- 1. A Presantation of Grand Project on A Study on Impact of NPA
on Profitability and Liquidity In Public Sector Banks Project Guide
Prof. Ranjani SrinivasanSubmitted By Ketan DhameliyaPankaj
KamaliyaS.K.Patel Institute Of Management and Computer Studies
2. == Research Paper Published in Inventi Journals == Inventi
Rapid: Microfinance & Banking Vol. 2013, Issue 2 [ISSN 2231-
2641] CCC: $10 Inventi Journals (P) Ltd Published on Web
19/03/2013, www.inventi.in 3. == Flow of Presentation == Chapter 1.
Introduction Meaning of NPA Introduction of Indian Banking Industry
Procedures for NPA Identification And Resolution In India Chapter
2. Review Of Literatures Chapter 3. Research Methodology Scope of
the study Objective of Study Methodology Tools and Techniques
Chapter 4. Data Base and Methodology Hypothesis of the Study
Chapter 5. Finding Chapter 6. Conclusion Chapter 7. References 4.
== Chapter 1. Introduction == == Meaning of NPA== Interest and or
installment of principal remain overdue for a period of more than
180 days in respect of a Term Loan. The account remains 'out of
order' for a period of more than 180 days, in respect of an
overdraft/ cash Credit(OD/CC), The bill remains overdue for a
period of more than 180 days in the case of bills purchased and
discounted, Any amount to be received remains overdue for a period
of more than 180 days in respect of other accounts. With a view to
moving towards international best practices and to ensure greater
transparency, it has been decided to adopt the '90 days overdue'
norm for identification of NPAs. 5. == Introduction of Indian
Banking Industry == Structure Of Indian Banking Industry Aggregate
Performance of the Banking Industry Challenges facing by banking
industry Deregulation New Rules Efficiency Diffused customer
loyalty Misaligned mindset Competency gapClassification of Assets
Standard Assets Categories of NPAs Sub-standard Asset Doubtful
Asset Loss Asset 6. == Types NPA == Types Of Npa Gross NPA Net NPA
== Impact of NPA == Impact Of Npa Profitability Liquidity 7. ==
Procedures for NPA Identification And Resolution In India
==Internal Checks and Control Relationship Manager/Credit Officer
Know your client' profile (KYC) Credit Rating System
Watch-list/Special Mention Category Monitoring of early warning
signals Financial Operational Banking Management and External
factorsWillful Defaulters Debt Recovery Tribunals Lokadalats 8. ==
Chapter 2. Review Of Literatures == SerialAuthorTopic Name1Dr. A.
Shyamal a(June ; 2012))Npas in indian banking sector: impact on
profitabilityReview of literature :-1Data &
SampleMethodologyConclusionTypes of data: secondary data years
:2000-2010 Area under study: SBI Group, Nationalized Banks Group
and Private Banks Group Scope: Indian banking sector for 10 year
Objective: To analyze the impact of nonperforming assets on the
profitability of banks.The data has been analyzed using ratio.
1)Ratio of Gross NPA to Gross Advances ii) Ratio of Net NPA to Net
Advances iii) Ratio of Gross NPA to Total Assets iv) Ratio of Net
NPA to Total AssetsYes (Nationalize d bank group has secured the
first place and the second place was taken by SBI and its
Associates) 9. 2Mahipa l Singh Yadav, ( June, 2011)Impact of Non
Performing Assets on Profitability and Productvity of Public Sector
Banks in India Review of literature :-2Types of data: secondary
data years : 19942006 Area under study: public sector banks Scope:
Indian banking sector for 10 year Objective: -To evaluate the
impact of nonperforming assets on profitability with other
variables;Regression equation Y = a + b1X1 + u....(1) X1= Gross
non- performing asset as percentage of total asset a= intercept,
b=regression parameter; u= standard error Y = a + b1 X1 + b2 X2 +
b3 X3 + u------------ (2) X2= priority sector as a percentage of
total asset. X3= non- priority sector as a percentage of total
asset. Y = a + b1X1+ b2 X2 + b3 X3 + b4 X4+ b5X5 + b6X6 + b7X7 + u
-----(3) Y = a + b1X1 + u -----(4) Y = a + b1 X1+ u-----(5)Yes
(nonperformin g assets in public sector banks affects fifty percent
profitabilit ) 10. 3 (1)Siraj. K.K (2)Prof. (Dr). P. Sudarsan an
Pillai, (March| 2012)A Study on the Performan ce of NonPerformin g
Assets (NPAs) of Indian Banking During Post Millenniu m PeriodTypes
of data: secondary data years : March 2001 to March 2011 Area under
study: Commercial Banks is composed of State Bank of India &
Associates, Nationalized Banks, Private Sector Banks and Foreign
Banks. Scope: Indian banking sector& Foreign Banks for 10 year
Objective: Impact of NPA1)AAG (Average Annual Growth Rate).
