Pax Romana: Contributions to Society
Pax Romana:
Contributions to Society
Art and Architecture
1. What are the two most significant buildings erected during
the Pax Romana?
2. The Pantheon was…
3. The Colosseum was…
4. Romans were the first to use ______________ in their
buildings
5. What is Greco-Roman civilization?
6. One of the greatest achievements of Roman architecture
was____________ ceilings.
7. What was the purpose of the Roman forum?
8. Give two of the most important facts you learned about Roman
schooling:
1.
2.
Writing and Theater
1. The language spoken in Rome was _____________. This language
is significant because….
2. Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either
_____________ or _______________ literature.
3. Give two major writers at the time and explain their
contributions to literature/learning:
1.
2.
4. All actors in Roman plays were
______________________________.
5. List two things you learned about Roman theater:
Sport and Leisure
1. What is the Circus Maximus and what took place there?
2. What is chariot racing?
3. What are gladiators, and who are they, usually?
4. How did Beastiarii impact Rome’s economy?
5. Why were emperors willing to pay for the games?
6. What is bread and circuses? Why was this a problem for
Rome?
7. What are two other things Romans would do in their free
time?
1.
2.
8. What in a Roman feast would you be willing to try?
Government and Society
1. The government was run by an _________________, who had total
_________________.
2. The government’s main responsibilities were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. What did the Romans do to run the empire more
efficiently?
4. How did emperors unify Rome?
5. Name two bad emperors and why they were ineffective:
6. Name two good emperors and why they were effective:
Roman Law
1. Roman law has shaped ___________________________________
today.
2. Roman laws were intended to be ____________ and
_______________.
3. What is the difference between civil laws and jus
gentium?
4. Why did Rome need to change from strictly jus civile to also
jus gentium?
5. What are some Roman laws that are similar to ours today?
6. What do the laws in the 12 tables reflect about Roman life?
Give an example.
Science and Engineering
1. What are three subjects that scientists were interested in
studying?
1.
2.
3.
2. What are aqueducts? What is their purpose?
3. How did aqueducts change life in ancient Rome?
4. What are public baths? What is their purpose?
5. What was the original function of the Roman roads?
6. “All _______________ lead to _______________.” The road
system of the ancient Romans was
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. How many miles of paved road were radiating from the center
of the forum?
8. What type of science did Romans tend to pursue?
Station 1
Art and Architecture
In its early days, Rome absorbed ideas from Greek colonists in
southern Italy, and it continued to borrow heavily from Greek
culture after Rome conquered Greece. Over time, Romans adapted and
transformed Greek and Hellenistic achievements just as the Greeks
had once absorbed and blended ideas and beliefs from Egypt and the
Fertile Crescent. The mixing of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman
traditions produced what is known as Greco-Roman civilization.
Roman buildings combine both Greek and Roman elements and ideas.
Roman builders used Greek columns. However, immense palaces,
temples, stadiums, and victory arches stood as mighty monuments to
roman power and dignity. The Romans improved on devices such as the
dome and the arch. One of the most amazing features of Roman
architecture was the vaulted ceiling.
Two of Rome’s most famous buildings erected during the Pax
Romana were the Pantheon and the Colosseum. The Pantheon is Rome’s
most famous domed structure and is a magnificent temple to all
Rome’s gods. The Colosseum was built of concrete and faced with
stones. Romans were the first to use concrete, and by only covering
the outside of the Colosseum with stones it was much cheaper and
easier to build. The Colosseum was used for gladiator fights, mock
naval battles, and other sporting events. The Colosseum could hold
about 50,000 spectators. Most of our modern stadiums are built
along the same format. The Romans designed the Colosseum so
precisely that it could be filled in 15 minutes and evacuated in
5!
The Roman Forum
The forum was the main marketplace and business center, where
ancient Romans went to do their banking, trading, shopping, and
marketing. It was also a place for public speaking. The ancient
Romans aspired to be great orators. The job of their orators was
not to argue, but to speak persuasively. The Forum was also used
for festivals and religious ceremonies. It was a very busy
place.
Roman Schools
The Goal of education in ancient Rome was to be an effective
speaker. The school day began before sunrise, as did all work in
Rome. Kids brought candles to use until daybreak. The school year
began each year on March 24th. Children were first home-schooled in
law, history, customs, reading, and writing by their father. Girls
were taught by their mother to spin, weave, and sew. At the age of
6 or 7, all boys and some girls went to school to learn reading,
writing, and counting. Later they went to grammar school, where
they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and literature. School was not
free, so most poor children (most of the population) could not
attend.
