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Part IOld and Middle English Periods
(450-1485) 1
1.
Therearedifferentdivisionyearsindifferentliteraryhistories.Here,theyear450istheyeararoundwhichAngles,SaxonsandJutescametodrivetheCeltsaway;andwefollowtheNorton
Anthologyinchoosing1485astheendyearoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod.
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Chapter 1 Old English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)
Chapter 1O ld English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)
I. Old English Period
1. A Brief Account of the Historical Situation
InaboutBC600Celts,whoinhabitedtheupperRhineland,startedtomigrate
to theBritishIsles,andamongthemtheBritons,abranchof theCelts,cameto
theIsles inBC400toBC300,fromwhomBritaingot itsname.At
thetimeofmigration, theCelticsweretribalpeopleat
theearlystageoftheIronAge.Later,troopsledbyJuliusCaesaroftheRomanEmpireinvadedtheBritishIsles,defeatedtheCeltsandruledtherefromBC55toAD407,bringingwiththemtheslavesystem.TheRomanreignoverBritainwentonforfourandahalfcenturies,buttheBritonsneverceasedfightingagainst
them.At thebeginningof the5th century, theRomanEmpiredeclinedand
inAD410 all their troopswerewithdrawn.TheRomanshadbuilt
towns,roads,walls,andmilitaryfortressesduringtheirrule,butbecausetheydidnotreallysettledownormixupwiththeCelts,
theyleftlittleinfluenceonthenativepeople.
After theRomans,
theTeutonicorGermanictribesofAngles,SaxonsandJutesmovedtoliveintheBritishIsles.ThishappenedinaboutAD450.TheydrovetheCeltstoWales,ScotlandandIreland,settleddownthemselvesandnamedthecentralpartoftheislandEngland,thatisthelandofAngles.These
tribeswereaseafaringpeoplewhooriginally
livedalongthecoastofDenmarkandGermany.Theybecame
themastersofEnglandand
theancestorsoftheEnglishpeople.Bytheendofthe6thcenturytherehadbeenestablishedsevenSaxonkingdomsinEngland,andafeudalsocietygraduallyreplacedtheprimitivetriballife.
InthemodernEnglishlanguage,almostnotracesoftheCelticlanguage
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
oftheancientBritonscanbefound.Despitethefactthatinthecourseofitsdevelopment
theEnglishlanguagehasgraduallychanged,suchas
thelossofmostoftheflexionsoftheoldAnglo-Saxon,boththegrammaticalrulesandthebodyoftheshortwordsthatformsthebasicword-stockofModernEnglishareofAnglo-Saxonorigin.
Startingfromthelate8thcentury,
theDanesfromScandinaviacameplunderingtheIsles.Theywereastrongseapeopleknownas
theVikingsandatfirsttheymainlyinvadedtheeasterncoastofEngland.Butsoontheypushedinlandtoplunderthewholecountry.Itwasinthesecondhalfofthe9thcenturyandunitedundertheWessexKing,AlfredtheGreat(849-c.899),thattheEnglishpeopledrovetheVikingDanesoff.KingAlfredalsomadecontributionsother
thanmilitary.Heencouragededucationandliterature.ThefirstAnglo-Saxonchroniclewaswrittenduringhisreign,whichwasalandmarkof
theOldEnglishPeriod.Afterhisdeath,
theDanesovercametheSaxonsagainin1013.Itwasnotuntil23yearslaterinearly11thcenturythatthepiratingoftheVikingswasfinallybroughttoastop.AlthoughsomeDanesmadepermanentsettlementsintheBritishIsles,yetliketheRomansbeforethem,theyfailedtoleavemuchinfluencebehind.
Thegreatesthistoricalevent thatfollowedwas theNormanConquestof
1066. The Normans came from Normandy in northern France
toattackEnglandandwonadecisivevictoryat thebattleofHastingsunderthe
leadershipof theDukeofNormandy,usuallyknownasWilliam
theConqueror.William thenclaimed theEnglish throne,promising the
lastSaxon king Harold that he would protect England from the
Vikings’invasions.Franceat that
timewasmoreadvancedinthesocialsystemandeconomy.TheNormanConquestnotonlyhurriedEnglandtowardamoredevelopedfeudalsociety,but
its influence in theevolutionof
theEnglishlanguage,lifestyleandculturewasalsoverysignificant.Theyear1066wasthenmarkedasadividingpointintheEnglishhistory.AlthoughtheNormanrulers
spokeFrench,English survived.
In1349Englishwasofficiallyintroducedinschoolsandin1362incourtsoflaw.AndgraduallytheEnglishlanguageenteredanewperiodofitshistory,whichisknownastheMiddleEnglish.
Before finishing this brief historical account, we must also
saysomethingabout
thebeginningofChristianityinBritain.BoththeearliestCelticsettlersandtheAngles,SaxonsandJutescametoEnglandasheathens.Theyworshipped
theirowngods thatwere related to
themythologyofNorthernEurope.Itwasintheyearof597thatPopeGregorytheGreatofthe
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Chapter 1 Old English Period and Beowulf
(450-1066)RomanCatholicChurchsentSt.AugustinetoEnglandtoconverttheAnglo-Saxons.KingEthelbertofKentwasthefirsttobeconvertedandhefoundedinKenttheCanterburyAbbey.Inthenorth,theearlierChristianisedIrelandwasengagedinsendingmissionaries
to
theAngles.ThemonasteriesbuiltbytheminNorthumbriaweretheearliestcivilisinginfluences,andthewell-knownNorthumbrianSchoolinliteraryhistoryreferstothelearnedmonksinthesemonasteries.FromCanterburyandNorthumbria,Christianityspreadthroughoutthecountry.However,it
tooktheRomanCatholicChurchaboutacentury
toChristianiseallEngland.Moremonasteriesweresetupand,likethesituationinEurope,monkswhoweretrainedinLatinbecamethemostlearnedpeopleofEngland.ThegreatLatinistofNorthumbrianSchoolwastheVenerableBede(c.673-735),alearnedtheologianandhistorianwithworkssuchasanaturalhistoryandachronologyof
theChristianera.HismostoutstandingworkisThe Ecclesiastical History
of the Angles,whichisstill
thechiefauthorityforknowingtheOldEnglishPeriod,includingitsearliestpoetry,poetsandliteraryachievements.
