patriotism and Neo-Classicism: The "historical revival" in French and Enalish paintina and sculpture. 1746-1800

DX191389_1_0001.tifpaintina and sculpture. 1746-1800.
of Doctor of Philosophy,
ABSTRACT OF THESIS
The aim of this thesis is to 'explore the links between
historicism and patriotism in French and English painting
and sculpture From 1748 to 1800. It argues that the
reaction to Rococo hedonism took the Form of an "historical
revival" to rejuvenate European culture and society by a
return to an heroic morality for the individual and the
community. While artists generally Followed historians and
poets in their choice of themes, they managed to produce
images that defined and diffused the exemplary heroic
virtues, and to endow different periods of history with
tangibility and verisimilitude. While patriotic sentiments
antedated the artistic "historical revival", the latter was
important in enlarging and deepening that patriotism to
include an historical ethnic nationalism.
Part I of the thesis uses a quantitative approach to
analyse the numbers,types, themes and dates of "history"
paintings and sculptures exhibited at the Paris Salons and
London Academies until 1800, revealing that, though
"history" works are in a clear minority in relation to
"non-public" genres of art, they, and their heroic cults,
Form an influential and distinguished segment of French and
English art of the period. Part II analyses in depth the
main historical themes within some basic moral categories
of the period to reveal both the common moral framework,
and the vital stylistic and iconographical differences, of
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French and English art. Part III charts the emergence of
different styles for different historical periods, and some
of the differences between a more literary English
medievalism and a more historical French classicism.
Finally, the role of key art critics and theorists reveals
that while the French sought to revive an earlier era of
national and artistic grandeur, their English counterparts,
riding the crest of a wave of national glory, sought to
enhance it by founding a native school of history painting
and sculpture; but both encouraged artists to pursue the
ideal of moral historicism avant Winckelmann, backed by
their respective states and Academies, and so give deeper
historical and ethnic content to a swelling civic
patriotism.
CONTENTS
London and Paris
Salons (1746-1800) 29
Academy exhibitions in London (1766-1600) 62
Chapter III: Heroic cults and the historical revival 93
Part II - Imaaes and heroes of moral historicism
Chapter IV: The Suffering Hero 123
Chapter U: Virtuous Women 159
Chapter UI: Fame and Mortality 161
Chapter VII: Family Honour and Republican Duty 203
Chapter VIII: Pro Patria Mori 224
Chapter IX: Rude Origins, Noble Descent 266
Chapter X: The Triumph of the Nation 309
Part III - Stules and ideoloaies of the national revival
Chapter XI: The Rise of Historicist Styles 352
Chapter XII: Exemplary History and National Regeneration 403
cont
pREFACE
areas that were traditionally considered to be beyond their
domain, notably the history of taste and the sociology of
art criticism and reception. Such interests have raised a
variety of interesting issues and problems, and have
attuned many art historians to new developments in other
Fields like linguistics, anthropology and sociology. But
this very expansion raises the question of the relationship
to traditional art-historical concerns in even sharper form,
notably the issue of how style and creativity relate to the
social Forms in which they operate. There is, after all,
always the danger that a history of taste and a sociology
of patrons and publics may elide, or even deny, the Inner
world of the artist and the innovative synthesis it may
distil.
It is with one such "inner world", or parts of it, that
this study is concerned, and it seeks to bring together
some of the concerns of the new developments in history and
sociology, with the older problems of style and iconography
and to some extent individual creativity. Hence the
attempt to pursue the problems of neo-classicism and
historicism by quantitative, as well as qualitative,
methods; and to balance individual contributions to themes
and styles with an analysis of their sociological
coherence in a late eighteenth century context. At the
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same time, my Focus has been largely on the rich variety
within a consistent moral framework which this "inner
world" reveals and From which a significant minority of
eighteenth century artists derived so much inspiration; and
that in turn has meant concentrating on the works
themselves rather than the writings of either artists or
critics. It has also meant restricting my scope to
painting, sculpture, and drawings, to the exclusion of
architecture with its more immediate Functions; and
limitations of time, as well as space, precluded extending
the analysis beyond France and England where this late
eighteenth century inner world of "moral historicism"
Flourished most intensely and profusely, though I have at
times signalled contributions From America, Scandinavia,
Italy and Germany. Finally, my Focus on this inner world
makes it in one sense a necessary foundation for further
sociological studies of, at one end of the chain of
creation, training and patronage, and at the other, of
social reception and criticism; on the other hand, it
reveals at the level of meaning, the cultural contribution
of artists to the wider social process of the Formation of
nations and the rise of patriotism, and so constitutes a
historical sociology of aspects of Western cultural
development.
