PA00M85N.pdf - USAID

ICRISATInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi -Ar id Tropics

( w w w . i c r i s a t . o r g )

Internat ional Arachis Newsletter ( I A N )

Co-publishers

Peanut C R S P

Peanut Col laborat ive Research Support Program

( w w w . g r i f f i n . p e a c h n e t . e d u / p n u t e r s p . h t m l )

The Peanut Collaborative Research Support Program is an international program supported by U S A I D Grant L A G - G - 0 0 -

96-00013-00 to The Univers i ty of Georgia. The research supported seeks environmental ly sound, sustainable agriculture

product ion and food del ivery systems for peanut. The program has five thrusts addressing pr ior i ty constraints to the

global peanut industry (af latoxin, production eff iciency, socioeconomic forces, postharvest processing, and ut i l izat ion).

Peanut CRSP also works to foster human resource development and the communicat ion of research results.

The Peanut CRSP provides support for collaborative research, training, and exchange of informat ion through grants to 14

universities in U S A l inked to 15 host countries in the developing wor ld . Both host countries and USA are expected to

benefit f rom the activit ies of Peanut CRSP. Peanut CRSP actively collaborates w i th other organizations w i th interest in

advancing development through the appl icat ion of science and technology.

About I C R I S A T

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Ar id Tropics ( ICRISAT) is a nonprof i t , non-pol i t ical organization

that does agricultural research and innovative capacity bu i ld ing for sustainable development w i t h a wide array of partners

across the globe. I C R I S A T ' s mission is to help empower 600 mi l l i on people - the poorest of the poor - overcome hunger,

poverty and a degraded environment in the dry tropics through better agriculture. I C R I S A T belongs to the Future Harvest

Al l iance of Centers supported by the Consultat ive Group on International Agr icu l tura l Research ( C G I A R ) .

I A N Scienti f ic E d i t o r

SN N i g a m

The opin ions in this pub l ica t ion are those of the authors and not necessari ly those of I C R I S A T or Peanut CRSP. The designat ions

employed and the presentation of the material in this pub l ica t ion do not imp ly the expression of any op in ion whatsoever on the part of I C R I S A T

or Peanut CRSP concern ing the legal status of any count ry , ter r i tory , c i ty , or area, or of its author i t ies, or concern ing the de l im i ta t ion of its

f ront iers or boundaries. Where trade names are used this does not consti tute endorsement of or d isc r im inat ion against any product by I C R I S A T

or Peanut CRSP.

About Peanut C R S P

IAN25,2005 i

N e w s a n d V i e w s

From the Edi tor

News f rom West A f r i ca

Current I C R I S A T Groundnut Research and Integrated Projects

R e s e a r c h R e p o r t s

Genet ic Resources a n d E n h a n c e m e n t

Ident i f icat ion of Water-use Ef f ic ient Groundnut Genotypes for Rainfed

Situations through Lea f Morpho-phys io log ica l Traits

Chuni Lal, K Hariprasanna, AL Rathnakumar, MS Basu, HK Gor and BM Chikani

Promis ing Parental Lines for the Development of H i g h Water-use Ef f ic ient

Groundnut Variet ies

Chuni Lal, AL Rathnakumar, K Hariprasanna, HK Gor and BM Chikani

Confect ionery Groundnuts Resistant to Seed Colonizat ion by Aspergillus flavus

BN Harish Babu, MVC Gowda and VP Kusuma

Farmer Part icipatory Var ieta l Selection in Groundnut - A Success Story in

Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, Ind ia

SN Nigam, R Aruna, D Yadagiri, TY Reddy, K Subramanyam, BRR Reddy

and KA Kareem

Seed Releases

N e w Groundnut Var ie ty Pratap Mungpha l i 2 Released in Rajasthan, Ind ia

AK Nagda and Abhay Dashora

Phule Unap - A N e w Groundnut Var ie ty for Western Maharashtra, India

RB Patil, SS Patil, MP Deshmukh, RS Bhadane, RB Jadhav and TR Patil

Ear ly -matur ing i Large-seeded and H igh -y ie ld ing Groundnut Variet ies

I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 and I C G V 96469

HD Upadhyaya, SN Nigam, AGS Reddy and N Yellaiah

Groundnut Cul t ivar Nyanda ( I C G V 93437) Released in Z imbabwe

HD Upadhyaya, GL Hildebrand, SN Nigam and N Yellaiah

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i i I A N 25, 2005

SC Or ion - A N e w Large-seeded Groundnut Var ie ty Released in Z imbabwe

GL Hildehrand and AZ Nosenga

Huayu 22 - A H igh-y ie ld ing Large-seeded Groundnut Var ie ty w i t h

Improved Seed Qual i ty

Chen Jing, Wu Lan-rong, Miao Huarong and Hu Wenguang

Biotechnology

R A P D Polymorphism A m o n g Groundnut Genotypes D i f f e r i ng in Disease

Reaction to Late Lea f Spot and Rust

S Mondal, S Ghosh and AM Badigannavar

An Effect ive Me thod for C lon ing o f Partial M A D S - b o x Genes Related to

Flower Development in Groundnut

Yuan Mei, KK Sharma, V Anjaiah, LI Shuang-ling, TAO Hai-teng, REN Yan

and YV Shan-lin

Patho logy

A N e w Report on the Occurrence of Powdery M i l d e w of Groundnut in

Maharashtra, Ind ia

DA Shambharkar, Anjali Deshmukh and RB Patil

In V i t r o Test ing of Xenorhabdus Metabol i tes Against

Groundnut Col lar Rot Fungus Aspergillus niger

RV Vyas, AB Maghodia, Biren Patel and DJ Patel

Rate of Transmission of Ind ian Peanut C lump V i rus to Groundnut

by Mechanical Inoculat ion

AS Reddy, P Lava Kumar and F Waliyar

Effectiveness o f Neem Seed Kerne l Extract in Combinat ion w i t h

Selected Fungicides for Groundnut Rust Management

Gururaj Sunkad, Sirkant Kulkarni and VI Benagi

Agronomy /Phys io l ogy

Standardization of a Protocol to Screen for Sal in i ty Tolerance in Groundnut

V Vadez, N Srivastava, L Krishnamurthy, R Aruna and SN Nigam

C r o p p i n g System

Assessment o f Ef f ic ient Groundnut Cropp ing Zone in Gujarat, Ind ia

DD Sahu and BM Patoliya

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IAN 25, 2005 iii

U t i l i za t i on

Food-Fodder Traits in Groundnut

M Blummel, Ch Ramakrishna Reddy, D Ravi, SN Nigam and

HD Upadhyaya

Prel iminary Observations on L ivestock Product iv i ty in Sheep Fed Exclus ive ly

on Haulms f rom Eleven Cul t ivars o f Groundnut

M Blummel, S Vellaikumar, R Devulapalli, SN Nigam, HD Upadhyaya

and A Khan

P u b l i c a t i o n s

S A T C R I S L is t ing

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IAN 25, 2005 1

A 3-day intensive in-country t ra in ing course in smal l-scale seed business management and market ing wasconducted in M a l i , Niger, Niger ia and Senegal. In eachcountry 25 rural entrepreneurs inc lud ing emerging smal l-scale groundnut seed producers attended the t ra in ing.Loca l consultants were hired to conduct the course.

Enhancing skills of rural entrepreneurs insmall-scale seed business management andmarketing

An independent consultant successfully conducted a m id -term review of the groundnut seed project in West andCentral A f r i ca ( W C A ) . I t is heartening to report that mosttargets have been successfully met and farmers are awareof the benefits of improved varieties, good qual i ty seedand production practices. A team of representatives of CFC,PEA and the respective country coordinators supportedthe consultant. The team visi ted M a l i , Niger and Senegal.

A successful mid-term review conducted

The Institut galais de Recherches Agr icoles ( I S R A )hosted a 2-day regional p lanning meeting from 17 to 18February 2005 in Dakar, Senegal. The national coordinators,and the representatives of the PEA, Common Fund forCommodit ies (CFC), ISRA and C O R A F / W E C A R Dattended the meeting. The objective was to rev iew theprogress made in year 2 of the project and prepare wo rkplan and budget for the th i rd year.

Second Regional Planning and ProjectCoordination Meeting of the GroundnutSeed Project

News from West Africa

News and Views

From the Editor

Dear Readers,

International Arachis Newsletter ( I A N ) was launched in1987. Up to 1992, it was publ ished twice a year. From1993 onwards, only one issue was brought out each yeardue to paucity of funds and also fewer submissions madeto the Newsletter. W i t h this issue (no. 25), I A Ncompletes 18 years. The support of Peanut CRSP hasbeen v i ta l in keeping the Newsletter al ive. I A N recipientshave overwhelmingly supported its continuation. Wehope to meet their expectations.

I A N provides an important means o f communicat ionamong the groundnut fraternity part icular ly those indeveloping countries. Presently, I A N accepts only shortarticles. However, we shall be happy to accept one or twofull-length, scholarly papers that deal w i th new informat ionfrom the next issue. We are in touch w i t h other FutureHarvest Centers to br ing out an E-Journal on rainfedagriculture. I f that materializes, accepted fu l l - lengthpapers wou ld also find a place there. Let us al l t ry toenhance the value of I A N to its readers. I seek morecontr ibutions to I A N not only from the scientists o fA f r i ca and the Americas but also from the private sectorand farmers.

I wou ld l ike to acknowledge R Aruna, PM Gaur,V Leela Prasad, BR Ntare, A Ramakrishna, GV Ranga Rao,BVS Reddy, KL Sahrawat, KK Sharma, P Singh, RP Thakur,V Vadez, F Wal iyar ( I C R I S A T ) ; R D V J Prasada Rao(NBPGR, Hyderabad); and PV Reddy ( A N G R A U , RegionalAgr icu l tu ra l Research Station, T i rupat i ) who reviewedI A N articles and the JS Kanwar L ibrary at I C R I S A T forcompi l ing SATCRIS l is t ing.

Please complete the fo rm inserted in this issue andreturn i t to us i f you w ish to continue receiv ing I A N infuture. Al ternat ively, y o u can also respond electronical lyto [email protected].

Look ing forward to your contributions and w ish ingy o u the best.

SN Nigam

A study on groundnut supply seed systems inWCA: current practices, constraints andopportunities

The agricultural economist (Jupiter Ndjeunga) atI C R I S A T , M a l i and partner economists in M a l i , Niger ,Niger ia and Senegal conducted a regional survey of

Contributed by: BR Ntarel C R l S A T

Bamako, M a l i

2 IAN 25, 2005

groundnut supply and demand systems in the fourcountries. The study reveals a l im i ted access to seed ofmodern varieties by farmers and the formal seed sectoronly supplies 5% of the seed needs. The private sectorhas shown l i t t le interest in the product ion of seed ofcrops such as groundnut due to a number of reasonsinc lud ing the l ow seed v iab i l i t y not a l low ing privateinvestors to keep seed stocks beyond a year, l o w geneticdeterioration and weak vert ical integrat ion between seedand product markets, l im i t i ng the demand for seed. Thelocal v i l lage seed systems are f i l l i n g the vo id created bythe poor performance of the publ ic sector and the l owinterest from the pr ivate sector. Farmers consistentlyobtain seed from their o w n harvests, fami ly , friends orrelatives or purchase seed from local v i l lage markets.V i l lage seed systems offer a range of local and diversevarieties that are accessible and are of acceptablephysical pur i ty w i t h f lexib le transactions. In addit ion,vi l lage seed systems offer a cheaper and more efficientway of del iver ing seed to farmers especially at lowtransaction costs.

The study also documents the major constraintsl im i t i ng the uptake of modern varieties or performance ofgroundnut seed systems, wh i ch include:

• L im i ted access to seed of newly bred modern varieties

• L im i ted supply of breeder/foundation/certif ied andcommercial seed of varieties preferred by farmers orrequired by the markets

• Seed production is not profitable for some seed classes

• Seed demand is uncertain and th in

• Nat ional variety release committees are missing, non-functional or meet i r regular ly

• Poor integration between seed and product markets

• Lack of enabling pol icy and institutional environments

The opportunit ies to improve the seed systems include:

• Informat ion dissemination on seed supply and demandacross the region

• A better interface between the formal seed sector andcommunity-based systems and between producers andprocessors

• Contractual arrangements between processors and

producers to motivate farmers to use modern inputs

(varieties, ferti l izers, etc) and therefore increase their

crop product iv i ty

• Sustainable arrangements that operate at l ow

transaction costs such as the promot ion of local v il lage

seed schemes especially for crops that are bu lky

Methodological and technical guides available

Several methodological and technical guides focusing ongroundnut seed production are available on the groundnutseed project website. These include:

• A moni tor ing and and evaluation system as projectmanagement tool

• A methodological note on the assessment of v i l lageseed systems

• A methodological guide on part icipatory varietalselection (PVS)

• A technical guide on seed product ion and varietymaintenance

• A business plan for l i nk ing producers and processors

• A methodological guide on harvesting and dry ingprocedures

• A note on evaluation of seed product ion costs

• A t ra in ing manual on business ski l ls for small-scaleseed producers

Vis i t the project website at www.groundnutseedproject.org

Publication

Ntare BR, Waliyar F, Ramouch M, Masters E andNdjeunga J. (eds.) 2005. Market prospects for groundnutin West Af r ica . CFC Technical Paper N o . 39. PO Box74656,1070 BR Amsterdam, The Netherlands: CommonFund for Commodities; and Patancheru 502 324, AndhraPradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute forthe Semi-Arid Tropics. 252 pp.

C u r r e n t I C R I S A T G r o u n d n u t Research a n d I n teg ra ted Projects

Investor

Australia/ACIAR

Common Fund forCommoditiesCGIAR/lCARDA/CAC

CGIAR Global ChallengeProgram - HarvestPlus

GCIAR - GenerationChallenge Program -ClMMYT/EMBRAPACGIAR/IFAR

International Fund forAgricultural Development(IF AD)India/Effem India Pvt Ltd

Norway/Development Fund

Opec Fund

Philippines

PLAN International

UK - DFID/CPP/NRIL

USA/Univ of Georgia(Peanut CRSP)USAID/US Univ Linkages -Univ of GeorgiaUSAID/US UnivLinkages - Univ of GeorgiaUSAID/US Univ Linkages -Univ of Wisonsin-MadisonUSAID/NASFAM

USAlD/ABSP II(Sathguru/Mahyco)

Project title

Improving yield and economic viability of peanutproduction in Papua New Guinea and Australia usingintegrated management and modeling approachesDevelopment of sustainable groundnut seed systemsin West AfricaResearch activities on groundnut and on managementof drought in chickpea, targeted to the Central Asia andthe Caucasus (CAC) regionGenetic engineering of groundnut for enhanced -caroteneproduction to combat vitamin A deficiency in the semi-aridtropicsUnlocking the genetic diversity in peanut's wild relativeswith genomic and genetic tools

Development/introduction of new groundnut varietiessuitable for Uzbekistan and their seed multiplication incollaboration with ICRISATFarmer-participatory improvement of grain legumes inrainfed Asia

Assessment of aflatoxin contamination in maizeproduction systems in Andhra Pradesh: A step towardsdeveloping aflatoxin-free maize production technologiesEnhancing groundnut production in the non-traditionaland dryland areas of Malawi for improved nutrition andpoverty reductionImproved rural livelihoods and better health: Promotingand improving groundnut for poor farmers in AsiaEnhancing adoption of ICRISAT legume varieties andtechnologies in the PhilippinesIntroduction, promotion and efficient seed supportsystem of ICRISAT 'Asha' peanut variety in Region 2,PhilippinesCollaborative project on groundnut and pigeonpea inMalawiSafer and better groundnut production for Southern India

Promotion of farmers' participatory management ofgroundnut diseases for higher yield and nutritive valueof crop residues (haulm) used for peri-urban dairyproduction on the Deccan Plateau in IndiaSupport for regional workshop and publications

Quantifying yield gaps and abiotic stresses in soybean-and groundnut-based production systemsManagement of aflatoxin in peanut through the use ofatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavusElucidation of the peanut/Aspergillus interaction

Promoting growth in Malawi's groundnut and pigeonpeatrade through technology and market improvementTSV resistant oilseeds - Bio-engineered sunflowerand peanut genotypes with resistance to tabacco streakvirusDevelopment of tabacco streak virus resistant sunflowerand groundnut

Projectcoordinator

HD Upadhyaya

F WaliyarB NtareSN Nigam

KK Sharma

V Vadez

M AmanovaSN Nigam

SN Nigam

F Waliyar

M Siambi

SN Nigam

CLL Gowda

SN Nigam

RJ JonesM SiambiF Waliyar

P Parthasarathy

F Waliyar

P Pathak

RB Jones

F Waliyar

M SiambiRB JonesKK Sharma

KK Sharma

Grant(US$ '000)

14

2,153

24

75

276

10

1,300

22

65

100

54

36

155

96

Rao 118

61

90

60

60

850

23

35

Duration

Jul 2002-Dec 2005

Apr 2003-Mar 20072001-05

Jun 2005-May 2006

2005-07

2005

Sep 2001-Jun 2006

Jul 2005-Feb 2006

Jan-Dec2005

Jul 2005-Jun 20062004-06

Apr 2005-Apr 2007

2003-05

Apr 2005-Jan 2006Apr 2005-Jan 2006

2000-06

2001-06

Jan 2005-Dec 2006Jan 2005-Dec 2006Jan 2004-Sep 2006May 2004-

Oct 2005Apr 2005-Sep 2006

IAN 25, 2005 3

defined as dry matter (g) produced per kg of watertranspired. However, measurements of transpiration and/or root biomass are d i f f i cu l t and, therefore, are notpractical for use in large-scale breeding programs forimproved drought tolerance. Transpirat ion eff iciency ofa genotype could also be estimated by measuring thecarbon isotope discr iminat ion ( ,13C) in leaves (Farquharet al. 1982).

