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PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH ON THE IMPACT OF
INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEERISM IN KENYA:PROVISIONAL RESULTS
By Benjamin J. Lough, PhD
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
International Forum on Development ServiceForum International du Volontariat pour le Dveloppement
www.forum-ids.org
Cover image: VSO Jitolee volunteer and colleagues. Photo: Lowell Traiso / VSO
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Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................................3ResearchDesignandMethods.......................................................................................................4
DeskReview................................................................................................................................4
SingleCountryResearchStudy...................................................................................................5
ResearchDesign.....................................................................................................................5
Instrumentation......................................................................................................................8
Analyses..................................................................................................................................8
FindingsandDiscussion..................................................................................................................9
KeyContributions.....................................................................................................................10
CapacityBuilding..................................................................................................................10
ResourceAcquisition............................................................................................................13
DevelopmentGoals(MDGs).................................................................................................16
Added-valueofInternationalVolunteers.................................................................................22
Trust......................................................................................................................................23
AccountabilityandOwnership.............................................................................................25
Creativity..............................................................................................................................26
Optimism..............................................................................................................................28
CivicEngagement.................................................................................................................28
Sustainability........................................................................................................................29
Cost-effectiveness................................................................................................................30
Diversity................................................................................................................................31
HumanRightsOrientation....................................................................................................33
ContributingCauses.................................................................................................................34
ServiceActivity.....................................................................................................................34
InstitutionalAttributes.........................................................................................................37
VolunteerAttributes.............................................................................................................37
Limitations................................................................................................................................41
Conclusion....................................................................................................................................41
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................44
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References....................................................................................................................................45
AppendixA:Participatingprograms.............................................................................................49
AppendixB:ParticipatoryWorkshopSchedule............................................................................50
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ParticipatoryResearchontheContributionsofInternational
Volunteerism
Introduction
Thevalueofinternationalvolunteer-drivendevelopmentisaquestionofdebateandoccasional
scepticism.Proponentsclaimthatinternationalvolunteerserviceisapracticalwaytopromote
globalunderstanding,whilemakingtangiblecontributionstothedevelopmentofindividuals,
organisationsandcommunities[1,2].Earlystudiessuggestthatinternationalserviceenhances
theeducation,employmentandparticipationofcitizensinhostcountries[3,4].Subsequent
studieshavesoughttoverifytheseoutcomes,whileuncoveringadditionalpositivebenefits[5].
Ontheotherhand,criticscontendthatmanyinternationalvolunteerprogramsare
imperialistic,volunteer-centeredandineffectiveattacklingtherealchallengesofdevelopment
[6,7].Thesecontrastingviewsbothhavemerit.Intruth,theimpactsofinternationalvolunteer
serviceasadevelopmentstrategyultimatelydependonwhetherprogramsrecogniseand
implementeffectiveinstitutionalpracticesbasedontheoutcomestheydesiretoachieve[5].
Unfortunately,researchhasnotkeptpacewithpractice,andeffectiveinstitutionalpracticesare
notoftenassociatedwithspecificoutcomes.
Overthepasttenyears,ahandfulofresearchstudieshavebeguntolinkpracticestooutcomes
forvolunteersandhostorganisations.Oneofthefirstpublicationstolinktheseareas,
commissionedbyUnitedNationsVolunteers(UNV),foundthatvolunteersmakeamore
substantialcontributioninruralthanurbanareas[8].Morerecentresearchfoundthat
internationalvolunteersmayincreasethecapacityofhostorganisations,buttheirsuccessis
dependentonthevolunteerslanguagecapacityandthedurationoftheserviceplacement[9].
Otherresearchhasfoundthatserviceduration,culturalimmersion,guidedreflectionand
reciprocalpartnershipsareallassociatedwithoutcomesonvolunteersandcommunities[10,
11].Likewise,researchusingarigorousquasi-experimentaldesignhasfoundthatvolunteers
withsignificantpreviousinternationalexperiencebeforevolunteeringreturnfromservicewith
higherinternationalawareness,interculturalrelationsandinternationalsocialcapital[12].
Despitetheserecentdevelopments,studieslinkingpracticestoimpactsarestillrare,andare
onlybeginningtoemergeasapriorityforthefield.
Thepurposeofthisresearchistoexploretheimpactsofinternationalvolunteerismatthe
individual,projectandprogramlevels.Theresearchwillfocusonansweringthreekey
questions.First,whataretheperceivedcontributionsofinternationalvolunteerstodiscrete
developmentgoals?Second,whatarethevalueaddedcontributionsofvolunteersto
developmentprojectsandprogramsbeyondothertechnicalandmanagerialapproaches?Third,
whatprogramcomponentsandpracticesseemtobeassociatedwithachievingthese
outcomes?Resultsfromthisstudywillillustratethecontributionsandchallengesofintegrating
internationalvolunteersindevelopmentprojectsandprograms,andwillhelptolinkthe
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practicesoftheseprojectsandprogramstodevelopmentoutcomesforhostorganisationsand
communities.
Theresearchconsistsoftwokeymethods.First,deskresearchcompilingForummember
documentsprovidesafoundationforunderstandingcurrentprogrampractices,andaggregate
outcomesacrossForummemberorganisations.Second,primaryresearchinasinglecountry
reflectsthevoiceofcommunityorganisationsandtheintendedbeneficiariesofthese
organisations.Althoughfieldresearchinasinglecountrycannotbegeneralisedtorepresent
theprogrammaticimpactofthesectoroverall,findingsfromthefieldresearchwillbelinkedto
aggregateddeskresearchtoclarifythebroaderimplicationsofthesefindingsforpractice,
policyandfutureresearchinthesector.
ResearchDesignandMethods
DeskReview
InordertouncoverresearchthatIVCOshadpreviouslygathered,aten-questionsurveywas
emailedtoForummemberorganisationstosolicitinformationaboutpriorresearchstudiesand
evaluationsconductedinternallyorexternally.Thesurveywasadministeredonline,andwas
approvedandsenttomembersbytheForumExecutiveCoordinator.Intotal,24organisations
weresolicitedforparticipationinthedeskresearch.Atotalof14representativesofForum
memberorganisationsrespondedtothesurvey.Eightorganisationsindicatedthattheyhad
completedsomeresearchorevaluationinthepast,andwerewillingtosharethesestudiesasa
contributiontothereview.Researchersreceivedatotalof124studiesfromtheseorganisations
inEnglish,French,Norwegian,GermanandSpanishlanguages.Theinterpretationandsummary
ofnon-EnglishreportswasfacilitatedbyUNV.Alistofcontributingorganisationsisincludedin
theAppendix.Incaseswhereorganisationsrequestedthatreportsremainanonymous,andwherereportswerelessrelevant,theyarenotincludedinthislist.
Toavoidduplication,researchersalsocollaboratedwithVSO/IDSValuingVolunteeringaction
researchersduringthecollectionofmaterialsfromForummemberorganisations.Itwasagreed
thattheliteraturereviewfromtheValuingVolunteeringstudywouldfocusmoreonpublicand
publishedliterature,whilethisreviewwouldfocusongrey-literature,orinformationthathas
notbeenwidelypublishedordisseminated.Consequently,thisreviewismostlyasummaryof
non-publicreportsanddocuments,includinginternalevaluations,partnerandbeneficiary
assessments,andthird-partystudies.Itincludesinformationgatheredfromthesesourcesto
identifyprogram-levelinterventionsthathavebeenassociatedwithoutcomesorimpactsattheindividual,projectandprogramlevels.Thereviewdrawsoutcommonalitiesanddifferences
amongthesevariousstudiestoproduceasummaryofresearchconductedbyForummembers
todate.
Inadditiontosummarisingthesefindings,thereviewalsoidentifiesthestrengthsand
weaknessesofpreviousdesignsandapproachesusedacrossorganisations.Italsocompares
theseapproacheswithsimilarresearchfromorganisationsoutsideofForum.Inadditionto
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reviewingoutcomes,theintentofthedeskresearchistocomparethequalityandquantityof
memberresearchwiththeexpectedstandardsinthefields,andtorecommendpotential
changesneededtomeetgrowingdemandsforaccountabilityandmeasurableresultsfrom
governments,funders,hostingcommunitiesorotherstakeholders.Whilethedeskreviewis
publishedasaseparatepublication,itislistedaspartofthemethodologybecauseitinforms
thisreport.
SingleCountryResearchStudy
AsaglobalnetworkofIVCOs,theInternationalForumonDevelopmentServicewaswell-suited
tomobilisememberorganisationstoengageincross-comparativeresearchonvolunteer
impacts.Usinginitialresultsfromtheorganisationalsurveyanddeskreview,researchers
conductedprimaryresearchinKenyatounderstandtheimpactsofinternationalvolunteerson
individuals,projectsandprograms.Kenyawaschosenasthesiteforthecasestudyduetothe
highnumberofvolunteersfromForummemberorganisationslocatedinthiscountry.Itisalso
oneofthecountriesincludedintheValuingVolunteeringactionresearchstudyledbyVSO.
Researchersspentonemonthincountryspeakingwithvolunteers,programstaffandintended
beneficiaries.Inordertotriangulatefindingsandmethods,meetingswithstakeholderswerea
combinationofstructuredinterviews,participatoryworkshopsandquantitativesurveys.
ResearchDesign
Theresearchdesignwasaretrospectivecasecontrolstudy:measuringoutcomesofsites
receivingvolunteersatonepointintimeandreflecting,posthoc,onthevolunteers
contributions.Researchoccurredat12differentplacementsitesacrossthreelocationsin
Kenya:Nairobi,KisumuandLari.
Becausevolunteersarehostedbyanimplementingpartnerorserviceorganisation,directattributionofdevelopmenteffectivenesstothevolunteersischallenging.Alonevolunteer
programispartofthemessyrealityinwhichasingleinterventionorprogramcannotbe
isolatedfromthevariousactors(e.g.partners,donors,governmentdepartments,communities)
withwhichitwillinteract[13].AsarecentDFIDreportconcluded,mostinterventionsarea
contributorycauseandpartofacausalpackage,makingitunusualforaninterventionto
causeadevelopmenteffectonitsown[14].Consequently,determiningthecontributionof
volunteersrequiresalevelofabstractionorindirectattribution,whichcanmeasurethe
volunteerismscredibleassociationwithorganisationalcapacity,staffmorale,skill
development,resourceacquisition,etc.