2)regression equation Gross Advances (XGD) Total Deposits (XTD)
Additions to NPA (XANPA).Yes(NPA remained as an area of concern as
it indicates the real efficiency of credit risk managem ent)Review
of literature :-3 11. 4(1)DR.H OSMANI (2)MR.J AGADIS H HUDAGI
(Decem ber 2011,)Unearthin g the epidemic of non-per forming assets
-a study with reference to public sector banks in indiaReview of
literature :-4Types of data: secondary data years : 2005-2010. Area
under study: Non performing assets in Commercial banks operating in
India wise public sector banks has been taken in to account Scope:
Indian banking sector for 5 year Objective 1.To study the magnitude
and trend of NPA of Public sector banks in India. 2. To evaluate
the asset portfolio and NPA proportion of Public sector
bank1).Average, 2).ANOVA, 3).correlatio n, and 4).comparati ve
percentage analysis.Yes (The study conducted on the topic
unearthing the epidemic of non performing assets with reference to
public sector banks in India, found that there is a slight
improvement in the asset quality reflected by decline in the
diverse NPA percentage.) 12. 5 1.)Namit a Rajput 2.)Monik a Gupta
3.) Mr. Ajay Kumar ChauhanProfitabi lity And Credit Culture Of
Npas: An Empirical Analysis Of PsbsReview of literature :-5Types of
data: secondary data years : 1997-2010) Area under study:
Commercial Banks, Public sector banks, private sector banks and
foreign banks Scope: Indian banking sector for 13 year Objective:
1.) To analyze the nature, extent and magnitude of NPA in Indian
banking sector. 2.) To examine the relationship between NPAs and
profitability measure (ROA) of banks.1.)Y= a+b1x1+.. (i) Y=a+b2x2+u
(ii) Where, Y= ROA (Return on Assets),a= constant term,b1 & b2
= Regression coefficients for the respective variables, x1 = GNPA
Ratio and x2 = NNPA Ratio = Error Term 2.) Ratio 3.) ANOVAYes (An
inverse relationship among profitability and nonperforming assets
revealed the fact, that the bank can have an increasing trend of
profitability only by the effective declining trend of NPAs) 13. 6
1.)Deba rshi Ghosh 2.)Suka nya GhoshManage ment Of NonPerformi ng
Assets In Public Sector Banks: Evidence From IndiaReview of
literature :-6Types of data: secondary 1) Ratio data 2) correla
years : 2009-2010 tion Area under study: Public sector banks in
India include seven banks under the State Bank of India group and
twenty other nationalized banks. Scope: Indian banking sector for 1
year Objective: To study the trends in Gross Advances and Gross
NPAs by various bank groups during the study period.Yes The
pressing problem that banks all over the world are facing in recent
times is spiraling of nonperforming assets. NPAs adversely affect
lending activity of banks as non-recovery of loan installment and
the interest on the loan harms the usefulness of loan-disbursement
process. 14. 7 1.)Dr. Viplaw Kishore Pandey 2.) Mrs. Harme et
KaurNpa In Banking Sector: Some Correlatio nal EvidenceReview of
literature :-7Types of data: secondary data 1) Ratio years : 2001
to 2010, Analysis, Area under study: Public 2) Averages, Sector
Banks 3) Correlations Priority Sector Non-Priority Private Sector
Banks SectorScope: Indian banking sector for 10 year Objective: 1.