2. Chief Literary Achievements of the Period
Old English Poetry:Theearliest formsofEnglish
literaturehaveperished.Weknowvery little of theOldEnglishpoetry in
its rudestshape.ThefirstEnglishpoetknowntous
isWidsith,meaningthe“WideWanderer”,whowasascoporitinerantminstrelofthe6thcentury.WidsithleftusapoemnamedafterhimselfcalledWidsith,whichisaround150lineslongabouthisownlife,hisjoyandgrief.ThenthereisamovingelegyThe
Wandererof115lines,alamentofamanwhohaslosthisprotectinglord,andwandersafterwardsoverthewaterstofindarestingplace.AnotherpieceThe
Seafarer
isusuallyreadasadialoguebetweenanoldmanwhoknowsthejoylesslifeoftheseaandayoungmanwhowillnotbepersuadedawayfromtheseaadventures.ThereareotherfragmentarypoemssuchasThe
Wife’s Complaint andThe Husband’s Message,etc.But
thepoorshapeofthemanuscriptmakesallofthepoemsdifficulttoread.Beowulfisthemostreadableandcompleteoneofthem.Ittellsthehard,joylessyetheroiclivesoftheoldEnglishforefathers,andisregardedastheirgreatnationalepicpoem.
Christian
Poetry:Christianpoetryoccupiesanimportantplaceintheliteratureofthisperiodtoo.AugustineandtheRomanmonkswhocametoconvertEnglandchangedmuchofthesubjectmatterandfeelingofEnglish
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) poetry,but left
its formandartistic features unaltered.For instance, the
subjectchanged from descr ibingpeople’shardandmelancholylife to the
story of Christand the deeds of sa int lyheroes,but the formof
theverse lineand theshapeofthepoem remain the sameas
thoseofBeowulf.Also,St.Augustine’s
theologicalinfluencestayed,butmainlyinthesouth.Inthenorth,themonasteriesweresometimesheadedbyCelticChristians,and
thus northern Englishliteraturewas
touchedbyaCelticinfluence,theeffectofwhichwas tomakeEnglishpo e t r
y more subje c t iveand lyric.Among
theearlyAnglo-SaxonpoetsCaedmon(fl.670) fromNorthumbria
mustbementioned.HegrewupandlivedinamonasteryruledbyaCelticAbbessandwasrememberedforhisChristianpoetry.According
tohim,hewastoldinavisiontosingofGod.Whenhewokeup,herememberedthelinesandwrotethemdown.Andthiseventstartedhimontheroadofcomposingpoetry.HewroteinAnglo-SaxonapoeticparaphraseoftheBible.Another
importantpoetwhoappearedacentury
laterafterCaedmonwasCynewulf(fl.750).Hewastheauthorofpoemsonreligioussubjects.
II. Anglo-Saxon Epic Poem Beowulf
The Anglo-Saxons came to England with their own folklore
andtheirearlypoetrymostlytellsofeventswhichtookplaceontheEuropeanContinent.AftertheirsettlementinEnglandthetribalformofsociallifegave
A page of Old English verse
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Chapter 1 Old English Period and Beowulf
(450-1066)waytotherisingfeudalsystem,whichwasaccompaniedbytheconsolidationofChristianfaiththatfinallyreplacedthepaganbeliefsinthe7thcentury.ButevenafterChristianitywasofficiallyadoptedbytherulingclassesandLatinwas
taught inmonastic schools, thecommonpeoplecontinued
tokeepintheirmemorythesongsandepicscreatedbytheancientscops.Andin
thiswaysomeof
theancientAnglo-Saxonpoetrywerepreserved.ThewrittenAnglo-SaxonlaterdevelopedonthebasisoftheLatinalphabetandwaspractisedbyscribesandscholarswhowereoftenof“lowbirth”.Thesemonastery-trainedwritersknewLatinandwere
influencedby
theLatinlanguageandChristianculture.Theyrecordedandpasseddownancientpoemsofwhich
The Song of Beowulfwasthemostimportant.
1. The Story of Beowulf
Part One:The storybeginswithadescriptionof the reignof
theDanishkingHrothgarwhohadbuiltagreatfeast-hallHeorottoentertainhiskinsmenandwarriors.Butthefeastsattractedahugesea-monsterGrendel,whowasaman-eaterandlivedin
theneighbouringswamps.HeregularlyappearedinHeorotatnight-timeandatesomewarriors.Thehallwassoondeserted.ThenewsofthedisasterreachedBeowulf,Hrothgar’snephewandayoungandmightywarriorofGeats(Jutes)whohadwonfameandrespecteverywhereforhisbraveryandself-sacrificespirit.HeimmediatelysailedforthwithasmallbandofwarriorstoDenmark.Hrothgarwelcomedthemandgaveabanquet.
In thedeadof thenight
themonstercameandkilledawarrior.BeowulffoughtGrendelandcaughtthemonsterinanirongrip.Theirfightwassofiercethatthewallsofthehallshook.AtlastGrendeltorehimselfaway,but
lefthisarminBeowulf’shand.Heescapedandcrawledbacktohislairtodie.
ThenextnightagreatfeastwasthrowntocelebrateBeowulf’svictory.ButGrendel’smother,awater-witch,cametoavengehersonandkilledoneofthewarriors.BeowulfandhiswarriorssetouttothelairofGrendel’smotheratthebottomofastagnantpoolfullofsea-serpentsandfrothingwithblood.Beowulfplungedintothepool.InthecastleofGrendel’smother,hefoundamagicsword.Withthispowerfulweaponhekilledtheoldmonster.ThenhesawGrendel’sdeadbodyandcutoffhishead.Hrothgarheapedvaluablegiftson
theheroandhisfollowers,butBeowulfbroughthisshareof
treasuresbacktoJutland(thelandofJutes)andgaveallofittoHygelac,hisking.