Specific leaf area ( S L A , leaf area per uni t leaf dryweight ) is another useful parameter h igh ly correlatedw i t h 13C in groundnut (Nageswara Rao and Wr igh t1994). It has been observed that S L A is closely andnegatively correlated w i t h W U E (Wr igh t et a l . 1988,1994). These studies suggest that S L A could be used as a surrogate wh i le selecting for h igh W U E in groundnutbreeding programs. Nageswara Rao et al. (2001) evaluatedthe use of hand-held portable S P A D (Soi l and PlantAnalysis-Development) ch lorophyl l meter for rapidlyassessing drought tolerance in groundnut and observed a signif icant negative correlation between chlorophyl lcontent (SCMR, SPAD chlorophyl l meter reading) andS L A , and suggested that S C M R could be used as a rapidand reliable measure to identify genotypes w i t h l ow S L A,and hence h igh TE in groundnut.

Increase in W U E is normal ly achieved by reduct ion intranspiration rate. Therefore, it is essential to measure thevar iabi l i ty in both W U E and rate of transpiration. Stableoxygen isotopes have generated considerable interest inplant carbon and water relations in recent years. Theisotopic enrichment occurs dur ing evaporation, andtranspiration being an evaporative process w o u l d resultin the enrichment of H2

18O in leaf sap. Since the 18Osignature of the leaf sap is progressively impr inted intothe organic molecules (Sternberg et al. 1986), the quantumof 1 8O in the biomass wou ld integrate the d iurnal andseasonal changes in leaf transpiration rates. Thus, theenrichment of oxygen isotopes ( 18O) can be ut i l ized asan integration of the transpiration rate over t ime. Tota ltranspiration (T ) is a funct ion of transpiration rate andleaf area. Since T depends on the eff iciency of wateruptake associated w i t h roots, the18O and leaf areatogether can be used as a rapid and accurate approach toestimate the root biomass.

This study was conducted to assess genetic var iab i l i tyfor the morpho-physiological characters, namely1 3C,1 3O, S L A and S C M R that are k n o w n to influence W U E ,besides a few y ie ld component traits in groundnut.

Research Reports

Identification of Water-use EfficientGroundnut Genotypes for RainfedSituations through LeafMorpho-physiological Traits

Genetic Resources and Enhancement

Chuni Lal ' , K Hariprasanna, AL Rathnakumar,MS Basu, HK Gor and BM Chikani (National Research

Centre for Groundnut (NRCG), PB 5, Junagadh 362 001,

Gujarat, India)

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), the annual legumegrown in more than 100 countries, is ma in ly cul t ivated inthe tropical , subtropical and wa rm temperate regions ofthe wo r l d where avai labi l i ty of water is the mostimportant y ie ld l im i t i ng factor. India, wh i ch accounts formore than 30% o f global groundnut area and 2 1 % o fproduct ion, has about 8 1 % of the groundnut area underrain-dependent cul t ivat ion. The dependency on monsoonrain, wh ich is characterized by uneven dist r ibut ion andyear-to-year var iat ion in the semi-arid regions, explainsthe low product iv i ty in Ind ia (937 kg ha-1) as compared tothe wor ld average of 1367 kg ha-1.

The product iv i ty of i rr igated groundnut is about 1500kg ha-1 and is more stable. However , scope for br ing ingmore area under i r r igat ion appears un l i ke ly , as max imumarea has already been brought under assured i r r igat ionand on the other hand the sources of i r r igat ion are fastshr inking. There is, therefore, an increasing interestcurrently being directed towards the breeding ofgroundnut varieties that are capable of y ie ld ing w e l lunder l im i ted water condit ions. Improvement in water-use efficiency ( W U E ) of the cult ivars is one suchattribute that could potent ia l ly lead to h igh y ie ld underl imi ted water condit ions. So, both for rainfed and irr igatedsituations, cult ivars that are eff icient in u t i l izat ion ofavailable water are very essential. Such a goal might bepossible since several studies have indicated substantialgenetic var iat ion for seed y ie ld determinants, namelywater transpired, W U E and harvest index. W r i g h t et a l .(1994) showed the existence of genetic differences fortranspiration eff iciency (TE) in groundnut, wh i ch is

4 lAN 25, 2005

Materials and methods

Th i r t y - two genotypes compris ing 20 advanced breeding

lines developed for h igh W U E , eight parental lines of

these breeding lines and four check genotypes (Somnath,

JL 220, SB XI and JL 24) were evaluated in a replicated

tr ia l dur ing kharif (rainy season) 2003 at Junagadh,

Gujarat, India. Of the 20 advanced breeding lines, 11 had

ICGS 76, 10 had C S M G 84-1 and nine had ICGS 44 as

one of the parents in their pedigree. Six advanced

breeding lines were derived from the cross ICGS 76 x

C S M G 84-1 , and f ive were from ICGS 44 x ICGS 76.

At 45 days after sowing, second fu l ly opened leaf from

the apex of f ive randomly selected plants in each

repl icat ion g rown under rainfed situations was used to

measure S C M R in the morn ing (08.00-09.30 hours) w i t h

the help of hand-held M ino l ta SPAD ch lorophy l l meter

(Mino l ta Corp., Ramsey, New Jersey, USA) . Same leaves

were used to measure S L A (cm2 g-1) using a L I -3100 leaf

area meter ( L l - C O R Inc., L inco ln , Nebraska, U S A ) .

Analysis for the estimation of 13C and 18O, both

expressed in per m i l l (%o), was done at the Nat ional

Faci l i ty for Stable Isotopes, Univers i ty of Agr icu l tu ra l

Sciences ( U A S ) , Bangalore, India. Observations were

H igh l y signif icant genotypic differences (P <0.01) were

observed for 13C, 18O, S L A , SCMR, harvest index,

shell ing outturn, plant height, pod and seed yields and

total dry matter product ion. This revealed the existence

of considerable genetic variat ion for traits associated

w i t h W U E ( leaf morpho-physiological characters),

part i t ioning eff iciency and the y ie ld ing abi l i ty among the

genotypes studied.

The study conf irmed the strong inverse relationship of

SCMR w i t h S L A (r = -0 .626, P <0.01) as previously

reported by Nageswara Rao et al. (2001). The S C M R also

recorded strong inverse relationship w i th13 C (r = -0 .552,

P <0.01) and positive association w i th pod yield (r = 0.505,

P <0.01). Signif icant but weak correlations of S C M R

Results and discussion

also recorded on pod y ie ld and its component traits.

Standard statistical procedures were adopted to quantify

the amount of genetic var iat ion available for the traits and

in the materials studied. Pearson's correlations and cluster

analysis using Euclidean distances were also performed

w i t h the help of statistical software S Y S T A T 10 (SPSS

Inc., Chicago, I l l ino is , U S A ) .

Table 1. Performance of top ten genotypes for pod yield, h arvest index and leaf morpho-physiological characters c ontributingto water-use efficiency in groundnut.

Character1

Pod yield (kg ha-1)

Harvest index (%)

SCMR

SLA (cm2 g-1)

13C (%o)

18O (%o)

Variability

Range2

1331-3407

26-54

31.3-41.6

206-298

21.06-22.32

18.55-21.62

Populationmean

2459

39.19

36.39

248.91

21.63

20.24

Top ten genotypes

GG 20, CSMG 84-1, JL 220, JL 24, ICR 10,ICGS 76, ICR 24, JUG 27, JAL 17 and JUG 28

JAL 36, ICR 20, JAL 17, TAG 24, JL 220,ICR 40, JL 24, ICR 24, TIR 42 and TIR 47

JUG 28, ICGS 76, ICR 27, JUG 15, JAL 03,ICR 24, ICR 10, GG 20, JUG 27 and ICR 11

TIR 16, lCGV 86031, JUG 28, ICR 40, ICR 27,ICR 10, ICR 11, CSMG 84-1, JUG 27 and ICR 20

Somnath, JAL 03, CSMG 84-1, GG 20, ICGS 44,JUG 27, JUG 28, JL 24, ICR 11 and JUG 15

TIR 16, ICR 40, JUG 28, ICR 10, ICR 11, ICR 20,JUG 27, JL 220, ICR 24 and TIR 42

Range of topten genotypes

2812-3407

43-54

38.4-41.6

206.1-234.1

21.06-21.41

20.58-21.62

1. S C M R - S P A D ch lo rophy l l meter reading; S L A = Specif ic leaf area; 13C = Carbon isotope d iscr iminat ion; and 14O = Enr ichment of oxygen

isotopes.

2. For 32 genotypes tested.

IAN 25, 2005 5

were observed w i t h seed y ie ld (r = 0.384, P <0.05), haulmy ie ld (r = 0.401, P <0.05) and total dry matter (r = 0.375,P <0.05). These relationships suggest that S C M R can beused as indirect measure for S L A and13C.

The 13O is hypothesized to be associated w i t h highermean transpiration rate and stomatal conductance(Udayakumar et al. 1998, Bindumadhava et a l . 1999). Inthis study, 18O was negatively associated w i t h S L A(r = -0 .582, P <0.01). Therefore, those genotypes w i t hlow S L A (h igh TE) wou ld have h igh 18O. Thisrelationship in turn indicates that genotypes w i t h lowerS L A (thicker leaves) w i l l have higher transpiration rate,

w h i c h w i l l be a genotype specific trait . The association of13C w i t h haulm y ie ld (r = -0 .617, P <0.01) and total drymatter (r = -0 .522, P <0.01) was negative, suggestingthat selection for low 13C (h igh TE) might result inproduct ion of more dry matter.

Groundnut genotypes w i t h l ow S L A and 1 3C, andh igh S C M R values are l ike ly to possess h igh W U E .Superior genotypes (top ten) ident i f ied w i t h respect topod y ie ld , harvest index and leaf morpho-physiologicaltraits are given in Table 1. Highest pod y ie ld wasrecorded in GG 20 fo l lowed by C S M G 84-1 , JL 220 andJL 24 (a l l commercial varieties) whereas h igh harvest

Table 2. Euclidean distance between pairs of genotypes based on 11 quantitative traits.

Cluster containing genotypes A and B

Genotype A

ICR 11JAL 03ICR 11JL 220

TIR 16ICR 10ICR 10JAL 03ICR 10JAL 03ICR 11GG2

JAL 03TIR 47TIR 47GG 2

ICR 11TIR 47Somnath

JAL 03JAL 03

GG2JAL 03K 134K 134ICR 11

CSMG 84-1CSMG 84-1K 134

JUG 13GG 20

Genotype B

JUG 28JUG 15ICR 43JL 24

JUG 33ICR 24ICGS 76

JAL 05JAL 17JAL 36JUG 27SB X IICR 20ICGS 44

ICR 40TAG 24

ICR 10ICR 12ICR 27

TIR 47

Somnath

TIR 42TIR 16ICGV 86031

G G 2JAL 03ICR 11JL 220

CSMG 84-1K 134

JUG 13

Euclidean distance betweengenotypes A and B

7.0910.4711.72

12.4313.7613.8913.9318.9019.34

21.3022.76

25.7026.2426.99

27.6530.5031.17

31.3332.9035.71

38.7540.7049.2455.3955.8257.3769.9372.00

75.60

116.29121.23

No. of genotypesin new cluster

2

2322

2

3344

4

25

233

84

29

11

4

132

6212224

30

3132

6 IAN 25, 2005

index was observed in the advanced l ine J A L 36 fo l lowedby I C R 20, J A L 17 and T A G 24 (commercial var iety).The 13C value was least in the commercial varietySomnath, fo l lowed by the genotype J A L 03. For S L A , thelowest value was recorded in T I R 16 fo l lowed by I C G V86031. The S C M R values that essentially estimate thechlorophy l l content in the leaves is a simple method thatcan be rapidly measured w i t h the help of a hand-heldS P A D meter. The genotypes JUG 28, ICGS 76, ICR 27,JUG 15 and J A L 03 were the top f ive for h igh S C M Rvalues among the 32 tested genotypes. Of these, fourgenotypes (JUG 28, I C R 27, JUG 15 and J A L 03), thoughdeveloped at different locations, were derived from a common cross ICGS 76 x C S M G 84-1 . From the study i tis evident that a l l the genotypes that invo lved ICGS 76 asone of the parents (second highest for SCMR) in theirpedigree scored h igh S C M R values. Hence ICGS 76 orits derivatives were ident i f ied as important donors forthis trait. ICGS 76 also had the highest haulm y ie ld andtotal dry matter y ie ld .

The cluster analysis carried out on the basis of eleventraits placed the 32 genotypes in many groups (Table 2).The genotypes ICR 11 and JUG 28 were the most closelyrelated ones and GG 20 and JUG 13 were the least relatedgenotypes. Met iculous examinat ion of tabulated datarevealed that 11 pairs of genotypes were jo ined at lessthan 25 Euclidean distances. Interestingly all the genotypesof these pairs had at least one common parent in theirancestry and in some cases both the parents werecommon. As the divergence between the member-genotypesof a pair increased, the genotypes invo lved in theparentage were different. However, ICR 11 and ICR 10were grouped at 31.17 Euclidean distance and hadcommon parentage.

This study could detect considerable genetic var iat ionfor the W U E traits as we l l as y ie ld and related traits in the32 genotypes tested. The study also conf i rmed theassociation among the leaf morpho-physiological traitsand y ie ld attributes, and the possibi l i ty of indirectselection for improved W U E through associated traits.The genotypes could be grouped into different classesbased on the genetic s imi lar i ty or var iabi l i ty in 11 traits

studied and this can help in future breeding strategieswhere some of these cult ivars may act as potential donorparents. The identi f ied genotypes, wh ich possesssuperiori ty for novel traits except a few, may further beimproved fo l l ow ing introgression breeding approaches.

References

Bindumadhava H, Sheshshayee MS, Devendra R, Prasad TGand Udayakumar M. 1999. Oxygen (18O) isotopic enrichmentin the leaves as a potential surrogate for transpiration andstomatal conductance. Current Science 76:1427-1428.

Farquhar GD, O'Leary MH and Berry JA. 1982. On therelationship between isotope discrimination and the intercellularcarbon dioxide concentration in leaves. Australian Journal ofPlant Physiology 9:121-137.

Nageswara Rao RC, Talwar HS and Wright GC. 2001.Rapid assessment of specific leaf area and leaf nitrogen inpeanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) using a chlorophyll meter.Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 186:175-182.

Nageswara Rao RC and Wright GC. 1994. Stability of therelationship between specific leaf area and carbon isotopediscrimination across environments in peanuts. Crop Science34:98-103.

Sternberg LSL, DeNiro MJ and Savidge RA. 1986. Oxygenisotope exchange between metabolites and water duringbiochemical reactions leading to cellulose synthesis. PlantPhysiology 82:423-427.

Udayakumar M, Sheshshayee MS, Nataraj K N ,Bindumadhava H, Devendra R, Aftab Hussain IS andPrasad TG. 1998. Why breeding for water use efficiency hasnot been successful. An analysis and alternate approach toexploit this trait for crop improvement. Current Science 74:994-1000.

Wright GC, Hubick KT and Farquhar GD. 1988.Discrimination in carbon isotopes of leaves correlates withwater-use efficiency of field-grown peanut cultivars. AustralianJournal of Plant Physiology 15:815-825.

Wright GC, Nageswara Rao RC and Farquhar GD. 1994.Water-use efficiency and carbon isotope discrimination inpeanut under water deficit conditions. Crop Science 34:92-97.

IAN 25, 2005 7

Substantial genetic var iabi l i ty existed among the parentallines and F1s for traits studied. The mean squares forG C A were h ighly signif icant for al l the charactersstudied. Signif icant values for SCA were also observedfor a l l the characters except H I , indicat ing that this trait ispredominant ly under the influence of addit ive geneaction. A l l the four leaf morpho-physiological characters(SPAD, S L A , 1 3C and 1 8O) established h igh lysignif icant reciprocal differences indicat ing the inf luenceof maternal parents in the inheritance of these characters.The magnitude of G C A variance was higher for a l l thecharacters when compared w i t h SCA variance s ign i fy ingthe preponderance of addit ive gene action in theinheritance of these characters. Simi lar results are inagreement w i t h those of Jayalakshmi et a l . (1999) andN i g a m et al . (2001) for S L A , and N igam et al . (2001) forH I . H i g h rat io between G C A and SCA variance observed

th i r ty hybrids were evaluated along w i t h their parents atthe Nat ional Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) ,Junagadh, India dur ing summer in 2004 in a randomizedcomplete b lock design. Each genotype was g rown in f iverows of 3 m length per repl icat ion w i t h a row- to- rowdistance of 60 cm. The genotypes were planted at 10 cmspacing.

