products of oil refining to form sulphonic acid.Neutralising the sulphonic acid with an alkali produces detergents.

3) To manufacture synthetic fibresSynthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a fibre that is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid eith cellulose threads soaked in

alkaline solution.

4) Cleaning metalsBefore electroplating,sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove the surface oxides.

5) Other chemicalsSulphuric acid is used as other chemicals like pharmaceuticals,insectides, tartaric acid and explosive.

2 H2SO4(aq) + Ca3(PO4) 2(s) → Ca(H2 PO4) 2 (aq)+ 2CaSO4 (s)

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate → calcium hydrogen phosphate

H2SO4(aq) +2NH3(aq) → (NH4) 2SO4(aq)

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia → ammonium sulphate

H2SO4(aq) +2KOH (aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide solution→ Potassium sulphate

H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

sulphuric acid + barium hydroxide solution→ Barium sulphate + water

6) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:

As a strong acid As a drying or dehydrating agent As an oxidizing agent As a sulphonating agent As a catalyst

Manufacture of car batteries Manufacture of detergents Manufacture of fertilisers

Manufacture of paints Manufacture of plastic items Manufacture of pesticides

The environmental pollution by the by-product of sulphuric acid

1) Sulphur dioxide is released through:-

(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process(b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores(c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content

2) Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid,sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the rain.

These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0

3) Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems.(a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed

SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3(aq) (b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid 2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Ways to control and reduce the effects of acid rain:

Use low-sulphur fuels Add calcium oxide(lime), CaO; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2 and powdered llimestone CaCO3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present

CaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) +H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(l) CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

3.2:Ammonia

Physical and chemicak properties of ammonia

Physical properties Colourless gas Pungent smell Alkaline gas Very soluble in water Less denser than air

Chemical reaction of ammonia:(a) Reacting as a base

Ammonia ionises partially in water and therefore is a weak base. NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)

Ammonia undergoes neutralisation with acids to form ammonium salts. Ammonia + acid ammonium salt

(b) Reacting with aqueous metal ionsAmmonia solution can precipitate some metal hydroxides from their aqueous salt solutions.The metal ions combine with the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia to produce insoluble metal hydroxides : Mn (aq) + nOH (aq) M(OH)n(s)

Uses of ammonia

To make fertilisers- provide plants the nitrogen they need to grow- these fertilisers are ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of

ammonia with different acids. Examples:(a) Ammonium phosphate

- reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphates NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) NH4H2PO4(aq)2 NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) (NH4)2HPO4(aq)- good fertilisers because they provide two important nutrients,phosphorus and

nitrogen.

(b) Ammonium nitrate- ammonia is neutralised by nitric acid,ammonium nitrate is formed

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)

(c) Ammonium sulphate- ammonia is neutralised by sulphuric acid 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

(d) Urea- At a temperature of 200°C and a high pressure of 200 atm, ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to produce urea. 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(l)

- used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwad process.

- Liquid ammonia used as cooling agent- used as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex

Ammonia salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted

Preparation of ammonia

The chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by the Haber-Bosch process, which involves the direct reaction of elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen.N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 This reaction requires the use of a catalyst, high pressure (100–1,000 atmospheres), and elevated temperature (400–550 °C [750–1020 °F]). Actually, the equilibrium between the elements and ammonia favours the formation of ammonia at low temperature, but high temperature is required to achieve a satisfactory rate of ammonia formation. Several different catalysts can be utilized. Normally the catalyst is iron containing iron oxide. However, both magnesium oxide on aluminum oxide that has been activated by alkali metal oxides and ruthenium on carbon have been employed as catalysts. In the laboratory, ammonia is best synthesized by the hydrolysis of a metal nitride.Mg3N2 + 6H2O → 2NH3 + 3Mg(OH)2

Manufacture of ammonia in industry Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.

Raw materials for the Haber process are (i)hydrogen (ii)nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.