Station 2
Writing and Theater
The language spoken in Rome was Latin. It is a significant
language because it is the basis for all the romance languages.
Romance languages include French, Spanish, Italian, and Greek.
In literature, educated Romans admired the Greeks. Many spoke
Greek and imitated Greek styles in prose and poetry. Still, the
greatest Roman writers used Latin to create their own
literature.
Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either fictional
or historical literature. An example of fictional literature from
the time is Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid. Virgil tried to show
that Rome’s past was as heroic as that of Greece. Roman historians
pursued their own theme: the rise and fall of roman power. The
historian Livy sought to rouse patriotic feelings and restore
traditional roman virtues to society by recalling images of Rome’s
glorious past as a republic. In his story of Rome, Livy recounted
the tales of great heroes such as Cincinnatus.
Theaters
In Ancient Rome, plays were presented at the time of the games
on contemporary wooden stages. The first such permanent Roman
theater was ordered to be built by Pompey in 55 BC, eventually
erected on the Campus Martius at Rome. Built of stone, it had
a seating capacity of 27,000. Essentially patterned after the
Greek theater, it differed in the respect that it was built on
level ground.
Excavated out of the sides of hills, the circular space located
in front of the stage in a Greek theater was called the orchestra,
where choruses and actors performed. Since Roman plays
usually lacked a true chorus, the area in front of the stage which
might have been an orchestra simply became a semicircular area.
All actors in Roman plays were male slaves. Men played
the parts of women. The typical stock characters included the
rich man, the king, the soldier, the slave, the young man, and the
young woman. If necessary, an actor would play two or more
roles in a single performance.
The most notable part of an actor's regalia was probably his
mask. While different masks and wigs were used for comedies
than tragedies, certain characteristics remained constant.
All masks had both cheek supports and special chambers which acted
as amplifiers. Gray wigs represented old men, black for young
men, and red for slaves. Young men donned brightly colored
clothing, while old men wore white. In this manner the
characters could be easily identified by the audience.
Admission to the Roman plays was free for citizens.
Originally, women were barred from viewing comedies and were only
admitted to tragedies, but later, no such restrictions were
imposed.
Pantomimes, popular during the 1st century BC, involved miming
roles to accompaniment of singers, dancers, and musicians, in
addition to visual effects, similar to a ballet. In mimes of
antiquity actors spoke. Women were allowed in mimes and pantomimes,
which were more popular than typical plays but eventually
degenerated into vulgar and disgusting tastelessness.
Station 3
Sport and Leisure
Rich and poor alike loved spectacular entertainment. At the
Circus Maximus, Rome’s largest race course, chariots thundered
around an oval track, making dangerously tight turns at either end.
Fans bet feverishly on their favorite teams—the Reds, the Greens,
the Blues, or the Whites—and successful charioteers were hailed as
heroes. Chariot racing was Rome’s oldest and most popular pastime,
dating back to before the Republic.
Greek chariot races were held in the hippodrome in the east, but
in the west they were held in circuses. If successful, a charioteer
could become rich and famous throughout Rome. Images of charioteers
survive in sculpture, mosaic, and molded glassware. The different
colored teams were rivals, sometimes leading to violence among
supporters. The Greens and the Blues were overall favorites.
The circus itself was built around a u-shaped arena. At the open
end of the “u” waited up to twelve four-horse chariots, which began
the race from the starting gates. They raced around the course
counterclockwise for seven laps.
Gladiators
Several different types of shows all took place in the arena of
an Amphitheater. The word arena comes from the Latin for
"sand," which was placed on the Amphitheater floor to soak up
spilled blood. Amphitheaters were most commonly used for
gladiatorial matches which had been adapted from Etruscan funeral
rites (munera). By the last 1st century BC, however, the games had
lost their ritualistic significance.
Gladiators came from various lots of life. Originally,
there were gladiatorial schools, but these came under state control
in the 1st century BC to avoid them becoming private armies.
The majority of gladiators were either condemned criminals
(damnati), slaves, prisoners of war, or volunteers who signed up to
do shows for a fee. There were four main types of
gladiator:
Murmillo: Fought with a helmet adorned by a fish crest, an
oblong shield, and a sword. He usually fought a
retiaritus.
Retiaritus: A lightly armed gladiator with a net,
brandishing either a trident or a dagger.
Samnite: Utilized a sword, visor and helmet, and an oblong
shield.
Thracian: Combated with a curved scimitar and round
shield.
