Palm Kernel 4. Laying Birds AFST

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Ani ma l Fee d Science an d Technology, 0 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 2 7 9 - 2 8 6 2 7 9

E l se v ie r c i e n c e P u b l i s h e rs . V . , A m s t e r d A m - - P r i n t e d i n T h e N e t h e r l a n d s

P a l m K e r n e l M e a l a s a F e e d f o r P o u l t r y . 4 . U s e o f

P a l m K e r n e l M e a l b y L a y i n g B i r d s

O.C. ONWUDIKE

D epa rtm ent of An im al Science, Universi ty of Ire, I le-I[e (Nigeria)

(Received 1 June 1987; accepted for publication 23 December 1987)

A B S T R A C T

O n w u d i k e , O . C . , 1 9 8 8 . a l m k e r n e l e a l a s a f ee d f o r o u lt r y. . U s e o f p a l m k e r n e l e a l b y l a y in g

b i r d s .Ani m. Fe ed Sci. Technol., 0 : 2 7 9 - 2 8 6 .

I n e a c h o f 2 e x p e r i me n t s , 2 0 0 l a y i n g i r d s f h e H a r c o s t ra i n e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e ff ec ts

o f i n cr e as i ng m o u n t s o f i e ta r y M m k e r n e l e a l ( P K M ) o n e g g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e n d e g g q ua li ty .

T h e r es ul ts h o w t h a t u p t o 4 0 % o f P K M c a n b e i n c l u d e d i n d i et s o r l a y e rs i t h o u t a n y a d v e r s e

e ff ec ts n p e r f o r m a n c e o r e g g q ua li ty . s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f P K M i n c r e a se d e y o n d 4 0 % , t h e r e w a s

a s ig ni fi c an t r o p i n e g g p r o d u c t i o n ( P < 0 . 0 5) , g g we i g h t ( P < 0 . 0 1 , f e e d i n t a k e ( P < 0 . 0 1 a n d

f e e d c o n v e r s i o n e f fi c ie n cy P < 0 . 0 1 . h e c o s t f e e d r e q u i r ed o p r o d u c e I k g o f g g s w a s r e d u c e d

b y f e e d i n g w i t h P K M . D i e t s c o n t a i n i ng 5 0 - 7 0 % o f P K M c a u s e d t h e p r o d u c t i on o f v e r y w a t e r y

f ae ce s. t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e m a x i m u m l ev el f i n cl u si o n f P K M i n t h e d i e t f l a y i n g i r d s

s h o u l d b e 4 0 % .

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h e e arl ie st e p o rt s o n p a l m k e r n el m e a l ( P K M ) a s a f e ed f or l a y in g b i rd s

( T e m p e r t o n a n d D u dl e y, 1 9 4 0 ) i n di c at e d t h a t P K M w a s p al a ta bl e a n d t h a t

birds wh ic h c on s um ed it sh ow ed satisfactory gg production over a period of 9

mont hs. Their report did not, however, discuss he dietary roportion of P K M

an d since that time, there hav e bee n no reports in the literature bout the use

o f P K M b y l a y i ng b ir ds . T h i s g e n er a l l a c k o f i n f o rm a t i on o n t h e u s e o f P K M

b y po u lt r y h a s b e e n d i sc u ss e d y t he a u th o r, w h o h a s s h o w n t h at P K M c a n b e

use d by g rowi ng chickens if he diets re properly balanced (On wud ike , 1986a,

b,c).

Thi s study on the use of P K M by laying birds is part of the series f exper-

iment s ai me d at investigating he use of P K M by poultry.

0377-8401/88/$03.50 © 1988 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.



280

M A T E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S

T w o s e p a r a t e s t u d ie s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m u m l ev e l o f

i n c l u s i o n o f P K M i n th e d i e t o f l a y i n g b i r d s .