Becauseofthedifficultyisolatingdiscretecontributionsofvolunteers,thegoalsoftheresearch
designaretoassesswhetherinternationalvolunteersmakeadifference,andwhetherthey
provideaddedvaluetothehostingorganisationsandcommunitiesbeyondthedirectservice
providedbypartnerorganisationsandotheractors.Conceptualissuesrelatedtotheattribution
ofdevelopmentimpacttointernationalvolunteersareaddressedintheconclusionofthis
study,astheyarebestdiscussedincontextofthefindings.However,onemethodusedto
isolateaddedvalueistodirectlyaskintendedbeneficiariestocomparethecontributionof
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volunteerswiththecontributionsofothersworkingintheorganisations(i.e.paiddevelopment
workersorfull-timestaff).Subjectivecomparisonswereassessedusingsurveysand
participatoryinterviewswithintendedbeneficiaries.
Staffmemberinterviewstookplaceinparticipatingorganisationswithstaffmemberswho
couldspeaktopotentialcontributionsofvolunteersattheprojectandprogramlevels.Staffmemberswhohadfrequentinteractionwithinternationalvolunteerswereaskedtoprovide
theirfeedbacktoquestionsonasemi-structuredinterviewguide.Interviewsateachofthe12
placementsitesconsistedofbetweenonetofourstaffmemberinterviews,andlastedan
averageof45minutestoonehour.Intotal,researchersconducted24staffmemberinterviews.
Researchersalsoadministeredanequalamountofsurveystoparticipatingstaff.Allstaff
memberinterviewswerecompletedbytheprincipalinvestigator.Theageofparticipatingstaff
membersrangedfrom24to53yearsold,withanaverageageof37years.Additional
demographiccharacteristicsofthestaffmemberinterviewsareprovidedinTable1.Alistof
participatingpartnerprogramsisprovidedinAppendixA.
Table1:Demographicstatisticsofstaffmemberinterviews(n=24)
Frequency Percentage
City
Nairobi 16 66%
Lari 4 17%
Kisumu 4 17%
Location
Urban 14 58%
Rural 6 25%
Sub-urban 4 17%
Volunteerplacementdurationa
Short-term 13 54%
Long-term 11 46%
Gender
Male 13 54%
Female 11 46%aShort-termisdefinedaslessthanfourmonths;long-termisoneyearormore.Noorganisationsreportedhostingasubstantialnumberofvolunteersthatfellinthemid-rangeoffourmonthstooneyear.
Participatoryworkshopswithcommunitymemberswerealsousedtohelpunderstand
anticipatedandunanticipatedoutcomesofinternationalservicefromtheperspectiveof
intendedbeneficiaries.Byseekingthevoiceofcommunitymembers,theresearchaimsto
informacriticalquestionoftenposedbycriticsofdevelopmentprograms:impactforwhom?
Previousresearchwithcommunitymembershasfoundthatinternationalserviceisfrequently
supply-based(fromtheGlobalNorth)ratherthandemand-based(fromtheGlobalSouth)
[9,15].InconsiderationofParisDeclarationprinciples,researchwithcommunitymembers
seekstoclarifywhetherinternationalservicealignswithprinciplesofownership,alignmentand
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mutualaccountability,wherecommunitiesandpartnerorganisationsintheSouthareleading
developmenteffortsandpriorities.
Participatoryworkshopswithcommunitymemberswereconductedatsevendifferent
placementsitesinNairobi,KisumuandLari.Theformatoftheseworkshopslargelyfollowedthe
UNVAssessingthecontributionofvolunteeringtodevelopmentmethodology[16].ThescheduleandactivitiesoftheseworkshopsisincludedinAppendixB.Participatingcommunitymembers
werechosenbythepartnerprogrambasedonthefrequencyoftheirinteractionswith
internationalvolunteers.Incaseswhereotherexpatsworkedinapartnerprogramwith
communities,researcherswerecarefultoclarifytheserelationshipsattheintroductiontothe
workshops,aswellaswhenaskingrelevantquestionsthatmightelicitsomeconfusionduring
theworkshops.Intwoofthesevenworkshops,therewassomelevelofinitialambiguity
betweenfull-timeexpatsandinternationalvolunteers.Intheremainingfiveworkshops,these
relationshipsappearedtobequiteeasilydistinguished.
Duetooccasionallanguagebarriers,alocalresearchassistantwastrainedtohelpcomplete
interviewsandtoco-facilitatetheparticipatoryworkshops.AdoctoralstudentfromtheUnited
Statesalsohelpedtofacilitateparticipatoryworkshopswiththelocalresearchassistant.The
workshopslastedforthreetofourhours,followedbyaninteractivelunchdiscussion.
Participatingcommunitymembersalsoreceivedashortsurveytomeasurerespondents
perceptionsofchangesfollowingtheinterventionsofinternationalvolunteers.Intotal,
researchersconducted59communitymemberinterviews(inworkshopformat),and
administeredsurveystoanequalnumberofparticipants.Theageofparticipatingcommunity
membersrangedfrom18to61yearsold,withanaverageageof37years.Additional
demographiccharacteristicsofthecommunitymemberinterviewsareprovidedinTable2.
Table2:Demographicstatisticsofcommunitymemberinterviews(n=59) Frequency Percentage
City
Nairobi 34 58%
Lari 12 20%
Kisumu 13 22%
Location
Urban 24 41%
Rural 12 20%
Sub-urban 23 39%
Volunteerplacementduration Short-term 36 61%
Long-term 23 39%
Gender
Male 31 52%
Female 28 48%
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Instrumentation
Researchersadaptedexistingqualitativeassessmenttoolstoassesstheimpactsofinternational
volunteersonprojectsandprograms.Thesetoolsweredevelopedandrefinedthrough
previousfieldresearchmeasuringtheperceivedcontributionsofvolunteerstothe
developmentofhostingorganisationsandcommunities[9,17].Theyalsoaimedtomeasure
variationsinprogramsandpoliciesthatmayaffectoutcomes.Inrespectforprinciplesofownershipandalignmentofevaluationresults[see18],researchersadaptedversionsofthese
instrumentsincollaborationwithstaffmembersfromlocalpartnerorganisationsinKenya.
Beforesettingthefinalevaluationprioritiesandinstruments,multipleversionsofthesurvey
toolsandinterviewguidesweredraftedfollowingfeedbackfromlocalpartnersandtheForum
ResearchWorkingGroup.
Quantitativesurveyinstrumentswerealsodevelopedbasedonpreviousresearchstudies.
Theseinstrumentswerealsoadaptedfollowingconsultationsessionswithahandfulofpartner
programstafffromKenya,aswellasacademiccolleagues.Overthepasttenyears,anumberof
studieshavequalitativelyassessedtheperceivedcontributionsofinternationalvolunteer
servicebutfewhavequantitativelymeasuredvolunteerscontributionstodevelopment.The
surveysadministeredinthisstudyseektotestthemeritofpreviouslyidentifiedcontributions,
withtheaimofdevelopingandtestingpotentialhypothesesinfuturestudies.Surveyswere
administeredfollowingtheconclusionofstaffinterviewsandatthemidpointofparticipatory
workshopswithcommunitymembers.Althoughbasicdemographicdataweregathered,all
surveyswerecompletedanonymously.
Analyses
Descriptivestatisticswererunonallsurveydatatounderstandhoworganisationalstaffand
communitymembersperceivedtheuniquecontributionsofvolunteers.BarchartsarepresentedintheFindingssectionofthisreport,alongwithdescriptivestatisticstobetter
illustrateparticipantsperceptions.Ineachcasewhereastatisticallysignificantdifferencewas
evidentbyaprogramcomponent(seeordinalregressionmethods,below)barchartsare
presentedseparatelyaccordingtothisvariableofdifference.Incaseswherenosignificant
differenceisevident,barchartsarepresentedasasimplefrequencyofresponsestothesurvey
question.
Ordinalregressions(polytomousuniversalmodels)wererunoneachoutcometodetermine
anysignificantdifferencesbykeyprogrammaticelements.Specifically,thefollowingvariables
wereincludedasindependentvariablesinthesemodels:duration,location,genderofthe
respondentandageoftherespondent.Durationwasdichotomisedbyshort-term(lessthan
fourmonths)andlong-term(oneyearormore).Noprogramsreportedhostingasubstantial
numberofvolunteersthatfellinthemid-rangeoffourmonthstooneyear.Locationwassub-
dividedanddummy-codedintothreecategories:rural,sub-urbanandurban,dependingon
wherethepartnerprogramwasoperating.Resultsofthe33regressionmodelsarenot
presented.However,areasofstatisticaldifferenceareillustratedinthebarchartspresentedin
theFindingssection.
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Transcriptionandtranslationofalldigitallyrecordedinterviewsandparticipatory
workshopswerecompletedinpreparationforqualitativeanalysis.Forthemostpart,English
wastheprimarylanguagespokenduringtheinterviews.However,participantsinthe
workshopsoccasionallyspokeinSwahili,whichwasdirectlyinterpretedbythelocalresearch
assistantduringtheworkshops.Twolocalconsultantstranscribedandtranslatedalldigitalrecordings.
Qualitativeanalysishasonlyjustbeguninpreparationforthisprovisionalreport.Findingsin
thisreportarebasedonfieldnotesofkeypointstakenaftereachstaffinterviewand
participatoryworkshop.Codingofresponsesofthekeyquestionsfromtheinterviewguide
providesasenseofdirection.However,moreformalqualitativedataanalysisisstillunderway.
InitialcodingofkeyresponseswasperformedusingNVivo,aqualitativeanalysissoftware
package,touncoverkeythemesandfrequenciesofresponses.Alltranslatedtranscriptionsand
researcherfieldnoteswillbeincludedinthefinalanalysis.Althoughacodingplanof
anticipatedcodeswasinitiallydeveloped,basedonalimitednumberofpreviousstudiesonthis
topic,thefinalconceptualschemawillbedevelopeddirectlyfromthedatapost-hoc.Thus,
qualitativeanalysiswillbeamixtureofcodingdown,basedoninformationcontainedin
research,andagrounded-theory(codingup)approachbasedonnewideasobtainedfromthe
interviews[19].
FindingsandDiscussion
Asmentionedinthepreviousdiscussiononresearchdesign,aprimarygoalofthisresearchisto
assesswhetherinternationalvolunteersdeliveraddedvaluetothehostingorganisationsand
communities,enhancingtheservicesalreadyprovidedbypartnerorganisations.Outcomesare
assessedattheindividual,programandprojectlevels.Inaddition,theresearchseekstolink
individualandinstitutionalpracticestooutcomesinordertobetterunderstandhowprojects
andprogramscanbestructuredtoachievetheseoutcomes.A2008reviewofliterature
assessingtheeffectsofinternationalvolunteeringandservicefoundthatvolunteerattributes,
institutionalattributesandvariationsintheserviceactivityaffecttheoutcomesofservicein
differentways[5].Figure1providesacondensedconceptualmodelillustratinghowdifferent
helping(orhindering)factorsmayaffectoutcomes.