Hydrogen gas is obtained by: (i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam CH4(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H2(g) + CO2(g) (ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam C(s) + H2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)

The manufacture of ammonia,NH 3 through the Haber Process.

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2.

The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450°C

The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is produced.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The

high pressure and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction.

The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield.

The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen are converted into ammonia.

Ammonium fertilisers

Plants need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium to grow.

Nitrogen-make proteins in stalks and leaves

Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO3-

Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ions.In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted to nitrate ions by bacteria

Examples of ammonium fertilisers:

Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4

Urea,CO(NH2)2

Fertilisers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective.

Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and acids.

3.3:Alloys

What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major component is a metal.

Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidised.This is the reason why monuments or statues are made of bronze(an alloy) and not copper(a pure metal).

Alloy are stronger,harder,resistant to corrosion,have a better finish and lustrous.

Why make alloys?

The aim of making alloy is:(a) to increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal(b) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal(c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

Figure 5 : Making alloy

Composition, properties and uses of alloys

Alloy Composition Properties UsesBronze 90% copper,

10% tinHard,strong,does not corrode easily,shiny surface

Medals,statues,monuments,art objects

Brass 70% copper30% zinc

Harder than copper Musical instruments,kitchenware, door knobs,bullet cases,electric parts,ornaments

Cupro-nickel 75% copper25% nickel

Beautifulsurface,shiny,hard,does not corrode easily

Coins

Steel 99% iron1% carbon

Hard,strong Buildings,bridges,body of cars, railway tracks

Stainless steel 74% iron,8% carbon18%chronium

Shiny,strong,does not rust Cutlery,surgical instruments,sinks,pipes

Duralumin 93%aluminium3% copper3%magnesium1%manganese

Light,strong Body of aircraft and bullet trains

Pewter 96% tin3% copper1% antimony

Shiny, strong,does not corrode

Art objects,souvenirs

9-carat gold 37.5% gold11% silver51.5 % copper

Shiny, strong,does not corrode

Jewellery

Comparison of the properties of alloys and their pure metal

Pure metal Alloys

SoftAtom enables the layers of atomto slide each other easily

HardHarder for the atom to slide to each other because atom in a fixed position through the process of making alloys

MalleableWhen metal is pressed,the atom moves to empty spaces

Less malleableNo empty spaces an atom is in stable fixed position

Examples of alloys

916 Gold-to make jewellary become more harder Magnalium-make the body of airplanes harder than pure aluminium Stainless steel kitchenwares-make the kitchenwares resist rusting Pewter-make shiny object

Bronze axe

3.4:Synthetic Polymers

What are polymers?

Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating sub-units called monomers.

Polymerisation is a process by which the monomers are joined together into chain-like molecule called polymer.

Formation of polymer Polymers can be divided into 2 types.

Natural PolymersNATURAL POLYMER MONOMER

Rubber Isoprene

Polymers

Natural PolymersExist in living things in natureEx:Protein,cellulose,wool,silk, starch,natural rubber & DNA

Synthetic PolymersThey are man-made in laboratory through chemical processes.Ex: Plastics, nylon

Cellulose GlucoseStarch GlucoseProtein Amino acid

Fat Fatty acid and glycerolNucleic acid Nucleotides

Examples of natural polymers and their monomers

Synthetic Polymer

Synthetic polymers are prepared through 2 types of polymerisation processes: (a)Addition polymerisation (b)Condensation polymerisation

Addition polymerisation- involves monomers with double bonds between the carbon atoms.- During addition polymerisation, the double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms

break and the carbon atoms pf adjacent ethene molecules join together to form a molecule of poly or polythene.

Condensation polymerisation- involves the joining up of monomers with the formation of other smaller and

simple molecules.