To analyse the trends of NPAs in Priority and Non priority sector.
2. To find out the level of priority sector NPAs against priority
sector credit by various bank groups.Yes (NPAs have been an immense
problem for the Indian Banking Sector. Proper and effective
managemen t of NPA is essential or else it can adversely affect the
profitability of the banks.) 15. == Chapter 3. Research Methodology
== == Scope of the study == This research report is based on
historical data of public sector banks Source for the data is
Trends and progress report of banking industry from RBI website.
For the analysis the main NET NPA and NET PROFIT are being taken
Area of research in banking industry very wide but our report is
limited to these public sector banks only Time period of data is
ten year its to get probable output and on the basis of this
forecasting can be done. 16. == Objective of Study == To analyse
the impact of non-performing assets on profitability and liquidity
of banks at aggregate and sectoral level. To evaluate the impact of
non-performing assets on profitability And liquidity with other
variables. To examine the impact of non-performing assets on
efficiency and productivity. To know the ratio of NPA and Advances
of banks. 17. == Methodology == Types of data: secondary data.
Sampling unit: - All public sector banks. Period of the study: 10
year (1/4/2002 to 31/3/2012). Data collection: journals, articles,
internet, books.== Tools and Techniques == Descriptive test
:Jarque-Bera, Kurtosis, SkewnessCorrelation analysis. Regression
analysis. Pairwise Granger Causality Tests. Johansen Cointegration
Test, and Ratio of NPA and Advances. 18. == Chapter 4. Data Base
and Methodology ==== Hypothesis of the Study == Ho= There is no
significant association between gross NPAs to gross advances of the
public sector banks. Ho= There is no significant association
between priority sector, non priority sector, public sector &
from NPAs point of view. Ho= There is no significant reduction in
the portion of gross NPAs to gross advances. Ho= There is no
significant relation between Net NPA and NET PROFIT . 19. (1)To
analysis the impact of Non-performing assets on profitability and
liquidity of Public sector banks. Table-1: Net Npa to Net Profit of
Public Sector Banks. (Amt in Crores) Source: Report On Trend And
Progress of Banking In India from 2003 to 2012)Year 2002-03 2003-04
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12Net
NPA 24877 19335 16904 14566 14145 17726 21033 29644 36071 39423Net
Profit 12295 16546 15784 16539 20152 26592 34394 57109 70331 81700
20. Table No-1.1 : Descriptive Statistics Particulars Mean Median
Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera ProbabilityNET NPA 23472.30
20184.00 8826.273 0.758552 2.151510 1.258974 0.532865NET PROFIT
35144.20 23372.00 25332.07 0.857480 2.150133 1.526400
0.466172Analysis: Jarque-Bera: From the Data it is clear that
Probability is more than 0.05 thats show the data follow the
normality in the past 10 year in NPA & PROFIT the probability
is respectively 0.532 & 0.4466 thats show normally distributed.
Kurtosis: Data follow the Leptokurtic. Here both variable NPA &
PROFIT result is2.1589 &2.1501 respectively. Skewness: The
standard of the test is in negative or positive here result shows
positive in both the variable its show the normally distributed
follow by data. 21. Table No-1.2: Correlation Analysis:NET NPA NET
PROFITNET NPA 1 0.912NET PROFIT 1 Correlation result show the
positive correlation between NET NPA and NET PROFIT its show the
one of the objective to know the impact of npa on profitability its
clear in result the Correlation is 0.912 is more than 0.800 the
indicate high correlation between them 22. Table No-1.3: Regression
analysis. The regression test on NET NPA and NET PROFIT show the R
squared is .831569 means the both variable in the test show the
relation between each other positive and data will effect with each
other. Its show high relationship between NPA and PROFIT if the NPA
increase the its affect the PROFIT margin of public sector Banks.