Data were recorded on seven quantitative traits, v iz ,13C, 18O, SLA , SCMR, H I , T D M and F Y . Second fu l l y

expanded leaf f rom the apex ( f rom ten randomly selectedplants of each genotype in each repl icat ion) at 45 daysafter sowing was used to record the S C M R in the morn ing(08.00-09.30 hours) w i t h the help o f M ino l t a S P A Dchlorophyl l meter (M ino l ta Corp., Ramsey, N e w Jersey,USA) . The same leaf samples were used to record the leafarea using a L I -3100 Area Meter ( L I - C O R Inc., L inco ln ,Nebraska, U S A ) . These leaves were then oven-dried at60°C for 48 h to estimate S L A (cm2 g-1). The leaves wereground into fine powder and subjected to analysis of1 3C(%o) and 18O (%o) at the Nat ional Faci l i ty for StableIsotopes, Univers i ty of Agr icu l tu ra l Sciences, Bangalore,India. The selected ten plants were harvested ind iv iduallyin each plot at maturi ty and observations on FY and pody ie ld were recorded after dry ing. Total weight of fodderand pod accounted for T D M (g plant-1). The HI wasdetermined as ratio o f pod weight to T D M .

Mean data of the traits showing signif icant genotypicdifferences were subjected to dial le l analysis Method 2 and Mode l l (Gr i f f ing 1956) to partit ion the total var iat ioninto G C A of each parent and SCA of each cross.


In a b io logical model (Passioura 1986), seed y ie ld isexplained to be a function of water transpired (T) , water-useefficiency ( W U E ) and harvest index ( H I ) . Water-useefficiency in groundnut can be measured indirect lythrough the negatively associated character,13C (carbonisotope discrimination) (Wright et al. 1994). Being expensiveand impractical to be used in the large segregatingpopulations, specific leaf area ( S L A , leaf area per uni tleaf dry weight) can be used as a surrogate for13C as it isposit ively correlated w i t h 13C (Nageswara Rao andWr ight 1994). Signif icant negative correlat ion betweenthe SPAD (Soi l and Plant Analysis-Development)chlorophyl l meter reading and S L A was reported byNageswara Rao et al. (2001) who suggested that thismeter could be used as a rap id and rel iable measure toidentify genotypes w i t h l ow S L A . Oxygen isotopeenrichment ( 18O) that occurs dur ing transpiration is alsoa potential tool for the measurement of stomatalconductance and transpirat ion rate (Sheshshayee et al.2003).

Conventional d ia l le l analysis helps in par t i t ion ing thetotal var iat ion into general combin ing abi l i ty ( G C A ) o feach genotype and specific combin ing abi l i ty (SCA) ofeach cross. In format ion on the nature of gene action forthe characters l ike 13C, 18O, S L A , S P A D chlorophyl lmeter reading (SCMR) , H I , total dry matter product ion( T D M ) and fodder y ie ld ( F Y ) is scanty. There are onlytwo published reports (Jayalakshmi et a l . 1999, N igam etal. 2001) suggesting the predominant role of addit ivegene action in the inheritance of S L A . Thus, the objectiveof this study was to determine the genetic control of theW U E associated traits.


Six genotypes (Chico, CSMG 84-1, ICG 4747, I C G V 86031,T A G 24 and T M V 2 N L M ) were crossed in a fu l l d ia l le lmat ing design (Gr i f f ing 1956) result ing in 15 F1s and 15reciprocals in the rainy season of 2003. The result ing

8 IAN 25, 2005

Chuni Lal 1,* , AL Rathnakumar, K Hariprasanna,HK Gor and BM Chikani (National Research Centre forGroundnut (NRCG), PB 5, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat,

India)


Promising Parental Lines for theDevelopment of High Water-useEfficient Groundnut Varieties

IAN 25, 2005 9

Table 1. Good general combiners and specific combination s for seven quantitative characters in groundnut.

Character1

SCMR

SLA

HI13C18O

T D M

FY

Good general combiners

T M V 2 N L M , ICGV 86031

T M V 2 N L M , ICGV 86031, CSMG 84-1

TAG 24, Chico

T M V 2 N L M

ICGV 86031

ICG 4747

ICG 4747

Good specific combinations

ICG 4747 x T M V 2 N L M , CSMG 84-1 x TAG 24,

ICG 4747 x TAG 24, TMV 2 N L M x ICGS 4747,

ICGV 86031 x CSMG 84-1, T M V 2 N L M x ICGV 86031,

ICGV 86031 x Chico

CSMG 84-1 x TAG 24, ICGV 86031 x TAG 24,

ICGV 86031 x CSMG 84-1, TAG 24 x Chico,

TAG 24 x CSMG 84-1

TAG 24 x TMV 2 N L M

TAG 24 x Chico, TMV 2 N L M x Chico

Chico x ICGV 86031, CSMG 84-1 x TAG 24,

ICGS 4747 x Chico, ICGV 86031 x Chico,

ICG 4747 x CSMG 84-1, ICGV 86031 x CSMG 84-1,

TAG 24 x CSMG 84-1, ICGV 86031 x ICG 4747

Chico x ICGV 86031

Chico x ICGV 86031

1. S C M R = S P A D ch lo rophy l l meter reading; S L A = Specif ic leaf area; HI = Harvest index; 1 3C = Carbon isotope d iscr iminat ion ;1 8O = Enr ichment of oxygen isotopes; T D M = Tota l dry matter; FY = Fodder y ie ld .

for S C M R , S L A and HI (> 17) suggested that addit ive

genes contro l these characters. Hence, selection for the

improvement of these characters w i l l be effect ive in early

generations. The l o w ratios (1.17 to 2.78) between G C A

and SCA variances observed for T D M , F Y , 1 3C and1 8O indicated the preponderance of non-addi t ive gene

action for these characters.

Good general combiners and specif ic combinations

ident i f ied for the characters studied are presented in

Table 1 . T M V 2 N L M showed h igh ly posit ive and

signif icant G C A effects for S C M R and h igh ly s igni f icant

but negative values for S L A and 13C. The genotype

I C G V 86031 exhibi ted signi f icant and posi t ive G C A

effects for S C M R and 1 8O but s igni f icant and negative

values for S L A . C S M G 84-1 was also a good combiner

for SLA . Jayalakshmi et al . (1999) also identi f ied breeding

lines T M V 2 N L M and I C G V 86031 as good general

combiners for S L A . The varieties T A G 24 and Chico

were the best general combiners for H I . The parental l ine

I C G 4747 was a good combiner for T D M and FY as this

l ine has recorded the highest G C A effects for both the

characters.

H igh posit ive and signif icant SCA effects for S C M R

were observed in the cross I C G 4747 x T M V 2 N L M

fol lowed by C S M G 84-1 x T A G 24 and ICG 4747 x

T A G 24. Among the reciprocals, T M V 2 N L M x ICGS

4747 fo l lowed by I C G V 86031 x C S M G 8 4 - 1 , T M V 2

N L M x I C G V 86031 and I C G V 86031 x Chico were

found to be good specif ic combiners for this character.

Highest negative and signif icant SCA effects for S L A

were observed in the cross C S M G 84-1 x T A G 24

fo l lowed by I C G V 86031 x T A G 24. Three reciprocal

crosses recorded negative and signif icant SCA effects for

S L A . On ly one cross, T A G 24 x T M V 2 N L M , recorded

signif icant posit ive SCA effects for H I . Desirable

negative and signif icant SCA effects for 13C were

observed in two reciprocal crosses, T A G 24 x Chico and

T M V 2 N L M x Chico. Signi f icant and posi t ive SCA

effects for 18O were observed in two crosses, Chico x

I C G V 86031 and C S M G 84-1 x T A G 24, whereas six

reciprocal crosses were found to be good specif ic

combiners for this character. The cross Chico x ICGV 86031

was observed to be a good cross combinat ion both for

T D M and FY .

The G C A effects of the parents invo lved in the

superior specific cross combinations for all the characters

studied revealed that SCA effects of the crosses were

independent of the G C A effects of the parental lines

invo lved. T w o crosses, T M V 2 N L M x I C G V 86031 and

I C G V 86031 x C S M G 8 4 - 1 , ident i f ied as good specif ic

combiners for S C M R and S L A , respectively, invo lved

parents w i th h igh G C A suggesting an addit ive x addit ive

type of gene act ion, wh ich can be f ixed in the early

generations in the absence of repulsion phase l inkages.

In recent t imes, groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is losingits pre-eminence as a main oilseed crop due to competi t ionfrom cheaper sources of edible o i l . However , large-seeded confectionery groundnuts have a great demand assnack food in domestic as w e l l as international market.A f l a t ox i n contaminat ion and pesticide residues in thenuts are the major impediments for export of groundnuts.Management of af latoxin contaminat ion requires bothpreventive and curative approaches starting from sowingand harvesting to processing and storage. Geneticresistance to Aspergillus flavus is one of the most viableand economical approaches to reduce af latoxin problem(Swindale 1989).

In this study, f i f teen large-seeded confectionery gradegroundnut genotypes having 100 seed mass >60 g alongw i t h J 11, a resistant check (Mehan et al . 1987) and a susceptible check, T M V 2 were screened through art i f icialinoculat ion procedure for resistance to in v i t ro seedcolonizat ion by A. f lavus isolate, Af 11-4, a h igh lyaggressive and toxigenic strain (Thakur et a l . 2000).Sixty sound mature seeds from each of the 15 genotypeswere surface steri l ized w i t h 0 . 1 % aqueous solut ion ofmercuric chlor ide for 2 m i n and washed in two to threechanges of d is t i l led steri l ized water. Each seed wasun i fo rmly wounded by p r i ck ing w i t h a sterile needle tofacil i tate invasion by fungal spores. Seeds were placed insterile petri dishes of 9 cm diameter and inoculated w i thA. flavus spore suspension at 1 x 106 spores m l- 1 . Petridishes were shaken to ro l l the seeds a l lowing un i fo rmdist r ibut ion of inocu lum. The experiment was conductedin two replications w i t h 30 seeds per replication. The petr idishes were incubated at 25°C and relat ive humid i ty of95% in dark for 10 days. Ind iv idua l seeds were scored forextent of seed surface colonized by A. flavus spores using1-4 seed colonizat ion severity scale and the mean of tworeplications is expressed as colonizat ion severity. In theseverity scale, genotypes w i t h < 5 % seed surface colonizedw i t h scanty mycel ia l g rowth and scanty sporulat ion werescored 1; genotypes w i t h 5 -25% seed surface colonized

Confectionery Groundnuts Resistant toSeed Colonization by Aspergillus flavus

BN Harish Babu, M V C Gowda* and VP Kusuma(Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University

of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad 580 005,

Karnataka, India)


Conc lus ion

A l l the W U E related traits studied are ma in ly under thecontro l of addit ive gene action, suggesting that they canbe selected in early generations. A m o n g the good generalcombiners ident i f ied for different W U E traits, T M V 2 N L M (for SCMR, S L A and 1 3C) and I C G V 86031 (forSCMR, S L A and 1 8O) accounted for al l the major W U Eassociated traits. Hence these genotypes should be usedin the future breeding programs aimed at improv ingW U E and y ie ld in groundnut. The crosses ident i f ied w i t hhigh SCA effects for these traits should be advanced furtherto retrieve transgressive segregants in later generations.

References

Griffing B. 1956. Concept of general and specific combiningability in relation to diallel crossing systems. AustralianJournal of Biological Sciences 9: 463-493.

Jayalakshmi V, Rajareddy C, Reddy PV and NageswaraRao RC. 1999. Genetic analysis of carbon isotopediscrimination and specific leaf area in groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.). Journal of Oilseeds Research 16:1-5.

Nageswara Rao RC, Talwar HS and Wright GC. 2001.Rapid assessment of specific leaf area and leaf nitrogen inpeanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) using a chlorophyll meter.Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 186:175-182.

Nageswara Rao RC and Wright GC. 1994. Stability of therelationship between specific leaf area and carbon isotopediscrimination across environments in groundnuts. CropScience 34:98-103.

Nigam SN, Upadhyaya H D , Chandra S, Nageswara RaoRC, Wright GC and Reddy AGS. 2001. Gene effects forspecific leaf area and harvest index in three crosses ofgroundnut (Arachis hypogaea). Annals of Applied Biology139:301-306.

Passioura JB. 1986. Resistance to drought and salinity: avenuesfor improvement. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology13:191-201.

Sheshshayee MS, Bindumadhava H, Shankar AG, PrasadTG and Udayakumar M. 2003. Breeding strategies to exploitwater use efficiency for crop improvement. Journal of PlantBiology 30:253-268.

Wright GC, Nageswara Rao RC and Farquhar GD. 1994.Water-use efficiency and carbon isotope discrimination ingroundnut under water deficit conditions. Crop Science 34:92-97.

10 IAN 25, 2005

IAN 25, 2005 11

w i t h good mycel ia l g rowth and scanty sporulat ion werescored 2; genotypes w i t h 2 6 - 5 0 % seed surface colonizedw i t h good mycel ia l g rowth and good sporulat ion werescored 3; and genotypes w i t h >50% seed surface colonizedw i t h heavy sporulat ion were scored 4 (Thakur et a l .2000). A l l the entries were evaluated in the f ie ld dur ingpostrainy (2002) and rainy (2003) seasons forproduct iv i ty parameters, v iz , y ie ld plant-1, an indicator ofy ie ld potent ial , shel l ing outturn, w h i c h providesinformat ion on percentage of seed recovery, and 100-seed mass, one of the important considerations forconfectionery use. A l l the genotypes were g rown in 5-mrows, each in two replications and al l the recommendedpackage of practices were fo l l owed to raise a good crop.

Trombay groundnuts TG 19 (1.04), TG 49 (1.75),TG 18A (1.78) and TG 18 (1.88) showed h igh level o fresistance w i t h very l ow seed colonizat ion by A. flavus compared to resistant check J 11 (2.89). GenotypesT K G 19A (2.78) and Mutant 28-2 (2.83) werecomparable to J 11 (Table 1). TG 39 (3.89) and TG 40(3.95) recorded h igh seed colonizat ion and sporulat ioncomparable to susceptible check T M V 2 (4.00).

The genotype TG 4 1 , a confectionery variety releasedfor cu l t ivat ion al l over India (Kale et al. 2004), hasrecorded highest y ie ld fo l lowed by Mutant 110-14 andTGLPS 7 but al l were susceptible to infection by A. flavus.The highly resistant lines TG 19, TG 18, TG 18A and TG 49have shown signi f icant ly l ow y ie ld than h igh-y ie ld inggenotypes. General ly, h igh ly resistant lines have l owy ie ld potential wh i l e the h igh-y ie ld ing lines showsusceptible reaction to invasion by A. f lavus ( K i r a n Ka l iaet al . 1988). However , moderately resistant Mutant 28-2and T K G 19A have shown y ie ld potential comparable toh igh-y ie ld ing confect ionery groundnut varieties. Thesef indings indicate the possib i l i ty of combin ing resistanceto A. flavus infection and h igh y ie ld potential. Mutant 28-2has been released as a bold-seeded variety suitable forcul t ivat ion in Karnataka, Ind ia (Gowda et al . 2002). T K G19A is a confectionery groundnut variety released forcu l t ivat ion in Maharashtra, Ind ia (Deshmukh 1997).

Though resistant l ines in general had l o w shel l ingoutturn, TG 49 (71.96 %) recorded highest seed recovery.The resistant TG 49 (68.24 g) and TG 19 (67.64 g) werealso superior for 100-seed mass mak ing them bettercandidates for confectionery purpose. This study indicatesthe possibi l i ty of combin ing h igh y ie ld and A. f lavusresistance in the confectionery background to avoid poorqual i ty to tap potent ial export market for the Ind iangroundnuts. The resistant genotypes, especially TG 19,

TG 49, TG 18A and TG 18 fo rm a potential source forA. flavus resistance. The cost effectiveness and ease inscreening makes in v i t ro seed colonizat ion as the mostcommonly used method (Thakur et a l . 2000). Thoughposit ive correlat ion has been observed between in v i t roseed colonizat ion and resistance to natural seed infect ion(Wal i ya r and Bockelee-Morvan 1989), there is a need toestimate af latoxin content to assess their true wo r th forthe improvement of confectionery groundnuts in the futurebreeding programs.

Deshmukh SN. 1997. Identification of confectionery groundnutvariety adapted to the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, India.International Arachis Newsletter 17:27.