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) Part
Two:AfterHygelac’sdeath,Beowulfwaselectedkingby the
peopleofJutlandandruledfor fiftyyears,duringwhich
timehispeopleenjoyedpeaceandprosperity.Butat theendof these
fiftyyears,agreatdisasterbefell the country.A firedrake,whoguardeda
cavewhereanenormoustreasurewashidden,foundoutthatatravelerhadstolenajeweledcupwhenhewasasleep.HethenrevengedhimselfbydestroyingandkillingmanyofBeowulf’speople.Beowulf,whowasnowveryold,decidedtogoandfightthemonster.Heallowedonlyoneyoungwarrior,Wiglaf,tofollowhimtothecave.ThisdragonwiththreeheadsattackedBeowulf,belchingforthfireandsmoke.Theirfightwasterrible.Beowulfstruckofftwoofthedragon’sheads.ThedragonswunghishugetailtostrikeatBeowulfwhilehislastheadbreathedfireatthehero’sface.BeowulffinallywonwiththehelpofWiglaf,buthewasseriouslywoundedanddied.Wiglafsucceededhimtobetheking.
AccordingtoBeowulf’swill,thepeopleofJutlandbuiltalargebonfireandcrematedhisbody.Thentheylaidall
the
treasuresfromthedragon’scavewithBeowulf’sashestoshowthatgoldcouldnotcompensatefortheirgreatloss.
2. The Artistic Features of Beowulf
TheonlyexistingmanuscriptofThe Song of
Beowulfwaswrittenbyanunknownscribeatthebeginningofthe10thcenturyandwasnotdiscovereduntil1705,
thoughitwascomposedmuchearlier. It
reflectseventswhichtookplaceontheContinentaroundthebeginningofthe6thcenturywhentheJuteslivedintheScandinavianpeninsulaandkeptcloserelationswiththeirkindredDanes.ThepoemiscomposedinthemanneroftheNorth-EuropeanSagasandcloselyresemblestheScandinavianepics.Thepoemisessentiallypaganinspiritandmatterandits3182linesaredividedintotwopartswithaninterpolationbetweenthem,whichwasaddedtothepoembytheChristianscribeswhocopied
it.Although thespiritsof two traditions,
theheathenandtheChristian,arebothshowninthisAnglo-Saxonpoem,theyarenotcontradictory,butmutuallycompensating.Thepagantraditionemphasisesthe
loveofwar, thevirtuesofcourageand loyalty,and thenecessity
forfeud.Italsofavourssupernaturalelements,
likemonstersanddragons,andtheworkingsoffate.TheChristiantradition,withitsnewmorality,teachesobediencetoGodandtheobservanceofHislaws.Therefore,thelatterhelpstogive
thepoemagoodbalance.Asaresult, theheroBeowulfpossesses
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Chapter 1 Old English Period and Beowulf
(450-1066)Christ-likequalitiesaswellascourageandphysicalstrengthofasuperman.But,infact,
likeallgoodliterature,Beowulfdealswiththemesbeyondanyparticularreligiousinterests.Itisapoemthattellstheuniversaltruthofgoodfightingagainstandtriumphingovertheevil.
Themostnoticeableartisticfeatureof
Beowulfisalliteration.Thepoemiswritteninalliterativeversewithacaesurainthemiddleandtwostresses(oraccents)
ineachhalf.Thenumberofunstressedsyllables in the
twohalvesmayvary.Yet,thesameconsonantisrepeatedatthebeginningoftheaccentedsyllables,eithertwiceinthefirsthalfoftheverselineandonceinthesecondhalf,orviceversa.AlliterationmakesAnglo-Saxonpoetryverymusical
insoundandactsalmost thesamepart that rhymeplays in
laterpoetry.Englishpoetstilltodaystilllovetousealliteration.
Anotherpeculiar featurecharacteristicofAnglo-Saxonpoetry is
thefrequentuseofkennings, topoeticallypresent
themeaningofonesinglewordthroughacompoundsimileoftwoelements.Forexamples,wefindinBeowulfthesuniscalled“theworld’sgreatcandle”,swordisoftensubstitutedby“brain-biter”and“life-destroyer”,andtheword“harp”isnamed“wood-of-delight”.
Finally,thegeneralmoodandspiritofAnglo-Saxonepicpoetryisbothsolemnandanimated,
themovementofactionoreventsvigorous,andthedescriptionswithkenningsverypicturesqueandexact.
TherearemanyotherstylisticpointstonoticeinBeowulfsuchastheuseofsimiles,
theelevateddiction,andthegreatdealofvariationinthestyle,especially
throughthesisandantithesis.Wealsofindgooduseofbalanceandparallelism.Butalliteration
isnodoubt thehallmarkof
theAnglo-Saxonpoetry.Thefollowingisapassage,atranslationfromtheOldEnglish,describinghowGrendelenterstheHeorotatnight.1
Down off the moorlands’ misting fells2 came
Grendel stalking; God’s brand was on him.3
The spoiler4 meant to snatch away
from the high hall some of human race.
1. Because it isa translation,
itdoesnotshowtheregularadoptionofalliterationandotherfeaturesoftheOldEnglishverses.Butwestillcanfindsomeexamplesinthisselectedpassage.
2. fell:hill3.
God’sbrandwasonhim:Thisisametaphoricalwayofsayinghewasevil.4.
thespoiler:Grendelwhocametorobandkill
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) He came on
under the clouds, clearly saw at last1
the gold-hall of men, the mead2-drinking place
nailed with gold plates. That was not the first visit
he had paid to the hall of Hrothgar the Dane:
he never before and never after
harder luck nor hall-guards found.
Review Questions1.
GiveanaccountofthehistoryofEnglandfromtheCelticsettlementtothe
NormanConquest.2. How did Christianity came to England? Name the
most important
monasteriesofthisperiod.3.
NamesomerepresentativepiecesoftheOldEnglishpoetry.4.
NamethetwomostimportantChristianpoetsofthisperiod.5. Analyse
theartistic featuresofBeowulf,using thequotedpassage to
illustrateyourpoints.
1.
Noticethealliterationformedby“came”,“clouds”and“clearly”.Anotherveryobviousalliterationexample
is twoverse lines taken from theSeafarer: “True is the
tale(caesura)Itellofmytravels,/Singofmyseafaring(caesura)sorrowsandwoes.”