Table No-1.4: Granger Causality Tests. Null
HypothesisF-StatisticProbabilityDecisionNETPROFIT does not Granger
Cause NETNPA0.079890.9251AcceptedNETNPA does not Granger Cause
NETPROFIT.86378.5055Accepted Here in Net Profit to Net NPA the
probability is 0.9251 means Accepted and NET NPA to NET PROFIT is
0.5055 the null hypostasis and will affected the each other, here
if Net Profit Decreases its means the affected by NPA. 23. Table
No-1.5: Johansen Cointegration Test. Trace test indicates 1
cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the
hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999)
p-values Max-eigenvalue test indicates 1 cointegrating eqn(s) at
the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05
level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values 24. (2)To evaluate
the impact of non-performing assets on profitability and liquidity
with other variables. Table No-2: NPA of Priority, Non-priority,
and Remaining Public to Net Profit (Amount in Crores) Year 2002-03
2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11
2011-12Priority Sector 24939 23841 21926 22374 22954 25287 24318
30848 41245 48524Non-priority Sector 26781 25698 23249 18664 15158
14153 19251 25929 29803 34502Public Sector 1087 610 444 341 490 299
474 524 278 746Net Profit 12295 16546 15784 16539 20152 26592 34394
57109 70331 81700 25. Table No-2.1: Descriptive test. Mean Median
Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera ProbabilityPRIORITY
28625.60 24628.50 9082.669 1.390414 3.408916 3.291758 0.192843NON
PRIORITY 23318.80 24473.50 6501.273 0.111797 2.064054 0.385829
0.824553PUBLIC 529.3000 482.0000 242.2244 1.224214 3.841249
2.792707 0.247498NET PROFIT 35144.20 23372.00 25332.07 0.857480
2.150133 1.526400 0.466172Jarque-Bera :the past 10 year in NPA
& PROFIT the probability is respectively in priority sector,
Non priority sector & Public sector to Net Profit like 0.1928
& 0.82450 & 0.2474 & 0.4661 thats show normally
distributed. Kurtosis: From data follow the Platykurtic the
standard is less than 3 in both the variable like Non priority
& Net Profit and more than 3 than data follow the Leptokurtic
both variable priority sector and public sector result is 3.4089
&3.8141 respectively. Skewness: Here result shows positive in
all the variable its show the normally distributed follow by data
26. Table No-2.2: Correlation Analysis. PRIORITY NON PRIORITY
PUBLIC NET PROFITPRIORITY 1 0.77145 0.08411 0.94424NONPRIORITY
PUBLIC 1 0.45452 0.65741 -0.09704NETPROFIT1Analysis: Correlation
result show the positive correlation between PRIORITY and NET
PROFIT and Average relation between NON PRIORITY and NET PROFIT and
No correlation between PUBLIC SECTOR And NET PROFIT The one of the
objective to know the impact of npa on profitability with other
variable its clear in result. 27. Table No-2.3: Regression Test.
Analysis: The regression test on NPA of Priority sector on-Priority
sector and Public sector and NET PROFIT show the R squared is
0.922970 means the both variable in the test show the relation
between each other is very high and data will effect with each
other 28. Table No-2.4: Pairwise Granger Causality Tests. Null
HypothesisF-StatisticProbabilityDecisionNETPROFIT does not Granger
Cause PRIORITY11.95840.0372RejectedPRIORITY does not Granger Cause
NETPROFIT3.78980.1510AcceptedNETPROFIT does not Granger Cause
NONPRIORITY1.870850.2968AcceptedNONPRIORITY does not Granger Cause
NETPROFIT13.12640.0328RejectedNETPROFIT does not Granger Cause
PUBLIC1.570910.3414AcceptedPUBLIC does not Granger Cause
NETPROFIT1.755640.3127AcceptedAnalysis: here in Net Profit to
Priority Sector the probability is 0.0372 means Rejected the null
and in NONPRIORITY sector to NETPROFIT rejected null. Other all
have probability more than 0.05 so accepted null hypothesis 29.