Gowda M V C , Motagi BN, Sheshagiri R, Naidu GK andRajendraprasad M N . 2002. Mutant 28-2: A bold-seededdisease and pest resistant groundnut genotype for Karnataka,India. International Arachis Newsletter 22:32-34.

Kale D M , Murthy GSS and Badigannavar A M . 2004.TPG 41 - A new large-seeded groundnut variety released inIndia. International Arachis Newsletter 24:21-22.

Kiran Kalia, Desai HM and Chakraborty M K . 1988.Resistance of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) to aflatoxin.Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 58:121-123.

Mehan V K , McDonald D and Rajagopalan K. 1987.Resistance of peanut genotypes to seed infection in Aspergillus flavus field trials in India. Peanut Science 14:17-21.

Swindale L D . 1989. A general overview of the problem ofaflatoxin contamination of groundnut. Pages 3-5 in Aflatoxincontamination of groundnut: proceedings of the InternationalWorkshop, 6-9 October 1987, ICRISAT Center, India. Patancheru502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.

Thakur RP, Rao VP, Reddy SV and Ferguson M. 2000.Evaluation of wi ld Arachis germplasm accessions for in vitroseed colonization and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus. International Arachis Newsletter 20:44-46.

Waliyar F and Bockelee-Morvan A. 1989. Resistance ofgroundnut varieties to Aspergillus flavus in Senegal. Pages305 - 311 in Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut: proceedingsof the International Workshop, 6-9 October 1987, ICRISATCenter, India. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-AridTropics.

References

12 IAN 25, 2005

IAN 25, 2005 13

Despite the State government promot ing other dry landcrops in the distr ict, the farmers are u n w i l l i n g to g ive upgroundnut cu l t ivat ion. F rom the past experience, theyrealize that groundnut can withstand long dry spells muchbetter than the other crops and can revive i tse l f even w i thl i t t le rains after the dry spells. Further, in case of completecrop fai lure, i t s t i l l y ields some fodder for l ivestock.Therefore, for better l ivel ihoods of small and marginalfarmers, it is essential to stabil ize groundnut product iv i tyand product ion in the distr ict by in t roducing farmer-preferred improved varieties and l ow cost/cost-savingproduct ion technologies.

Under the aegis of the I F A D Technical Assistance Grant532 - ICR ISAT project, an on-farm farmer part ic ipatoryvarietal selection (FPVS) program was launched in 2002in Anantapur in collaboration w i t h the Rural DevelopmentTrust [a non-governmental organization ( N G O ) ] andAgr icu l tu ra l Research Station, Acharya NG RangaAgricultural University ( A N G R A U ) and active part ic ipationof farmers in partner vi l lages to f ind a replacement for thetradi t ional groundnut variety T M V 2 ( I C R I S A T 2 0 0 2 -2004).

F P V S trials. F ive FPVS trials, each w i t h nine improvedvarieties (eight f rom I C R I S A T and one from A N G R A U )and a local contro l , T M V 2, were conducted in the 2002rainy season in two representative vi l lages of the distr ict,Dhanduvar ipal l i and Rekulakunta. The partner farmersmanaged the tr ials. Soon after sowing in the f i rst week ofAugust, a dry spell of 45 days fo l lowed. Af ter a couple ofgood rains dur ing mid-September, there was again a dryspell of 25 days. The total rainfal l received dur ing theyear was less than 400 m m , wh i ch was far below theaverage of the distr ict. The farmers and scientists togethervisited these trials at different crop growth stages toobserve the performance of new varieties. None of the

Farmer participatory varietal selection

and mi l lers to adapt their machinery to new varieties andconsequent price d iscr iminat ion by the traders in thelocal markets.

The Anantapur farmers prefer the f o l l ow ing traits in a groundnut var iety: h igh pod y ie ld , h igh shel l ing outturn,early matur i ty , smal l -medium seed size, h igh haulm y ie ldand resistance to drought, peanut bud necrosis, peanutstem necrosis and fo l iar fungal diseases. N e w varietiesshould have substantial improvement in pod and haulmyields (about 30%) to ensure their h igh adoption by thefarmers.

Farmer Participatory Varietal Selectionin Groundnut - A Success Story inAnantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India

SN Nigam1,*, R Aruna 1, D Yadagiri1, TY Reddy2,K Subramanyam2, BRR Reddy3 and KA Kareem 3

( 1 . ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India;2. Agricultural Research Station, Acharya NG RangaAgricultural University (ANGRAU), Anantapur 515 001,Andhra Pradesh, India; 3. Accion Fraterna, RuralDevelopment Trust, Anantapur 515 001, Andhra Pradesh,India)

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Anantapur is a drought-prone distr ict in Andhra Pradesh,India. It falls in a rain-shadow area. The average annualrainfal l is not on ly l ow (522 m m ) but also h igh ly variableand erratic in distribution. The district experiences prolongeddry spells of 45 -50 days w i t h an average of 36 rainy daysin the rainy season. Du r i ng the last 12 years (1993—2004), there were on ly four ' good ' years w i t h betterrainfal l d is t r ibut ion dur ing the cropping season and eightwere 'drought ' years. The soils in the distr ict arepredominant ly l ight textured, gravel ly, shal low A l f i so lsw i t h depths vary ing between 30 cm and 60 cm and arelow in nutrients and water-holding capacity. Smal lholdings(<3.0 ha) dominate (60%) the distr ict . Despite frequentdroughts, over 70% of the cul t ivated area of the distr ict(1.04 m i l l i on ha) is sown to groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) each year due to its ab i l i ty to survive long dry spells andalso for its cash value. Further, it provides valuablefodder for l ivestock dur ing dry years or in case of cropfailures. The groundnut y ie ld dur ing 'good ' years averagesbetween 800 and 900 kg ha-1 and dur ing 'drought ' yearsbetween 300 and 400 kg ha-1. There are instances offarmers gett ing yields up to 1500 kg ha- 1 in ' good ' years.

Current cultivar options

Despite many improved groundnut varieties ( ICGS 11,ICGS 44, ICGS 76, R S H Y 1, T i rupat i 2, K 134, D R G 12,K a d i r i 4, JCC 88 and others) released for Andhra Pradeshdur ing the last 20 years, the o ld varieties, T M V 2 (released in 1940, covers 7 5 - 8 0 % area), JL 24 (releasedin 1978, covers 15-20% area) and Pollachi Red (a landrace)continue to dominate farmers' f ie lds. Some of the factorsresponsible for l im i ted area sown to new varieties arenew varieties fa l l ing short o f farmers' expectations, non-availability of their seeds, reluctance of groundnut processors

new varieties gave signi f icant ly higher pod y ie ld thanT M V 2 in both the vi l lages. However , the farmers wereimpressed w i t h the new variety, I C G V 91114, wh ich gavehigher fodder y ie ld (1460 kg ha-1 as compared w i t h 1355kg ha-1 o f T M V 2 ) w i t h more green leaves, andcomparable pod y ie ld (385 kg ha- 1 as compared w i t h 305kg ha- 1 of T M V 2) and larger seed size despite severedrought conditions in the cropping season. Another variety,I C G V 89104, also looked promis ing to them because ofits comparable pod y ie ld and better shel l ing out turn thanT M V 2.

These t w o varieties along w i t h T M V 2 were evaluatedin the 2003 ra iny season in larger plots (0.21 ha) in f ivefarmer holdings in West Narsapuram (new partnerv i l lage) and Rekulakunta. On l y 227.1 mm rainfa l l wasreceived in 23 ra iny days dur ing the year. Despite severedrought, I C G V 91114 produced signi f icant ly higheraverage pod y ie ld (507 kg ha-1) and haulm y ie ld (1391 kgha-1) than T M V 2 (453 kg ha- 1 and 1111 kg ha-1,respectively). The new var iety also recorded a higheraverage shel l ing out turn and number of pods plant- 1 thanthe latter; ie, 5 9 % and 2.9 as compared w i t h 55% and 2.4o f T M V 2 , respectively. Impressed w i t h the performanceof I C G V 91114 dur ing t w o drought years (2002 and2003), a woman farmer of West Narsapuram v i l lagemu l t i p l i ed the seed of this var iety on a 1.5-acre (0.63 ha)land dur ing the 2003/04 postrainy season w i t h i r r igat ionand produced 1200 kg pods (1920 kg ha-1). She sold theproduce to other farmers in the v i l lage as seed for the2004 rainy season.

In the 2004 rainy season, 26 farmers in West Narsapuram,25 farmers in Shivapuram (new partner v i l lage) and 33farmers in Rekulakunta sowed their on-farm trials/seedproduct ion plots o f I C G V 91114 w i t h the onset o f sowingrains dur ing 10-12 July. Soon after, there was a dry spello f 36 days (30 Ju ly -3 September). Of the total annualra infa l l o f 495 m m , the crop received on ly 302 m m .I C G V 91114 again performed better than T M V 2 for pody ie l d in a l l the three vi l lages but the y i e l d differenceswere significant only in West Narsapuram and Shivapuram.W h i l e the haulm y ie ld o f I C G V 91114 was signi f icant lyhigher in West Narsapuram, i t was simi lar in Shivapuramand signi f icant ly lower than T M V 2 in Rekulakunta(Table 1). The average 100-seed mass of I C G V 91114was 41 g as compared w i t h 36 g of T M V 2. The o i lcontent in I C G V 91114 was comparable to that o f T M V 2 across farmers' f ields and seasons.

Seed production of I C G V 91114. Convinced of its betterperformance, 111 farmers in 23 vi l lages (10 mandate) ofAnantapur and one v i l lage each in adjacent Ku rnoo l andChi t toor districts undertook seed product ion o f I C G V91114 in the 2004/05 postrainy season in 48.04 ha underi r r igat ion.

Large-scale a d o p t i o n o f I C G V 91114. Consider ing thebetter performance o f I C G V 91114 in three consecutivedrought years (2002-04) , the farmers of the partner andneighbor ing vi l lages col lect ively decided to adoptI C G V 91114 on a large scale in the 2005 rainy season.

Table 1. Comparative performance of I C G V 91114 and T M V 2 in on-farm farmer participatory varietal selection trial s inAnantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India, rainy season 2004.

Village / Variety

West NarsapuramICGV 91114T M V 2

t-test

ShivapuramICGV 91114T M V 2t-test

RekulakuntaICGV 91114T M V 2 t-test

Average pod yield1

(kg ha-1)

15241336

*

15021313

*

17301651NS

Average haulm yield1

(kg ha-1)

15571375

*

16911665NS

26662907

*

Shelling outturn( % )

7575

7375

7473

1. * Signi f icant at P = 0.05; NS = N o t s igni f icant.

14 IAN 25, 2005

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is an important oilseedcrop of Rajasthan, India, w i t h an area of 0.24 m i l l i o n haand product ion of 0.17 m i l l i o n t . Spanish groundnut(A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata var vulgaris) varietiescurrently occupy about 40% of the total groundnut areaof the state. The remaining 60% area is covered by V i rg in iagroundnut (A. hypogaea subsp hypogaea var hypogaea).The Spanish varieties such as JL 24 and GG 2, g rown inthe state, have l ow yields and are susceptible to diseasesand insect pests.

Pratap Mungpha l i 2, a Spanish variety, was bred anddeveloped from the cross I C G V 86055 x I C G (FDRS) 10 atthe International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-A r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru, India. Af terpre l iminary evaluation at the Maharana Pratap Universityo f Agr icu l ture and Technology ( M P U A T ) , Udaipur,Rajasthan as I C G V 92195, i t was proposed in 2001 forevaluation in the A l l India Coordinated Varietal Trials asI C U G 92195, signifying a jo in t contribution f rom M P U ATand I C R I S A T . The State Seed Sub-Committee forAgr icu l tu ra l Crops released it as Pratap Mungpha l i 2 in2005 in Rajasthan. I t is erect in g rowth habit and early inmaturity (about 95 days). The leaves are green and e ll ip t ica l .Pods are two-seeded w i th moderate reticulation, constr ict ionand beak. Seeds are medium, spheroidal and p ink incolor. The o i l content in Pratap Mungpha l i 2 (49.5%) ishigher than that in JL 24 (48.8%).

In A l l Ind ia Coordinated Var ietal Tr ia ls conducted at10 locations in Udaipur, Pratapgarh, Durgapura (Jaipur)and Hanumangarh districts, Pratap Mungphal i 2 produceda mean dry pod y ie ld of 2494 kg ha- 1 as compared w i t h2016 kg ha- 1 of check JL 24, thereby exh ib i t ing 23.7%pod y ie ld superiori ty over the check. This var iety alsoshowed 25.9% superiority in seed yield over JL 24 (Table 1).In On Farm Tr ials conducted in Udaipur, Rajsamand,

IAN 25, 2005 15

ICRISAT. 2002-2004. Programme for farmer participatoryimprovement of grain legumes in rainfed Asia. ProgressReports: IFAD Technical Assistance Grant No. 532.Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: InternationalCrops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. (Limiteddistribution.)

Vellaikumar S, Waliyar F, Nigam SIS, Upadhyaya H D ,Khan A and Blummel M. 2004. Effects of cultivars-dependent groundnut haulms quality on live weight gains andnitrogen retention in sheep. Page 132 in New dimensions ofanimal feeding to sustain development and competitiveness.Proceedings of the Fifth Animal Nutrition Association BiennialConference, 24-26 Nov 2004, National Institute of AnimalNutrit ion and Physiology, Bangalore. Izatnagar, India: AnimalNutrit ion Association.

References

D u r i n g these three years, not a single seed of I C G V91114 was sold as commercial produce in the openmarket. The farmers saved their produce as seed for thenext season and the excess produce was sold to otherfarmers on ly for seed purpose. The total area under I C G V91114 in the 2005 rainy season in 41 vil lages (18mandals) is estimated to be 285 ha. It is also being g rownin one v i l lage in the neighbor ing state of Karnataka.

Farmers were also made aware of the results of control ledfeeding trials of Deccani sheep at I C R I S A T , Patancheruwhere I C G V 91114 gave higher l ive weight gain day-1

and ni trogen accretion indicat ing better d igest ib i l i ty of itshaulm than the other varieties released for AndhraPradesh (Ve l la ikumar et al . 2004).

The farmers in partner vi l lages (West Narsapuram,Shivapuram and Rekulakunta) are now promot ing I C G V91114 in the distr ict by sharing their produce w i t h theirrelatives and neighbors. They have developed a sense ofownership over this var iety. For large-scale adoptionparticipation of farmers, NGOs, government agencies andtraders w i l l be essential.

Seed Releases

New Groundnut Variety PratapMungphali 2 Released in Rajasthan,India

AK Nagda* and Abhay Dashora (Department of Plant

Breeding and Genetics, Rajasthan College of Agriculture,

Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology

(MPUAT), Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India)

*Corresponding author: abhay _ [email protected]

16 IAN 25, 2005

IAN 25, 2005 17

for cu l t ivat ion in 10 distr icts of western Maharashtra.

This var iety is suitable for kharif ( ra iny) and summer

seasons. Phule Unap was recommended for pre-release

dur ing A p r i l 1998 and was recommended for release by

the Research Rev iew Commit tee on f ie ld crops in

M P K V , Rahur i in 2004. I t was released by Maharashtra

Agr icu l tu ra l Universi t ies Joint Agresco 2004. Phule

Unap has longer f l ower ing span of 40 -45 days as against

JL 24 w i t h 22 -25 days. I t has medium seed size w i t h 100-

seed mass of 38 g and is tolerant to Sclerotium rolfsii. It is

a der ivat ive of cross JL 86 x N c A c 343-75. I t gave higher

(2493 kg ha-1) dry pod y ie ld than JL 24 (1883 kg ha -1).

D u r i n g the rainy season in 1998 and 1999 in A l l Ind ia

Coordinated Research Project-Groundnut ( A I C R P - G )

trials in zone I I I in Maharashtra, Phule Unap (JL 286)

produced dry pod y ie ld o f 1329 kg ha - 1 w i t h superiori ty o f

8 .75% and 52 .05% over national check JL 24 (1222 kg

ha-1) and zonal check T A G 24 (874 kg ha -1), respectively

(Table 1).

The overal l performance of Phule Unap (JL 286) in

var ious stat ion, m u l t i n a t i o n a l and inter universi ty tr ials

since 1992 to 2003 dur ing ra iny season is encouraging

(Table 2). The average dry pod y ie ld was 2212.17 kg ha -1

w i t h 12.72% increase over JL 24 (1963.46 kg ha -1),

29.36% over T A G 24 (1710.76 kg ha-1), 2 0 . 8 1 % over TG

26 (1846.27 kg ha-1) and 31.68% over S B - X I (1680.06 kg

ha -1). The farmers are impressed w i t h the performance of

Chi t torgarh and Bh i lwara distr icts, Pratap Mungpha l i 2

produced mean pod y ie ld of 2311 kg ha - 1 as compared

w i t h 1975 kg ha - 1 o f check JL 24, resul t ing in 17.0% y ie ld

increase over the check (Table 2). Pratap Mungpha l i 2 is

moderately resistant to early and late leaf spots and bud

necrosis disease. It is also moderately resistant to

Spodoptera, leaf miner and thr ips.