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Figure1:Conceptualmodellinkingattributesandpracticeswithserviceoutcomes
ThisFindingssectionbeginsbelowbydescribingvolunteerskeycontributionstodevelopment
projectsandprogramsasarticulatedbythestaffmembersofpartnerorganisations.Itthen
describeskeycontributionstotheindividual,familyandcommunityasarticulatedbymembers
ofthehostingcommunities.Inordertobetterisolatetheuniquecontributionsofinternational
volunteerism,itfurtherexplorestheaddedvalueofinternationalvolunteerstodevelopment
programsincomparisonwithfulltimedevelopmentstafforlocalpartnerprogramstaff
members.Finally,itdescribesthevariouscontributingcausesorhelpingfactorsthatseemto
affecttheseoutcomes.
KeyContributions
Staffmembersofpartnerprogramsoutlinedalargevarietyofpotentialcontributionsresulting
fromtheworkofinternationalvolunteers.Giventhebreadthofcontributions,notallare
coveredindetailinthisreport.Forthesakeofbrevity,onlykeyoutcomesthosethatwere
mentionedinatleastsix(25percent)ofthe24interviewsarecovered.Thesefallunderthe
generalcategoriesofcapacitybuilding,resourceacquisitionandtheachievementof
developmentgoals.Becausequalitativedataanalysisisstillunderway,additionalthemesmay
yetemerge.
CapacityBuilding
Organisationalcapacityisdefinedasmanagementpracticesandorganizationalprocessesthat
helpvolunteerhostingorganisationsaccomplishtheirmissions[20].Buildingorganisational
capacityaddstotheabilityofdevelopmentorganisationstoachievetheirmissionandgoals,
andtomeettheneedsofintendedbeneficiaries[21].Accordingtofindingsfromthisresearch,
VolunteerAttributes
Education/skills
Race
Nationality
Age
Gender
Language
Culturalcompetence
InstitutionalAttributesMissionandgoals
Trainingandsupport
ServiceActivity
Duration
Group/solo
Directionality
Continuity
Projects
Programs
Individual
Outcomes
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internationalvolunteerspotentiallycontributetothesepracticesandprocessesinanumberof
ways.Theyhelpdevelophumancapitalandskillsincommunitiesandorganisations;they
promoteacultureofprofessionalismandtimemanagementthatappearstohavevalueto
hostingorganisations;andtheycontributeresourcesdirectlyoractasbridgestolinkpeople
ororganisationswithexternalresources.Therelationship-basedengagementinherentin
internationalvolunteeringhasbeenreportedasoneofthemostimportantfactorscontributingtothesuccessfulcapacitydevelopmentinitiatives[11,22].
IntheKenyancontext,itisimportanttonotethatcommentsoncapacitybuildingwereoften
embeddedwithinageneraldiscourseabouttheraceandthenationalityofvolunteersasWhite
Westerners.Thereseemedtobeastrongbelieffromstaffandcommunitymembersalikethat
manyoftheideastaughtandmodelledbyinternationalvolunteerswerenotonlynewand
innovativebutwerealsoperceivedasbetter.Thequotebelowillustratesthisconceptbriefly.
AlthoughracialandNorth-Southissuesarecoveredingreaterdepthlaterunderthediscussion
ofvolunteerattributes,itmaybeimportanttoconsiderthislensasreadersconsiderthe
followingperceivedcontributions:
Westernershavedifferentstyles;thewayofhowtheylookatthings....Youfindthatwelearna
lotofinformationfromtheseoutsiders.Whentheycome,youlistentotheirtopic.Whenwe
getpeopleliketheWhitescomingtoacountrylikeours,wethinktheyaremuchbetterthanus.
Researchoninternationalvolunteerservicehassoughttoidentifywhethervolunteersfillgaps
inlocalknowledgethroughtechnicalorspecialistexpertise[16,23].Previousstudieshave
foundthatvolunteersmaydevelophumanresourcesbycontributingskills,informationand
knowledgethatmaynototherwisebeavailableinthehostingorganisationsandcommunities
[24].Nearly70percentofcommunitymembersagreedthatinternationalvolunteersteach
skillsthatwouldnototherwisebeavailableintheircommunity.Anexamplebelowillustratesoneofmanysuchcontributions:
[Volunteers]haveengagedthecommunityinwaterprojects.Theyusetheirtechnicalexpertise
atthegroundleveltoshowpeoplehowtodigthecanals;howtomakethecommunitybased
damsandnowpeoplecanirrigatetheirfarms;peoplecangrowfood.[Referringtoaclose-by
ruraldistrict]Itwasabarrenland;nowpeoplearehavingabumperharvest.Soforacommunity
that,twoyearsago,wasbeingfedonrelieffoodcurrentlyasnowwearespeaking,ithasa
surpluswherebytheyaresellingsomeofthebumperharvesttotheotherdistricts.Sowhenit
comestopovertyeradication,Ithinktheyplayabigrolewhentheyengagetheirtechnical
expertise.
Withinorganisations,volunteerswereviewedasbeinghelpfulatteachingmanagement,
planningandmarketingskills.Findingsfromotherresearchcorroboratethesefindings[25-27].
Whilethereisnoquantitativemeasureofskill-buildingattheprogramandprojectlevelsinthis
study,thisoutcomewashighlyevidentinqualitativeinterviewswithstaffmembers.For
instance,oneofthemostfrequentlycitedcontributionsofinternationalvolunteersatthe
programlevelwasinstillingstrongerexpectationsforprofessionalismandtime
managementamongprogramstaff.Speakingwithvolunteers,thisoftenseemedtobean
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unintentionalcontribution,yetstaffmemberscitedthediffusionofaWesterncultureof
professionalismasaprominentadvantageofhostinginternationalvolunteersintheir
organisations.ThisfindingmaybeuniquetotheconceptionsoftimeusageinKenya,andmay
notbeviewedbysomeasauniversalimprovement.However,staffmembersmaintainedthat
thiswasasignificantcontributiontotheirorganisations.
Communitymembersperceptionsabouttheutilityofvolunteersforskillsdifferedsignificantly
betweenshorter-andlonger-termvolunteers.1Nearly85percentofcommunitymembers
interactingwithlong-termvolunteersagreedthatvolunteerstaughtnewskills,whileonly56
percentofthoseinteractingwithshort-termvolunteersagreedwiththisstatement(seeFigure
2).Interviewssuggestthatshort-termvolunteerswereperceivedasmostlyeffectivewhenthey
hadaspecifictechnicalskilltoteachduringatrainingsessionorworkshop.
*Note:placementdurationiscloselycorrelatedwiththeageandskilllevelofvolunteers
Examplesofskillslearnedduringworkshopsincludedtopicsrangingfrombookkeepingto
customerrelations,marketingandfundraising.Onefocusgroupcitedanexampleofa
successfulfive-dayintensiveworkshoponHIV/AIDSwithstudentsandteachers.Theyremarked
thatthisinformationwasofferedinanewandexcitinginteractiveformat,andtheywitnessed
studentstakingtheinformationbacktotheirschoolstouseineducatingtheirpeers.Otherscitedthatvolunteerstaughtinnovativetechniquesforfundraisinglocallyandabroad.There
wereeffortsbysomevolunteerstobuildorganisationalcapacityintheareaofgrantand
proposalwriting.However,therewasnostrongevidencetosuggestsustainableimprovements
1Anumberofadditionalattributesarecloselycorrelatedwiththedurationofvolunteerserviceplacements,
includingtheageandeducational/skilllevelofthevolunteers,thefundingpolicyofdonors,etc.Thus,timelength
isnottheonlyeffectofdifferencewhenconsideringplacementduration.
StronglyDisagree 2 3 4 StronglyAgree
Short-term 21% 18% 6% 32% 24%
Long-term 5% 5% 5% 10% 75%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Figure2:Internaonalvolunteersteachskillsthatwould
nototherwisebeavailableincommunity
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inthisareawhenvolunteersleft.Infact,anumberofstaffandcommunitymembersexpressed
anxietythatfundingwoulddryupfollowingthedepartureofvolunteers.Train-the-trainer
programsalsoseemedtobeprominentcapacity-buildingmethodsforlocalvolunteersandstaff
members.Thesetypeofprogramswereparticularlyvaluedinruralareaswereexpertisein
neededareaswaslow.
Whilemanyexamplesofskill-buildingwereprovided,thefocuswasoftenonnewor
innovativeconceptsandideas.Whenaskedwhetherpeoplewithintheircommunityor
countrycouldteachsimilarskills,somecommentedthatthiswaspossiblebutsuggestedthat
thiswouldbeexpensiveandwouldlikelyberejectedbycommunitymembers.Threemembers
inthreeseparateworkshopsandlocationscitedaphrasefromtheBiblethat,Aprophetisnot
recognizedinhisownland(Luke4:2),indicatingthatthisislikelyacommonperceptionamong
communitymembers.Communitiesseemtohaveaheightenedinterestin,andrespectfor,
trainingbypeoplefromoutsideoftheirlocalcommunity.
Financialmanagementwasanotherareawherecommunitymembersexpressedaspecial
appreciationforvolunteers.Volunteerstaughtseminarsonearningandsavingmoney,andon
theimportanceofbudgetingandspendingmoneyonpriorityitems.Theyalsointroducednew
ideassuchasmicrofinancingandotherentrepreneurialprojectsdesignedtoincreasethe
livelihoodofcommunitymembers.Asonecommunitymemberrecalled,microfinancewasa
conceptthatshebelievedwouldnothaveemergedorganically:
In2006,wehadavolunteertalkingabouthowwomencanorganizethemselvestolendeach
othermoney.ItwasaveryforeignthinghereAftershehadgone,thereistremendousprogress
inwomenthisday.Inthegroups,womenlikeit,anditisreallyimprovingthelivesofwomenin
theruralareasandinthetownhereitisaverygreatthingvolunteershavedone.
ResourceAcquisition
Anoft-citedcontributionofinternationalvolunteerswastheirabilitytoattracttangibleand
intangibleresources,includingmoneyandaid,networksofsupportandconcreteopportunities
forcollaboration[9,28-31].Inaddition,volunteersoftenpayfromtheirownpocketstoprovide
serviceswhenprogramsareunwillingorunabletohelp[32].Onestaffmembergaveapersonal
exampleofhowavolunteerprovidedresourceswhentheorganisationwasnotabletoassist:
[Thevolunteer]tookmeasherownson,whichtheorganisationdidnotdo,andagainshewent
toanextentofpayingmyrentforthreegoodmonthsandevenmydaughtercouldgotoschool
becauseofher.Yeah,aftershewentback,infactshewasreleasingmoneyeverymonth.
Whileotherinterviewsdidnotciteasimilarlevelofresourcesupportfromvolunteers,many
recalledreceivingatleastminimalresourcesupportfromvolunteers,particularlyfromthose
whowereonlyinthecountryforashorttime.Itisnotclearwhetherthesecontributionscanbe
considereddevelopmental,assuchcontributionsareoftenviewedaspaternalisticand
furtheringadependencymindset.Whilesuchcontributionsarecharitable,theyarenot
typicallysustainable,andthusmaynotbeconsideredadevelopmentimpact.