Experiment I

T w o h u n d r e d 2 8 - w e e k - o ld p u l l e t s o f t h e H a r c o s t r a in ( c r o s s b r e d s e x - l i n k e d

B r o w n L e g h o r n a n d R h o d e I s l a n d R e d ) w e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o

w h i c h g r o u n d n u t c a k e p r o t e i n c o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y P K M w i t h o u t a n y r ed u c -

t i o n i n p e r f o r m a n c e o r e g g q u a l i t y . T h e b i r d s h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n r e a r e d t o t h e

l a y i n g s t a g e o n d i e ts w h i c h d i d n o t c o n t a i n a n y P K M . T h e b i r d s w e r e r a n d o m l y

d i v i d e d in t o 5 t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s o f 4 0 b i r d s e a c h a n d e a c h g r o u p w a s f u r t h e r

T A B L E 1

C o m p o s i t i o n o f d i et s f or E x p e r i m e n t I

Propor t i on o f GNC pro t e in r ep laced by PK M pro t e in(% )

0 25 50 75 100

Ingredients

Yellow m aize 60.50 55.63 51.15 46.38 41.15Gr oun dnu t cake 18.00 13.50 9.00 4.50 0.00

Fis h m eal 4.00 4.00 5.00 5.90 7.00

Pa lm kern el m eal 0.00 9.37 18.75 28.12 37.50

Br ew ers' dried gra ins 7.45 7.45 6.00 5.00 4.00

Bo ne m eal 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25

O yste r shell 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00

Vi tam in-m inera l m ix ' 0 .50 0 .50 0 .50 0 .50 0 .50

Sa lt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Am prolium (coccidios tat) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Pa lm oil 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.55 0.75

Analys is

Crude pr ote in (% ) 17.42 17.07 16.95 16.93 16.86

Cru de fibre (% ) 4.98 5.17 5.39 5.86 6.14

M ethion ine + cyst ine (% ) 0.51 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.58Ly sine (% ) 0.75 0.74 0.77 0.81 0.86

M E (M J kg -1 ) (calcu lated) 11.75 11.63 11.63 11.62 11.59

Ca lcium (% ) 3.46 3.48 3.48 3.47 3.46

Available ph osp ho rus (% ) 0.47 0.49 0.49 0.51 0.52

1To prov ide the following per kg o f the diet : vi t am in A, 8000 i.u; vi ta m in Da, 2000 i.u; vi ta m in E,

5 i .u; vi tam in K , 2 rag; r iboflavin, 4.20 rag; vi tam in B12, 0.01 rag; pan tothe nic acid, 5 mg; nicotinic

acid, 20 m g; folic acid, 0.5 nag; choline, 300 m g; man gan ese, 56 rag; iodine, 1 rag; iron, 20 rag;copper, 10 mg; zinc, 50 mg a nd cobalt , 1.25 rag.



281

sub-divided into 4 replicat es of 10 birds each. T he birds were paired in cages.

A tota l of 5 diets (Table 1 ) were used in the trial. Diet 1 had no P KM while in

Diets 2, 3, 4 and 5, the quan tit y of protein supplied by gro undn ut cake (GNC)

in Diet 1 was replaced by 25, 50, 75 an d 100%, respectively, of prot ein from

PKM. The composition of the PK M used in the study was as reported previ-

ously (Onwudike, 1986a). Th e P K M sample s were produc ed following oil ex-

trac tio n by the mechan ical screw press expeller meth od afte r heat ing to ~ 85 ° C.

Feed and water were provided ad libitum for the 10 months duration of the

trial. The birds were weighed at th e star t a nd the end of the experiment. Eggs

were collected daily and the rate of egg producti on was calculated in ter ms of

he n- da y egg production.

Eggs collected during t he last 4 days of each 28-day mon thl y period were

weighed. Six eggs from the collection were take n fro m each replicate an d thre e

of the m were used to me asure t he proportions of albumen, yolk and shell, whilethe other three were used to deter mine the Haug h unit value. The cost of feed

TABLE 2

Composition of diets for Experiment 2

Level of PKM (%)

0 40 50 60 70

IngredientsYellow maize 60.50 39.00 29.00 19.00 9.00Groundnut cake 18.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Fish meal 4.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 6.00Palm kernel meal 0.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00Brewers' dried grains 7.45 3.50 2.50 1.50 1.00Bone meal 2.00 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00Oyster shell 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.15 7.15Vitamin-mineral mixI 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50Amprolium 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Palm oil 0.00 1.20 2.20 3.30 4.80

AnalysisCrude protein (%) 17.42 16.94 17.52 18.36 18.39Crude fibre (%) 4.98 6.26 6.75 7.22 8.07Methionine+cystine (%) 0.50 0.59 0.61 0.63 0.63Lysine (%) 0.75 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.92ME (MJkg -~ ) (calculated)2 11.75 11.63 11.58 11.57 11.63Calcium (%) 3.46 3.46 3.49 3.50 3.48Available phosphorus ( %)

(calculated) 0.47 0.53 0.56 0.55 0.54

I A v i t a m i n - m i n e r a l m i x a s d es c ri b ed i n T a b l e 1.