Acknowledgment . The authors are grateful to I C R I S A T

for p rov id ing the groundnut breeding materials for this

research work .

Phule Unap - A New Groundnut Variety

for Western Maharashtra, India

RB Patil, SS Patil, MP Deshmukh, RS Bhadane',

RB Jadhav and TR Patil (Oilseeds Research Station,

Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Jalgaon

425 001, Maharashtra, India)


A new groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) var iety Phule Unap

(JL 286) was released in 2004 by the Mahatma Phule

K r i sh i V idyapeeth ( M P K V ) , Rahur i , Maharashtra, Ind ia

Table 2. Performance of I C U G 92195 in Adaptive Tr ia l Centr e (ATC) and On Farm Trials (OFT) in Rajatthan, India d uringrainy season 2002-04.

Genotype

ICUG 92195

JL 24 (National check)Local check

ATC

Dry podyield

(kg ha-1)(2003)

13611333

Increase( % )over

check

2.10

OFT

Dry pod yield (kg ha-1)

2002 2003 2004(2 locations) (4 locations) (4 locations)

2600 2475 18602200 2025 17002000 1925 1650

Mean

231119751858

Increase (%)over check

17.0

24.3

18 IAN 25, 2005

Table 3. Performance of Phule Unap (JL 286) in Multiloca tion Varietal Trials during summer 2002 and 2003.

Entry

JL 286

TAG 24

SB-XI

SE±

CD at 5%

CV (%)

Pod yield (kg ha-1)

Jalgaon

2002

1776

1893

1776

4.2

11.60

9.77

2003

1868

1974

1754

124.8

334.9

11.3

Digraj

2002

3260

3172

2500

9.7

26.80

12.94

2003

3576

3889

4387

166.7

46.06

7.12

Rahuri

(2002)

3385

3125

2604

9.5

26.25

11.11

Padegaon

(2002)

3215

3020

1933

218.5

603.8

13.3

Pooled mean

(kg ha-1)

2847

2845

2492

Table 4. Overall performance of Phule Unap (JL 286) in var ious trials in Maharashtra, India.

Entry

JL 286

Phule Pragati

T A G 24

TG 26

SB-XI

Overall mean

pod yield

(kg ha-1)

(39 trials)

2213

1963

1710

1916

1680

Shelling

outturn

(%)

67

69

68

67

71

Oil

content

(%)

50

47

45

48

48

Mean seed

yield

(kg ha-1)

1494

1353

1193

1284

1221

Mean oi l

yield

(kg ha-1)

747

636

537

616

586

Yield increase (%)

o f JL 286

Seed

10.42

25.23

16.36

22.36

Oi l

17.45

39.11

21.27

27.47

Table 2. Overall performance of Phule Unap (JL 286) in v arious trials in Maharashtra, India during 1992 to 20 03.

Trial1

RRT

SST

ST

M L T

Inter University

Year Location

1992 Jalgaon

1993 Jalgaon

1994 Jalgaon

1995 to 1999 5 locations

1996, 1997, 2003 8 locations

Mean dry pod yield (kg ha-1)

JL 286

2493

3563

1937

2287

1979

JL 24

1883

3170

1354

2022

1819

TAG 24

1583

2741

1695

1783

1700

TG 26

1975

1551

SB-XI

2977

1039

1728

1665

1. R R T = Rod R o w T r i a l ; SST = Smal l Scale T r i a l ; ST = Station T r i a l ; M L T = Mu l t i l oca t i on Var ieta l T r i a l .

Table 1. Performance of Phule Unap (JL 286) in Init ial Va rietal Trials in three locations in zone I I I , Mahara shtra, India

during rainy season 1998 and 1999.

Entry

ISK-1-9811 (JL 286)

ISK-1-9814 (JL 24)

ISK-1-9817 (TAG 24)

SE±

CD at 5%

CV (%)

Dry pod yield (kg ha-1)

Akola

1495

1450

971

75.8

213.8

15.6

Jalgaon

1066

1000

939

21.0

59.2

6.2

Khargone

1163

994

777

29.8

84.2

8.2

Mean

1329

1222

874

39.3

108.5

13.3

Origin and development

I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 and I C G V 96469 were derivedfrom three different crosses. The details of their pedigreeand selection history are:

I C G V 96466: ( I C G V 87882 x I C G V 87885)-F2 - P8 - P1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1 - B 1

I C G V 96468: ( I C G V 87885 x L l ) - F2-P4-P1-B 1-B 1-B 1

I C G V 96469: ( I C G V 87885 x L I Duchoa)-

F2-P5-B2-B1-B1-B1

(P refers to plant selection and B to bu lk . )The parental l ines used in the above three crosses

were: I C G V 87882, derived f rom a cross of ICGS 30 x Var. 28-206; I C G V 87885, derived f rom a cross of 91176x TG 2; and ICGS 30, derived f rom a cross of Ah 2105xChico.

Ah 2105 is a V ig i n i a type (A. hypogaea subsphypogaea var hypogaea) of Indian or ig in . I t is of mediumgrowth durat ion and has 100-seed mass of 40 g. Chico isan ear ly-matur ing, Spanish type (A. hypogaea subspfastigiata var vulgaris) of germplasm from U S A . Var .28-206 is a V i r g i n i a type f rom M a l i . I t is of med iumgrowth durat ion and has 100-seed mass of 45 g.Accession 91176 is an early-matur ing Spanish type andhas 100-seed mass of 38 g. Accession LI is a Spanish,erect type f rom Vie tnam. I t is of medium growth durationw i t h 100-seed mass of 35 g.

Agronomic performance

Y i e l d trials inc lud ing the three groundnut breeding lines,I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 and I C G V 96469 and t w ocontrol cul t ivars, JL 24 (early-matur ing) and Somnath(medium-matur ing w i t h large seed) were conducted atI C R I S A T , Patancheru research farm dur ing 1997-2001in both rainy and postrainy seasons. Sowing was done onA l f i s o l f ields, in t r ip le lattice design, in 6 m2 plots underbroad-bed and fur row system. A fert i l izer dose of 60 kgP2O5 and 400 kg gypsum ha-1 were appl ied and the cropswere raised under fu l l i r r igat ion and plant protect ioncare.

Four trials (three in rainy season and one in postrainyseason) were harvested when the crop had accumulated1470°Cd (equivalent to 90 days after p lant ing in ra inyseason at I C R I S A T , Patancheru). The other three tr ials

IAN 25, 2005 19

Large-seed size coupled w i t h early-matur i ty and h igh-y ie ld potential is a desirable combinat ion in groundnut(Arachis hypogaea) as most of the ear ly-matur inggroundnut cult ivars have small seeds and l o w yields.Three groundnut varieties ( I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 andI C G V 96469) possessing particularly the above three traitswere developed through hybr idizat ion at the InternationalCrops Research Insti tute for the Semi -A r id Tropics( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru, Ind ia, and were released by thePlant Mater ials Ident i f icat ion Commit tee o f I C R I S A T in2004 for subsequent u t i l izat ion in research and/or thedevelopment o f g roundnut

Purpose of description

HD Upadhyaya*, SN Nigam, AGS Reddy and

N Yellaiah (ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra

Pradesh, India)


Early-maturing, Large-seeded andHigh-yielding Groundnut VarietiesI C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 andI C G V 96469

Phule Unap (JL 286) due to higher dry pod y i e l d as w e l las haulm y ie ld when compared w i t h the varieties JL 24,T A G 24, T G 26 and SB - X I .

Dur ing summer 2002 and 2003 Phule Unap (JL 286) alsoperformed w e l l in mul t i locat ional tr ials. I t had averagepod y ie ld o f 2847 kg ha-1 w i t h superiori ty o f 14% overS B - X I (2492 kg ha-1). (Table 3). In 39 various trials, PhuleUnap (JL 286) showed an increase of 25.23% seed y ie ldand 3 9 . 1 1 % o i l y ie ld compared w i t h T A G 24 (Table 4).

Phule Unap (JL 286) has an erect g rowth habit and ismed ium ta l l in height. It is Spanish bunch (A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata var vulgaris) type. The leaves areel l ip t ica l , elongated and green; f lower ing is sequential.Pods are bo ld w i t h med ium seeds, wh i ch are ob long andelongated. This variety has main ly two-seeded pods,rarely three-seeded pods having prominent beak, br ickred in color, and shal low constr ict ion. The o i l content is49-50%. The variety has no dormancy; hence the harvestedproduce can be used for immediate sowing.

20 IAN 25, 2005

Table 3. Pod yield of early-maturing large-seeded ground nut varieties at 1605°Cd in the postrainy season darin g 1997-2000

at ICR ISAT , Patancheru, India.

Variety

ICGV 96466

ICGV 96468

ICGV 96469JL 24 (control)

Somnath (control)SE±

Trial meanCV (%)

1997/98

3.834.014.77

4.06

4.330.084

4.21

2.8

Pod yield (t ha-1)

1998/99

3.554.21

4.333.303.790.120

3.73

4.5

1999/2000

2.712.793.842.87

3.610.177

3.07

5.7

Mean

3.363.67

4.313.41

3.91

Increase (%) overcontrol

JL 24

-1.57.6

26.4

Somnath

-14.1-6 .1

10.2

Table 2. Pod yield of early-maturing large-seeded groundn ut varieties at 1470°Cd in the rainy season (R) and po strainy season(PR) during 1996-99 at ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.

Variety

ICGV 96466

ICGV 96468ICGV 96469

JL 24 (control)Somnath (control)

SE±Trial meanCV (%)

R 1997

2.41

2.17

2.66

2.021.810.0622.12

4.1

Pod yield (t ha-1)

R 1998

1.551.802.07

1.781.670.0871.71

7.0

R 1999

2.001.472.39

1.481.370.263

1.232.8

PR 1996/97

3.94

4.083.76

3.893.330.1123.79

5.1

Mean

2.482.38

2.722.292.04


JL 24 Somnath

8.3 21.63.9 16.7

18.8 33.3

Table 1. Comparison of 100-seed mats (g) of groundnut va rieties ICGV 96466, ICGV 96468 and ICGV 96469 with cont rol

cultivar JL 24 at 1470°Cd and 1605°Cd harvests during 1996 -2001 at ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.

Environment1

1470°Cd harvestPR 1996/97R 1997R 1998

MeanIncrease (%) over JL 24

1605°Cd harvest

PR 1997/98PR 1998/99

PR 1999/2000PR 2000/01

MeanIncrease (%) over JL 24

ICGV 96466

5550334612

6856484254

20

ICGV 96468

7256405637

7570525162

38

ICGV 96469

685034

5124

59

534141

49

9

Control

JL 24

53432841

535142

3545

Somnath

72494154

70

73555062

1. PR = Postrainy season; R = Ra iny season.

Table 4. Morphological, agronomical and seed quality tra its of three high-yielding groundnut varieties.

Characteristics

Cultivar group

Growth habit

Branching pattern

Stem pigmentation

No. of primary branches1

No. of secondary branches1

Plant height and breadth1 (cm)

Leaf characters

Size

Shape

Color

Flower color

Standard

Crescent

Crescent mark

Wing petal

Pod characters

Pod beak

Pod constriction

Pod reticulation

Pod ridge

Pod length2 (cm)

Pod breadth2 (cm)

Seeds per pod

Shelling outturn3 (%)

Seed characters

Seed length2 (cm)

Seed breadth2 (cm)

100-seed mass3 (g)

Seed color

Quality characters

Oi l4 (%)

Protein4 (%)

Maturity5 (days)

ICGV 96466

Spanish

Erect

Sequential

Absent

4

0

19.8, 35.4

Medium

Elliptic

Light green

Orange

Garnet

Orange

Yellow

Slight-moderate

Slight

Moderate

Moderate

2.24

0.99

2-1

74

1.11

0.62

54

Tan

48.5

26.3

100

ICGV 96468

Spanish

Erect

Sequential

Absent

5

0

20.8, 38.6

Medium

Elliptic

Light green

Orange

Garnet

Orange

Yellow

Moderate-prominent

Slight-moderate

Moderate

Moderate

2.69

1.23

2-1

69

1.31

0.68

62

Tan

47.8

26.4

100

ICGV 96469

Spanish

Erect

Sequential

Absent

6

0

23.0, 42.8

Medium

Elliptic

Light green

Orange

Garnet

Orange

Yellow

Absent

Absent-slight

Slight

Moderate

2.06

1.10

2-1

71

1.09

0.72

49

Tan

48.6

22.4

100

1. Recorded on the postrainy season crop 2000/01 at 90 days after sow ing at I C R I S A T . Patancheru, Ind ia .

2. Recorded on the postrainy season crop 2000/01 at I C R I S A T , Patancheru; average of 20 pods/seeds.

3. Average of four seasons at 1605°Cd.

4. Recorded in the postra iny season crop 2000 /01 .

5. Recorded on the ra iny season crop at I C R I S A T , Patancheru.

IAN 25, 2005 21

Agronomic performance

Y i e l d trials inc lud ing the breeding l ine I C G V 93437 andt w o controls, JL 24, an ear ly-matur ing and h igh-y ie ld ingInd ian cul t ivar, and Chico, an ear ly-matur ing germplasmline f rom U S A were conducted at I C R I S A T , Patancherudur ing 1993-96, in t w o rainy and t w o postrainy seasons.

Origin and development

Cul t ivar Nyanda ( I C G V 93437) is an early-matur ing,h igh-y ie ld ing, Spanish (A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata varvulgaris) breeding l ine developed at the InternationalCrops Research Institute for the Semi -Ar id Tropics( ICRISAT) , Patancheru, India during 1990s. It was derivedfrom a cross between two ear ly-matur ing advancedbreeding lines, I C G V 86063 and I C G V 86065, developedat I C R I S A T , Patancheru. The fu l l pedigree and selectionhistory o f I C G V 93437 is:

I C G V 86063 x I C G V 86065 F2 -P30 - B 1 - B1 -B1

(P refers to plant selection and B to bu lk . )

I C G V 86063 originated from Ah 65 x Chico cross andI C G V 86065 from Var. 2-5 x Robut 33-1 cross. Ah 65 andChico are Spanish germplasm lines from U S A , the latterbeing ear ly-matur ing (Bai ley and Hammons 1975). Var .2-5 and Robut 33-1 (also k n o w n as Kad i r i 3) are Indiancult ivars, the former being Spanish and the latter V i r gi n i a(A. hypogaea subsp hypogaea var hypogaea) bunch type.

Purpose of description

The government of Z imbabwe in 2000 released thegroundnut (Arachis hypogaea) variety I C G V 93437 asNyanda for commercial cul t ivat ion in the country. Cult ivarNyanda signi f icant ly out-y ielded the popular cul t ivarFalcon by 13.5%. It matures earlier than Falcon by sixdays and is almost s imi lar to Falcon in shel l ing outturnand seed size.

HD Upadhyaya1,*, GL Hildebrand 2, SN Nigam1 and

N Yellaiah1 (1 . ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, AndhraPradesh, India; 2. Seed Co Limited, Rattray ArnoldResearch Station, PO Box CH 142, Chisipite, Harare,Zimbabwe)


Groundnut Cultivar Nyanda ( I C G V93437) Released in Zimbabwe

conducted in postrainy seasons were harvested when thecrop had accumulated 1605°Cd (equivalent to 100 daysafter planting in the rainy season at ICR ISAT , Patancheru).At 1470°Cd harvest, the 100-seed mass was 46 g forI C G V 96466, 56 g for I C G V 96468 and 51 g for I C G V96469 compared to 41 g for JL 24 and 54 g for Somnath(Table 1). At 1605°Cd, the 100-seed mass was 54 g forI C G V 96466, 62 g for I C G V 96468 and 49 g for I C G V96469 compared to 45 g for JL 24 and 62 g for Somnath.These three varieties had 12 to 37% greater 100-seedmass at 1470°Cd and 9 to 38% greater 100-seed mass at1605°Cd compared to JL 24 (Table 1).

On compar ing the pod yields at 1470°Cd harvests, thethree new varieties out-y ielded both the contro l cul t ivarsand the gain was max imum in I C G V 96469, wh i chshowed 18.8 and 33.3% increase over the controls, JL 24and Somnath, respectively (Table 2). At 1605°Cd harvests,the mean yields of the three new varieties were 3.36( I C G V 96466), 3.67 ( I C G V 96468) and 4.31 t ha- 1

( I C G V 96469). I C G V 96469 out-yielded both thecontrols by 26.4% (JL 24) and 10.2% (Somnath) (Table 3).

The increase in pod yields of the three new varieties at1470 to 1605°Cd ranged f rom 35.5 to 58.5% compared to48.9% increase in JL 24 and 91.7% in Somnath. JL 24 isa representative ear ly-matur ing var iety and therefore, thethree new varieties cou ld be considered of s imi larmatur i ty durat ion.

P l a n t charac te rs

The groundnut varieties I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 andI C G V 96469 are dist inct f rom each other. A detaileddescript ion of these varieties is g iven in Table 4.