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Inadditiontoresourcesdonateddirectlybyvolunteers,theyoftenusedtheirsocialcapitalto
leverageadditionalresourceswhileincountryandaftertheyreturnedhome.Asastaff
memberexplained:
AvolunteerfromAustraliamanagedtogetsomeconsignmentofusedclothes.Itwasalotandwespreaditalloverthecountry.Throughthat,wewereabletotell[thecommunitymembers],
yousee,someofthevolunteersweworkwith,whentheygobacktotheircountries,theysee
thechallengeswegothroughandtheyareabletogolobbyforsupportandwhatever
resources.
Manycommunitymembersalsobelievedthatvolunteerscouldprovidesupervisionofprojects
thatthegovernmentwouldnototherwisefund.Thus,havingavolunteerintheorganisation
mayindirectlyincreaseresourcesfortheorganisation.Thisisrelatedtoaperceptionofhigher
accountabilityandtrustofinternationalvolunteers,whichisdescribedlaterinthisreport.2
Tothedegreethatinternationalvolunteersprovideresourcesandlinkpartnerorganisationswithadditionalsourcesofaid,theymaycontributetodevelopmentoftheorganisation.While
itisunknownwhetherthisleadstosustainabledevelopmentoverthelongterm,diversification
ofresourcescanprovidegreaterflexibilityandmayhelpcombatresourcedependence[33].On
theotherhand,whenvolunteersbecomeaprimarysourceoffunding,partnerorganisations
maybecomedependent,thusincreasingrelianceoncontinuedphilanthropy.
Volunteerswerealsoviewedasalabourresource,andasameansofmotivatingcitizensand
localvolunteersashumanresources.Asstatedbytheadvocacyofficerofanorganisationthat
hostsyoung,short-termvolunteers:
BecauseofAfricakindofperception,wheneveryouseeaWhite,thereisthisfeelingthatprobably...thereseemstobealotofenthusiasmandalotofinterestthatisdevelopedby
communitiestoreallylearn,andalsocooperate...sowhenwehavesomeoneextracomeon
boardthenthatmeansweveincreasedthenumberofpeopleworkingdownthecommunity.So
weareabletoatleastincreasethenumberofactivitiesandprogramswearerunning.Soyou
getextrapeopleandweareabletodoalotofworkwithinagivenperiodoftime.Thathasbeen
verycriticalinourwork.
Despitetheperceivedvalueofvolunteersasgeneratorsofresources,only33percentofstaff
membersbelievedtheyhadgreateraccesstoresourcesthanpaiddevelopmentworkers(see
Figure3).Thus,resourcecontributionsfromvolunteerservicewerenotnecessarilyviewedasofferinggreatervaluethanstandarddevelopmentprogramswithoutvolunteers.Thismaybea
positivefinding,however,asitmayhelptopromotelocalownership.AsDevereux(2010)
explains:
2Socialcapitalislistedasasub-conceptofresourcesbecausesocialcapitalisoftenassociatedwithresource
mobilisation,andtheeconomicvalueofthesenetworksascapitalisrelatedtovolunteersabilitytocoordinate
actionandgenerateadditionalresources.
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IVCOshavefrequentlyusedacommunitydevelopmentmodelofhavingavolunteerwithina
localorganisationbutnotwithpoweroverwhatthatorganisationdoes.Thispotentially
providesgoodlevelsoflocalownershipandaccountability...Thisalsomeansthevolunteersare
atthemercyoflocalresource,managementandotherconstraintsoverwhichheorshehasvery
little,ifany,control.
Thissuggeststhat,althoughtheslowerpaceofvolunteersmayleadtogreatertrustand
sustainability,theymayalsohavelesspowerandfewerresourcestodrivechange[2].Perhaps
asaresult,thismaypromotelocalchange,ownershipandhome-growncapacitydevelopment
[3].Inaddition,manyrespondentsrecalledcontributionsmadebyvolunteersafterthey
returnedhome,whichwasnotmentionedwhendescribingthebenefitsofpaiddevelopment
workers.
Communitymembersexpressedsomefrustrationthatvolunteerswerenotabletoprovideor
obtainaccesstoneededresources.Anumberofcommunitymembersremarkedthattheyhad
askedvolunteersforassistanceinfindingdonorsandfunding,orforprovidingresources
directly.However,commentssuggestthatvolunteerswerenotalwaysmeetingtheir
expectationsinthisregard,asthefollowingcommentsillustrate:Ifvolunteerscanhaveaway
tohelpthegroupstohavedonorsbecausewewewouldliketohavethedonorsbecausewe
relyonourselves;Iwouldalsoliketoallthosegroupscomingtoberememberinggirlsinthe
schoolprovidingsanitarytowelsalltheonbehalfofallthegirls;Wewouldlikemoregroups
tocometosupportthehandworkcraftwork,please.
Theseexpectationsseemtoposeachallengeforpartnerprograms.Manyexpressedconcern
thatmembersofthecommunityoftenlosetrustinstaffmemberswhoworkcloselywith
volunteerswhentheyfailtoproducemoneyorresourceswhensolicited.Staffmembersoften
havetoworkhardtomanagetheexpectationsofcommunitymembers:
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Less
resources
Thesame More
resources
Figure3:Comparedtopaid
developmentworkers:Howmanyresourcesareavailableto
internaonalvolunteers?
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WhensomebodyseesaWhitethisishowwecallthem,mzungu3andthatmeansaWhiteso
thecommunityexpectstobegiven,toexpectsomepayments,somemoneyoralotofhandouts
fromtheseWhites.Ormaybewheneverwecallforameeting,thereisabeliefthatallthose
guyshavecomewithalotofcash,soyouneedtogiveusmoney.Astheorganisationwehave
grapplewithitalot.
Althoughtheperceivedvalueofvolunteersresourcecontributionswasasignificantoutcomein
boththestaffinterviewsandcommunityworkshops,theyconsistentlyassertedthatmanyof
thecontributionsofinternationalvolunteerscannotbemeasuredmonetarily.Infact,oneof
thequestionsposedtostaffmembersintheinterviewswas,Giventhechoicebetween:(1)
receivinganinternationalvolunteeror(2)receivingdevelopmentaidthatwouldotherwisebe
usedtosupportthevolunteer,whichwouldyouprefer?Everystaffmemberinterviewed(100
percent)statedthatgiventhischoice,theywouldchooseavolunteer(althoughactual
amountsofaiddisbursementswerenotindicated).Whenaskedwhytheywouldmakethis
choice,somebelievedthatvolunteerscouldleverageadditionalmoney,whichwouldlikely
exceedtheinitialallotment.However,manyalsostatedthattherelationships,capacitybuilding
andlearningreceivedfrominternationalvolunteersishardtoputavalueon.
Theinterviewsalsoaskedaboutthechallengesofhostinginternationalvolunteers.Previous
researchsuggeststhathostingvolunteersrequirestraining,supportandresources,and
thereforemayconsumescarceorganisationalresourcesandtime[34].Staffmembersindicated
thatsomevolunteersdidcomewithoutmeansofsupport.Hostingthesevolunteersappeared
torequireextraorganisationalorcommunityresources:
Attimesweareforcedtostretch,becauseattimestheycomeasvolunteersasyou
understandandtheyhavenotbeenallocatedsomefundstohelptheminmovementand
maybeintransportandmaybelunchanyotherthings.Soweareforcedtoreallydigintoour
pocketsandtoreallychipinandsupportthem.Ah,thatagainhasbeenaverybigchallengeto
us.
Inadditiontofinancialresources,organisationsalsoreportedchallengeswithallocatingstaff
timetosupportvolunteers,aseachnewvolunteerrequiresorientation,trainingandgreater
attention.Becauseorganisationshostinglonger-termvolunteersdidnotcitethesechallenges,
thismaybeparticularlyapplicabletoorganisationshostingshorter-termvolunteers.Thisisnot
anexclusivelynegativefinding,however.Organisationsthatcontributesomeresourcesmay
havegreaterbuy-intodevelopmentprojects,leadingtomorelocallyownedefforts.
DevelopmentGoals(MDGs)
AsstressedinarecentDFIDreport,thereisatrade-offbetweenthescopeofaprogramand
strengthofcausalinference.Itiseasiertomakestrongcausalclaimsfornarrowlydefined
interventionsandmoredifficulttodosoforbroadlydefinedprograms[14].Asdescribed
earlierintheresearchdesign,thebroadvarietyofprogramssampled,incombinationwiththe
3Literallytranslatedasanaimlesswanderer,buttypicallyreferringtoWhitepersonorapersonfromtheWest.
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smalln-sizeoftheseprograms,makesitdifficulttoassessthecontributionsofvolunteersto
discretedevelopmentgoals.However,inordertobetterunderstandthepotentialcontributions
ofinternationalvolunteers,communitymemberswereaskedtosubjectivelyrankvolunteers
contributionstotheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(seeAppendixB,fullgroupexerciseD:
internationalvolunteerscontributionstodevelopment).Alistofthe15participatingprograms
isprovidedinAppendixA.Consideringthestatedgoalsandprioritiesoftheseorganisations,reviewingthislistmayhelpilluminatewhycertaingoalswererankedhigherthanothers.
Findingsfromthesampleofprogramsincludedinthisstudysuggestthatvolunteerscontribute
themosttopromotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomen(73percent)anddevelopinga
globalpartnershipfordevelopment(66percent)seeFigure4.Communitymembers
perceptionsofthesegoalsaredescribedingreaterdetailbelow.ApartfromspecificMDGs,
volunteersalsocontributetopeacebuildinginitiativesinKenya.Additionalcontributionswill
likelyemergefromparticipatoryworkshopsfollowingin-depthqualitativeanalysesofthese
data.
*Theserankingsarenotconsideredgeneralisable.Theyrepresenttheopinionsofasampleof54community
membersservedbysevenpartnerprograms.
Povertyandhunger
Althoughvolunteerscontributionstopovertyreductioncameupfrequently,itwastypically
couchedwithinadiscussionofcapacitybuildingorresourceacquisition(seeabove).Itwasalso
frequentlylinkedtooneormoreoftheotherdevelopmentgoals.Forinstance,community
membersdescribedhowvolunteerswouldfacilitateorteachworkshopsrelatedtoagribusiness
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Count:Communitymemberpercepons
Figure4:PerceivedContribuonsofInternaonalVolunteersto
MillenniumDevelopmentGoals*
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orwouldhelpsupportmicrofinanceorentrepreneurialenterprises.Othersdescribedhow
educationenhancespossibilitiesforemploymentandlivelihoods.