2M E value = N - corrected value.



282

p e r k i l o g r a m o f e gg s w a s a l s o c a l c u l a te d . D a t a c o l l e c te d w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o a n a l -

y s i s o f v a r i a n c e ( S t e e l a n d T o r r i e , 1 9 6 0 ) . R e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s w e r e a ls o c a r r i e d

o u t .

Experiment 2

F r o m E x p e r i m e n t 1, i t w a s f o u n d t h a t a ll t h e G N C i n t h e l a y e r d i e t c o u l d b e

r e p la c e d b y P K M w i t h o u t a n y s i g n if ic a n t re d u c t i o n i n p e r f o rm a n c e . T h e p r o-

p o r t i o n o f P K M u s e d w h e n a ll G N C w a s r e p l a c e d i n th i s s t u d y w a s 3 7 .5 % . A

s e c o n d e x p e r i m e n t w a s , t h e r e fo r e , c a r r ie d o u t t o t e s t e v e n h i g h e r l e v el s o f P K M .

I n t h i s s e c o n d e x p e r i m e n t , P K M l e v el s o f 0 , 4 0, 50 , 6 0 a n d 7 0% w e r e c o m p a r e d

( T a b l e 2 ) . S o m e 2 0 0 b i r d s o f t h e H a r c o s t r a i n w h i c h w e r e 31 w e e k s o ld w e r e

u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t a i ls w e r e a s i n E x p e r i m e n t 1 e x c e p t t h a t

t h e p e r i o d o f s t u d y w a s f o r 6 m o n t h s .

RESULTS

T h e r e s u l ts a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3 fo r E x p e r i m e n t 1 a n d i n T a b l e 4 fo r

E x p e r i m e n t 2 . I n E x p e r i m e n t 1, a ll th e G N C c o u ld b e r e pl a c e d b y P K M w i t h -

o u t a n y s i g n i f ic a n t r e d u c t i o n i n e g g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e , e g g w e i g h t , f e ed i n t a k e ,

f e e d e f fi c i e n c y o r e g g q u a l i t y . T h e c o s t o f p r o d u c i n g a u n i t w e i g h t o f t h e d i e t ,

h o w e v e r , d e c l i n e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g l e ve l s o f P K M a n d t h e c o s t o f fe e d p e r k i lo -

g r a m o f e g g w a s s i g n i f i c a n tl y d e c r e a s e d a s P K M w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e d i e t. I nE x p e r i m e n t 2 , a s th e l e v el o f P K M i n c r e a s e d t o 7 0% t h e r e w a s a s ig n i f ic a n t

r e d u c t i o n i n t h e r a t e o f e g g p r o d u c t i o n ( P < 0 . 0 5 ), e g g w e i g h t ( P < 0 .0 1 ) a n d

f e e d e f f i c ie n c y ( P < 0 .0 1 ) o n c e t h e 4 0 % l e v e l o f P K M w a s e x c e e d e d . T h e c o s t

o f fe e d r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e 1 k g o f e g gs w a s r e d u c e d b y f e e d i n g w i t h P K M a n d

t h e l o w e s t c o s t w a s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e 4 0 % l e v el o f P K M . E g g q u a li ty , a s m e a -

s u r e d b y H a u g h u n i t s , w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ly af f e c te d b y P K M .

F o r E x p e r i m e n t 1 , r e g r e s si o n a n a ly s e s ( T a b l e 5 ) s h o w e d a s i g n i fi c a n t re l a-

t i o n s h i p ( P < 0.0 1 ) o n l y b e t w e e n t h e c o s t o f f e e d p e r k i l o g r a m o f eg g s a n d t h e

l e ve l o f P K M . F o r E x p e r i m e n t 2 , r e g r es s i o n a n a ly s e s ( T a b l e 5 ) s h o w e d s ig n if -

i c a n t r e la t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e l ev e l o f P K M a n d h e n - d a y e gg p r o d u c t i o n

( P < 0 . 0 0 1 ), f e e d i n t a k e ( P < 0 .0 01 ) , k i l o g r a m s o f f e e d p e r k i l o g r a m o f e g gs

(P < 0 .001 ) , co s t o f f eed pe r k i log ra m o f eggs (P < 0 .001 ) , egg w e igh t (P < 0 .05 )

a n d a l b u m e n p e r c e n ta g e ( P < 0 .0 5 ).