2. mead:adrinkofalcoholmixedwithhoney
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)
Chapter 2M iddle English Period and Chaucer(1066-1485)
I. Middle English Period
1. A Brief Account of the Historical Situation
After1066,theAnglo-Normanperiodbegan.TheNormans,whocamefromthenorthernpartofFrance,wereinoriginScandinavian.TheybroughtwiththemtheFrenchlanguage,customsandculturetoEngland,wheretheyprotected
their
feudalmonarchybyastrongmilitarypower.WilliamtheConquerordivided the
landofEnglandamonghis followerswhobecamebarons,while
thedefeatedAnglo-Saxonsworkedasserfsandpeasantsforthemandwerecruellyexploitedandoppressed.Besides
thekingand
thelords,onethirdofthelandinthecountrywasownedbytheChurch.Also,Norman-Frenchwasmadetheofficial
languageof thestate,whileEnglishwas ignored.But therewasnoway to
imposea foreign
languageuponawholenationwithoutwipingoutthegreaterpartofthepopulation.Thelowlypeoplekept
toEnglishandgradually the
invaderswereassimilated.TheEnglishlanguagesurvived,andbecamearicherandmorematurelanguageafterabsorbingagreatmanyFrenchwords
into
itsvocabulary.ThemosttellingandoftencitedexampleoftheFrenchinfluenceshownintheEnglishvocabulary
is thedifferentwordsusedfor
thefarmanimalsandthemeattheyproduce,suchaspigandpork,sheepandmutton,andox/cowandbeef.Theexplanationissimpleandinteresting.Becausetheanimalswereraisedbytheserfsandpeasants,
theykepttheirAnglo-Saxonnames,whereasthemeatwasbroughttothetableoftheFrenchlordsanditwasgivenaFrenchname.Togetherwiththechangeinvocabulary,itwasalsoatthistimethattheEnglishlanguagelostmostofitsoldAnglo-Saxonflexions.
Infact, thesecondhalfof the14thcenturywasveryeventful.Great
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
changestookplaceinEngland’ssocial,economicandculturallife.Peasantshadtopayrentinservice,grainorcashtothefeudallordsandtheChurchwhoheldmostoftheland.Theyeomenwerealsodeprivedoftheirlands,andtradersandhandicraftsmencouldnotgoonwiththeirnormalbusiness.Asaresult,feudalisminEnglandwasonthevergeofaseriouscrisis.JohnBall(c.1330-1381),apoorpriest
fromCanterburyAbbey,spokebravely in
theinterestsofthecommonpeople.InhissermonsJohnBallpreachedequality,andthewell-knowncouplet:“WhenAdamdelvedandEvespan,/Whowasthenthegentlemen?”wasabrilliantexampleofprotestagainst
inequality,which summoned many people under the banner of the 1381
peasantuprising.Atile-makerWatTyler,whohadservedin
thecontinentalwars,ledthepeasantarmyandwonmanyvictories.Yetsadly,theydirectedtheirhatredchieflyatthebaronsandstillplacedhopesonthejusticeoftheking.ThepeasantsbelievedinthepromisesofRichardII,whowasthenonly15yearsoldandapuppetinthehandsofthefeudallords.NaturallytheywerebetrayedandTylerwasexecuted.
Besides thecontradictionsbetween theexploitingand
theexploitedclasses, the feudal lords foughtoverpowerand land.When
theconflictsgrewsharper,acivilwarcalled theWarof theRoses
(1455-1485)brokeoutbetween twobig feudalhouses, theHouseofYorkand
theHouseofLancaster,onewearingtheredroseswhenfightingandtheotherthewhite.ThiswartogetherwiththeHundredYearsWar1(1337-1453)againstFranceextinguishedthegreaterpartofEngland’sancientaristocraticfamiliesandpavedthewayforthegrowingtownstodeveloptradeandcommercemorequickly.AccordingtoMarx,
thedefeatof theFrencharmyat
thebattleofAgincourt(1415)rangthedeath-knelloffeudalism.
After the wars, the English language went through a process
ofunification.Londondialectbecame thebasisof
thisnewEnglish,whichlinguists identifyasMiddleEnglish.Notonly
itsvocabularywasgreatlyenrichedbywordsborrowedfromFrenchandLatin,butchangesalsotookplace
ingrammarandpronunciation. In fact, the formingprocessof
theMiddleEnglishstartedasearlyas1066,yettheMiddleEnglishasaperiodbeganfromthemiddleofthe13thcentury.
1.
The“HundredYearsWar”isspeltasthe“HundredYears’War”insometextbooks.Wedecideontheonewithoutapostropheaftertheword“years”accordingtothe3rdeditionoftheColumbia
Encyclopedia(1963).
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)
2. Chief Literary Achievements of the Period
Romances:TheAnglo-NormanPeriodsawtheflourishingoffeudalculture.Whiletherulingclasseschosetheirownliterarytrendsandformsand
inventednewpoeticaldevices, thecommonpeoplepreserved theirnational
traditionsandcontinuedtodevelopthemin
theformsofpopularsongsandballads.Trouvers,whocamefromFrancewithNormans,broughtromancetoEngland.ItwasthemostprevalentliterarygenreinfeudalEuropeand
inEngland,whichwerewritten for thenoblesand told
theirstories.Thepoetswhocomposedthemweremostlypatronisedbytherichandthepowerful.
InanattempttojustifytheirclaimstoEngland,theNormanlordstriedtoprove
that theywere lawfulheirsof theBritons.Therefore,
todigouttheancientCeltic folkloreanddevelopromanticstoriesoutof
itbecameverypopularunder theNormanreign.TheearlyEnglish
romanceswerecomposed in rhymedverse,and the
languageusedwasNorman-French.Butatthebeginningofthe13thcentury,minstrelsandchroniclersstartedto
A page of Middle English verse
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
writeromancesinOldEnglish.Althoughromancesaretalesofadventuresofknights,
or legendaryheroesof the ancient times to celebrate
theirheroism,courage,uprightnessandothervirtues,andtoservethepurposeofstrengtheningthefeudalsystem,yetminstrelswhowroteandspreadthemwereoften
fromthecommonstock.When travelingfromplace toplace,theyspenta lotof
timewithordinarypeople,andasaresult
theyusuallydepictedpoorpeasantsand townsfolk in the storieswith
sympathyandwarmth.
Romancescanbedividedaccordingtotheirsubjectsintothreegroups:MatterofFrance,
e.g. the romanceaboutaFrenchnationalherocalledChanson de
Roland;MatterofRome,e.g.romancestellingaboutAlexandertheGreatorthesiegeofTroy;andMatterofBritain,e.g.theArthuriancyclewhichhasitsoriginintheCelticlegendsandconsistsofadventuresofKingArthurandhisRound-TableKnights,
suchasSirGawainandLauncelot,MerlintheMagician,thequestoftheHolyGrail,etc.