Various other weapons, women, and sometimes even dwarves were
used in the games. Special types of "wild animal matches"
(venationes) were introduced in the 2nd Century BCE and became very
popular. Such bouts included men on foot and on horseback,
known as beastiarii, who were usually either criminals, prisoners
of war, or trained and paid fighters. Beastiarii fought
exotic animals, which eventually led to an extensive trade
market. Originally, wild animal matches took place on the
morning of the games, the public executions were held at midday,
and then the gladiatorial matches. Over time, however, these
divisions became blurred, and often many fights would take place at
once, giving the appearance of a battle. Other spectacles included
mock naval battles (naumachiae), known to take place on artificial
lakes, as well as animal performances, accompanied by music.
Magistrates used private games to gain support in elections. The
emperors successfully continued this practice and the games became
more lavish as each tried to out-do is predecessor. Enormous
amounts of money were spent on games, yet they were free to the
people. To emperors who paid for them with taxes, these amusements
were a way to control the city’s restless mobs. In much the same
spirit, the government provided free grain to the poor. Critics
warned against this policy of “bread and circuses” but no one
listened. During the Pax Romana the general prosperity hid
underlying social and economic problems. Later Roman emperors,
however, would face problems that could not be brushed away so
easily.
Other Leisure Activities
For the wealthy, entertainment could take place at home as they
hosted their own dinner parties and lavish banquets. Along
with dinner could be music, singing, and dancing by
professionals. In some circles, recitation of written work,
such as poetry and speeches, followed. For the plebeians,
associations (collegia) may have thrown dinner parties.
Eating and drinking for the poor usually meant frequenting
taverns, ranging from brothels to gaming houses and everything
in-between. Gaming was popular among all classes, and
included pastimes such as dice, knucklebones, and gaming
counters. Board games were played by adults as well as
children. Traditional children's games, such as
hide-and-go-seek and leap frog are depicted in Ancient Roman
art. Children's toys have also been found.
For the wealthy, hunting and fishing may have provided leisurely
sport, but for the poorer these activities were more often a
necessity.
The recipes below show what wealthy Romans would have consumed
on special occasions.
Stuffed Kidneys - Serves 4
8 lambs kidneys.
2 heaped tspn fennel seed (dry roasted in pan).
1 heaped tspn whole pepper corns.
4 oz pine nuts.
1 large handful fresh coriander.
2 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 oz pigs caul or large sausage skins.
Skin the kidney, split in half and remove the fat and fibres. In
a mortar, pound the fennel seed with the pepper to a coarse powder.
Add this to a food processor with the pine nuts. Add the washed and
chopped coriander and process to a uniform consistency. Divide the
mixture into 8 and place in the centre of each kidney and close
them up. If you have caul use it to wrap the kidneys up to prevent
the stuffing coming out. Similarly stuff the kidney inside the
sausage skin. Heat the oil and seal the kidneys in a frying pan.
Transfer to an oven dish and add the fish sauce. Finish cooking in
a medium oven. Serve as a starter or light snack with crusty bread
and a little of the juice.
Pear Patina - Serves 4
1½ lb firm pears.
10fl oz red wine.
2 oz raisins.
4 oz honey.
1 tspn ground cumin.
1 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 eggs.
plenty of freshly ground black pepper.
Peel and core the pears and cook in the wine, honey and raisins
until tender. Strain and process the fruit and return to the
cooking liquor. Add the cumin, oil and fish sauce and the eggs well
beaten. Pour into a greased shallow dish and bake in a preheated
oven (375º F) for 20 mins or until set. Let the custard stand for
10 mins before serving warm.
Libum - Serves 2
10 oz ricotta cheese.
1 egg.
2½ oz plain flour.
Runny honey.
Beat the cheese with the egg and add the sieved flour very
slowly and gently. Flour your hands and pat mixture into a ball and
place it on a bay leaf on a baking tray. Place in moderate oven
(400ºF) until set and slightly risen. Place cake on serving plate
and score the top with a cross. our plenty of runny honey over the
cross and serve immediately.
Station 4
Government and Society
During the Pax Romana, the government was run by an emperor who
had total control. The emperors’ main responsibilities included
maintaining order, enforcing the laws, defending the borders, and
providing relief in the event of natural disaster (as in the case
of the eruption of Vesuvius).
Like in the Republic before it, the Empire was divided into
provinces controlled by governors. Unlike the Republic, the emperor
maintained control over the governors and unified Rome through
uniform laws.
