Peace Studies ‘State Security’ and ‘Human Security’ in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies Mandy Turner Department of Peace Studies University of Bradford
Dec 14, 2015
Peace Studies
‘State Security’ and ‘HumanSecurity’ in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies
Mandy Turner
Department of Peace Studies
University of Bradford
Peace Studies
Problematising ‘security’
• Not a neutral concept: ‘security’ for whom?
• Focus on struggles for statehood/recognition: Kosovo, Timor-Leste (East Timor), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Palestine.
• Widening of concept of ‘security’ out from merely ‘state security’ to include ‘human security’.
Peace Studies
Problematising ‘security’
• State building process split into 3 phases:– Period of non-recognition/armed struggle– Process of recognition/peace process.– Initial period of recognition/peacebuilding
Each phase faces different security challenges. We need to ask the same question in all 3 phases: security for whom?
Peace Studies
Period of non-recognition/armed struggle
• Tension between right to self-determination enshrined in Article 1 of UN Charter & right to state sovereignty enshrined in Article 2 of UN Charter (prohibits challenges to the ‘territorial integrity’ or ‘domestic jurisdiction’ of sovereign states.
• Struggle for recognition challenges state sovereignty of the occupier/central state.
Peace Studies
Period of non-recognition/armed struggle
• ‘Security’ in this phase = security of the occupier/central state.
• ‘Human security’ of unrecognised people threatened by occupier/central state, particularly in phase of struggle if O/CT uses military force and refuses to negotiate.
Peace Studies
Period of non-recognition/armed struggle
• Security of unrecognised people in this period dependent upon a peace process and UN (or regional security organisation e.g. NATO) peacekeeping force.
• Direct appeals to UN and other security organisations common method:
– Arafat speech at UN 1974; – Kosovo Liberation Army/NATO.
Peace Studies
Period of non-recognition/armed struggle• Veto power of 5 Permanent Members of UN
Security Council (US, UK, France, Russia & China). Security interests of Great Powers centre stage.
• ‘Right’ to self-determination not a ‘right’ but dependent on other key factors:– Support of a powerful patron.– Does not challenge political/strategic interests of
one of the P5. UN powerless if it does.
Peace Studies
Security in the period of recognition• Coherent and legitimate peace process with
involvement of all parties:– Problem of ‘spoilers’ i.e. parties who seek to
undermine it:• Actors ‘inside’ the peace process?• Actors ‘outside’ the peace process?
– International actors (‘custodians of the peace’) need to ensure security of weaker party and balance asymmetry.
Peace Studies
Security in the period of recognition • Bosnia-Herzegovina
– Dayton Peace Accords/UN SC Resolution 1035 (1995)
– Withdrawal of Serbian forces ensured by UNPROFOR (replaced by NATO, then EU forces).
– UNMIBH and Office of High Representative (international supervision).
Peace Studies
Security in the period of recognition • Kosovo
– No UN SC mandate, NATO intervention– UN SC Resolution 1244 (1999)– Serbian forces withdrawal ensured by KFOR
(NATO)– UNMIK (transitional administration).
Peace Studies
Security in the period of recognition • Timor-Leste
– 1999 vote for independence– UN SC Resolution 1264 (1999)– INTERFET (Australian-led)– UNTAET (transitional administration)
Peace Studies
Security in the period of recognition • Palestine
– Oslo Peace Accords (1993); Oslo II (1995)– Israeli withdrawal not overseen by a UN or
regional security force– Creation of Palestinian Authority (interim self-
rule).– Oslo about ensuring ‘security’ for Israel?
Peace Studies
Security in ‘post’-conflict period‘Freedom from fear’• Demilitarisation of society
– Nascent state needs monopoly over legitimate use of force.
– Pacify other sources of physical force, e.g. militias and freedom fighters.
– DDR and security sector reform.
• Development of ‘rule of law’
Peace Studies
Security in ‘post’-conflict periodFreedom from want• Post-conflict reconstruction
– Humanitarian assistance & IDP resettlement– Infrastructure repaired/built
• Development and state-building– Stimulating the economy & creating jobs– Building state institutions, civil society and political
participation.
Peace Studies
Comparison of case studies: Bosnia• State security:
– borders & independence assured by internationals. – Bonn Powers: OHR.
• Human security: – freedom from fear: Demilitarisation, SSR. ICTFY. EU ‘Stability
Pact’. Problems: organised crime, Republika Srpska, reform fragmented. Ethnic nationalism strong.