AS a student of ethnicity and nationalism, I am all too
conscious of the many debts I have incurred to art
historians who have studied the period and its art in a
variety of ways and with wide erudition and sensivity. In
particular, I should like to record my debts to Professor
Robert Rosenblum, not only for his scholarly writings in
the field which have been a model of perception and
illumination, but also for his advice, particularly on the
need to investigate the Society of Artists exhibition
catalogues. I should also like to record my gratitude to
Dr. D.Allan of the Royal Society of Arts For his advice and
assistance, to Dr. Tom Gretton for several valuable and
interesting discussions, and to the staff of the Witt
Library, for their help and For the reproduction of the
plates; and to the staff of several libraries, particularly
the British Library, the Uictoria and Albert Museum and
Courtauld Institute libraries.
It is never an easy task to pursue research in the
intervals between teaching, in a field outside one's
teaching areas; but the task has been made much lighter,
and more enjoyable, by the unfailing interest and kindness
of my supervisor, Professor William Uaughan, who always
rekindled my interest when it threatened to flag, and who
has guided me along my path, enabling me to share the
interests of art historians, both the traditional and the
more recent ones, and to harmonise them with my own
historical and sociological concerns. While responsibility
For errors and omissions is mine alone, he shares in
whatever merit and interest this study possesses.
Anthony D.Smith,
London, January 1987.
LIST OF PLATES
1 James Barry: Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos 1770 PinL,acoteca Nazionale, Bologna.
2 James Barry: Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos etching c.1790, Yale Center For British Art, New Haven.
3 Nicolai Abildgaard: philoctetes 1776, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen.
4 Henry Fuseli: The Aetoliane beaaino Meleaaer to defend the citu of Caludon c.1776-8, British Museum.
6 Francois Menageot: Meleaaer 1789, The Louvre.
6 Benjamin West: Fulades and Orestes brouaht as victims before Iohiaena 1766, late Gallery.
7 George Romney: The Ghost of Clutaemnestra 1777-80, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
8 Henry Fuseli: Oedious cursina his son Polunicel drawing c.1774-7, Victoria & Albert Museum.
9 Henry Fuseli: The Death of Oedious at Colonus c.1780, Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.
10 Benigne Gagneraux: The blind Oedipus recommends his children to the aods 1784, Nat ionalmuseum, Stockholm.
11 Angelica Kauffmann: The blind Belisarius beaaina drawing, n.d., Frankfurt.
12 Benjamin West: Belisarius brouaht to his familu 1784, Philadelphia Museum.
13 Benjamin West: The Blind Belisarius 1802, Detroit Institute of Arts.
14 Jean-Francois-Pierre Peyron: Delisarius receivina hosoitalitu from a peasant who had served under him 1779, Muse des Augustins, Toulouse.
16 Jacques-Louis David: Pelisarius recoanised bu a soldier who had served under him. as he receives alms from a woman 1781, Muse des Beaux-Arts, Lille.
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16 Antoine-Denis Chaudet: peliparius Salon of 1791, Musge de Nalmaison.
17 Benjamin West: Lear on the Heath 1788, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
18 Jean-Francois-Pierre Peyron: The Death of Alcestis 1785, The Louvre.
19 Gavin Hamilton: Andromache bewailina the death of Hector (1758-61), engraved by D.Cunego 1764.
20 Angelica Kauffmann: Andromache and Hecuba weeaina over the ashes of Hector R.A. 1772, engraved by Thomas Burke, British Museum.
21 Jacques-Louis David: Andromache mournina Hector 1783, Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris.
22 Angelica Kauffmann: Cornelia. mother of the Gracchi R.A. 1766, Uirginia Museum, Richmond.
23 Noel Halle: Cornelia. mother of the Gracchi Salon of 1779, Musge Fabre, Montpellier.
24 Jean-Francois-Pierre Peyron: Cornelia. mother of the Gracchi 1781, Muse des Augustins, Toulouse.
25 Joseph-Benoit Busige: Cornelia. mother DE the Gracchi Salon of 1795, The Louvre.
26 Gavin Hamilton: Aarinoina with the ashes of Germanicus R.A. 1772, Earl Spencer, Althorp.
27 Alexander Runciman: April:mina with the ashes of germanicus drawing, c.1760, National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh.