Prospects

I C G V 96466, I C G V 96468 and I C G V 96469 arc large-seeded, early-matur ing and h igh-y ie ld ing varieties. Thesecan be used as parents in groundnut breeding. Thevarieties can also be evaluated for direct use as commercialcul t ivars, part icular ly in short groundnut croppingenvironments. Smal l quant i ty of seeds of these varietiesfor research purpose can be obtained f rom the genebankat I C R I S A T , Patancheru.

22 IAN 25, 2005

The tr ials were sown in A l f i s o l f ie lds, in t r ip le latt ice

design, in 6 m2 plots under broad-bed and fu r row system.

A fert i l izer dose of 60 kg P2O5 and 400 kg gypsum ha - 1

were appl ied and the crops were raised under f u l l

i r r igat ion and plant protect ion care.

The trials were harvested when the crop accumulated

1240°Cd (degree days) [equivalent to 75 days after sowin g

( D A S ) at I C R I S A T , Patancheru rainy season] and

1470°Cd (equivalent to 90 D A S at I C R I S A T , Patancheru,

rainy season]. At 1240°Cd harvest, I C G V 93437 produced

2.38 t ha-1 pod yield (Table 1). This represents 29.8% increase

over JL 24 and 4 8 . 1 % over Chico. S imi lar ly at 1470°Cd

harvest, I C G V 93437 produced 1 3 . 1 % higher y ie ld

compared to JL 24 and 47.8% compared to Chico (Table 2).

On compar ing the pod y ie ld performance o f the

groundnut varieties under 1240°Cd and 1470°Cd harvests ,

gain was 26.11 % for I C G V 93437, 44 .62% for JL 24 and

2 6 . 4 1 % for Chico (Tables 1 and 2) indicating mat op t imum

growth per iod of I C G V 93437 is about 90 days at

I C R I S A T , Patancheru in the rainy season.

Table 1. Pod yield of groundnut cultivar lCGV 93437 under 1240°Cd crop duration in the rainy season (R) and p ostrainyseason (PR) during 1993-96 at 1CRISAT, Patancheru, India.

Pod yield (t ha-1)

Cultivar R 1993

ICGV 93437 1.62JL 24 (control) 1.31Chico (control) 0.71

SE± 0.083Trial mean 1.20C V ( % ) 12

R 1995

1.290.77

0.76

0.0621.09

10

PR 1993/94

0.99

0.500.36

0.0650.95

12


PR 1995/96

2.382.27

2.400.0572.524

Mean

1.571.211.06

JL 24 Chico

29.8 48.1

Table 2. Pod yield of groundnut cultivar 1CGV 93437 under 1470°Cd crop duration in the rainy season (R) and pos trainyseason (PR) during 1994-96 at 1CRISAT, Patancheru, India.

Cultivar

ICGV 93437

JL 24 (control)

Chico (control)

SE±Trial mean

CV (%)

Pod yield (t ha-1)

R 1994

1.26

1.330.570.058

1.437

R 1995

1.621.080.730.0641.21

9

PR 1994/95

2.072.001.24

0.069

2.315

PR 1995/96

2.972.582.830.0872.965

Mean

1.981.751.34


JL 24 Chico

13.1 47.8

Table 3. Performance of I C G V 93437 and control cultivar F alcon in Zimbabwe, 1996-2001.

Cultivar

ICGV 93437

Falcon

Days tomaturity1

115

121

Pod yield2

(t ha-1)

1.76

1.55

Increase (%)

over Falcon

13.5

Shellingoutturn1 (%)

7372

100-seed

mass1 (g)

28

29

1. Mean based on 42 tr ia ls.

2. Mean based on 51 tr ials.

IAN 25, 2005 23

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is a very importantcomponent of snack foods such as roasted and saltedpeanuts and peanut butter. However , product ion inZimbabwe of groundnut varieties suitable for confectioneryuse has dwind led, and local processors are havingd i f f i cu l ty sourcing their processing requirements.

A l t h o u g h groundnuts are g rown w ide l y in Z imbabwe,the long-duration confectionery types are only successfullyg rown w i t h i r r igat ion and therefore are g r o w n on a l imi ted area. However, under these condit ions, where inputuse and management levels are h igh , very h igh yields ofacceptable confectionery qual i ty can be produced.

GL Hildebrand* and AZ Nosenga (Seed Co Limited,

Rattray Arnold Research Station, PO Box CH 142,

Chisipite, Harare, Zimbabwe)


SC Orion - A New Large-seededGroundnut Variety Released inZimbabwe

Plant characters

The cul t ivar Nyanda cou ld be classif ied as Spanish typebotanical ly. I t has erect g rowth habit, sequential branchingpattern and green plant color. More details of morphological ,agronomical and seed qual i ty traits are g iven in Table 4.

Availability of seeds

The breeder and foundat ion seeds of cul t ivar Nyanda aremaintained by Seed Co L im i t ed , Rattray A r n o l dResearch Station, PO B o x CH 142, Chisipi te, Harare,Z imbabwe. Smal l quant i ty o f seeds of this variety forresearch purpose can also be obtained from I C R I S A Tgenebank, Patancheru, Ind ia under the 'Mater ia l TransferAgreement ' .

Bailey WK and Hammons RO. 1975. Registration of Chico

germplasm. Crop Science 15:105.

Reference

Table 4. Morphological, agronomical and seed quality traitsof groundnut cultivar I C G V 93437.

Trait

Cultivar groupGrowth habitBranching patternStem pigmentationLeaf characters

Size

ShapeColor

Flower colorStandardCrescent

Wing petalPod charactersPod beakPod constrictionPod reticulationPod ridge

Seeds per podPod length1 (mm)

Pod breadth1 (mm)Shelling outturn2 (%)

Seed charactersSeed length1 (mm)Seed breadth1 (mm)100-seed mass2 (g)Seed color

Seed quality charactersOi l 2 (%)

Protein3 (%)Maturity4 (days)

Description

SpanishErectSequentialGreen

LargeWide ellipticGreen

Orange-yellow

YellowYellow

SlightSlightSlight

Slight

2-1-325.112.171

12.59.1

33

Tan

45.723.590

1. Kadoma Research Center, Z imbabwe, 1999/2000.

2. Average of 4 seasons at 1470°Cd at I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Ind ia .

3. Average of 3 seasons at 1470°Cd at I C R I S A T , Patancheru, Ind ia .

4. Recorded on ra iny season crop at I C R I S A T , Patancheru, India .

24 IAN 25, 2005

I C G V 93437 was tested in 51 y ie ld trials in Z imbabwedur ing 1996-2001. I t out-y ie lded the popular checkcul t ivar Falcon by 13.5% (Table 3). On average, I C G V93437 matured six days earlier compared to the cont ro lcul t ivar. I C G V 93437 had 73% shel l ing out turn and 100-seed mass of 28 g, w h i c h were almost s imi lar to thecul t ivar Falcon.

Table 1. Relative performance of Flamingo and SC Orion in trials conducted during 2001/02-2003/04 in Zimbabwe.

Characteristic

Days to 50% flowerDays to harvestDefoliation at harvest (%)Pod yield (t ha-1)Shelling outturn (%)Seed yield (t ha-1)

100 - seed mass (g)Pod drop (%)Retention on 9.5 x 31.75 mm slotted screen (%)Sound mature seeds (%)Seed appearance2

Seed uniformity2

Trials

111715171717171717

171717

Flamingo

40.1165.984.54.98

67.13.39

53.31.33

19.049.26.766.29

SC Orion

39.9158.990.5

5.2271.63.75

81.13.80

55.241.36.826.47

SEm+

0.251.601.000.1530.870.1281.720.9931.393.37

0.1660.151

LSD(5%)

0.84.83.1

0.462.60.385.172.984.2

10.10.500.45

Significanceof F - test1

NS*****

NS**

NS***

NS***

NSNSNS

1. NS = N o t signif icant; ** = Signi f icant at 1% level ; *** = Signif icant at 0 . 1 % level .

2. Scored on a 0 -10 scale where 0 = poor and 10 = excellent.

One of the qual i ty characteristics sought after byprocessors local ly and abroad is large un i fo rm seed size.An important objective of the groundnut breeding programof Seed Co L im i t ed , Z imbabwe has been to developvarieties that have large seeds of un i fo rm shape and size,and produce h igh yields when g rown w i t h i r r igat ion.

Some progress has been made in achieving theseobjectives, al though maintenance o f un i fo rmi ty o f sizeand shape has proved d i f f i cu l t when approaching thelarger seed sizes. A number of breeding lines have shownpromise and Seed Co L im i t ed proposed the release of onebreeding l ine for this purpose. The variety was namedSC Or ion and the Var ie ty Release Panel of the M in i s t r yof Lands, Agr icu l ture and Rural Resettlement, Z imbabweapproved its recogni t ion and release on 26 November2004.

SC Or ion was selected from the cross ( I C G V - S M90710 x MGS 3) made in 1994. It was evaluated in 17trials during the 2001/02 to 2003/04 crop seasons. Evaluat ionwas conducted on research stations and commercia lfarms where the tr ials were planted early (usual ly in earlyOctober) w i t h i r r igat ion, and g r o w n under h igh levels o fmanagement. A summary of relat ive performance ofSC Or ion and F lamingo (the on ly other commercia l lyavailable var iety o f this type in Z imbabwe) in these tr ialsis shown in Table 1.

SC Or ion matures, on average, in about 159 days, w i t hthe range in the trials reported being 136 to 176 days. Onaverage, SC Or ion had a 5% pod y ie ld superiori ty overFlamingo. It has considerably larger seed than Flamingo.Shel l ing outturn var ied between 64.3 and 77.2% and 100-seed mass var ied f rom 55 to 111 g depending on thelocat ion. The seeds of SC Or ion are dark tan, roundedand un i fo rm in size and shape. Some seeds have flat endsurfaces.

SC Or ion pods are typical of the V i rg in ia cul t ivargroup (A. hypogaea subsp hypogaea var hypogaea) being main ly two-seeded. Pods are characterized by a sl ight beak and medium constr ict ion. One- and three-seeded pods do occur but not frequently. The pod lengthaverages 46.5 mm and pod breadth averages 18.9 m m .Seed length averages 22.4 mm and seed breadth averages13.2 m m . SC Or ion can be dist inguished from Flamingoby seed color, s l ight ly shorter stature and greatersusceptibi l i ty to fo l iar diseases, part icular ly cercosporaleaf spot and web blotch.

L im i ted processing evaluation for market acceptabil i tyhas been carried out by one of the local processingcompanies, and SC Or ion was found to blanch and roastsatisfactori ly and has a satisfactory taste.

IAN 25, 2005 25

26 lAN 25, 2005

Table 2. Reaction of Huayu 22 to biotic and abiotic stress es in China.

Variety

Huayu 22Luhua 11Baisha 1016

Score1

Web blotch

147

Early leaf spot

145

Late leaf spot

221

Drought

1

25

Waterlogging

1

24

1. Scored on a 0 - 9 scale where 0 = immun i t y , 1-2 = h igh l y resistant, 3 -5 = moderately resistant, 6 - 7 = susceptible and 8 -9 = h igh ly susceptible.

Table 1. Pod and seed yield of Huayu 22 in different trials in China.

Trials

New lines tests

Provincial trialsField demonstration test

Year

1997-99

2000-01

2002

No. o fsites

9

228

Yield (t ha-1)

Pod

5.18

4.955.58

Seed

3.78

3.53

4.03

Increase (%) over control

Pod

17.7

25.57.5

7.6

8.8

Seed

17.425.6

7.2

4.9

7.5

Control

8130Luhua 10Luhua 14

Luhua 11

Luhua 11

(Table 1). In the Shandong Prov inc ia l N e w Groundnut

Var ie ty Tr ia ls f rom 2000 to 2 0 0 1 , the dry pod y ie ld o f

Huayu 22 averaged 4.95 t ha -1 in 22 locat ions, 7 .6%

higher than the control Luhua 11 . In a f ie ld demonstrat ion

test at eight locations in 2002, H u a y u 22 gave 5.58 t ha -1

pod y i e l d , 8 .8% higher than Luhua 1 1 .

Huayu 22 has an erect g rowth habit , sequential

f lowering and dark green leaves. The ma in stem is about

40 cm ta l l . The plant has 7 -8 pr imary branches. The pods

are most ly two-seeded and cluster around the ma in

taproot in the soi l . The 100-pod mass is 250 g and 100-

seed mass is 110 g. The shel l ing out turn is 72 .5% and the

seeds contain 4 9 . 2 % o i l and 24 .3% prote in. The oleic

acid/ l inole ic ac id ( O / L ) rat io is 1.71. The variety matures

in 130 days in the spr ing season.

Huayu 22 is resistant not on ly to web b lo tch , early leaf

spot and late leaf spot but also to drought and

water logg ing (Table 2) . Thus, i t has w ide adaptabi l i ty in

northern China. Huayu 22 is one of the groundnut varieties

that has the best comprehensive characteristics in China.

Huayu 22, a large-seeded groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)

var iety, suitable for export , was developed by Shandong

Peanut Research Inst i tute (SPRI) and released by the

Shandong Prov inc ia l Crops Approva l Commit tee in 2003

in China. Huayu 22 was der ived f r om a cross between

8014 and Haihua 1 (dry seeds treated w i th 6 0Co) f o l l ow ing

mod i f i ed pedigree method.

In the new groundnut lines tests at SPRI f rom 1997 to

1999, Huayu 22 out-yielded the control Luhua 10 by 25 .6%

Chen Jing', Wu Lan-rong, Miao Huarong and Hu

Wenguang (Shandong Peanut Research Institute. Fushan

Road 122, Lichang District, Qingdao 266100. Shandong,

China)


Huayu 22 - A High-yielding Large-

seeded Groundnut Variety with

Improved Seed Quality

Table 1. Disease scores for rust and late leaf spot in groundnutgenotypes during rainy season at Trombay, Mumbai, India.

Genotype

VG 9514TFDRG 5 GPBD 4 GBFDS 272NcAc 343Mutant 28-2DTG 27DTG 57DTG 58DTG 60TDG 56T M V 2 SB X IJL 24T A G 24TG37ATG 39TG 40TPG 41

Rust

2002

111--32112288787888

2003

111--32212398888788

Late leaf spot

2002

131--12112298888888

2003

131--12232388887887

1. Scored on a 1-9 rat ing scale where 1 = no disease and 9 = severe

incidence w i t h 50 - 1 0 0 % defol iat ion (Subrahmanyam et al. 1995).

IAN 25, 2005 27

Biotechnology

Late leaf spot (LLS) and rust are two economically importantdiseases in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) causing y ie ldlosses up to 50% (Subrahmanyam et al . 1980). Breedingfor resistance to L L S and rust is a cost-effective andviable opt ion. Several breeding lines/genetic stocks/varieties resistant to these fo l iar diseases are reported(Subrahmanyam et al . 1995, Gowda et al. 2002a, 2002b).Resistance to rust is contro l led by t w o recessive genes(Knauf t 1987), whereas resistance to L L S is control ledby duplicate complementary recessive genes (Motag i eta l . 2000). Ident i f icat ion of the resistant genotypes needscareful, repeated and thorough screening under idealepiphytot ic condit ions, wh i ch is t ime consuming andlaborious. Molecu lar markers associated w i t h L L S andrust w o u l d hasten the process of ident i f icat ion of resistantgenotypes. In format ion on such markers is lack ing. On lyseven out o f 480 R A P D (random ampl i f ied polymorphicD N A ) primers were po lymorphic in 70 selected genotypesw i t h w ide var iab i l i ty (Subramanian et al . 2000).Phylogenetic relationships among cult ivated groundnutand Arachis w i l d species could be established by usingR A P D and ISSR (Inter simple sequence repeat) primers(Raina et a l . 2001). Hopk ins et al . (1999) developed sixfluorescent SSR (simple sequence repeat) primer pairs,wh i ch discr iminated 19 accessions into 17 uniquegenotypes. Subsequently, more number of SSR primerswere developed and po lymorph ism among cul t ivatedgroundnut genotypes was reported (He et al. 2003, Fergusonet al . 2004, Moretzsohn et al . 2004). In groundnut,transcripts invo lved in resistance responses to L L S wererecently ident i f ied (Luo et a l . 2005). Our study wascarr ied out to ident i fy molecular po lymorph ism amongthe groundnut genotypes d i f fe r ing in disease reaction toL L S and/or rust.