Situationswherepovertyreductionwasdescribedinisolationreferredtoworkshopsor
trainingsaboutself-reliance.Forinstance,onecommunitymemberstated,Whenyouteach
peoplehowtodependonthemselvesyoueradicatepovertyfromthem.ThatiswhyIgive[thevolunteer]thispointbecauseshehastaughtushowtomanageyourself;howyoucanrelyon
yourselfwithoutsearchingforotherhelpfromoutside.Commentssuchasthisonewerenot
common,however.Itwasmorecustomaryforcommunitymemberstoassociateinternational
volunteerismwithreceivingadditionalresourcesfromtheoutside,therebyhelpingtoaddress
povertyanddeprivation.Asdiscussedearlier,whilesuchresourcesareviewedashelpful,their
contributionstodevelopmentaresuspect.
Primaryeducation
Teachingchildreninschoolswascommonlyreferencedinrelationtovolunteerscontributions
toprimaryeducation.However,manyofthecommentsinthisareaalsoreferredtovolunteers
abilitiestogarnerresourcestosupportschoolsandstudents.Somespokeoffundraisingeffortsofvolunteersaftertheyreturnedhome,whileahandfulprovidedexamplesofvolunteers
assumingfinancialresponsibilityforachild.Asonecommunitymemberillustrated,Theyalso
sponsorsomechildrenintheirowncapacities,yousee.Theygivepromisesandthentheywork
onthosepromises...sothatisalsofortheupliftingofuniversalprimaryeducation.Thus,
volunteerscontributionstoprimaryeducationseemtobedirectaseducatorsandhelpersin
schoolsaswellasindirectaspatrons/sponsorsofschoolsorschool-agedchildren.
Genderequity
AsnotedinFigure4,genderequitywasviewedasoneofthegreatestcontributionsof
volunteerstoMDGs.Volunteersseemtopromotegenderequitybybothinstructionandby
example.Anumberofcommunitymembersstatedthattheylearnedmuchfromvolunteers
aboutnotdiscriminatingagainstwomen.Theygaveexamplesabouthowtheirperceptionsof
whatpeopleofdifferentgenderscanorshouldaccomplishhadchangedfollowingtheir
interactionswithvolunteers.Asonecommunitymemberstated,Onpromotionofgender
equality,volunteerscomeinbothgenders,andthatmakesusbelievethatbothcandothe
sameandthenweareempoweringwomenbecause,Illsaythatwhatamancandoawoman
cando.Otherdescriptionsweregivenabouthowmaleinternationalvolunteersperformed
whatistraditionallyconsideredwomenswork,therebychallengingstereotypesand
traditionalgenderroles.
Inadditiontoaffectingopinionsandperceptionsaboutgenderrolesandcapabilities,theworkofvolunteersmayalsochangebehavioursastheypushforgenderequity.Adescriptionfroma
malecommunitymemberbelowdescribeshowhisbehaviourschangedfollowinginteractions
withinternationalvolunteers:
Atourgrassrootslevelweliveinamendominatedsociety,sothemajorityofour
engagementweusedtooverlook[women].nowitcametoengagementwiththe
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volunteerstheyusedtoinsist,wherearethewomen?Wherearetheladies?SoIhad
toengagetheladiesinwhateveractivitythatweweredoing.sosincethen,whatever
wedoyouhearthatpeoplecallingandconsidergenderthereisnothingwecando
withoutbalancinggender.
Interestingly,therewassomeconcernthatvolunteersemphasisonequityforwomenmightactuallybeswingingtoofar,therebyunbalancinggenderequityforboysandmen.Asdescribed
byonecommunitymember,becausewomenarenowover-empoweredthemenareleft
behind.Thisisanotherissuethatiscoming.Amajorityofthegirlsaresoempoweredandwe
haveforgottentheboys.Thissentimentwasexpressedbythreedifferentcommunity
membersintwoseparateworkshops.Therefore,furtherinvestigationmaybeneededtobetter
understandhowinternationalvolunteersteachandportraygenderequity.
Health
Healthimpactsappearedtobethelowestareaofcontributionbyinternationalvolunteers
amongthesampledprograms.Asmentionedearlier,thisfindingmayonlyvalidlyapplytothe
partnerprogramscoveredinthisstudy.Ontheotherhand,thismayalsoreflectvolunteerstraining,skillsandpriorities.Onecommunitymemberremarkedhowtheirorganisationplacesa
focusonhealthbutsuggestedthatvolunteerswithlittlehealthtrainingcouldnotcontribute
substantiallytothisgoal:
MostvolunteerswegetfromEuropearestudents.Theyarespecifictoaparticulararea,like
socialwork.Insocialwork,youllfindthattheyonlyfocusontwoofthesemillenniumgoals.Like
maybetoeradicateextremepovertyandhunger[and]genderequalityandempoweringof
women.Butthingstodowithreductionofchildmortality,improvedmaternalhealthcareeven
thoughtheorganisationispreparedtogowiththosemillenniumgoals[volunteers]arenot
positioned[tohelp]accordingtothecareersthattheyhavetaken.
Insituationswherevolunteersdidpromotehealth,however,theyseemedtoprioritisethe
followingareas:HIV/AIDS,malaria,handwashing,sanitationanddruguse/abuse.Again,
however,thismayberelatedtotheprogramssampledandthusmaynotbegeneralisabletoall
internationalvolunteerprogramsinKenya.Volunteerstaughtaboutcommunicablediseases,
providedtrainingsontheuseofcondomsforwomenandmen,thedangerofusedneedles
duringdruguse,sexualabstinence,andotherissuesrelatedtopreventionandspreadingof
disease.Muchofthiseducationappearedtotakeplaceinschools,thoughsomewerealso
organisedincommunityforumsandplacesofbusiness.Afewpeoplecommentedonhow
volunteerswerehelpfulinconfrontingculturalissuesortraditionsthatoftenpreventedpeople
fromgettingtestedforHIV/AIDSorothercommunicablediseases.
Environment
Environmentalsustainabilitywasacoremissionofoneofthepartnerprogramsparticipatingin
thisstudy.Thus,manyexamplesweregivenaboutvolunteerscontributionstothe
environmentthroughtreeplanting,forestmanagement,communitytrainings,etc.However,it
wasnotclearhowtheeffortsofvolunteersweredifferentfromotherpaidstaffor
developmentworkers.
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Membersfromotherorganisationsthatwerelessfocusedontheenvironmentstatedthatthey
alsolearnedabouttheimportanceofenvironmentalissuesfrominternationalvolunteers.One
communitymemberexplainedhowthevolunteersencouragedhertoreduce,reuse,and
recycle,laterdescribinghowshereusedlardbucketsforothertasksaroundthehome.
Anotherdescribedhowvolunteerswouldorganiseandimplementtrainingsonenvironmentalissuesandcommunityclean-upcampaigns.Onecommunitymemberdescribedoneofthese
trainings:
Thevolunteerscomewithvastknowledgeonissuesofenvironment...Theycomewithdifferent
technologiestotrainourcommunitymembersonissuesofsustainingourenvironmentSofora
longtimeKenyahasnothadenvironmentaliststoworkinourcountry.Itismajorareaandthey
havehelpedus,thevolunteers.
Globalpartnerships
Volunteerscontributionstoglobalpartnershipsfordevelopmentwerethesecondmost
frequentlycitedcontributiontodevelopment.Partnershipswereoftenviewedasimportantforthebridgingsocialcapitaltheyprovide,asdescribedaboveunderthediscussionofresources.
Communitymembersviewedpartnershipsascloselyconnectedresources,asdescribedbya
fewcommunitymembers:
Definitelyweneedthepartnership[withvolunteers],itisveryimportantforustodevelop;
becausewithoutitthereissomuchthatwemaynotbeabletoaddress;becausesome
countries[i.e.Kenya]lackresources.Sothatpartnershipisveryimportantastheresourcesit
tiestous.Whentheyengagetheirfellowfoundationswithintheircountriestocomeandwork
withus,thatsaglobalpartnershipthatbuildscapacity!
Volunteersoccupyasomewhatuniquepositioninthedevelopmentsector.Theyareconnectedtodevelopmentorganisationswhilealsoworkingdirectlywithcommunitymembersandlocal
organisations.Becauseofthisposition,theyoftenserveaslinkagesbetweenthesetwo
stakeholders,communicatingtheinterestsandneedsofcommunitiesatthegrassrootslevelto
governmentsorotherfundingorganisations.Thecommentbelowillustratesthatcommunity
membersrecogniseandvaluethevolunteersrolesasintermediaries:
Throughavolunteerinthecommunitygrassrootslevelwewereable,orshewasable,tobring
Germanygovernmentdelegation...inapositiontofund,tosendtheirmoneyknowingthat
whereverthemoneyisgoingitisgoingforanoblecause.SowhenitcomestoKenyaand
Germanpartnership,itwasaplusthroughtheeffortsofavolunteeratthegrassrootlevel.
Asdescribedingreaterdetailbelow,manystaffandcommunitymembersbelievethathavinga
volunteerworkintheorganisationorcommunityincreasesexternaltrustoftheprogramand
project.Consequently,theybelievefundersaremorelikelytosupportprojectsandprograms
thatinvolvevolunteers.Whetherornotthisistrueempirically,thisseemstobeacommon
perceptionamongthoseinterviewed.
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Toassessthecounterfactual,researchersaskedhowthingswouldbedifferentifvolunteershad
notcometotheorganisation.Inresponse,manypeoplesaidtherewouldbeafeelingof
isolationandlesslifeintheirprojectsandprograms.Asonecommunitymemberarticulated:
IfIheartherearenovolunteers,itwouldimpactmeandfeellike,Oooh,nowweareleftalone;
wedonthaveanyfriends;wedonthavenothing.butwhentheyarehere,Iseethemworking.Ifeel,Oohwestillhavefriendssomewhere.
Individualandorganisationalpartnershipsbetweenvolunteersandtheirhostsseemtoreach
beyondtheinstrumentalvaluetheymightprovideassocialcapital.Theyappeartoprovidea
feelingofglobalsolidarityandconnectionthathasrealvaluetohostcommunitiesand
organisations.Theyencourageinternationalunderstandingastheysharetechnicaladviceand
expertise.
Peaceandconflict-resolution
InadditiontotheMDGs,communitymemberswereaskedwhethervolunteerscontributein
othersubstantialareasofdevelopment.Volunteerscontributionstopeacebuildingwerediscussedafewtimesbycommunitymembersparticipatinginthisstudy,thoughthiswasonly
akeyobjectiveofoneofthesampledprograms.Incaseswherepeacebuildingwasmentioned,
volunteerscontributionsweremostevidentwhendiscussingthepost-electionviolencein
2008.Onecommunitydescribedhowvolunteersareengagedinareaswhereethnicconflict
maymakeitdifficultfornativeKenyanstomediateconflict:Volunteersinviolenthotspotsare
engagingtheNGOsinthecommunityinconflictmanagementandpeaceresolution
mechanisms,andtheyaredoingacommendablejob.