28 Benjamin West:
29 Louis Gauffier:
30 Louis Gauffier:
Aaripoina with the ashes of Germanicus 1770, Philadelphia Museum of Art.
Penerosittkof Roman Women Salon of 1791, Music des Beaux-Arts, Poitiers.
Mother instructina her son In the virtues of his Ancestors 1794, Charles Brockelhurst.
31 Louis Jean Francois Lagrenee: The Spartan Mother 1770, National Trust, Stourhead, Wilts.
32 Jean-Jacques-Francois La Bat-bier: praveru of the Spartan Women 1787, Messrs. Arditti and Mayorcas.
33 Benjamin West: The Choice of Hercules 1764, Uictoria and Albert Museum.
34 Gavin Hamilton: Achilles mournina Patroclus c.1760-3, Countess of Seafield, Cullen House.
35 Jean-Baptiste Deshayes: Achilles fiahtina the river Pcamander 1765, private collection.
36 Gavin Hamilton: Achilles draaaino the bodu of Hector c.1761-3, engraved by D.Cunego 1766.
37 John Flaxman: Achilles draaaina the bodu of Hector 1793, engraved by Thomas Fit-oil.
38 Jacques-Louis David: funeral of a Warrior 1778, E.B. Crocker Art Gallery, Sacramento, California.
39 Gavin Hamilton: Priam oleadina with Achilles For the Podu of Hector c.1763-5, Tate Gallery.
40 Henry Fuseli: pt-jam pleadina with Achilles for the bodu of Hector c.1770-2, Kunsthaus, nrich.
41 John Flaxman: Priam oleadina with Achilles for the bodu of Hector 1793, Royal Academy.
42 Henry Fuseli: Thetis mournina the bodu of Achilles 1780, Art Institute, Chicago.
43 Angelica Kauffmann: Hector takina leave of Andromache R.A. 1769, National Trust, Saltram, Devon.
44 George Romney: Hector takina leave of Andromache 1779, Private Collection (Christie's Sale, 1932).
45 Francois-Xavier Fabre: Hector takina leavp of Andromache n.d., Musie Fabre, Montpellier.
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46 Jean-Baptiste Greuze: Sectimius Severus rearoachina Caracalla Salon of 1769, The Louvre.
47 Nicolas-Guy Brenet: ]The Continpnce of SCiD10 Salon of 1789, Mus6e des Beaux-Arts, Stras- bourg.
48 Louis Durameau: ihe continence of Bauard Salon of 1777, Mus6e de Peinture at Sculpture, Grenoble.
49 Jean-Francois-Pierre Peyron: Curius Dentatus refusina the aifts of the Sulnites Salon of 1787, Musee des Beaux-Arts, Marseilles.
50 Henry Fuseli: purius Dentatus refusina the aifts of the Samnites c.1774, Kunsthaus, nrich.
51 Anne-Louis Girodet: Hiamocrate refusina the aifts of Artaxerxes 1792, Ecole de Medicine, Paris.
52 Nathaniel Dance: The Death of Uirainia Society of Artists 1761, Engraved by J.G. Haid in 1767.
53 Guillaume Lethiere: The Death of Virainia Salon of 1795 (dessin), The Louvre.
54 Antoine-Francois Callet: The Death of Virainia drawing, n.d., Print Room, Staatliche Museen, Berlin.
55 Jean-Simon Berthelemy: Manlius Torauatus condemnina his Son pci Death Salon of 1785, Musket des Beaux-Arts, Tours.
56 Anne-Louis Girodet:
57 Jacques-Louis David:
58 Jacques-Louis David:
59 Guillaume Lethiere:
The victorious Horatius returnina to Rome 1781, Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Uienna.
The Elder Horatius defendina his aun 1783, The Louvre.
Brutus condemnina Ns Sons to Death drawing, 1788, Mus6e de Pontoise.
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60 Jacques-Louis David: Lictors returnina to Brutus the Dodies of his Sons Salon of 1789, The Louvre.