KingArthurwasfromrealhistory.HewasthenationalherooftheCelts.Intheromancesheisshownasanidealking,whohasmanyfaithfulknightsorvassalstoservehim.ThroughtheArthuriancycletheEnglishpeopletriedtoprovethatthefounderofBritainwasrelatedinbloodtotheancientRomannobilities,sothatEnglandcouldsecureaplaceofhonouramongEuropeannations.Oneof
itsmostwell-knownstories isSir Gawain and the Green
Knight,apiecewritteninabout1375-1400byanunknownpoet.SirGawain,oneofKingArthur’sRound-TableKnights,tookupagreenknight’schallengeattheking’sNewYearcelebrationparty,andwentintoaseriesofadventures,duringwhichhemetwithdangers,overcamedifficulties,andalsolearnedmorallessons.Thepoemreflectsprinciplesofknighthood,suchascourage,fidelity,chastityanddedicationtothechurch,etc.AnotherimportantpieceofArthuriantalesisThomasMalory’s(c.1405-1471)Mort
d’Arthur,whichwascomposedmuchlaterinEnglishprose.
Other Literary
Productions:Inadditiontoromances,thetimesawavarietyofotherliteraryproductionstoo.Takethepoeticgenresforexample.Therewerehymns,
legendsandvisions.Among thedramaticgenreswefindmysteries,miracles
andmoralityplays.What ismore,devoted tomoralteachings,
thechurchwritersat
thetimemostlyturnedtoallegories.However,somebold,independentthinkersusedreligiousmatterstoconveytheirfreethoughttothepeople.JohnBall,JohnWyclif(c.1320-1384)andWilliamLangland
(c.1332-1400)weresuchwriters. JohnBall,aswe’ve
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer
(1066-1485)shownpreviouslyinthischapter,wasmainlyrememberedforhispreachingofequality.WycliftranslatedtheBibleintoEnglishagainsttherulesofthechurchtobenefitthecommonpeople.Histranslationwasagreatcontributionandmanylater
translationsconsultedhisversion. InhisallegoricalpoemThe Vision of
Piers
Plowman,apoemintheformofdreamvisionofmorethan7,000lines,Langlandprotestsagainstfeudaltyrannyandcriticisesthecorruptionof
thechurch.TheprotagonistPiers (i.e.Peter) represents
thecommonpeopleand
isdepictedwithsympathyandadmiration.Langlandglorifieslaborandpointsoutthatallpeoplemustwork.
Ballads:Besidesworksofpoets,peopleneverceasedtocreatetalesandsongsintheirownmanner.Newkindsofsongsintheformofpopularballadsthatcontainbothnarrativeandlyricalelementsappearedinthe14thcentury.Oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesofballadsisthedramaticdevelopmentofitsplot,withvividepisodesfollowingoneanother.Therearebothnarrativeandlyricalcomponents,briefdialoguesandexpressivedescriptions.Repetitionisadoptedtohelpformtheunityofaballad,andalliterationsuggests
thelinksofballadswiththeAnglo-Saxonepictradition.Balladshaveavarietyof
themes,suchas thestruggleofyoung loversagainst theirparents,
theborderwarsbetweenEnglandandScotland,classoppressionandconflicts,andsoon.Balladscanalsobegroupedaccordingtotheirsub-genres,suchashistorical,legendary,fantastical,lyricalandhumourous.Inthenumerous“borderballads”theage-longstrugglesoftheScotsandtheEnglisharetold.Amongall
theEnglishballads,
theballadsofRobinHoodmusthaveourspecialattention.
RobinHoodandhisfriendLittleJohnlivedduringthereignofKingRichardtheLion-Heart.RobinwasbornaSaxon.Hewasforcedtorebelandbecamearobberandoutlaw,butheonlyrobbedtherichandoftenhelpedthepoorand
theneedy.Shakespeare,BenJonson,Scott,Keats, etc.
allmentionedRobinHoodintheirworks.TheRobinHoodballadswereunitedintoacycleat
thebeginningofthe16thcentury,calledA Merry Geste1of Robin Hood,
inwhichthehero’swhole life
isportrayed.ThecharacterofRobinHoodisrichlydepicted.Heisstrong,braveandcleverwithatenderheartandasenseofhumour.Hehatesthecrueloppressorsandlovesthepoorandthedowntrodden.RobinHood’sfriendsincludetheseven-feet-tallLittleJohn,MidgetheMiller’sSon,theJollyFriarTuckandmanyothers.Allof
1. Geste:deed,exploit
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
themarevividlydrawn.Otherwell-likedballadsareSir Patrick Spens, The
Wife of Usher’s Well, The Three Ravens, Get up and Bar the
Door,etc.
II. Geoffrey Chaucer
1. His Life & Literary Career
Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1343-1400), a
greatnarrativepoet,isthoughtofas“FatherofEnglishPoetry”. He was
born in a well-to-do
winemerchant’sfamilyinLondonandstudiedatOxfordandCambridge.Afterwardshebecameapageboytoacountessandcameintoclosecontactwiththecourt.In1359hejoinedintheHundredYearsWarandwentwiththeEnglisharmytoFrance,andin1367hebegantoserve
in
thegovernment.KingEdwardIIIsenthimonseveraldiplomatictripstoEuropeandstayedforsometimeinFranceandItaly.In1373ChaucertookthepostofControllerofCustomsintheportofLondon.Heworkedduringthedayandintheeveninghewrotepoems.In1386hewaselectedmemberofParliament,butlostthatpostsoon,duetothemaneuversofhisenemies.Hehadsomedifficult
time,but in1389hewasmadeClerkof
theKing’sWorksatWestminsterandWindsor,andEdward’ssuccessorHenryIVissuedhimapension.AfterChaucerdied,hewasburiedintheWestminsterAbbey.TheplacewherehewasputlaterbecamethefamousPoets’Corner.