S Mondal*, S Ghosh and AM Badigannavar (NuclearAgriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha AtomicResearch Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, Maharashtra,India)


RAPD Polymorphism AmongGroundnut Genotypes Differing inDisease Reaction to Late Leaf Spot andRust

Based on disease reaction, 19 genotypes (Table 1)were screened w i t h R A P D primers K i t A, K i t J and K i t F f r o m Integrated D N A Technologies ( I D T ) , U S A . Y o u n gleaves were collected from a single plant g rown in theexperimental f ie lds a t Trombay, Mumba i , India. D N Awas isolated by f o l l ow ing cety l t r imethy lammoniumbromide ( C T A B ) method (Saghai -Maroof et a l . 1984)w i t h minor modi f icat ion. Phenolics act iv i ty was nu l l if i edby adding 1% 2-mercaptoethanol in extraction buffer. Thepolymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed inMastercycle gradient (Eppendorf, Germany) w i t h anannealing temperature of 38°C. Reaction mix ture forPCR (25 L) consisted o f IX Taq buffer A, 250 M dNTP, 50 p moles of pr imer, 20 ng D N A and 1U of Taq polymerase (Bangalore Genei Pvt. L t d . , Ind ia) . Thereaction was carried out under the f o l l ow ing temperaturecondit ions: 94°C for 5 m i n in i t ia l denaturation w i t h 35cycles of 92°C for 30 s, 38°C for 1 m i n , 72°C for 2 m i nw i t h a f inal extension at 72°C for 10 m i n . A m p l i f i e dproduct was analyzed in 1% agarose gel w i t h IX T B Ebuffer at 80 V for 2 h, stained w i t h eth id ium bromide anddocumented by gel documentat ion system (Syngene).

A m p l i f i e d products were scored for presence and

absence of a band by assigning the values 1 and 0

respectively. Po lymorph ism (%) fo r each pr imer was

computed as P = (N p /N a ) *100 , where Na is the total

number o f ampl i f ied f ragments and N p i s the number o f

po lymorph ic fragments. Genetic distance was calculated

based on Eucl idean distance and dendrogram was

constructed based on U P G M A (unweighted pai r -group

method of ar i thmetic average) us ing Statistica software

(Statist ica 1996).

F ie ld disease reaction indicated that VG 9514,

T F D R G 5 , G P B D 4 , D T G 27, D T G 57, D T G 58, D T G

60, T D G 56 and Mutan t 28-2 are resistant wh i le other test

genotypes are susceptible to L L S and rust (Table 1). Of

the 50 pr imers screened, 11 exhib i ted po lymorph ism

among the 19 genotypes. The extent of po lymorph ism

ranged f r o m 12.5% to 76 .9%, w i t h an average o f 37 .5%

(Table 2) . A m o n g the pr imers, K i t A 1 9 revealed the

highest po lymorph ism, f o l l owed by K i t s J 17, A 3 and J 1.

These results indicated that the cul t ivated groundnut has

lower po lymorph ism at D N A level as reported earlier

(Ha lward et a l . 1991, Kocher t et a l . 1991 , Raina et a l .

2001). Based on Eucl idean distance, the s imi lar i ty matr ix

was made among 19 genotypes by analyzing 135 R A P D

bands from the pooled data of a l l 11 pr imers. Genetic

distance among the genotypes ranged from 1.41 to 6.40.

The distances further revealed that T M V 2 and G P B D 4 were

the nearest, whereas VG 9514 and D T G 57 were the farthest.

The dendrogram among the genotypes revealed t w o

major clusters at a l inkage distance (Eucl idean distance)

of around 5.3 (F ig . 1). T F D R G 5 and VG 9514 formed

Table 2. RAPD polymorphism among 19 groundnut genotypes .

Primer Sequence

Ki t A3 AGT CAG CCA C

K i t A8 G T G A C G T A G GKit A19 CAA ACG TCG G Ki t J1 CCC GGC A T A A K i t J4 CCG A A C ACG G K i t J5 CTC CAT GGG G K i t J6 TCG TTC CGC A

Ki t J 12 GTC CCG TGG T

K i t J14 CAC CCG GAT G

K i t J 17 ACG CCA GTT C K i t F10 GGA AGC TTG G

Total

A v e r a g e

Number of totalbands

814

13191611

87

1314

12

13512.3

Number of polymorphicbands

56

10102211

39

251

4 . 6

Polymorphism

(%)

62.5

42.876.952.6

12.518.212.5

14.323.164.316.7

3 7 . 5

28 IAN 25, 2005

Figure 1. Dendrogram of 19 groundnut genotypes differing indisease reaction to late leaf spot and rust.

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5

Linkage distance

VG 9514

TFDRG 5

GPBD 4

TMV 2

T G 37A

GBFDS 272

DTG 27

DTG 60

DTG 57

SB XI

JL 24

NcAc 343

TAG 24

Mutant 28-2

DTG 58

TDG 56

TG 39

TG 40

TPG 41

C

B

D

A

He G, Meng R, Newman M, Gao G, Pittman RN andPrakash CS. 2003. Microsatellites as DNA markers incultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L . ) . BMC Plant Biology3:3 (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471 -2229/3/3).

Hopkins MS, Casa A M , Wang T, Mitchell SE, Dean RE,Kochert GD and Kresovich S. 1999. Discovery andcharacterization of polymorphic simple sequence repeats(SSRs) in peanut. Crop Science 39:1243-1247.

Knauft DA. 1987. Inheritance of rust resistance in groundnut.Pages 183-187 in Groundnut rust disease: proceedings of a Discussion Group Meeting, 24-28 Sep 1984, 1CR1SATCenter, India. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-AridTropics.

Kochert G, Halward T, Branch WD and Simpson CE. 1991.RFLP variability in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivarsand wi ld species. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 81:565-570.

Luo M, Dang P, Bausher M G , Holbrook CC, Lee RD,Lynch RE and Guo BZ. 2005. Identification of transcriptsinvolved in resistance response to late leaf spot disease causedby Cercosporidium personation in peanut (Arachis hypogaea).Phytophathology 95:381-387.

Moretzsohn M C , Hopkins MS, Mitchell SE, Kresovich S,Valls J F M and Ferreira M E . 2004. Genetic diverisity ofpeanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and its wi ld relatives based onthe analysis of hypervariable regions of the genome. BMCPlant Biology 4:11 (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2229/4/11).

Motagi BN, Gowda M V C and Naidu GK. 2000. Inheritanceof late leaf spot resistance in groundnut mutants. IndianJournal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 60:347-352.

Raina SN, Rani V, Kojima T, Ogihara Y, Singh KP andDevarumath R M . 2001. RAPD and ISSR fingerprint as usefulgenetic markers for analysis of genetic diversity, varietalidentification, and phylogenetic relationship in peanut(Arachis hypogaea) cultivars and wi ld species. Genome44:763-772.

Reddy R N , Parameshwarappa KG and Nadaf H L . 2004.Molecular diversity for resistance to late leaf spot and rust inparents and segregating population of a cross in groundnut.International Arachis Newsletter 24:31-33.

Saghai-Maroof M A , Saliman K M , Jorgensen RA andAllard R W . 1984. RibosomaI DNA spacer lengthpolymorphism in barley, Mendelian inheritance chromosomallocation and population dynamics. Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, USA 81:8014-8018.

Statistica. 1996. STATISTICA, version 6.0. Statsoft Inc.,Tulsa, USA.

IAN 25, 2005 29

Ferguson M E , Burow M D , Schulze SR, Bramel PJ,Paterson A H , Kresovich S and Mitchell S. 2004.Microsatellite identification and characterization in peanut(Arachis hypogaea L ) . Theoretical and Applied Genetics108:1064-1070.

Gowda M V C , Motagi BN, Naidu G K , Diddimani SB andSheshagiri R. 2002a. GPBD 4: a Spanish bunch groundnutgenotype resistant to rust and late leaf spot. InternationalArachis Newsletter 22:29-32.

Gowda M V C , Motagi BN, Sheshagiri R, Naidu GK andRajendraprasad M N . 2002b. Mutant 28-2: a bold-seededdisease and pest resistant groundnut genotype for Karnataka,India. International Arachis Newsletter 22:32-34.

Halward T M , Stalker HT and Kochert G. 1991. Geneticvariation detectable wi th molecular markers among unadoptedgermplasm resources of cultivated peanut and related w i ldspecies. Genome 34:1013-1020.

References

separate cluster and are resistant to L L S and rust. VG9514 was der ived from CO 1 and Arachis cardenasii (Varman 1999). T F D R G 5 was a derivat ive f rom VG9514 and T A G 24. The cluster B is subdiv ided into t w osub-clusters C and D at a l inkage distance of around 4.3.A m o n g these, sub-cluster D comprised TG 39, TG 40 andTPG 4 1 , wh ich are susceptible to L L S and rust andincidental ly these have large seeds. Further, sub-cluster C included both resistant and susceptible genotypes.Separation o f VG 9514 and T F D R G 5 f rom rest o f thegenotypes cou ld be due to their ancestry i nvo l v i ng w i l dspecies. S imi lar ly , it cou ld be due to the large seed traitthat TG 39, TG 40 and T P G 41 formed a dist inct cluster.Current results cou ld not associate any markers w i t hresistance or susceptibi l i ty to rust and/or L L S . Simi larabsence of association between R A P D markers andresistance to L L S and rust was not iced earlier (Reddy etal . 2004).

This study is a beginning towards detection ofpo lymorph ism for resistance to L L S and/or rust. Furtherstudies w i t h other molecular markers for genotyping andtagging o f resistance genes for these diseases w i l l beundertaken.

Acknowledgment Laboratory facilities and encouragementextended by SF D'Souza, Head, Nuclear Agr icu l tu re andBiotechnology Div is ion and GSS Mur ty , Head, GroundnutImprovement Section, Bhabha A t o m i c Research Centre,Trombay are grateful ly acknowledged.

The M A D S - b o x is a h igh ly conserved sequence m o t i ffound in the fami ly of transcription factors. The conserveddomain was recognized after the f irst four members of thefami ly were identified as M C M 1 , A G A M O U S , D E F I C I E N Sand SRF (serum response factor). The name M A D S wasconstructed f rom the " in i t ia ls " of these four " founder"proteins on wh ich the def in i t ion of this gene fami ly isbased (Schwarz-Sommer et al . 1990). The M A D S - b o xgenes of plants are scattered throughout the entire plantgenomes (Theissen et al. 2000) and by now, over a hundred M A D S - b o x sequences have been found inspecies from a l l eukaryotics. M A D S - d o m a i n proteins,l ike many other eukaryotic transcript ion factors, have a modular structural organizat ion (Shore and Sharrocks1995). The fami ly of M A D S - d o m a i n proteins has beensubdivided into several dist inct subfamil ies. Mos tM A D S - d o m a i n factors play important roles in plantdevelopmental processes. Prominent ly, the M A D S - b o xgenes in f lower ing plants are the "molecular architects"of f lower morphogenesis (Coen and Meyerowi tz 1991,Angenent et a l . 1995).

The M A D S domain is by far the most h igh ly conservedregion of proteins (Purugganan et al . 1995). Based on themost conserved sequence region of the M A D S box, a pairof degenerate pr imers were designed and used to ampl i fythe genomic D N A of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) inthis study. The results indicate that an ampl i f ied fragmentshowed a h igh homology to the M A D S - b o x protein ofArabidopsis thaliana. This study la id the foundat ion forobtaining the fu l l length o f M A D S - b o x gene in groundnut.


Seeds of groundnut cul t ivar JL 24 were planted in potsand maintained in the greenhouse. Genomic D N A wasisolated from the young leaves by using the methoddescribed by Porebski et a l . (1997) and Puchooa (2004).

Based on conserved amino acids found in the M A D Sdomain of plant M A D S - b o x genes, degenerate pr imerswere designed to amplify the M A D S - b o x gene homologues.The two forward primers used were M A D S F 1 , 5'-A T G G G ( A T C G ) ( A C ) G ( A T C G ) G G ( A T C G )A A ( A G ) A T ( A C G ) G A - 3 ' and M A D S F 2 , 5 ' - ( A T C G ) T G( C T ) G A ( C T ) G C ( A T C G ) G A ( A G ) G A ( A G ) G T ( A T C G )GC-3 ' and the two reverse primers were M A D S R l , 5 ' -G C ( A T C G ) A C ( C T ) T C ( A T C G ) G C ( A G ) T C ( C T ) A A - 3 'and M A D S R 2 , 5 ' - G C ( A T C G ) A C ( C T ) T C ( A T C G ) G C( A G ) T C ( C T ) C A ( A T C G ) A G - 3 ' . A50- l PCR (polymerasechain reaction) contained 50 ng genomic D N A , 25 pmo l

The key genes in the developmental control of eukaryotesare often members of a very l im i ted number of mult igenefamilies which encode transcription factors. Such homeoboxgenes have been thought to act as homeotic selectorgenes that are invo lved in di f ferent iat ing different bodyregions from each other, probably by act ivat ing orrepressing different sets of downstream genes in differentparts of the body (Theissen et al . 2000). Recent studieshave prov ided insight that inflorescence and f lowerdevelopment in higher eudicotyledonous f lowering plantsare determined by a network of regulatory genes wh i chare organized in a hierarchical fashion (Theissen andSaedler 1998). In this, the late- and ear ly- f lower ing genesare tr iggered by environmental factors such as day length,l ight qual i ty and temperature.

Yuan Mei 1, KK Sharma2,*, V Anjaiah 2, LI Shuang-ling1, TAO Hai-teng1, REN Yan1 and YU Shan-tin1

(1. Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Shandong, Qingdao

266100, China; 2. ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra

Pradesh, India)


An Effective Method for Cloning ofPartial MADS-box Genes Related toFlower Development in Groundnut

Subrahmanyam P, McDonald D, Waliyar F, Reddy LJ ,Nigam SN, Gibbons R W , Ramanatha Rao V, Singh AK ,Pande S, Reddy PM and Subba Rao PV. 1995. Screeningmethods and sources of resistance to rust and late leaf spot ofgroundnut. Information Bulletin no. 47. Patancheru 502 324,Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institutefor the Semi-Arid Tropics. 24 pp.

Subrabmanyam P, Mehan VK and McDonald D. 1980.Research on fungal diseases of groundnut at ICRISAT. Pages193-198 in Proceedings of the International Workshop onGroundnuts, 13-17 Oct 1980, ICRISAT Center, India.Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: InternationalCrops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.

Subramanian S, Gurtu RS, Nageswara Rao RC and NigamSN. 2000. Identification of DNA polymorphism in cultivatedgroundnut using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)assay. Genome 43:656-660.

Varman PV. 1999. A foliar disease resistant line developedthrough interspecific hybridization in groundnut (Arachishypogaea). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 69:67-68.

30 IAN 25, 2005

I A N 25, 2005 31

Figure 2. Clones confirmation by PCR amplification (A) using forward and reverse primer of M13 and EcoR1 digestion (B) - Lanes 1,3, 4: Clone containing expected fragment; Lane 2: 100 bp DNA Ladder.

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

1 3 0 b p

3 8 4 b p


A 130 bp of the expected fragment named A p M A D S 1was obtained by PCR ampl i f icat ion by using the primersM A D S F 1 and M A D S R 2 (F ig . 1 ) . A p M A D S 1 wasrecovered from agarose gel and cloned into p G E M - Teasy vector. Positive clones were confirmed by colonyPCR and EcoRl digestion (F ig . 2) and sequenced. Figure3 shows the nucleotide sequences and deduced amino-acidsequences. When alignment was carried out using theGeneBank nucleotide database and Megablast searchprogram, A p M A D S 1 was 79% homologous to M A D S -box transcript ion factor H A M 137 from sunflower

ampl i f icat ion were carried out, w i t h denaturation at 94°Cfor 50 sec, annealing at 61°C to 50°C for 50 sec andextension at 72°C for 60 sec. The annealing temperatureof the reaction was decreased 2°C every second cyclefrom 61 °C to a " touchdown" at 50°C. Subsequently, allthe reaction tubes underwent th i r ty cycles w i t h theannealing temperature at 50°C, fo l lowed by a f inalextension at 72°C for 10 m in . PCR products of theexpected size were excised from agarose gels and clonedinto p G E M - T easy vector (Promega). The clones wereconf i rmed by PCR and restriction enzyme digestion pr iorto sequencing. The sequences were aligned wi th nucleotidesequences in Gene Bank by using MegaBlast searchprogram (http:/ /www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).

of each degenerate primer, 0.1 mM of each dNTP, andIX Reaction Buffer ( inc luding 2.0 mM M g S 0 4 ) .Touchdown PCR was used to ampl i fy the expectedfragment. The reaction was heated at 94°C for three m in ,then 1.5 unit of Taq D N A polymerase (New EnglandBioLabs) was added to each reaction tube. Ten cycles of

Figure 1. PCR amplification of fragment with expected size -Lane 1: JL 24; Lane 2: 100 bp DNA Ladder; Lane 3: Control(sterile distilled water).

1 2 3

130 bp

Figure 3. Nucleotide sequences and deduced amino acid sequences (shaded regions indicate the position of forward and reverse primers).

(Helianthus annum). When discontiguous MegaBlastand Refseq_RNA were chosen, A p M A D S l showedidentity ranging from 79% to 84% w i t h 26 M A D S - b o xm R N A . I t can be concluded that A p M A D S l is a k ind ofM A D S - b o x gene in groundnut.