– Freedom from want: huge PCR programme; development problematic - high unemployment, low economic growth; state-building - still divided into 2: FBiH/ RS; still under international supervision.
Peace Studies
Comparison of case studies: Kosovo• State security:
– borders & independence ensured by NATO. – Feb 2008 Declaration of independence. Recognised by 3 out of
5 P5; problem of Serbia.
• Human security: • freedom from fear: establishing military, ICTFY, EU Rule of Law
Mission, EU Stability Pact. Problems: organised crime, North Kosovo (Serb). Ethnic divisions widened.
• freedom from want: one of poorest countries in Europe, 40-50% unemployment despite huge international aid. State-building: weak institutional capacity.
Peace Studies
Comparison of case studies: Timor-Leste• State security
– Borders and independence: INTERFET now UNMIT.– Independence May 2002. Attempted assassination of Pres. Ramos
Horta, Feb 2008.
• Human Security– Freedom from fear: SSR & justice weak: April 2006 riots; tension
between UN and TL police.– Freedom from want: Initial large sums of money but continuing
prob of poverty & unemployment. State-building: corruption & poor financial transparency. Too rapid withdrawal of international assistance?
Peace Studies
Comparison of case studies: Palestine• State security
– Borders and independence: left out of Oslo. Areas A, B and C. PA a quasi-state: no sovereignty.
– Oslo forbids national army; IDF dominant.
• Human security– Freedom from fear: SSR. Probs: militia rivalry, IDF.– Freedom from want: huge international aid flows, but
poverty and unemployment: closure system. State-building: governance reforms after 2002. Problems: PA split; ban on Hamas.
Peace Studies
Timor-Leste: sound familiar?
• Annexed by Indonesia in 1975 after Portuguese decolonisation.
• Cold War dynamics - resolution impossible: US support for Indonesia.
• 24 year armed struggle. 1 umbrella organisation: CNRT; dominated by one party: Fretilin.
• End of Cold War: end of US support for Indonesia.• 1999 vote for independence. Violence from Indonesian
troops and pro-Indonesia militias.
Peace Studies
Timor-Leste: sound familiar?
• 1999. 70% of infrastructure destroyed by Indonesian forces and militias. 300,000 displaced.
• Challenge = rebuild infrastructure, strengthen administration and create jobs.
• Reform of justice sector and institution building key focus of international involvement.
• Need to address the ‘youth crisis’.
• Agriculture dominates economy, undeveloped private sector, govt spending main source of economic growth.
Peace Studies
The differences...
• Palestine not post-conflict. Palestine economy under occupation: fragmentation of territory. Demise of 2-state solution? Aid money flowing into bottomless pit.
• Le More ‘killing with kindness’. “The US decides, the World Bank leads, the EU pays, the UN feeds.”
• Difference: Timor-Leste: oil and gas wealth. How to utilise. Security issues are internal – no powerful domineering neighbour. Israel: the ‘elephant in the corner’.
Peace Studies
Israel’s ‘security’ = Palestine’s insecurity
• Strong ‘security’ discourse for actions: – military spending is the second highest in the
world at US$1737 per capita in 2008.– ‘revolving door’ between IDF and politics.• Human security: cost of occupation
financial/social?• State security: protection of borders, territory
and Jewish character of state.
Peace Studies
Israel’s ‘security’ = Palestine’s insecurity • Actions in West Bank – a ‘resource conflict’ -
land and water grab.• Settlements = illegal extra-territorial
communities. How to remove??• De facto implementation of Allon Plan?• Gaza: destroy Hamas, divide Palestinian national
movement, make Gaza Egyptian problem.• Security of ‘Eretz Israel’.
Peace Studies
Palestine’s insecurity = Israel’s ‘security’
• Preserving Jewish character of state?– Demographic challenges: 20% of Israeli
population = Palestinians. Lieberman: expulsion.– Right of return for Jews but not Palestinian
refugees.– Demise of 2-state solution? Belligerent
occupation over West Bank and Gaza: Palestinians and Israeli populations @ equal.
Peace Studies
Common problems in ‘post’-conflict societies
• Destroyed infrastructure. Return of displaced peoples.
• Weak & ‘war’ economies. Problem of (re)building private sector. Unemployment.
• State-building, problems of capacity, corruption, democratisation.
• Militias: demobilise?; SSR. Rule of law