(3)To examine the impact of non-performing assets on efficiency and
Liquidity. Table No-3: Gross NPA to Gross Advance and Ratio 0f
Gross NPA to Gross Advance. (Amount in Crores) YearGross NPAGross
Advance2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
2009-10 2010-11 2011-1256,473 54,090 52,880 41,358 38,968 40,595
44,957 59,926 74,614 117,200577813 661975 877825 1134724 1464493
1819074 2282081 2736347 3265245 3645235Gross NPA To Gross Advances
6.85 7.79 5.53 3.64 2.66 2.23 2.19 2.23 2.5 3.1 30. Table No-3.1:
Descriptive Statistics of Public sector bank. GROSS ADVANCEMean
Median Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera ProbabilityGROSS
NPA1846481.58106.101641784.53485.001097176.23429.140.3931841.7421661.7806275.1652520.8771867.0120380.6449430.030016Jarque-Bera:
From the past 10 year in GROSS NPA & GROSS ADVANCES the
probability is respectively 0.030016 & 0.644943 thats show
normally distributed in GROSS ADVANCE and GROSS NPA Do not follow
the normal distribution. Kurtosis: From the result it is clear that
data follow the Platykurtic the standard is less than 3 in gross
advances and gross NPA follow the Leptokurtic Skewness: The
standard of the test is in negative or positive here result shows
positive in both the variable its show the normally distributed
follow by data 31. Table No-3.2: Correlation Analysis. GROSS
ADVANCE GROSS NPAGROSS ADVANCE 1 0.67952GROSS NPA 1Analysis:
Correlation result show the positive correlation between GROSS NPA
and GROSS ADVANCE its show the one of the objective to know the
liquidity impact of NPA in public sector Banks, its clear in result
the Correlation is average. Table No-3.3: Regression analysis.
Analysis: The regression test on GROSS ADVANCES and GROSS NPA show
the R squared is0.461755 means the both variable in the test show
the relation between each other are not positive and data will
effect with each other is lesser. And Adjusted R-square is 0.394474
the show less relationship between GROSS ADVANCES and GROSS NPA if
the GROSS NPA increase the does not affect the GROSS ADVANCES of
public sector Banks. 32. Table No-3.4: Granger Causality Tests.
Null HypothesisF-Statistic ProbabilityDecisionGROSS NPA does not
Granger Cause GROSS ADVANCE4.226190.1341AcceptedGROSS ADVANCE does
not Granger Cause GROSS NPA6.357240.0834AcceptedAnalysis: Here in
GROSS NPA and GROSS ADVANCES the probability is 0.1341 means
accepted the null hypostasis and in GROSS ADVANCES and GROSS NPA
probability 0.0834 accepting the null hypostasis Table No-3.5:
Johansen Cointegration test. Trace test indicates 2 cointegrating
eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at
the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05
level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values 33. Ratio analysis
of ratio between gross advances and gross NPARatio of last 10 year
say of gross advances and gross NPA is high in 2002-03 to 2005-06
is approximately between in 2003-04 is 7.79 than after slowly
decreases and low in year 2008-09 is 2.19.if we taken average of
all the ratio is between 3.871 is good than individual year ratio.
34. (4)To know the ratio of NPA and Advances of public sector
banks. Table No-4: Net NPA to Net Advance and Ratio of NPA and
Advance.YearNet NPANet Advance2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-1224877 19335 16904
14566 15144 17726 21033 29644 36071 394235,49,351 6,31,383 8,48,912
11,06,128 14,40,123 17,97,504 22,60,156 26,32,236 32,03,125
35,21,563Net NPA To Net Advances 3.03 2.99 2.06 1.32 1.05 0.99 1.09
1.09 1.1 1.4 35. Table No-4.1: Descriptive Statistics of Public
sector. Mean Median Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera
ProbabilityNET ADVANCE 1799048. 1618814. 1068864. 0.362051 1.757141
0.862093 0.649829NET NPA 23472.30 20184.00 8826.273 0.758552
2.151510 1.258974 0.532865Analysis: Jarque-Bera: the past 10 year
in NET ADVANCES and NET NPA the probability is respectively 0.64989
& 0.532865 thats show normally distributed. Kurtosis: From the
result it is clear that data follow the Platykurtic the standard is
less than 3 in both the variable Here both variable NET ADVANCE
& NET NPA result is 1.757141 &2.151510 respectively.