61 Nicolas-Bernard Lepicie: The Zeal of Mpttathias Salon of 1783, 11us6e des Beaux-Arts, Tours.
62 Antoine-Jean Gros: Antiochus and Eleazar 1792, MUSg13, St. Lb.
63 Jean-Simon Berthelemy: The Sacrifice of Elpazar drawing, 1789, Muse des Beaux- Arts, Angers.
64 Thomas Banks: Caractacus before the Emperor Claudius 1774-77, Stowe School, Bucks.
65 Francois-Andre Vincent: William Tell leamina from Gessjer's Boat Salon of 1795, Muslie des Augustins, Toulouse.
66 Benjamin West: Queen Philimpa intercedina For the Eurahers of Calais 1788, Detroit Institute of Arts.
67 Jean-Simon Barthelemy: Entru of the French Armu into Peri) in 1346 Salon of 1787, Musk, National, Versailles.
68 Gavin Hamilton: The Oath of Brutus 1764-4, Drury Lane Theatre, London.
69 Jean-Antoine Beaufort: The Oath 5f Brutus Salon of 1771, Muses Municipal, Nevers.
70 Henry Fuseli: The Oath of the Ruth i 1778-81, Rathaus, Zurich.
71 John Flaxman: The Oath of the Seven aaainst Thebes 1975, Royal Academy, London.
72 Jacques-Louis David: The Oath of the Horatil 1784, Salon of 1785, The Louvre.
73 Thomas Banks: The Death of Germanicus 1774, Holkham Hall, Norfolk.
74 Benjamin West: The Departure of Reaulus R.A. 1769, Her Majesty the Queen, Kensington Palace.
75 Nlcolas-Guy Brenet: The peath of Cu Guesclin
1777, Mus6e National, Versailles.
76 Noel Halle / : The Death of Seneca 1750, Heim Gallery,
London.
77 Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Seneca 1773, Mus4e de Petit-Palais, Paris.
78 Antonio Canova: 5ocrates drinkina the Hemlock 1790- 92, Gipsoteca, Possagno.
79 Jacques Gamelin: The Death of Socrates n.d., Mus4e, Carcassonne.
80 Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Socrates Salon of 1787, Metropolitan Museum, New York.
81 Henry Fuseli:
Thor batterina the Midaard Sercent 1792, Royal Academy, London.
82 Henry Fuseli: Odin receivina the prochecu of Baldur's Death c.1776-8, British Museum.
83 Anne-Louis Girodet: The Flood Salon of 1806, The Louvre.
84 Benjamin West: The Bard 1778, Tate Gallery.
85 Alexander Runciman: The Death of Oscar 1772, National Galleries of Scotland, Print Room, Edinburgh.
86 Nicolai Abildgaard: Qssian Sinaina c.1785, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen.
87 Baron Francois Gerard: The _pream of Ossian 1801, Muse de Malmaison.
88 Anne-Louis Girodet:
89 Anne-Louis Girodet:
gssian welcomina th, French heroes Salon of 1802, Muse de Malmaison.
Ossian receivina the last, siah of Makvina c.1801-6, Muse, Uarzy (Nibvre).
90 Anne-Louis Girodet: The pream of Ossian c.1801-6, Mus6e Magnin, Dijon.
91 William Blake: The Ordeal of Queen Emma c.1780s, W.Brandt, Esq.
cont...
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92 Angelica Kauffmann: Rowena and Vortiaern at Henaist's Panauet R.A.1770, The National Trust, Saltram, Devon.
93 William Hamilton: Rowena and Vortiaern at Henaistis Banauet c.1793, Collection Brian Leary.
9 • Angelica Kauffmann: Eleanor suckina the Poison from the wound of Prince Edward R.A. 1776, Agnew's 1972, (then Sotheby Parke-Bennet Sale, N.Y.,1980)
SS Benjamin West: The Death of Wolfe 1770 (R.A.1771), National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa.