DISCUSSION

T h e r e s ul ts o f t h i s s t u d y s h o w t h a t u p t o 4 0 % P K M c a n b e i n c lu d e d in d i e ts

f o r l a y in g b i r d s w i t h o u t s i g n i fi c a n t ly r e d u c i n g e g g p r o d u c t i o n o r q u a l i ty . W i t h

t h i s l e v e l o f i n c l u s io n , c o s tl y G N C c a n b e d i s p e n s e d w i t h a n d t h e c o s t o fp r o d u c t i o n i s r ed u c ed . W i t h m o r e t h a n 4 0% P K M , e gg p r o d u c t i o n w a s re d u c e d,



T A B L E 3

P e r f o r m a n c e o f l a y i n g i r d s i v e n d i e ts i t h d i ff e re n t e v el s f P K M ( E x p e r i m e n t I )

283

Proportion of GNC protein replaced by

PKM protein (%)

0 25 50 75 100

SEM

He n-da y production (%) 60.5 63.3 62.6 59.6 60.2 1.86

Egg weight (g) 57.2 57.4 57.5 57.7 56.9 1.30

Dai ly egg output (g per hen) 34.6 36.3 36.0 34.4 34.3 1.07

Daily feed intake (g) 111 118 117 115 115 2.26

Kg feed/kg egg 3.23 3.26 3.26 3.35 3.36 0.15

Weight gain (g) 509 594 533 497 481 38.4

Albumen (%) 61.1 61.8 61.7 61.4 61.8 0.59

Yolk (%) 28.9 29.4 29.7 29.4 28.7 0.29Shell (%) 9.78 9.36 9.50 9.18 9.49 0.66

Haugh unit s 78.5 76.6 78.7 77.2 75.7 2.23

Cost of 100 kg diet (N) ~ 93.2 85.3 80.7 75.5 70.4 -

Cost of feed per kg egg (N) ~ 3.00 2.78 2.63 2.53 2.37 0.12"

Number dead (out of 40 birds) 3 2 3 0 3 -

1Nigerian Naira; N1.00= 1 US dollar at the time of study.

*Significant at P < 0.05.

T A B L E 4

P e r f o r m a n c e o f h y i n g b ir d s i v e n d i et s i t h h i g h l ev el s f P K M ( E x p e r i m e n t 2 )

PKM in diet (%) SEM

0 40 50 60 70

Hen-day production (%) 61.5 62.1 55.1 52.8 41.9 1.54"

Egg weight (g) 59.3 58.8 58.2 57.9 58.4 1.09Daily egg out put (g per hen) 36.5 36.5 32.1 30.6 24.4 1.11

Daily feed intake (g) 121 120 117 112 109 0.45**

Kg feed per kg egg 3.31 3.29 3.64 3.67 4.44 0.07

Albumen (%) 59.9 59.9 60.1 59.8 59.1 0.28 *

Yolk (%) 28.6 29.2 28.4 28.2 28.2 0.67

Shell (%) 11.1 11.0 11.3 11.5 11.5 0.46

Haugh un it s 77.5 77.0 76.9 77.9 76.5 0.43

Cost of 100 kg diet (N) ~ 93.2 70.6 68.1 65.9 63.3 -

Cost of feed per kg egg (N) 1 3.08 2.32 2.48 2.42 2.81 0.05*Number dead ( out of 40 birds) 2 0 2 2 8

~Nigerian Naira as in Table 3.

*Significant at P < 0.05; **significantat P < 0.01.



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285

t h e r e d u c t i o n a p p a r e n t l y b e i n g r e l a t e d t o a s i g n i fi c a n t d e c l i n e in f e e d i n t a k e .

I t m a y b e t h a t b e y o n d t h i s l e ve l t h e d i e t b e c a m e u n p a l a t a b le . T e m p e r t o n a n d

D u d l e y ( 1 9 4 0 ) h a d r e p o r t e d t h a t P K M w a s p a la t a b l e t o la y e rs , b u t p r o b a b l y

d i d n o t i n c l u d e a s m u c h a s 4 0% P K M i n t h e i r d ie ts .