Chaucer’screativeworkreflectsthechangeswhichhadtakenplaceinEnglishculturesincethesecondhalfof
the14thcentury,a
timewhenthefoundationofthefeudalsystemwaschallengedbypeople’sinsurrectionslikethe1381peasantuprising.Inreligion,thegloryoftheCatholicChurchwasalsoonthewane.Chaucer’screativecareerisusuallydividedintothreephases:
a)ThephaseofFrench influence, inwhichhedid translations
fromFrenchauthors,e.g.thefamousRomance of the
Rose,andexperimentedwithrhythmandstructurethoughmostlyfollowingtheconventionalimagesandideas.Hefavouredandwroteallegoricalvisionsandsatires
inthemanneroftheMiddleAges.Themostsignificantworkofthisperiodis The
Book of
Duchess(1370),anelegyinwhichChaucerusesthevisioninadreamashisvehicletolamentthedeathofBlanche,DuchessofLancaster,andtoconsole
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer
(1066-1485)herhusbandandChaucer’spatron,JohnofGaunt, theDuke. In
thepoemChaucerpretendstodreamaboutamaninblack,whoislostingrief.Chaucermakesthemantellthereasonsofhisgriefandinthiswayhelpshimtocomeoutofsorrow.
b)Thephaseof Italian influence, inwhichhe showedaneffort
tolearnfromtheItaliangreatpoetssuchasDante.But
theItalianpoetwhoinfluencedhimmostisBoccaccio,theauthorofDecameron.
The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls and Troilus and
Criseyde(c.1385)arepoemsofthisphase.Amongthem,Troilus and
Criseydeisthemostrepresentative,whichisa5-bookpoemtellingthetragedyofayoungTrojanheroTroilus,whofellinlovewithCriseyde.Butshortlyaftertheybecamelovers,CriseydewasreturnedbytheTrojanstoherfather,atraitorwhohadleftTroyforthecampoftheGreeks.Criseydefell
inlovewiththeGreekwarriorDiomedeandTroilusdiedinafightwiththeGreeks.
c)TheEnglishphase,orthephaseofrealism,inwhichhismasterpieceThe
Canterbury
Taleswascreated.Weshallgiveamoredetailedintroductiontothisimportantpoembelow.
2. His Major Work—The Canterbury Tales (1386-1400)
In The Canterbury Tales
ChaucerpresentsapicturesquepanoramaofhiscontemporaryEnglandandshowshis
realistic tendency,subtle
ironyandfreedomofviews,allofwhichhadnoequal in theEnglish
literaturebeforethe16thcentury.AlthoughChaucerisnotentirelyfreefrommedievalprejudices,theytakeaveryinconsiderableplaceinthetales.Chaucerbelievesintherightofmantoearthlyhappinessandisopposedtosuperstitionsandablindbelief
infate.Hepraisesman’senergy, intellect,quickwitandthelovefor
life,andmocksat theRomanCatholicauthoritieswhoexploit
theEnglishpeople.Allthesemarkhimasanavant-gardeofthecomingAgeofRenaissanceinEngland.
1) The Dramatic Structure of The Canterbury Tales
The General
Prologue:ThebookwasplannedasacollectionofstoriesheardbyChaucerasaparticipantofapilgrimage.There
is theGeneralPrologueat thebeginning tobrief the readerabout the
time,place,andwhathappenedthatledtotellingtalesamongagroupofpilgrims.ButwhatintereststhereadermostandhasalwaysbeenconsideredasChaucer’sgreatsuccessisthevividandrealisticdescriptionsintheGeneralPrologueofall
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
thepilgrims,
theirappearances,mannersandpersonalities.TheywereagroupontheirwaytoCanterburytopayrespecttotheshrineofSt.ThomasàBecket.Itwasspringtime.Theauthorstoppedforthenightat
theTabardInnofSouthwark,asuburbofLondon,wherehemetthisgroupof29peoplefromallwalksof
life, includingaknight, a squire,aprioress,a friar,
amerchant,aclerk,asergeantofthelaw,aFranklin,adoctor,thewifeofBath,aplowman,amiller,asummoner,apardoner,andsoon.TheyhadmetattheinnandplannedtogotogethertoCanterbury.Chaucerandtheinnhostjoinedthem.Thehost,amerryman,madehimselfheadofthegroupandproposedthateachpilgrimtelltwostoriesonthewaytoCanterburyandtwoonthewayback.Hewouldthenjudgeandgiveaprizetotheonewhotoldthebeststory.
The
Tales:AftertheGeneralPrologue,thestory-tellingbegins.Here,Chaucerplacesaprologuebeforeeachtale
tofurther
introducethepersonwhotellsthatparticularstory,andtheoccasionthatleadstothetellingofit.
Pilgrims leaving Canterbury from a manuscript of The Siege of
Thebes, attached to the unfinished Canterbury Tales.
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer
(1066-1485)InthiswaythetalesareneatlyorganisedintoawholeandfromtimetotimeChaucer,
theauthor/narrator,putsinhispoignant,orironicalremarksbothonthestory-tellerandonthetale,whichgreatlyenhancesthedramaticeffectofthework.
ButwhenChaucerdied, thepoemwas leftunfinished,withonly24stories
inall.Althoughtheworkis
incomplete,whatwehaveisalreadyapieceofgreatcreationthatmarksaveryimportantstageinthedevelopmentoftheEnglishpoetry.
2) The Artistic Features of The Canterbury Tales
Realistic Presentation of Characters and Contemporary
Life:FirstofallwemustmentionChaucer’srealisticpresentationofcharacters.ThepoettriestogiveacomprehensivepictureoftheEnglishsocietyofhistimeandarrangestopresentacolorfulgalleryofpilgrimsthatcoversagreatrangeofsocial
life.Notonlytheyrepresenttheclassestheycomefrom,buteachalsopossessesanindividualpersonality.Ineachprologueleadingtoatale,Chaucergivesavividportrayalofthestory-teller’sappearance,manners,wayofspeaking,andpersonality.Thus,thecharactersbecomeasimportantapartofthepoemasthetalestoldbythem.Amongthemostoftencitedexamplesare,forinstance,theWifeofBathandtheMiller,andtheirtales.