Theinvolvementofvolunteersinpeaceandconflictisalsofrequentlymentionedinother
research,whichsuggeststheymayplayaneutralorunbiasedroleinconflictsituations,and
mayreduceconflictbybringingdiversegroupsofpeopletogether.Thishasalsobeen
documentedinrecentresearchonvolunteerisminEasternAfrica[35,36].
TherealsoseemstobealinkbetweenvolunteersfromtheNorthandeducationforpeace
building.Asonecommunitymemberstated,referringtovolunteersfromGermanyandthe
UnitedStatesspecifically,Sinceournationwenttosomeviolence,intopost-election...weve
seeninternationalorganisationswhobringinvolunteerstopromoteandeducateespeciallythe
communitiesonhowtolivepeacefullyandharmoniouswitheachother.Becausevolunteers
donothavestrongbiasesforapreferredethnicgroup,theymaybeabletospeakmore
objectivelyaboutissuesofconflictbetweengroups.
Quantitatively,peacebuildingwasnotamajorcontributioncomparedtootherareas,
particularlyforshorter-termvolunteers(seeFigure5).However,around40percentof
membersworkingwithlonger-termvolunteersagreedthatinternationalvolunteershelpto
solveethnicdisagreementsintheircommunity.
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Communitymembersprovidedexamplesnotonlyofhowvolunteerscontributetointer-ethnic
peacewithintheregion,butalsohowtheycontributetoglobalpeaceaspeoplefromdiverse
nationscometogether.Asonecommunitymemberstated,Apartfrombeingvolunteers,they
arealsoambassadorsoftheircountriesbecausewetendtoknowmoreabouttheircountries
throughthemsoitalsocreatesthatpartnership.Anotherrecalledhowhisperceptionswere
changedthroughhisdirectinteractionswithWhiteinternationalvolunteers:Weweretold
thatmanyWhitesareracist.Butwhen[volunteers]comehere,Idontseethatinthem.What
weeatiswhattheyeat,whatwedoiswhatwedo.Sotheperceptionistakenaway.
Volunteerspromotionof,andengagementin,sportswasalsobroughtupoftenincommunity
workshops.Althoughsportsmaynotstandoutasasignificantcontribution,theywereoften
describedaspotentialavenuesforpeacebuilding.Interpersonalcontactthroughsportscanbe
aprecursortomutualunderstanding,aspeoplefromdifferentbackgroundscometogether.As
acommunitymemberdescribed,Sportscanbeusedasanavenuetoreach[peace].People
werefightingin2007...footballissomethingthatcanbringpeopletogetherandnotjust
footballbutentiresports.Othercommunitymemberscitedhowvolunteershelpedtoorganise
runnings,marathons,thingsliketheseactivitiesthatbringcommunitiestogether.
Added-valueofInternationalVolunteers
Isolatingthedevelopmentimpactstointernationalvolunteersisdifficult.Theareaslistedabove
werefrequentlycitedaskeycontributions.However,theyarenotnecessarilydistinctfromthe
contributionsofdevelopmentorganisationsthatdonotusevolunteers.Usingonlythe
informationabove,itisunclearwhetherthecontributionsofvolunteersashumanresources
woulddifferiftheywerepaidstaffratherthanvolunteers.Althoughinterviewingcomparison
Strongly
Disagree2 3 4
Strongly
Agree
Short-term 59% 12% 6% 3% 21%
Long-term 16% 11% 32% 16% 26%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Figure5:Internaonalvolunteershelptosolve
ethnicdisagreementsincommunity
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organisationstoassesscounterfactualevidencemighthelp,thisissueisnotnecessarilysolved
bycomparison,giventhatprogramsarelikelytohavedistinctoperationsandpractices.This
sectionattemptstoisolatethecontributionsofvolunteersbydirectlyaskingintended
beneficiariestocomparetheworkofvolunteerswiththeworkoffull-timedevelopment
workersorfull-timestaff.Whilethismethodisnotastrongmeansofdeterminingattribution,it
canhelpidentifyareaswheremorerigorousinvestigationmaybefruitful.
Allelsebeingequal,moststaffmembers4reportedthattheywouldratherhavealong-term
internationalvolunteerthanapaiddevelopmentprofessional.Adistinctionbetweenlong-
andshort-termvolunteersisnecessarybecausemostofthestaffmembersworkingwithshort-
termvolunteersdidnotviewthemascomparablewithdevelopmentworkers.5Givenstark
differencesintheactivitiesperformedbypaiddevelopmentprofessionalsandshort-term
volunteers,manystaffmembersmarkedthisquestionasnotapplicable.Despitethese
differences,staffmemberswereabletolistanumberofdistinctadvantagesthatvolunteers
bringtodevelopmentprojects,regardlessofthedurationoftheirservice.
Previousresearchhasidentifiedanumberofareaswherevolunteershypotheticallyprovide
addedvaluetodevelopmentprojects[9,11,37].Basedonpriorresearch,surveyitemswere
usedtoverifyandmeasurethestrengthofpriorhypotheses.Additionalareasthatwerenot
measuredquantitativelyemergedduringtheinitialqualitativecoding.Themainareasof
volunteerscontributions(incomparisonwithpaiddevelopmentorlocalprojectstaff)include
greatertrust,accountability,ownership,creativity,optimism,anincreasedmotivationforlocal
volunteerstoengage,greaterdiversityinprojectmanagementandadministration,astronger
humanrightsorientation,relativecost-effectivenessofdevelopmentprojects,andslightly
highersustainabilityoftheirwork.
Trust
Greatertrustwasoneofthemostfrequentlyreferencedcontributionsofvolunteers.Nearly
halfofthecommunitymembersindicatedhavingmoretrustofinternationalvolunteersthan
paiddevelopmentworkersorlocalprojectstaff.Researchonvolunteershasobservedsimilar
outcomes,particularlyforvolunteerswholiveincloseproximitywiththecommunity,andwho
speakthelocallanguage[11,38].Whilepaiddevelopmentworkersarereportedlymorelikely
tospeakKiswahili,theyareperceivedaspreferringtoworkinofficesandwithprograms,rather
thandirectlywithcommunitymembers.Theyalsotendtoliveoutsideofthecommunity,
wherevolunteersaremorelikelytoresideinhome-stayswithcommunitymembersortolivein
closeproximity.
4Althoughfieldnotesindicatenearunanimousagreementonthispoint,theprecisepercentagewillnotbeknown
untilcompletionofqualitativeanalysis.5Asdescribedearlier,ageandeducation/skilllevelofthevolunteersiscloselycorrelatedwiththedurationof
volunteersservice.Thus,differencesextendbeyondservicedurationandmayreflectvolunteercapacity.
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Interviewssuggestpossiblereasonswhytheremaybelowertrustamongshorter-term
volunteers(seeFigures6,7).Asnotedinfindingsonresourceacquisition,communitymembers
oftenexpectresourcesandcontributionsthattendtobeforthcomingfromshort-term
volunteers.Whentheseexpectationsarenotmet,communitymembersmaycometotrust
volunteersandpartnerprogramsless.Ontheotherhand,volunteerswhostayinthe
communitylong-termarereportedlylesslikelytoprovideresourcesdirectly,andhavemore
timetomanagetheexpectationsofcommunitymembersandtobuildtrust.Interviewssuggest
thatthisexpectationisnotashighamonglonger-termvolunteersbecausepeoplelearnnotto
expectresourcesastheycometoknowvolunteersovertime.
Trustvolunteers
lessThesame
Trustvolunteers
more
Short-term 6% 50% 44%
Long-term 0% 21% 79%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%70%
80%
90%
Figure6:Comparedtopaiddevelopmentworkers:
Howmuchdoyoutrustinternaonalvolunteers?
Trustvolunteers
lessThesame
Trustvolunteers
more
Short-term 17% 34% 49%
Long-term 0% 15% 85%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Figure7:Comparedtolocalprojectstaff:
Howmuchdoyoutrustinternaonalvolunteers?
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Highertrustforinternationalvolunteersoverlocalstaffseemstobecorrelatedwithhigh
relativepoverty.Accordingtorespondentsperceptions,somecommunitymembersbelieve
thatlocalworkersmaybemorepronetopettycorruption,givenhighlevelsofpoverty.
Communitymembersalsomentionedthattheywillcontinuetoseelocalworkersformanyyears,andthusmaybelesswillingtodivulgesensitiveinformationthatmayspreadinthe
community.
Discussionsabouttrustwerebothpositiveandnegative.Manycommunitymemberswhowork
withvolunteersassertedthatothersinthecommunityassumetheyarereceivingmoneyand
helpfromthevolunteers.Whilethissometimesappearedtobetrue,inmostcases,community
membersassertedthattheydonotreceivemoneydirectlyfromvolunteers.Theyexpressed
concernthatothermembersofthecommunityoftenhavelesstrustforlocalstaffwhowork
withvolunteersbecausetheytypicallyfailtoproducemoneyorresourceswhensolicited.
AccountabilityandOwnership
Becausepaidworkersareoftenpartofadevelopmentinfrastructurewithspecificmandates,
theyareoftenviewedasbeingprimarilyaccountabletolargedevelopmentprograms,funders,
andmultilateraltechnicalorganisations,andlessaccountabletothelocalcommunity.Although
volunteerswhoservewithadevelopmentorganisationmayhaveasimilarmandate,theyare
oftenviewedasmoreflexibleandresponsivetolocalcommunityneeds[2].Thisstudy
substantiatedthisclaim,findingthatnearly90percentofcommunitymembersviewedlong-
termvolunteersasbeingmoreaccountabletotheircommunitythanpaiddevelopment
workers(seeFigure8).Thisfindingwasdampenedsignificantlyamongcommunitymembers
workingwithshort-terminternationalvolunteers(56percent);short-termvolunteersweremoreoftencitedasfollowingtheirownagenda.
Whenprobedaboutthedifferencesbetweenpaidworkersandunpaid(orunderpaid)
volunteers,volunteersmotivationsseemedtobeakeydriveraffectingdifferences.Paid
workerswereperceivedascaringlessaboutrelationshipsandmoreaboutaccomplishinga
giventask,oraboutproducingaspecificproduct.Inaddition,manystaffandcommunity
membersbelievedthevolunteershadmorefrequentinteractionsandmaintainedstronger
relationshipswithlocalpeople,thusheighteningtheirknowledgeoflocalneedsandinterests.