96 Jean-Jacques Lagrenge: The Burial of Voltaiye in the Pantheon 1791, Muse Carnavalet, Paris.
97 Jacques-Louis David: The Death of Marat 1793, Mus‘es Bayeux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels.
98 Jacques-Louis David: The Oath of the Tennis Court 1791, Musge National, Versailles.
99 William Blake: The Penance of Jane Shore c.1780, Tate Gallery.
100 Edward Penny: The Penance of Jane Shore R.A. 1776, Birmingham City Art Gallery.
101 Henry Fuseli: The Confederates arrivina at the Rutli c.1778, Dr. W.Amstutz, Zurich.
102 Nicolas-Guy Brenet: Caius Furius Cressinus accurd of Sorceru Salon of 1777, Musee des August ins, Toulouse.
/ 103 J-B. Suvee: The ;eath of Admiral de Colianu 1787,
11us6e des Beaux-Arts, Dijon.
104 Robert E.Pine: The Surrender of Calais to Kina Edward III 1760, (lost), engraved by F.Aliamet 1762.
LIST OF TABLES
I "Historu" and other tupes of Paintina and Sculpture at
the Paris Salons. 1746-1800. accordina to the Salon
Livrets
II "Historu" and other tupes of Paintina and Sculpture at
the Roual Academu Exhibitions. 1769-1800. accordina to
the Roual Academu Cataloaues
III "Historu" and other tunes of Paintina and Sculpture at
the Societu of Artists Exhibitions. 1760-80. accordina
to the Cataloaues
5culptures exhibited at the Paris Salons. 1746-1500. and
the Roual Academu. 1769-1800
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INTRODUCTION
The aim of this study is to explore the many links betwen
historicism and patriotism in French and English painting
and sculpture in the second half of the eighteenth
century. The period marked a conscious return to classical
antiquity and history on the part of an influential
minority of writers and artists, and it was accompanied by
considerable experimentation with a wide range of themes
and styles. At the same time, ideological and stylistic
"neo-classicism" tended to set the tone and prevail over
other cults and manners, a trend that has perhaps led to a
fairly general equation of the spare, monumental and
severe style with Greco-Roman virtues and subject-matter,
and a widely held assumption that the reaction to Rococo
hedonism naturally took the form of a return to classical
antiquity as the prime example of a heroic morality.
But it soon became apparent that ideological and stylistic
neo-classicism need not go together, that Greco-Roman
exempla may be couched in Rococo (or "romantic" . Baroque)
modes, and conversely that non-classical motifs and
subjects may be decked out with trappings borrowed from
classical antiquity and be expressed through a severe,
rectilinear style. This was one problem, and it meant
that stylistic questions needed to be treated separately
From iconographic ones and related to a broader framework
than the equation between thematic classicism and "severe"
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the relationship between morality and history in late
eighteenth century perceptions. In general terms, it was
the desire of visual artists to instruct as well as please
that inspired them to produce grandiose history paintings
and sculptures on morally edifying themes. But the
question immediately arose, as to which periods and places
were deemed worthy sites for such edification. Even in
traditional academic circles a distinction had been drawn
between subjects From scripture and themes drawn From
Greek and Roman antiquity. What was the position of other
histories, especially the distant pasts of the nations to
which western European artists belonged? Could they too
purvey the appropriate lessons in public virtue and
heroism, that their classical counterparts were assumed to
Furnish? Generally such histories were admitted to the
canon of public moralities, but on a lower scale; yet this
concession to popular taste was to prove profoundly
significant, since it suggested that "history" is multiple
and ethnically particularist.
This raises the further question of how far such ethnic
"historicism" reflects a growth of patriotic and national
sentiments, and how Far it actually contributes to the
expression and mobilisation of such aspirations and
sentiments. What is the function of images in the rise of
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concern with factual reportage and archaeological fidelity
throughout the period underscored the quest for a tangible
recreation of multiple ethnic histories which would teach
as well as intrigue; and while the artists generally
Followed historians and poets in their choice of themes,
their images sought to crystallise in the popular
imagination, and diffuse to wider strata, the exemplary
virtues and mores of distant times and places in a broad
"historical revival" that increasingly placed all
histories on a par, insofar as they evoked sentiments of
national prestige and national achievement.
Finally, there was the problem of the role of the artist
in this broad transition to a nationally based political
order with its civic and ethnic culture. Leaving aside
such striking, and exceptional, incidents of artistic
presaging of political actions, as David's oath of the
Horatii , how should we define the role of at least some
artists in the evolution to a different social and
political order/ Can there be any sense in which artists
may be said to anticipate, even herald, such changes? If
so, how? Without entering into questions of causality,
given that they are themselves…