Plastics

Plastics are the largest group of synthethic polymers with the following properties: (a)Can be easily moulded (b)Low density (c)Strong (d)Inert to chemicals (e)Insulator of heat and electricity (f)Can be colouName of polymer Equation for

polymerisationProperties Uses

Polyethylene(polythene)

H H H H n C=C C–C H H H H n Ethene Polythene

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily melted,insulator

Shopping bags,Plastic cups and plates,toys

Polypropylene(polypropene)

H CH3 H CH3

n C=C C–C H H H H nPropene Polypropene

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily melted,insulator,can be moulded and coloured

Bottles,furniture,battery casing, pipes,toys

Teflon F F F F n C=C C–C F F F F nTetrafluo- Teflonroethene

Durable,non-stick,Chemically inert,strong,impermeable

Coating for non-stick pans, electrical insulators

Synthetic fibre

Synthetic fibre are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have high strength.

Polynamides and polyester are two groups of synthetic polymers used as fibres for making tekstil.

Example of polynamide polymers is nylon. Example of polyester polymers is terylene. Nylon and terylene are produced through condensation polymerisation.

The effect of the uses of synthetic polymers to our environment Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable,thus their waste will block or clog up

the drainage system,thereby causing flash flood. Waste plastics pollute the lake and river,making the water not suitable for aquatic

organisms to live in

Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers(a) Reuse(b) Recycle(c) Use biodegradable synthetic polymer(d) Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner.

TYPE OF POLYMER USEPolythene a) Make buckets

b) Make plastic bagsc) Make raincoatsd) Make filmse) Make rubbish bins

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) a) Make water pipesb) Make electric cablesc) Make matsd) Make vinyl recordse) Make clothes hangers

Polypropene a) Make ropesb) Make bottlesc) Make chairsd) Make drink canse) Make carpets

Perspex a) Make car windowsb) Make plane windowsc) Make spectacle lenses (optical instruments)

Nylon a) Make ropesb) Make curtainsc) Make stockingsd) Make clothes

Polystyrene a) Make packing boxesb) Make buttonsc) Make noticeboards

Terylene a) Make textile items such as clothes and cloths

3.5:Glass and Ceramics

Glass

The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO2 which can be found in sand.

Glass can made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to a temperature above 1500°C.

Figure 6 : Structure of silicon dioxide

Physical properties Heat insulator Electric insulator Transparent(colourless) Hard but brittle Chemically inert Insoluble in water

The composition,properties and uses

Type of glass Composition Properties UsesFused glass Silicon dioxide High melting

point High

temperature and chemical durability

Resistant to thermal shock

transparent to ultraviolet and infrared light

Laboratory glassware

Arc tubes in lamps

Lenses Telescope

mirrors Optical fibres

Soda-lime glass silicon dioxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide

Low melting point

High thermal expansion coefficient

Does not withstand heat

Cracks easily with sudden change in temperature

Good chemical durability

Easy to mould and shape

Transparent to visible light

Containers such as bottles,jars.

Flat glass Windowpanes Mirrors Light bulbs Industrial and art

objects.

Borosilicate glass Silicon dioxide Boron oxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide

Transparent to visible light

resistant to chemicals

Lower thermal expansion coefficient

Resistant to thermal shock

Can withstand wide range of temperature changes

Cookware Laboratory

glassware Automobile

headlights glass pipelines Electrical tubes

Lead crystal glass Silicon dioxide Lead(II) oxide Sodium oxide

Soft,easy to melt Transparent to

visible light High density High reactive

index

Tableware Art objects Crystals Prisms Lenses

Ceramics

Ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin.Kaolin is rich in kaolinite(hydrated aluminosilicate,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)

Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.

Physical properties-good insululator of heat-chemically inert-strong but brittle-resist compression-very high melting point

Property Uses ExamplesHard and strong Building materials Tiles,bricks,roofs,cement,

abrasive for grindingAttractive,easily moulded and glazed

Decorative pieces and household items

Vases,porcelain ware,sinks, bathtubs

Chemically inert and non-corrosive

Kitchenware Cooking pots,plates,bowls

Very high melting point and good insulator of heat

Insulation Lining of furnace, engine parts

Electrical insulators Insulating parts in electrical appliances

Spark plugs,insulators in ovens and electrical cables

Inert and non-compressible Medical and dental apparatus

Artificial teeth and bones

Composition,properties and uses of ceramic

Ceramic is made from clay that is dried. The main constituent of clay is aluminate,silica, and feldspar. Kaolinate is one of the example of high quality of clay

Types of ceramic Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making

crucibles Whitewares, including tableware, wall tiles, pottery products, and sanitary

ware Technical, is also known as Engineering, Advanced, Special, and in Japan,

Fine Ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, bio-medical implants, jet engine turbine blades, and missile nose cones

3.6:Composite Material

What is composite material?