Alice,awifefromBathbelongedtotheplebeianclasswhohadmarriedfivehusbands.Shewasashrewdwoman,alwaysholdingthedomineeringposition
inherhouse,whichshebelieved tobe themost important
foramarriedwoman.Herfirst
threehusbandswereallold,richandphysicallyweak.OnceAlicegottheirlandsandwealth,shenolongermadeanyefforttopleasethem,but
treatedthemlikeanaggingshrew.Herfourthhusbandwasaplayboy.Shesufferedsomebadtreatmentinhishands,butsheinturngavehimthehellby
lettinghimbelieveshehadbeenunfaithful tohim.Herpresenthusband,
thefifthone,wasanOxfordclerk,whowasslyanddomineering.Shewastwicehisage,andwasgreatlyattractedtothisman.Butevenintheirhoney-moon,shefoundhedespisedwomenandreadonlyanti-womenliterature.Tomockather,heevendeliberatelyreadtohertalesofmurderessesandoffemaleswithloosemoralsandbehaviour.Naturally,theyquarreledandfell
toblows.Duringonedomesticfightshepretendedtobestrucktodeath,whichfrightenedherhusbandandthusshegainedforherselfthesovereigntyshedesiredintheirhouse.
Thetaleshetoldisanechoofthisideologyofhers.Itisaboutaknightwhocommittedthecrimeofrape,andasaconditiontoescapepunishment
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
hewasforcedtolookforwhatawomandesiredmost.Hewashelpedtotherightanswerbyanoldanduglyhagandpromisedmarriageinreturn.Theweddingwasallagonytotheknightandheopenlytoldhisspouseso.Butassoonasheadmittedhisdebttohiswifeandreadytosubmittoher,shechangedintoafairandgoodwomanandtheylivedinperfectjoyeverafter.
TheMillerwasaverycoarse character.His tale comes after
theKnight’s very refinedstory.Whenall thegentlefolkpraised
theKnighthighly, theMiller,whowasverydrunk at the time, announced
in
analcoholicstutterthathewasgoingtotellastory.Histaleisafabliau,astoryofcommoncharacters
involved ingrossand
indecentevents.AricholdcarpenterJohnwascuckoldedbyhisyoungandprettywifeAlisoun,whowasseducedbyaclerknamedNicholasandhadcarriedonthisillicitrelationshipwithhim.AnotherclerkAbsalomalsodesiredAlisounandwent
toherbedroomwindoweachnighttosingsongs.Johnwassokindthathefoundnothingwrongaboutthissingingofsongs.SoAbsalomcontinuedhiswooingofAlisounoutsideof
thewindow.OneeveningwhenJohnwasawayandNicholaswasinbedroomwiththewife,AbsalomcameandbeggedAlisounforakiss.Alisounputherrearsideoutof
thewindowfor
thekiss.Upondiscoveringtheinsult,Absalomreturnedwithared-hotpokertotakerevenge.Heasked
foranotherkiss, and this
timeNicholasputouthisbuttocks.Absalombrandedhisbuttockswiththehotiron.Nicholasscreamedinpain.This
tale isverymuch in thefashionofBoccaccio’s tales
inDecameron,inwhicharecomiceventsshowinghowtherichfoolisholdhusbandsaredeceivedbythecleveryounglovers.But,hereChauceremphasisesthepoeticjusticeandthedeceiversarejustlypunished.
TheMillerwasabull-likeman,big-bonedandmuscular.Hewasugly-lookingwithabroad,redbeard,ahairywartonhisnose,andhisnostrilswerewideandblack.Hewasalsoverycoarse.Wheneverheopenedhismouth,itwasalwaystotelldirtystories.Naturallythetalehetoldwassuchanindecentone,whichshowsthegrosssideofthelifeofthecommonpeople.However,
thetaleisfullofenergyandvitalitythatrepresentstypicallytheRenaissancespiritagainst
thereligiousbondagesetuponhumanpursuitofearthlyhappiness.But,one
thingwemustadd toourreadingof this taleandall theother
talesbyChaucer.Namelysuch
talesbyChaucerarenotobscenethoughveryearthyintheirhumour.TheMiller’stale,infact,makesanentertainingcontrast
to thechivalricromanceof
theKnight’sbeforeit.Chaucerdealswiththe“factsoflife”insuchanunembarrassedandhealthyfashionthatonlythemostPuritanicalmindcanfindfaultwiththestory.
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer
(1066-1485)Chaucer’s Humour:The Canterbury Tales wins readerswith
its
humour.ManyEnglishnovelistsandplaywrightsaredistinguishedbythehumour
theyshowin theirworks.Chaucer isoneof
themostprominenthumouristsamongthem.Heiswell-skilledinmildandsubtleironytocreatehumourouseffects.Althoughhe
lived incloseassociationwith
thecourtofficialsandtheupperclasspeople,hewasabroad-mindedhumanistandhadsympathyforpeopleatlarge.Therefore,hetreatshischaracterskindlyonthewhole,usinggentlesatireandironytocriticisevanity,ill-manners,deceptivetricksandallsortsoffolliesandhumanweaknesses.IndepictingthewifeofBath,Chaucerusessatireopenlytoexposehercoarse,pragmaticandshrewdnature.Hecanalsorisetoverybittersatireagainsttherealevilpeoplesuchashisportrayalofthepardonerandthesummoner.Butwhenitcomestotheprioress,Chaucerchoosessubtleironytoimplythatthoughanun,shealsohasearthlydesiresandisa
littlehypocriticalwhenover-actinghercharityandsympathytowardinjuredanimals.Shewasanextremelysensitiveperson,hersmilewascoy,andshespokedaintilyinFrench,followingtheschoolofStratford-atte-BoweinEngland,and“Frenchin
theParisstyleshedidnotknow”.Whensheate,shewascarefulnottodipherfingerstoodeepinthesauceortodropevenamorselonherbreast.Andshewouldcryoveramousecaughtinatraporweepifherdogshoulddieorbebeatenbysomeone.Nunasshewas,shepaidgreatattentiontoher
looks,especiallyherheaddressandclothes.TofinishhisdescriptionofherChaucerwrote:“Sheworeacoraltrinketonherarm,/Asetofbeads,thegaudiestrickedingreen,/Whencehungagoldenbroochofbrightestsheen/OnwhichtherefirstwasgravenacrownedA,/Andlower,Amor
vincit
omnia.”TheLatinheremeans:“Loveconquersall.”Thismottoinscribedonherbroochbringstheportrayingtoaclimax.Asanun,sheshouldloveGodandreceiveLovefromGod,whichiscalled
thedivine love.But thereader
isneversurewhetherbywearingsuchamottoonherbrooch,theprioressisthinkingofsecularordivinelove.Onepossibleimplicationisthatshealsodesiressecularlove,includinglovebetweenmanandwoman.TheregoesChaucer’ssubtleironyandsatireofthehypocrisyoftheCatholicchurchanditsclergy.