T h e a m i n o a c i d le v e ls o f a l l t h e d i e t s m e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s s t a t e d b y th e

N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l ( 1 9 7 7 ). H o w e v e r , t h e c a l c u l a t io n s s h o w t h a t f o r

t h e d i e t s c o n t a i n i n g 0 , 4 0, 50 , 6 0 a n d 7 0% P K M , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f P K M t o

t h e l y s i n e c o n t e n t w e r e 0, 33 , 3 9, 4 5 a n d 5 4 % , r e s p e c t i v e ly . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

v a l u e s f o r t h e s u l p h u r a m i n o a c i d s w e r e 0 , 4 1 , 5 0, 5 7 a n d 6 7 % , r e s p e c ti v e l y .

T h e a m i n o a c i d a v a il a b i li t y o f P K M h a s b e e n s h o w n t o b e l o w r e l at i v e t o t h e

a v a i la b i l it y o f a m i n o a c i d s f r o m G N C ( O n w u d i k e , 1 9 86 a ). W i t h t h e i n c r e a s e d

s u p p ly o f a m i n o a c id s f ro m P K M a t t h e h i g h e r le v el s o f P K M , t h e o v e ra ll

a v a i la b i l it y o f a m i n o a c i d s i n t h e d i e t w i ll b e r e d u c e d . T h e a v a i la b l e a m i n o

a c i d s a t t h e h i g h l e v el s o f P K M m i g h t n o t h a v e m e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e g gp r o d u c t i o n , h e n c e t h e r e d u c e d r a t e o f la y . T h i s p r o b l e m o f lo w a v a i la b i li t y o f

a m i n o a c i d s w o u l d h a v e b e e n f u r t h e r c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e r e d u c e d fe e d i n t a k e

a t t h e h i g h e r le v e ls o f P K M . I t i s p e r t i n e n t t o m e n t i o n t h a t H i l l ( 1 96 9 ) r e -

p o r t e d t h a t b o t h l y s in e a n d m e t h i o n i n e a r e r e q u i re d fo r o p t i m u m f e e d i n t a k e .

T h e l ow a v a il a b i li t y o f t h e s e 2 a m i n o a c i d s a t t h e h i g h e r l ev e l s o f P K M c o u l d

h a v e c a u s e d t h e r e d u c e d f ee d in t a k e . T h e g r it ty n a t u r e o f P K M , w h i c h w a s

m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a t t h e h i g h e r l ev e ls o f P K M , c o u l d a l so h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e

p a l a t a b i l i ty o f t h e f ee d . T h e i n c r e a s e d c r u d e f i b r e le v e l a t t h e h i g h e r l e v e ls o f

P K M m i g h t a ls o h a v e a f fe c t e d t h e u t i l i z a ti o n o f n u t r i e n t s .A v e r y n o ti c e a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n a t t h e h i g h le v e ls o f P K M w a s t h e v e r y w a t e r y

f a ec e s p r o d u c e d b y t h e b i r d s g iv e n d ie t s w i t h 5 0, 60 a n d 7 0% P K M i n E x p e r i -

m e n t 2 . T h e c a u s e o f t h i s i s n o t v e r y c l ea r . O n e p o s s ib l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t

b i r d s o n t h e s e l e v e ls o f P K M d r a n k m o r e w a t e r s i n c e f e e d i n t a k e w a s lo w . T h i s

p o s s i b il it y h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t b y P a t r i c k a n d S c h a i b l e ( 1 9 8 0 ). T h e y s h o w e d

t h a t ~ 2 5% o f t h e w a t e r r e q u i r e d b y b i r d s c o m e s f r o m t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f p r o -

t e i n , fa t s a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e s a n d t h a t a s b i rd s c o n s u m e le s s fe e d, a d d i t i o n a l

w a t e r m u s t b e d r u n k t o m e e t d a i l y r e q u i r e m e n t s . A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h e

i n c r e a s e d f ib r e le v e l a t t h e h i g h e r le v e ls o f P K M . P a t r i c k a n d S c h a i b l e ( 19 8 0)

a l so s h o w e d t h a t w h e n b i r d s a r e f e d o n d i e t s h i g h i n f ib re , t h e i r w a t e r r e q u ir e -

m e n t s a r e in c r e a s e d . T h e r e m a y b e o t h e r r e a s o n s a r i si n g f ro m t h e v e r y n a t u r e

a n d c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t io n o f P K M . S t e v e n s o n a n d J a c k s o n ( 19 8 1) , w h e n g iv -

i n g d r ie d s k i m m i l k t o b r o i le r s , r e p o r t e d v e r y w a t e r y f a e c e s w i t h t h e i n c l u s io n