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Creativity
Volunteersarehighlyvaluedforthenewideastheybringtoprogramandprojects,aswellasto
community-ledinterventions.Long-termvolunteersreportedlybringmoreknowledgethan
short-termvolunteers.Thisislikelybecauseprogramssupportinglonger-termvolunteersoften
recruitthosewhoareolder,moreeducatedandmoreskilled.Bydefinition,longer-term
volunteersmayalsohavemoretimetounderstandthecomplexityofproblemsandtoprovide
viablealternativesolutions.70percentofcommunitymembersworkingwithlong-termvolunteersstronglyagreedthatinternationalvolunteersbringnewknowledgethatwouldnot
beavailableincommunity,comparedto20percentworkingwithshort-termvolunteers.An
additional26percentofthoseworkingwithshort-termvolunteersstronglydisagreedwiththis
statement(seeFigure9).
Less
accountableThesame
More
accountable
Short-term 18% 27% 56%
Long-term 6% 6% 89%
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%
90%100%
Figure8:Comparedtopaiddevelopmentworkers:
Howaccountableareinternaonalvolunteersto
yourlocalcommunity?
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Asforvalueadded,82percentofcommunitymembersbelievethattheideaspresentedby
internationalvolunteersaremorecreativethantheideaspresentedbypaiddevelopment
workers.While18percentbelievethecreativityamongstthesetwogroupsisthesame,no
communitymembersreportedthatpaiddevelopmentworkersaremorecreativeintheir
solutions.
Strongly
Disagree2 3 4
Strongly
AgreeShort-term 26% 9% 9% 37% 20%
Long-term 5% 5% 3% 17% 70%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Figure9:Internaonalvolunteersbringnewknowledge
thatwouldnotbeavailableincommunity
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Lesscreave Thesame Morecreave
Figure10:Comparedtopaiddevelopment
workers:Howcreavearetheideas
presentedbyinternaonalvolunteers?
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Optimism
Thequestforadventureisaprimarymotivationformanyinternationalvolunteers[29,39].
Consequently,theyoftenbegintheirworkwithanexcitedandoptimisticattitude.This
perspectiveoftencontrastswithlocalorpaiddevelopmentworkers,whooftenlabourwitha
specificproblemareaformultipleyearsandmaybecomejadedovertime.Althoughpreviousstudieshavehypothesisedthatshort-termvolunteersmaybemoreoptimisticthanlong-term
volunteersbasedonthenewness,excitementandnoveltyoftheirexperience[29],thisstudy
didnotfindasignificantdifferenceinperceivedoptimismbydurationofservice.Acrossthe
board,73percentofstaffmembersbelievedthatinternationalvolunteersaremoreoptimistic
thandevelopmentworkers.
Inadditiontothecomparisonwithpaiddevelopmentworkers,internationalvolunteersmay
alsoexudealevelofoptimismandcommitmentbeyondwhatlocalvolunteerscanprovide.
However,becauseinternationalvolunteersoftenreceiveastipendandmayhavehigher
personalresourcestodrawuponcomparedtolocalvolunteers,theymayhavecausefor
greateroptimismandcommitment.Asonestaffmemberwhoworkswithbothlocaland
internationalvolunteersexplained:
They[internationalvolunteers]aresomuchenthusiastic,verymuchzealousafteryouveseen
themgetholdofajob.Actuallytheyevengobeyondourexpectations,comparedtoourlocal
volunteers.Theydoextrawork,yourealizeavolunteerthatwehaveheremayonlyworktoday.
Buttheotherwhocomesfromaninternationalorganisationwouldbeabletoalmostworkdailyandgotoanyactivityanddontexpectanypaymentsorsomethinglikethat,becausetheyknow
whatbroughtthemhere.Ihaveseenit,andIhavehandledalotofvolunteers.
CivicEngagement
Volunteersmaysupportthegrowthofastrongcivilsociety,whichisrecognisedasessentialfor
goodgovernance,democraticaccountabilityandvibrantsocialactivism[40].Findingsfromthis
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%80%
Lessopmisc Thesame More
opmisc
Figure11:Comparedtopaid
developmentworkers:Howopmisc
areinternaonalvolunteers?
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andotherresearchsuggestthatlocalvolunteerismandengagementseemtobedirectly
inspiredbytheinvolvementofaninternationalvolunteerindevelopmentprojects[3].Many
examplesofthiscorrelationwerecitedbystaffduringtheinterviews,andnearly80percentof
staffmembersagreedthatcommunitymembersseemmoreinterestedintheorganisation's
activitieswheninternationalvolunteersareinvolved.
Anumberofthecommunitymembersparticipatinginfocusgroupswerelocalvolunteers,and
providedexamplesofhowtheywerepersonallyinspiredtoengageintheircommunities
followingtheexampleofinternationalvolunteers.Asonestaffmemberexplained:
Peoplewillseeaforeignvisitorandafterseeingtheylltalkaboutit.Theyllsay,ifamzungu
canbeavolunteer,whynotme?ImAfrican.WhyamInothelpingmypeople?Ifsomebodycan
comefromabroadtohelpushere,whydontIstartwithme?
Sustainability
Despiteassociatingvolunteerswithhightrust,creativityandlocalaccountability,lessthanhalf
ofstaffmembersbelievedthatthecontributionsfromvolunteersaremoresustainablethan
theworkofpaiddevelopmentworkers.Onthedownside,someassertedthattheworkof
volunteersisseasonalandlackscontinuity.Althoughtherewasnoquantitativedifference
betweenshort-andlong-termprograms,thiscritiquewasparticularlyevidentindiscussionsof
volunteerplacementsofafewmonthsorless.Othersviewedvolunteersasfallingoutsideof
formaldevelopmentprograms,andthusbelievethereislowerinstitutionalcommitmentand
resourcestosustaintheirwork.Ontheupside,theworkofvolunteersoftencontinueswellbeyondtheirreturnhome.Manystaffmemberscitedexamplesofvolunteerswhocontinueto
communicatewith,anddirectresourcestoward,theorganisationorcommunity,evenyears
aftertheirdeparture.Thisdidnotemergeasacommonbehaviorforpaiddevelopment
workers,althoughthisquestionwasnotdirectlyassessed.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Disagree Neither Agree
Figure12:Communitymembersseem
moreinterestedinorganisaon'sacvies
wheninternaonalvolunteersareinvolved
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Cost-effectiveness
Responseswerealsomoreevenlymixedregardingperceptionsofthecost-effectivenessof
internationalvolunteers.Slightlymorethanhalfoflocalstaffagreedthatusinginternational
volunteersreducesthetotalcostsofdevelopmentprojects.The20percentwhodisagreed
remarkedthatsubstantialamountsoftimeandmoneyareusedtotrain,orientandhost
volunteers,inadditiontotravelandotherlogisticalcosts.Afewbelievedthatvolunteerswere
helpfulandusefulbutwerenotentirelyconvincedthatvolunteersofferedgoodvaluefor
money.Itwasalsopossiblethoughunstatedthatsomerespondentstookthisquestionat
facevalue,agreeingthatvolunteersarenotcost-free.Someofthoseagreeingwiththe
statementthatvolunteersarecost-effectivesawvolunteersasfillingarolethatotherwise
mightbefilledbyamorecostlydevelopmentworker.Othersreiteratedthatthecontributions
ofvolunteersarehardtoputamonetaryvalueon,andthusofferedgoodnon-monetaryvalue
todevelopmentpartners.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Less
sustainable
Thesame More
sustainable
Figure13:Comparedtopaid
developmentworkers:Howsustainable
istheworkofinternaonalvolunteers?
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Disagree Neither Agree
Figure14:Usinginternaonal
volunteersreducesthetotalcosts
ofdevelopmentprojects
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Diversity
Communityandstaffmembersinthisstudycitedmanywaysthatvolunteersdifferences
inspireopen-mindednessandrespectfordiversityintheircommunitiesandorganisations.
Becauseinternationalvolunteerscomefromoutsidethecommunity,theytendtoincreasethe
diversityoforganisationsandcommunities.Assuch,volunteerscontributenewideasbuttheymayalsobringindiverseperspectivesthatcontributetoincreasedtoleranceandrespectfor
difference.Thishasalsobeennotedinotherstudiesoninternationalvolunteering[39,41,42].
Internationalvolunteersmayhavelowawarenessofhistoricalethnic,racialandclassbiasesor
otherlong-standingprejudicewithincommunities.Thus,volunteersmaybemorelikelyto
involvemarginalisedpeopleorminoritieswhomayotherwisebesociallyexcluded.
Only42percentofstaffmembersbelievedthatinternationalvolunteersincludemore
minoritiesinprojectsthanlocalstaff(seeFigure16),while55percentbelievedtheyweremore
likelytoincludewomenindevelopmentprojects(Figure17).Anevenhigher62percent
believedthatinternationalvolunteerspromotegenderequalitygenerally(Figure18).This
finding,pairedwithearlierassertionsthatvolunteerspromotegenderequality,reinforcesthe
conclusionthatinternationalvolunteersmayhaveamoderateimpactonpromotinggender
equalityandempoweringwomenintheKenyancontext.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Disagree Neither Agree
Figure15:Usinginternaonal
volunteersincreasesthediversityof
projectmanagement
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0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Include
minoriesless
Thesame Include
minoriesmore
Figure16:Comparedtolocalproject
staff:Howmuchdointernaonal
volunteersincludeethnicminoriesin
projects?
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Includewomen
less
Thesame Includewomen
more
Figure17:Comparedtolocalprojectstaff:
Howmuchdointernaonalvolunteers
includewomeninprojects?
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HumanRightsOrientation
Inlinewiththeperceptionthatinternationalvolunteerspromotediversity,advancinghuman
rightsalsoappearstobeacommonactivityamonginternationalvolunteers.About65percent
ofcommunitymembersbelievedthatinternationalvolunteerspromotehumanrightsmore
frequentlythanlocalstaffmembers.Thiswasnotalwaysperceivedasapositivecontribution,
however.Forinstance,onefocusgroupcitedanexamplewherevolunteersheldtrainingsinan
attempttohelpreducegender-basedviolence.Communitymembersassertedthatthe
volunteerswerenotwellreceivedbythecommunitybecausetheyhelddifferentvaluesand
perspectivesonhumanrights.Consequently,theywerenotabletoconnectwellwithcommunitymembers,andthuswerenotnecessarilyeffectiveatreducinggender-based
violenceinthisarea.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Promoteless Promotethe
same
Promotemore
Figure18:Comparedtolocalprojectstaff:
Howmuchdointernaonalvolunteers
promotegenderequality?
0%
10%
20%
30%40%
50%
60%
70%
Promoteless Promotethe
same
Promotemore
Figure19:Comparedtolocalprojectstaff:
Howmuchdointernaonalvolunteers
promotehumanrights?