Like every nation, Rome had its share of good and bad leaders.
Here are just a few…
The Bad
Caligula (37-41 CE)
After Tiberius dies in Capri, Gaius Caesar is named emperor. He
is known as Caligula, or 'little boots' - a nickname given to him
as a boy by the soldiers of his father, Germanicus, because of the
small army boots he once wore. Caligula saw himself as an absolute
ruler, and had great disdain for the Senate. The greatest symbol of
this hatred was his decision to appoint his horse as consul. He
also held many parties for his horse, and they could sometimes be
seen at the theater together.
Caligula's cruel tyranny provokes huge opposition and many
plots. Although he tries to crush them, new plots replace those he
has discovered. Eventually a tribune, named Cassius Chaerea,
corners and kills him. After his murder, his uncle, Claudius, is
discovered in the palace hiding behind a curtain. Soldiers carry
him off to their camp where they persuade him to become the new
emperor.
Nero (54-68 CE)
Nero came to power through the pressure of his mother, who bore
over him throughout his life. He eventually had her killed, which
caused him to be unpopular with the people. He offered the people
bread and created public baths, which stopped some of the
outcry.
The Great Fire of Rome began on July 18 and lasted for six days
and seven nights. Of Rome's 14 districts only four remain
untouched. Rumors circulated that Nero had been singing and dancing
while Rome burned. In order to divert attention away from himself,
Nero blamed the Christians. He ordered some to be thrown to the
lions; many others are crucified.
Nero discovered that many people were conspiring to kill him,
and he lashed out. The poets Lucan, Seneca and the novelist
Petronius are among those who lost their lives in the purge that
follows. Increasingly alone and paranoid, Nero kicks his wife
Poppaea to death while she is pregnant and ill. Reportedly, this is
for complaining that he came home late from the races.
Support for Nero dwindled and he is declared a public enemy by
the Senate, meaning anyone can kill him without being punished.
Terrified, and abandoned by everyone, except a few of his slaves,
Nero flees to the country. There he commits suicide, ending the
dynasty of Augustus.
The Good
Nerva (96-98 CE) and Trajan (98-117 CE)
Nerva rules fairly but never gains the full support of the army,
much of which remained loyal to the previous emperor. Towards the
end of Nerva's life, Roman generals co-operate for the first time
to choose the next emperor. They force Nerva to adopt an acceptable
heir from outside his own family. The result is resoundingly
successful, as a Spanish-born Senator and general named Trajan
becomes emperor. In Trajan Rome, the empire grew to its largest
territorial extent. He undertook vast building programs and
enlarged social welfare. He was a benevolent ruler, cutting taxes
and helping the poor. Trajan's reign takes Rome one more step
toward universality. Now, educated and wealthy men from all over
the Empire are eligible for the highest office.
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
A cultured scholar, fond of all things Greek, Hadrian travelled
all over the empire. He was attentive to the army and the
provincials, and left behind him spectacular buildings such as the
Pantheon in Rome and his villa at Tivoli. But his greatest legacy
to the empire was his establishment of its frontiers, marking a
halt to imperial expansion.
In Africa he built walls to control the transhumance routes, and
in Germany he built a palisade with watch towers and small forts to
delineate Roman-controlled territory. In Britain, he built the
stone wall which bears his name, perhaps the most enduring of his
frontier lines.
He was truly a pivotal emperor, in that he divided what was
Roman from what was not. Apart from minor adjustments, no
succeeding emperor reversed his policies.
Station 5
Roman Law
“Let justice be done,” proclaimed a Roman saying, “though the
heavens fall!” Probably the greatest legacy of Rome was its
commitment to the rule of law and to justice—ideas that have shaped
western civilizations today.
The laws of Rome were intended to be impartial and humane.
During the Republic, Romans made use of civil laws (jus civile),
which are laws that applied to the citizens of Rome. As Rome
expanded, however, it ruled many foreigners who were not covered
under civil law. Gradually, a second system of law, known as the
law of nations (jus gentium), emerged. It applied to all people
under Roman rule, citizens or non-citizens. Later, when Rome
extended citizenship across the empire, the two systems merged.
During the Roman Empire, the rule of law fostered unity and
stability. Many centuries later, the principles of Roman law would
become the basis for legal systems in Europe and Latin America. As
Roman law developed, certain basic principles evolved. Many of
these are familiar to Americans today. Among them are these
ideas…
· People of the same status were guaranteed equal protection
under the law
· People were innocent until proven guilty
· The accused should be allowed to face his or her accuser and
defend against the charge
· Guilt must be established “clearer than daylight” through
evidence
· Decisions should be based on fairness, allowing judges to
interpret the law
The Romans thought law should reflect principles of reason and
justice, and should protect the citizens’ person and property.