o f h i g h l e ve l s o f s k i m m i l k i n t h e d i et . T h i s w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a c to s e c o n t e n t

o f t h e r a t i o n . T h e s a m e w o r k e r s ( 1 98 3 ) n o t e d w a t e r y f a e c e s fr o m b r o i l e r s g i v e n

d i e t s w i t h h i g h l e v el s o f d r i e d c a s s a v a m e a l . T h e y s h o w e d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f w a t e r y fa e c e s w a s d u e t o c h a n g e s i n t h e p a t t e r n o f f e r m e n t a t i o n i n t h e c a e c a

a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e l e v el s o f c a s s a v a m e a l . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e w a t e r y f ae c e s

p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i n g r e d i e n t s c a n b e c a u s e d b y d if -f e r e n t f a c to r s, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t . M o r e s t u d ie s n e e d t o



28 6

b e c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n t h e c a u s e o f t h e w a t e r y f a e c e s p r o d u c e d a t

h i g h l e v e l s o f P K M . T h e f a c t t h a t l a y i n g b i r d s c o u l d u t i l i z e u p t o 4 0 % P K M

a n d a l s o t h a t t h i s r e d u c e d t h e c o s t o f e g g p r o d u c t i o n a n d i m p r o v e d t h e e f f i -

c i e n c y o f p r o d u c t i o n m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g o f p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .

R E F E R E N C E S

H il l, . W . , 1 9 6 9 . P o u l t r y n u t r i t i o n n d n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n: D . P . C u t h b e r t s o n ( E d i to r ) ,

I n te r na t io n al n c y c l o p a e d i a f F o o d a n d N u t r i t i o n 1 7 ( 2 ). P e r g a m o n , L o n d o n .

N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l, 1 9 7 7 . N u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s . N o . 1 . N u t r i e n t

r e q ui r e me n t s o f o ul tr y. t h e d n . N A S - N R C , W a s h i n g t o n , D C .

O n w u d i k e , O . C . , 1 9 8 6 a . P a l m k e r n e l m e a l a s a f e e d f or p o ul t ry . 1. C o m p o s i t i o n o f p a l m k e r n el

m e a l a n d a v ai la bi li ty f i ts m i n o a c i d s o c h i ck s . n i t a . e e d Sc i . e c h n o l . , 6 : 1 7 9 - 1 8 6 .

O n w u d i k e , O . C . , 1 9 8 6 b . P a l m k e r n e l m e a l a s a f e e d f or p o ul t ry . . D i e t s c on t a i n i n g a l m k e r n elm e a l f o r s t ar t er n d g r o w e r p ul le ts . n i t a . e e d S c i. e c h n o h , 1 6 " 1 8 7 - 1 9 4 .

O n w u d i k e , O . C . , 1 9 8 6 c . a l m k e r n e l e a l a s a f e e d o r o ul t ry . . R e p l a c e m e n t o f g r o u n d n u t c a k e

b y p a l m k e r n e l e a l i n b r oi l e r i et s. n i t a . e e d S ci . e c h n o l . , 6 : 1 9 5 - 2 0 2 .

P a t ri c k , . a n d S ch a i b le , . J ., 9 8 0 . o u l t r y: e e d s a n d N u t r i t io n . v i P u b l i s h i ng , e s t p o r t , T ,

p p . 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 .

S te el , . G . D . a n d T o r r ie , . H . , 9 6 0 . P r i n c ip l e s n d P r o c e d u r e s o f S ta ti st ic s. c G r a w - H i l l , N e w

Y o r k .

S t e v e n s o n , M . H . a n d J a c k s o n , N . , 1 9 8 1 . h e n u tr i t io n a l a l u e o f d r i e d k i m m i l k i n b r oi l er i et s.

J . S c i . o o d A g r i c . , 2 : 7 9 - 8 6 .

S t e v e n s o n , M . H . a n d J a c k s o n , N . , 1 9 8 3 , h e n u t ri t io n al a l u e f r i e d a s s a v a o o t e a l i n b ro i le r

d ie t s. . S c i . o o d A g r ic . , 4 : 1 3 6 1 - 1 3 6 7 .T e m p e r t o n , H . a n d D u d l e y , F .J ., 9 4 0 . P a l m k e r n e l a n d e a r t h n u t m e a l s i n t h e r at i o ns f l a y in g

p ul le ts . a r p e r A d a m s U t il . o u l t . . , 5 : 2 8 5 - 2 8 7 .

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