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ContributingCauses
Consistentwithpriorresearchontheoutcomesofinternationalvolunteering[5],respondents
listedanumberofcontributingcausesorhelpingfactorsthatultimatelyaffecttheimpacts
ofinternationalvolunteerserviceonintendedbeneficiaries[14].Variousdimensionsofthe
serviceactivity,alongwithindividualandinstitutionalattributes,helptoexplainwhatworks
forwhom,whyandunderwhatcircumstances[43].Althoughonlyahandfulofhelpingfactors
wereevidentinquantitativefindings,qualitativedatarevealedanumberofkeyvariablesthat
appearedtochangethemechanismsofimpact.
ServiceActivity
Internationalvolunteerserviceisnotamonolithicactivity.Becausevolunteersengageinwidely
differingactivitiesunderdifferentservicemodels,itisnotpossibletomakefirmconclusions
ofimpactwithoutconsideringhowthesedifferencesaffectoutcomes.Forinstance,thefindings
outlinedaboveclearlyillustratehowdurationofserviceandtheskill-baseofvolunteersaffect
beneficiariesperceptionsofimpact.Inadditiontoservicedurationandskills,beneficiariesdiscussedanumberofotherfactorsrelatedtoserviceactivitythatseemedtoaffectoutcomes.
Amongthese,directionality,grouporsoloplacement,andcontinuityemergedasdominant
helpingfactors.Thesefactorsaligncloselywiththeoreticalandempiricalfindingsfromprevious
studies[5].
Duration
Durationofservicewasthemostwidelycitedvariableaffectingthecontributionsof
internationalvolunteers.Asonevoiceamongmanyasserted,thosewhohavebeenherefor
quitesometimetheyhavebeenreallyproductiveandgivenusagreaterimpact.Although
durationisoftenthemanifestvariable,timelengthisonlyafragmentofthecontributing
factor.Anumberofadditionalattributescoincidewithvolunteeringfordifferentlengthsoftime.
Longer-termvolunteersaretypicallyafewyearsolderthanshorter-termvolunteers,andare
oftenrequiredbythesendingorganisationtohaveadegreeoraspecificskill.Amongthe
programsinterviewedinthisstudy,nonereportedhostingalong-termvolunteerwholackeda
collegedegreeoraspecialisedskill.Short-termvolunteersmayalsobeskilledandareoften
professionalvolunteers.However,theyaremorecommonlyyoungpeoplewhomightnot
havehighereducationordevelopedskills.
Whiledurationoftenhasasignificanteffectonoutcomes,evenaftercontrollingforageandeducation[44,45],itshouldnotbediscussedinisolation.Infact,manyprogramstaffinthis
studyassertedthatshort-termvolunteerscanbehighlyeffectivewhentheyaretechnically
skilledorwhentheyleadatrainingorworkshop.Onestaffmemberworkingforanorganisation
thathostsbothshort-andlong-termvolunteersestimatedthattheyvalueshort-termyoung
andunskilledvolunteersatabout80percentfortheresourcestheyprovideandatabout20
percentforothercontributions,whileskills-basedshort-termvolunteerscontributionsarethe
opposite:80percentcapacitybuilding,and20percentresources.
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Astrongmessagethatemergedfrominterviewswithprogramstaffandcommunitymembersis
thatshort-termvolunteersarehighlyvaluedfortheresourcesthattheycanbringtothe
organisationandcommunity.Withtheexceptionofshort-termprofessionalvolunteers,this
appearedtobeoneofthemostobviouscontributionsofshorter-termvolunteersto
development.Infact,asonestaffmemberasserted,hostingvolunteersforlessthanafewmonthsisoftenviewedasaservicethatthepartnerprogramprovidestothesending
organisationinordertomaintainafunctionalworkingpartnership.Inthissense,theyoften
viewshorter-termvolunteersaslearners,notnecessarilyascontributors.However,other
programstaffmentionedless-tangible,butstillimportant,contributionsfromyoung,short-
termvolunteerssuchasmutuallearning,cross-culturalunderstanding,relationships,diversity,
andinspirationalongwiththechangesalreadyoutlinedabovesuchasaperceivedhigher
engagementoflocalvolunteers,andamoreenthusiasticworkingenvironment.
Shorter-termvolunteersalsoappearedtomorecommonlyengageindirectworkwith
communitymemberswhilelonger-termvolunteersappearedtoworkinorganisationsatthe
program-orproject-managementlevel.Inmanyways,longer-termvolunteersweremore
comparabletopaiddevelopmentstaff.Whenaskedabouttheideallengthoftimefor
volunteerstoserve,themostcommonresponsefromprogramstaffwasoneyearormore.
However,amongcommunitymembers,thedurationofserviceneverseemedtobequite
adequate.Forinstance,thosehostingvolunteersforthreemonthsstatedthatoneyearwould
bepreferred,whilethosehostingvolunteersfortwoyearsormorestatedthatfiveyearswould
bebest.Ifvolunteerscometoteachorpracticeaspecificskill,toholdatrainingworkshop,or
tootherwisesharetheirexpertise,thenshort-termserviceisperceivedasquitehelpful.
However,forothercapacitybuildingorprogram-levelinterventions,oneyearormoreis
preferred.
Directionality
Thetermdirectionalityrefersinthiscontexttothedifferencesinthedirectionorflowof
internationalvolunteersacrossnations.SupportforSouth-NorthandSouth-Southvolunteer
placementsisagrowingtrend,asanalternativetothedominantNorth-Southflowof
internationalservice.Moststaffandcommunitymembersdidnotperceiveanysubstantial
differencesbetweenvolunteersfromtheGlobalNorthandtheGlobalSouth.However,many
assertedthattheywouldpreferavolunteerfromtheNorthifgiventhechoice.Twostaff
membersfromoneorganisationassertedthattheywouldratherhostavolunteerfromthe
South.
ThechiefreasongivenforpreferringNorthernvolunteersisabeliefthatvolunteersfrom
higher-incomecountriesmayhavegreateraccesstoresources.Inaddition,thereisalsoabelief
thatexternalfundinganddevelopmentorganisationsmayhavemorerespectforvolunteers
fromtheNorth,andmayaddresstheirrequestsandideasmorequicklythanvolunteersfrom
theSouth.ThisperceptionisillustratednumericallyinFigure20,where91percentofstaff
membersbelievethathostinganinternationalvolunteerfromoutsideofAfricaincreasestheir
likelihoodofreceivingfunding.Incontrast,only53percentbelievehostinganinternational
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volunteerfromanothercountryinAfricaincreasestheirlikelihoodofreceivingfunding.This
alsotiesbacktotheissueoftrust.Althoughhavinganinternationalvolunteerfromanycountry
tendstoincreasethetrustothershaveofthepartnerorganisation,trustisslightlyhigher
amongvolunteersfromtheNorth(96percent)thantheSouth(82percent)(seefigure21).
ThehandfulofstaffandcommunitymembersindicatingapreferenceforSouthernvolunteers
statedthatvolunteersfromtheSoutharemoreaccustomedtomanuallabour,andtendto
workharderwhenmanuallabourisrequired.Theyalsosuggestedthatitiseasiertotalkfrankly
andopenlyaboutdevelopmentplanswiththevolunteersfromtheSouth.Whiletheymayalso
discussplanswithNorthernvolunteers,thereisaperceptionthatneitherpartytendstobeas
openinthesediscussions.TherewasalsoareportedprecedencethatNorthernvolunteershad
beenlesslikelytoimplementplansdevelopedincollaborationwithcommunitymembers,and
viceversa.
Decreased
likelihoodNochange
Increased
likelihood
IVsfrom[other]Africa 6% 41% 53%
IVsfromoutsideofAfrica 0% 9% 91%
0%
10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%
Figure20:Howdoyouthinkinternaonalvolunteersaffectyourorganisaon'slikelihoodtoreceivefunding?
Decreasetrust Nochange Increasetrust
IVsfrom[other]Africa 0% 18% 82%
IVsfromoutsideofAfrica 0% 5% 96%
0%
20%
40%60%
80%
100%
Figure21:Howdoeshavingavolunteerworkinorganisaon
affectthetrustothershaveofyourorganisaon?
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Groupsize
Differencesinthepracticeofsendingvolunteerstoservealoneorinagroupwerenotexplored
indepthintheseinterviews.However,ahandfulofcommentsrevealthatthecollectivenature
ofaplacementmayactasahelpingorhinderingfactor.Groupplacementsmaybemore
structuredandmayrequirealowerinvestmentbylocalstaff,whereasindividualvolunteers
oftenneedsspecifictasksandassignmentstokeepthembusy.Asonestaffmemberasserted:
Thosewhocomeingroupsusuallyhaveverycommonobjectivesandreallymorestructured
work.Inthesensethat,whentheycomehere,theyareabitmoreorganizedandtheygo
throughsometrainingofwhatworks.Theyhavebeenassignedtocomeanddo.Yourealizeitis
wellcoordinatedandisveryeasy[forthem]tounderstandthework.Ascomparedtoan
individualwhohasjustcome,manytimesthosewhocomeasindividualsjustfittowhatever
workweareexposingthemto.
Continuity
Thecontinuityofvolunteerplacementsappearedtobeofgreatestconcernamongcommunity
membersworkingwithlong-terminternationalvolunteers.Manyexpressedworryaboutwhatwouldhappenwhenthevolunteersleft.Theirmostpressingconcernwaslosingfundingfor
community-basedprograms.However,theyalsoexpressedconcernaboutlosingthe
volunteersexpertiserelatedtoprojectmanagement.Thoseworkingwithshort-term
volunteersseemedtotakeitforgrantedthatvolunteerscomeandgo,anddidnotexpress
unsolicitedconcernaboutvolunteersleaving.However,thiswasnotanexplicitquestioninthe
interviewguide.Thus,continuitycouldalsobeaconcernamongthosehostingshort-term
volunteers,asthisissuehasbeennotedinpreviousresearchwithshort-termvolunteers[9].
Thisquestionmaybeexploredingreaterdepthinfutureresearch.
InstitutionalAttributes
Theoretically,differentattributesofthesendingandhostingorganisationsaswellasthe
partnerprogramswouldaffectoutcomes[5].Thisareahasreceivedthegreatestattentionin
previousresearchasitrelatestothemanagementcycleandmonitoringandevaluationof
specificprograms.Hence,theseattributeswerenotfeaturedhighlyintheresearch.Fewstaff
membersbroughttheseissuesupspontaneously.However,whendiscussionsofinstitutional
attributesdidarise,theymainlyfocusedontheimportanceoflanguagepreparation,in-depth
culturalorientationandscreeningofvolunteerswithpotentialpersonalityissues.Someof
theseissueswillbecoveredbelowunderthediscussionofvolunteerattributes.Otherswillbe
coveredingreaterdetailfollowingfurtheranalysisofqualitativedata.
VolunteerAttributes
Alongwithserviceactivitiesandinstitutionalattributes,intervieweesdiscussedanumberof
individualvolunteerattributesassociatedwithdevelopmentimpacts.Althoughsomeoft