Their idea that law could be based on just and rational principles
could apply to all people, regardless of nationality, was a major
contribution.
Station 6
Science and Engineering
Romans excelled in the practical arts of building, perfecting
their engineering skills as they built roads, bridges, and harbors
throughout the empire. Roman roads were so solidly built that many
of them remained in use long after Rome fell. In addition, three
things that scientists were most interested in studying included
public health, sanitation, and engineering.
Roman engineers built many immense aqueducts, or bridge like
stone structures that brought water from the hills into Roman
cities. In Segovia, Spain, a Roman aqueduct still carries water
along a stone channel supported by tiers of arches. The
availability of fresh water was important to the Romans. Wealthy
homes had water piped in, and almost every city boasted both female
and male public baths. Here people gathered not only to wash
themselves but also to hear the latest news and exchange
gossip.
The Romans are perhaps the most famous aqueduct builders of the
ancient era. In fact, the word “aqueduct” is derived from the Latin
words aqua (“water”) and ducere (“to lead”). Within a period of
about 500 years, the Romans constructed eleven major aqueducts to
supply Rome with water. The first Roman aqueduct, Aqua Appia, was
built around 312 BCE. By the time the eleventh aqueduct, Aqua
Alexandrina, was completed in 226 CE, Rome was being watered by 359
miles of aqueducts and was receiving about 50 million gallons of
water each day. In addition to building aqueducts for Rome, the
Romans also build aqueducts for regions throughout their empire,
including France, Spain, and Northern Africa. Remains of most of
these aqueducts still exist, and a few such as the one in Segovia,
Spain, are still in use.
Public Baths
In the time of the Roman empire, baths were a place of leisure
time during many Romans daily routine. People from nearly
every class - men, women, and children - could attend the thermae,
or public baths, similar to modern day fitness clubs and community
centers. The two most well preserved baths of ancient Rome are the
baths of Diocletian and Caracalla. Diocletian's baths cover
an enormous 32 acres, and now, the ruins include two Roman
churches, St. Mary of the Angels and the Oratory of St.
Bernard. The baths of Caracalla cover 27 acres.
Towards the center of the Roman baths, adjoining the dressing
room, could be found the tepidarium, an exceedingly large, vaulted
and mildly heated hall. This could be found surrounded on one
side by the frigidarium, a large, chilled swimming pool about 200
feet by 100 feet, and on the other side by the calidarium, an area
for hot bathing warmed by subterranean steam.
Not only were the baths meant for leisure, but also, for social
gathering. In addition to the bathing areas could be found
portico shops, marketing everything from food, to ointments, to
clothing. There were also sheltered gardens and promenades,
gymnasiums, rooms for massage, libraries, and museums.
Complimenting these scholarly havens were slightly more aesthetic
marble statues and other artistic masterpieces.
Roman Roads
The Romans built roads so that the army could march from one
place to another easily. They tried to build the roads as straight
as possible, so that the army could take the shortest route through
the empire.
How the roads were built:
1. First, the army builders would clear the ground of rocks and
trees. They then dug a trench where the road was to go and filled
it with big stones.
2. Next, they put in big stones, pebbles, cement and sand which
they packed down to make a firm base.,
3. Then they added another layer of cement mixed with broken
tiles.
4. On top of that, they then put paving stones to make the
surface of the road. These stones were cut so that they fitted
together tightly.
5. Kerb stones were put at the sides of the road to hold in the
paving stones and to make a channel for the water to run away.
It is often said that "all roads lead to Rome," and in fact,
they once did. The road system of the Ancient Romans was one of the
greatest engineering accomplishments of its time, with over 50,000
miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius
aurem in the Forum in the city of Rome. Although the Roman road
system was originally built to facilitate the movement of troops
throughout the empire, it was inevitably used for other purposes by
civilians then and now.
The Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, who
were by that time citizens of the empire. While the Romans rarely
did original scientific investigations, they did put science to
practical use. They applied geography to make maps and medical
knowledge to help doctors improve public health. Pliny the Elder, a
Roman scholar, compiled volumes of encyclopedias on geography,
zoology, botany, and other topics all based on the work of
others.
Name: _______________________
Blk:_______ Date:______________
The Forum today
The Forum in Ancient Rome