Skewness: The standard of the test is in negative or positive here
result shows positive in both the variable its show the normally
distributed follow by data. 36. Table No-4.2: Correlation Analysis.
NETADVANCE NETNPANETADVANCE 1 0.7969NET NPA 1Analysis: Correlation
result show the positive correlation between NET NPA and NET
ADVANCE its show the one of the objective to know the impact of npa
on liquidity its clear in result the Correlation is 0.7969 is more
than 0.800 the indicate high correlation between them. Table
No-4.3: Regression test. Analysis: The regression test on NET NPA
and NET ADVANCE show the R squared is . 635160 means the both
variable in the test show the relation between each other positive
and data will effect with each other And Adjusted R-square is
0.589555 the show average relationship between NET NPA and NET
ADVANCE. 37. Table No-4.4: Granger Causality Tests. Null
HypothesisF-Statistic ProbabilityDecisionNET NPA does not Granger
Cause NET ADVANCE44.7597.0058RejectedNET ADVANCE does not Granger
Cause NET NPA1.766690.3112AcceptedAnalysis: Here in Net ADVANCE to
Net NPA the probability is 0.3112 means Accepted and NET NPA to NET
ADVANCE is 0.0058 the null hypostasis rejected and NET NPA does not
cause NET ADVANCE and in second test NET ADVANCE cause the NET NPA.
Table No-4.5: Johansen Cointegration Test. Trace test indicates 1
cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the
hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999)
p-values Max-eigenvalue test indicates 1 cointegrating eqn(s) at
the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05
level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values 38. Ratio analysis
of ratio between NET ADVANCES and GROSS NPA Ratio of last 10 year
say of net advances and net NPA is average in 200203 to 2011-12
compare to Gross Advances to Gross Npa and approximately between
height in 2002-03 is 3.03 than after slowly decreases and low in
year 2007-08 is 099.if we taken average of all the ratio is between
1.1612 is good than individual year ratio. 39. == Chapter 5.
Finding == From the analysis the impact of non-performing assets on
profitability and liquidity of public sector banks its shows the
positive relation. Evaluate the impact of non-performing assets on
profitability and liquidity with other variables Like priority
sector, non priority sector, and other variable. Show high
correlation between NPA and priority sector, non-priority sector
and medium correlation between NPA and other variable. Examine the
impact of non-performing assets on efficiency and liquidity show
average correlation. The ratio of NPA and advances of public sector
banks are high. 40. == Chapter 6. Conclusion == The NPAs of public
sector banks in absolute terms has shown increasing trend till
2003-04 to 2011-12 and declined later on in 2004-05 to 2007-08.
where as its test applied in the NET NAP and NET ADVANCE also prove
thats the significant impact of NPA on profitability in public
sector. Result of other variable of priority sector, non-priority
sector and remaining public sector its result of impact on profit
also more and other result for liquidity show there is not much
more but only average impact on liquidity. Indian banking sector is
facing a serious problem of NPA. The extent of NPA is comparatively
higher in public sectors banks than the private sector. Test result
of NPA show positive correlation between NET NPA and NET PROFIT its
show Correlation is 0.912 Analysis Granger Causality test says if
Net Profit Decreases its means the affected by NPA. 41. == Chapter
6. Conclusion == The Correlation result show the positive
correlation between PRIORITY and NET PROFIT Average relation
between NON PRIORITY and NET PROFIT and no correlation between
PUBLIC SECTOR And NET PROFIT show the One of the objective to know
the impact of npa on profitability with other variable its clear in
result the Correlation is respectively like 0.94424, 0.6574 and
-0.09704 is more than 0.800 the indicate high. Correlation result
show the positive correlation between GROSS NPA and GROSS ADVANCE
its show the one of the objective to know the liquidity impact of
NPA in public sector Banks, its clear in result the Correlation is
0.67952 if more than 0.800 the indicate high correlation between
them, Correlation result show the positive correlation between NET
NPA and NET ADVANCE its show the one of the objective to know the
impact of npa on liquidity its clear in result the Correlation is
0.7969 is more than 0.800 the indicate high correlation between
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