A composite material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different materials such as metals,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.

Has different properties far superior to the original material Composite material and its uses

Reinforced concrete

Made from a mixture of sand and smallstone bound by cement

Reinforced concrete is formed when concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steel rods.

Essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings,bridges and oil platforms.

Has a greater strength than ordinary concrete and has higher resistance to impact.

Superconductors

capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to an extremely low temperature.

most of them are alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides such as copper(11) oxide,Brium oxide,yttrium oxide that can attain superconductive at 90K

Superconductors also used in :(a) magnetic energy-storage system(b) magnetically levitated train(c) generators(d) transformers(e) computer parts(f) very sensitive devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltage or current.

Fibre Optic

consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding.

The glass tube has very small diameter

used to replace copper wire in long distance telephones lines,in mobile phones,video cameras and to link computers within local area networks.

used in instruments for examining internal parts of the body or inspecting the interior of manufactured structural products.

In medicine,optic fbre is use to channel the laser beam

Optic fibre also can be used in endoscope,an instrument that are inserted into the body trought the nose

Picture of fibre optic:-

Fibre glass

produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass fibre reinforced plastics.

has high tensile strength,can be easily coloured,moulded and shaped,inert to chemicals and is low in density.

Material for making water storage tank,boat hull,swimming pool lining and other

Photochromic glass

In photocromic glass,silver chloride or silver bromide and a little copper chloride is embedded into the surface of the glass

changes from transparent to coloured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, and reverts to transparency when the light is dimmed or blocked.

can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like fine silver chloride.

photochromic glass helps to:

(a) protect our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays and glare from the sun(b) control the amount of light that passes through it automatically(c) reduce refraction of light

Conclusion

Sulphuric AcidManufactured by Contact processTemperature:450°CPressure: 1 atmCatalyst : V2O5

Uses:To make fertilizers,detergents,electrolyte, and synthetic fibre

AmmoniaManufactured by Haber processTemperature:450°CPressure: 200 atmCatalyst : FeUses:To make fertilizers,nitric acid,cooling agent, explosives

Manufactured Substances in Industry

GlassMade from sand,SiO2

Types & uses:Fused glass:LensesSoda-lime glass:mirrorBorosilicate glass:BeakerLead crystal glass: Glass crystals

Composite materialsMade by combining two or more materials.Examples:Reinforce concreteSuperconductorsFibre opticFibreglassPhotochromic glass

AlloysMade from metal and other elements.Examples and composition:Bronze:Copper & tinBrass:Copper & zincSteel:Iron & carbonPewter:Tin,Copper & AntimonyStainless Steel: Iron,carbon & chronium

CeramicMade from clay,kaolinite,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2OProperties and uses:Hard & strong:Tiles,

bricksAttractive:vases,

sinksNon-corrosive:

KitchenwareHigh melting point: FurnaceInert: Medical & dental apparatus

Synthetic PolymerManufactured by polymerization.Examples and uses: Polyethylene:Shopping

bags Polyvinyl chloride:Pipes polystyrene:Packaging

materials Perspex:Lenses Nylon:Ropes,textile

References

Book

Tan Yin Ton,Loh Wai Leng,Tan On Tin,2009,SUCCESS Chemistry SPM,Oxford Fajar Sdn.Bhd.,(page 263-page 288)

Wan Noor Afifah Wan Yusof,2010,Chemistry Teaching & Learning Form 4,NILAM Publication

Internet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphuric-acid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositematerial

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php