Unity Through a Framed Story:The Canterbury Tales
isaframedstory.Althoughthestory-tellersareverydifferentandthestoriesarediverse,aunityisachievedthroughthedeviceoftheframedstory,thatisChaucer’sinventionofapilgrimageas
theoccasionofall thestory-tellingand thusmakes it realistic.Also,
thepilgrimage frameoffers thepossibility for
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
comparisonandcontrastofcharactersandtheir interplay.In thisway,
thepoempresentsbothvividcharactersandamultiple-viewedrealisticpictureoftheEnglishsocietyofChaucer’stime.ThisframeconsistsoftheGeneralPrologue,shortsectionstellingthingswhichhappenedontheway,prologuestoindividualtales,andafewinterruptionsbyonecharacteroranotherinthemiddleofatale.
Metrical Scheme:ThemetricalschemeofThe Canterbury Tales
isChaucer’schiefcontributiontoEnglishpoetry.HeisthepoetwhointroducedtoEnglandtherhymedstanzasofmanykindsfromFrenchpoetry,especiallytherhymedcoupletof
iambicpentameter,which isalsocalled
theheroiccouplet.Asaresult,hechangedthealliterativeverseoftheAnglo-SaxonstometricalversewhichhassincebeenusedanddevelopedbygenerationaftergenerationofEnglishpoetstilltoday.
3. Chaucer’s Contributions
Chaucer
learnedfrombothFrenchandLatinpoetryandthenworkedoutauniquestylefor
theEnglishpoetry
thathadabsorbednourishmentsfromthemoreadvancedEuropeanpoetryofthetimeandatthesametimereserveditsAnglo-Saxonpoeticfeatures.AndtherealismandhumanisticconcernsdemonstratedinhisworkslookedforwardtothecomingEnglishRenaissance.
Chaucer’sliterarycareerwasalsocloselyrelatedwiththedevelopmentofEnglish.TherewereseveraldialectsinthespokenEnglishofChaucer’stime.ButbecauseheusedtheEnglishoftheLondondialecttocomposepoetry,itbecamealiterarylanguage,thatisalanguagerichandexpressiveenoughtouseforliterarypurposes.Today,wecalltheEnglishusedanddevelopedbyChaucerandhiscontemporariesMiddleEnglish,whichwasthefoundationofmodernEnglish.
Review Questions1.
WhatwasthesocialandclassrealityoftheAnglo-NormanPeriod?2.
Tellthethreedivisionsofromancesaccordingtosubjectmatterandgive
anexampleoftheMatterofBritain.3.
Nametwomorewell-knownwritersofthisperiodandtheirachievements
besidesChaucerandhisliteraryworks.
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)4.
SayasmuchasyouknowaboutChaucer’slifeandworks.5.
CommentontheartisticfeaturesofThe Canterbury Tales.6.
SumupChaucer’sachievementsandcontributions.
Quiz
I. Fill in the blanks: (30%)
1. ThefirstsettlersoftheBritishIsleswere
,andBritaingotitsnamefromabranchofthispeoplecalled
.Butlatertheyweredriventolivein , and .
2. The , and were
tribesoriginallylivingontheContinent.TheymovedtotheBritishIslesandbecametheancestorsofthe
people.
3. Themost importanteventof theOldEnglishPeriodwas
,whichtookplaceintheyear .
4. The Roman Catholic Church sent to England in
597theEnglishpeopletoCatholicism.
5. Name twopoemsof thisperiodapart from Beowulf: ,and.
6. Beowulf isanepicof lines,andit tells theevents that
tookplaceon beforetheymovedtotheBritishIsles.
7. AftertheAnglo-SaxonEnglishtookinloanwordsfrom
andandlostmostofits andmanyofitsgrammarrules,
itwascalled . 8. Romancecanbedividedinto
threekindsaccordingtosubjectmatter.
Theyare , and . 9. Romancesof theEnglish subject are talesabout
andhis
.10. JohnWyclifwasa translatorof ,WilliamLanglandwrote
and the most famous English ballads are those about.
II. Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F):
(10%)
1.
ThetwocentersofChristiancultureintheOldEnglishPeriodwasinCanterburyandNorthumbria.
2. Caedmon belonged to Northumbrian School, whereas the
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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)
VenerableBedewasamemberoftheCanterburyAbbeyinsouthEngland.
3. ThefirstEnglishnationalepicpoemisWidsith.
4.OldEnglishpoetryisdistinguishedbyitsuseofalliterationand
kennings.
5. ChauceristhegreatestlyricalpoetoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod. 6.
The Canterbury TalesisChaucer’smasterpiece,butitisunfinished
withonly24taleswritten.
7. ModernEnglish isdevelopedfromtheLondondialectof
theMiddleEnglishPeriod,which
isagreatcontributionmadebyChaucertotheEnglishlanguage.
8. Mostof theEnglishpopularballadshave theirorigin in
theFrenchfolklore.
9. TheNormanswere interested in
theCycleofKingArthurbecausetheywantedtoprovetheywerelawfulheirstotheCelticancestorsofBritain.
10. Chaucer’shumanisticideasanticipatetheEnglishRenaissance.
III. Explain the following literary terms: (15%)
1. epic2. alliteration3. iambicpentameter4. romance5. ballad
IV. Choose one from each of the following two groups of
questions and write a short essay of about 300 words to the first
and about 500 words to the second: (45%)
Group One: (20%)
1. GiveahistoricalreviewoftheOldEnglishPeriod.2.
SaysomethingaboutthetransitionfromOldEnglish
toMiddleEnglishandthehistoricalelementsthathadbroughtaboutthistransition.
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Chapter 2 Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)
Group Two: (25%)
1. Analysethetheme(s)andartisticfeaturesofBeowulf.2. C o m m e n
t o n C h a u c e r ’s a c h i eve m e n t s a n d
contributionswithexamplesfromhisworks.
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