Homology c lon ing method is effective and eff icient,and used wide ly for gene c lon ing as conf i rmed by theresult in this study. Compared w i t h common homologycloning method, genomic DN A was used as the templatefor PCR ampl i f icat ion in this study. Therefore, thismethod is more simple and cheaper. Based on thesequence of A p M A D S l , specific primers were designedand used for the ampl i f icat ion of 5' and 3' R A C E . Someexpected fragments from 5' and 3' R A C E were obtained.Further work on the characterization of putative genes iscurrently ongoing. Our results indicated that the homologycloning method based on genomic D N A is feasible forM A D S - b o x gene c lon ing in groundnut. The avai labi l i tyof such genes can be used to study the control of f loralpatterning thus p rov id ing an ideal genetic tool k i t to studythe diversi f icat ion of f lower architecture and its possiblealteration through genetic engineering (Pavan Prakashand Kumar 2002).

Acknowledgments. This work was carried out at the GeneticTransformation Laboratory of ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.We thank D Srinivas Reddy for his useful suggestionsand SN N igam for helpful discussions. The fundingsupport in part by the Natural Science Fund of ShandongProvince and HarvestPlus Global Challenge Program onBio for t i f i ca t ion is grateful ly acknowledged.

References

Angenent GC, Franken J, Busscher M, van Dijken A, vanWent JL, Dons HJ and van Tunen AJ. 1995. A novel class ofMADS-box gene is involved in ovule development in petunia.Plant Cell 7:1569-1582.

32 I A N 25, 2005

Coen ES and Meyerowitz E M . 1991. The war of the whorls:genetic interactions controlling flower development. Nature353:31-37.

Pavan Prakash A and Kumar P. 2002. PkMADSl is a novelMADS box gene regulating adventitious shoot induction andvegetative shoot development in Paulownia kawakamii. ThePlant Journal 29:141-151.

Porebski S, Bailey LG and Bernard RB. 1997. Modificationof a CTAB DNA extraction protocol for plants containing highpolysaccharide and polyphenol components. Plant MolecularBiology Reporter 15:8-15.

Puchooa D. 2004. A simple, rapid and efficient method for theextraction of genomic DNA from lychee (Litchi chinensisSonn.). African Journal of Biotechnology 3:253-255.

Purugganan MD, Rounsly SD, Schmidt RJ and Yanofsky M.1995. Molecular evolution of flower development: diversificationof the plant MADS-box regulatory gene family. Genetics140:345-356.

Schwarz-Sommer Z, Huijser P, Nacken W, Saedler H andSommer H. 1990. Genetic control of flower development byhomeotic genes in Antirrhinum majus. Science 250:931-936.

Shore P and Sharrocks AD. 1995. The MADS-box family oftranscription factors. European Journal of Biochemistry229:1-13.

Theissen G, Becker A, Di Rosa A, Kanno A, Kim JT,Munster T, Winter K-U and Saedler H. 2000. A short historyof MADS-box genes in plants. Plant Molecular Biology42:115-149.

Theissen G and Saedler H. 1998. Molecular architects ofplant body plans. Progress in Botany 59:227-256.

A T G G G G C G T G G G A A G A T A G A G A T C A A G A G G A T T G A G A A C A C T A C A A A T C G C C A A G T A A C C

M G R G K I E I K R I E T T N R Q V T

T T T T G C A A G C G C G G A A A T G G T C T T C T C A A G A A A G C T T A T G A G T T A T C T G T G C T G T G T G A C G

F C K R G N G L L K K A Y E L S V L C D

A E V C C G A G G T G G

maturi ty stage. Subsequently, powdery m i ldew was

reported in February 2003 and 2004 in research fields as

we l l as in farmers' fields in Jalgaon area (Table 1)

(Anonymous 2004). The incidence of powdery mi ldew

was moderate to severe in various rabi / summer seasons.A New Report on the Occurrence ofPowdery Mildew of Groundnut inMaharashtra, India

DA Shambharkar*, Anjali Deshmukh and RB Patil(Oilseeds Research Station, Mahatma Phule Krishi

Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Jalgaon 425 001, Maharashtra,

India)


Al though several groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) foliar

diseases have been reported in India, early and late leaf

spots and rust are the most w ide ly distr ibuted. Powdery

mi ldew (Oidium arachidis), a very minor fol iar disease

of groundnut, has been reported in many countries, v iz ,

Maur i t ius, Israel, Portugal, Tanganyika and India. The

f i rs t incidence of powdery mi ldew on groundnut in India

was reported on Spanish (A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata

var vulgaris) varieties dur ing kharif (rainy season) 1986

at the Nat ional Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) ,

Junagadh, Gujarat by Ghewande and Reddy (1987). But

so far this disease was not reported in the state of

Maharashtra. Dur ing rabi (postrainy season) of 1999/

2000, this disease was noticed on F3 generation of a cross

I C G V 86031 x T A G 24 at the Oilseeds Research Station,

Jalgaon, Maharashtra (Figs. 1 and 2). The first record of

this disease was noticed in February 2000 at the Oilseeds

Research Station, when the rabi-sown crop was at pod Figure 1. Powdery mildew of groundnut

IAN 25, 2005 33

Pathology

Table 1. Distribution and severity of powdery mildew of groundnut during rabi / summer in Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India.

Year

1999-2000

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

Date ofsowing

First week,October 1999

6 October 2001

7 October 2002

First fortnight,January 2004

1 October 2004

Date of firstappearance of disease

18 February 2000

15 February 2002

Second week,February 2003

Last week,February 2004

5 February 2005

Genotypes

ICGV 86031 x TAG 24(F3)

SB - XI

ICGS 76, 1CGV 86325,SB-XI, TAG 24

SB-XI

TAG 24SB - XI

Severity at maturitystage

90% (Research farm)

2% (Research farm)

1-40% (Research farm)

10-60% (6 farmers' fields)

10-25% (Research farm)5-60% (7 farmers' fields)

powdery mass radiated. The center of the spot laterbecomes b rown and necrotic (Smith 1984). Microscopicexamination showed simi lar description of o id ia asrecorded by Ghewande and Reddy 1987). The oidia weredeciduous, ell iptical, barrel-shaped, hyaline and unicel lular.Their size varied from 34.2-50.96 m x 17.1-24.51 m.The conidiophores were produced vert ical ly f rom thesuperficial hyphae on the upper leaflet surface. Eachconidiophore had one or two oidia, but chains of three orfour were also observed. Sub-spherical pyr i form haustoriadeveloped in epidermal cells.

It is clear that although this disease is of minor importancein Maharashtra today, it may cause an epidemic in futurein rabi / summer-sown groundnut crop.

References

Anonymous. 2004. Report of Research Review CommitteeMeeting in Summer Groundnut on 21st January 2004 held atMahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, India. Maharashtra,India: Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth. pp. GP-9-10 andGB-28-29.

Ghewande MP and Reddy PS. 1987. Powdery mildew - A new disease of groundnut in India. Current Science 56(4): 196.

Smith D H . 1984. Powdery mildew. Page 27 in Compendiumof peanut diseases (Kokalis-Burelle N, Porter D M , Rodriguez-

R, Smith DH and Subrahmanyam P, eds.). St Paul,Minnesota, USA: The American Phytopathological Society.

In Vitro Testing of Xenorhabdus Metabolites Against Groundnut CollarRot Fungus Aspergillus niger

RV Vyas', AB Maghodia, Biren Patel and DJ Patel(Department of Nematology, BA College of Agriculture,Anand Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat,India)


Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) and their symbiot icbacterial complex is known to give an effective and economiccontrol of many insects as we l l as phytonematodes al lover the wo r l d (Kaya et al. 1993, Smart 1995, Gaugler2003). In recent years the metabolites produced byXenorhabdus bacteria have been reported to havefungistatic effect against few plant pathogenic fungi also.Chen et al . (1994) have tested act iv i ty of two bacteria,

34 IAN 25, 2005

The scientists of this research station j o in t l y conductedthe survey work of groundnut fields in Jalgaon districtdur ing 15-18 March 2005 and on 7 A p r i l 2005. Dur ingthe survey, some groundnut f ields in v i l lage Kasoda,taluka Erandol were moderately to severely affected bypowdery mi ldew. The crop was sown in these fieldsdur ing the f irst week of December 2004 to second weekof January 2005. The variety S B - X I was sown by thefarmers. The incidence of powdery m i ldew was 20 to60% in various f ields. Powdery mi ldew was also noticedin research trials on 16 A p r i l 2005 but the incidence wasin traces and further spread was not observed. However,10-25% incidence was observed on T A G 24 in breederseed product ion plot at Jalgaon on 4 M a y 2005.

Ghewande and Reddy (1987) had recorded powderymi ldew on groundnut when the crop was about 38 dayso ld and average temperature and re lat ive h u m i d i t ywere 27.2-29.2°C and 79.3-97.7%, respectively. Thedisease developed as whi te floury patches on the ventralsurface of upper leaflets. These patches were found tooriginate as du l l , minute, discolored specks f rom wh ich a

Figure 2. Powdery mildew on groundnut genotype JALW 41(ICGV 86031 x TAG 24) in a field at the Oilseeds ResearchStation, MPKV, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India.

toxic effect on the development of P. betae myce l ium

(Lopez et al. 1997). In v iew of these, in v i t ro testing of

EPN symbiot ic bacteria, Xenorhabdus spp isolated from

native Steinernema riobrave (Ganguly et al. 2002),

S. thermophilum (Ganguly and Singh 2000) and 51

carpocapse (Gupta 2003) metabolites, against groundnut

collar rot fungus Aspergillus niger was carried out in the

laboratory dur ing 2003-04.

Potato dextrose agar ( P D A ) in petri dish of 7 cm

diameter was used for opt imum growth of the fungus. The

petri dishes were inoculated w i t h about 1.4 x 109 viable

A. niger conidia m1-1 using sterile micropipette. A l l the

Xenorhabdus isolates were tested as undi luted exotoxic

factors and 1:100 d i lu t ion. Wel ls of about 10 mm

diameter were bored w i t h sterile cork borer in the center

of P D A plates and inoculated w i t h exotoxic factors (0.1

m l ) of respective cultures. The culture filtrates were

prepared by g rowing Xenorhabdus cultures in min imal

broth media w i th 10% dextrose wi thout organic and

protein ingredients, for opt imum growth of bacteria and

incubated at 23±2°C for 96 h in B O D incubator w i t h

st i r r ing at 50 rpm. Proteins excreted by the bacteria were

measured at a different absorption peak in the ultraviolet

range at 260 nm and 280 nm in ultraviolet spectrophoto-

meter. Indiv idual optical density was counted and protein

concentration (mg m1-1) was calculated by the formula

given by Kalckar (Jayaraman 1981). Besides this, direct

impact of exotoxic factors was assayed by m i x i n g

undi luted culture f i l t rate (10% in P D A ) before plat ing the

petri dishes f o l l ow ing inoculat ion of A. niger spores

(poisoned food technique).

Figure 1. Fungistatic effect of exotoxins of Xenorhabdus sppagainst Aspergillus niger on potato dextrose agar at 72 h (SrM = Steinernema riobrave Mogar isolate; St = S. thermophilum; OH= Ohio Standard; SA = Steinernema sp Anand isolate; and Sc = S. carpocapse).

IAN 25, 2005 35

SrM St OH SA Sc

Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus, against plant pathogenic

fungi in Canada, v iz , Botrytis cinerea, Ceratocystis ulmi,

C. dryocoetidis, Mucor piriformis, Pythium coloratum,

P. ultimum and Trichoderma pseudokingii and reported

complete inh ib i t ion of these fungi by phase one variants

of the symbiotic bacteria, whereas the mycorrhizal fungus

Suillus pseudobrevipes was not inhibi ted. Evaluation of

the Steinernema feltiae / Xenorhabdus bovienii complex

against the fungus Phoma betae on sugar beet (Beta

vulgaris) seedlings showed that their extract exerted

Table 1. In vitro antagonism of Xenorhabdus metabolites against Aspergillus niger.

Bacterial isolate1

SrMSAScStOHControl

SEmCD at 5%CV (%)

Inhibition (%) after time

24 h

Undiluted

122432261300.92.68.9

1:100

10141921

800.92.8

14.2

48 h

Undiluted

51819191000.82.4

12.6

1:100

48

1313601.03.0

23.9

72 h

Undiluted

2141313700.92.7

20.4

1:100

2

456300.61.7

30.6

1. S r M = Steinernema riobrave Mogar isolate; SA = Steinernema sp Anand isolate; Sc = S. carpocapse;St = S. thermophilum; and OH = Ohio Standard.

Chen G, Dunphy GB and Webster J M . 1994. Antifungalactivity of two Xenorhabdus species and Photorhabdus luminescens, bacteria associated with the nematodesSteinernema species and Heterorhabditis megidis. BiologicalControl 4:157-162.

Ganguly S and Singh L K . 2000. Steinernema thermophilum sp. n. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) from India. InternationalJournal of Nematology 10:183-191.

Ganguly S, Singh M, Lal M, Singh LK , Vyas RV and PatelDJ. 2002. New record of an entomopathogenic nematode,Steinernema riobrave Cabanillas, Poinar & Raulston, 1994from Gujarat, India. Indian Journal of Nematology 32:223.

Gaugler Randy. 2003. Nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae& Heterorhabditidae)(http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/pathogens/nematodes.html).

Gupta P. 2003. Entomopathogenic nematodes for insect pestcontrol: Work done at Allahabad Agricultural Institute,Allahabad. Pages 161-165 in Current status of research onentomopathogenic nematodes in India (Hussaini SS, RabindraRJ and Nagesh M, eds.). Bangalore, India: PDBC.

Jayaraman J. 1981. Laboratory manual in biochemistry. NewDelhi, India: New Age International L i t . 180 pp.

Kaya H K , Hara AH and Gaugler R. 1993. Entomopathogenicnematodes. Annual Review of Entomology 38:181-206.

Lopez Roblez J, Otto AA and Hague N G M . 1997. Evaluationof the Steinernema feltiae/Xenorhabdus bovienii complexagainst the fungus Phoma betae on sugar beet seedlings. Testsof agrochemicals and cultivars 18:48-49. (Annals of AppliedBiology 130, supplement.)

Nene YL and Thapliyal PN. 1979. Fungicides in plant diseasecontrol. New Delhi, India: Oxford and I B H Publishing Co. pp.415-417.

Smart GC. 1995. Entomopathogenic nematodes for the biologicalcontrol of insects. Supplement to Nematology 27:529-534.

References

and Steinernema sp (Anand isolate) exhibi ted l o wprotein product ion (Table 2). Moreover, in another set,when culture f i l t ra tes were m ixed in P D A and plated forassessment of tox ic effect, A. niger spore germinat ionwas delayed by 24 h in treated plates compared tocontro l . Later, mycel ia l g rowth was hampered t i l l 96 h compared to control plates.

Table 2. Estimation of total proteins of Xenorhabdus spp.

Xenorhabdusculture1

BlankSrMSAStScOH

Optical density

260 nm

1000.0310.0220.1320.1390.020

280 nm

1000.0400.0320.1630.1760.025

Proteinconcentration2

(mg m1-1)

_

0.0380.0320.1520.1680.023

1. S r M = Steinernema riobrave Mogar isolate; SA = Steinernema sp

Anand isolate; St = S. thermophilum; Sc = 5. carpocapse.

2. Protein concentration (mg m1-1) = (1.55 x OD200) - (0.76 x OD2 6 0)

A l l the treatments were replicated three times. Plateswere kept in the refrigerator for 30 m i n for di f fusion ofl i qu id and subsequently in B O D incubator at 27±2°C forincubation. Observations on inhib i t ion zone were recordedat 24 h interval up to the op t imum growth of fungus ineach plate. Growth inhibi t ion was calculated by the formulaof Nene and Thapl iya l (1979):

Inhibition (%) =

The results showed that up to 24 h of g rowth , fungusmul t ip l i ca t ion was lowered in a l l the treated platescompared to control . However, after 72 h, fungal g rowthwas max imum cover ing whole plate except surroundingthe wel ls in t ox in inoculated plates. Bacterial symbiontsof S. carpocapse and S. thermophilum had 32 and 26%inh ib i to ry effect against A. niger, respectively at 24 h ofinoculat ion compared to other cultures (Table 1).Bacter ia l isolates from Steinernema sp (Anand isolate)and S. riobrave (Mogar isolate) showed relat ively l owfungistatic effect w i t h on ly 0.7 to 0.8 cm inh ib i t ion zones(F ig . 1); the effect was simi lar to that observed w i t hXenorhabdus (Oh io Standard). This may be due to l owprotein product ion by these three bacterial isolates asevident in the results on estimation o f total proteins o fXenorhabdus spp. Quant i tat ive analysis by ul t ravioletabsorption method of prote in est imation indicated thattotal protein concentrat ion present in S. carpocapse andS. thermophilum cultures was s imi lar and good whereasthe Oh io Standard culture, S. riobrave (Morgan isolate)

36 IAN 25, 2005

Clump disease occurs in patches in f ields. The disease

recurs when groundnut and certain IPCV-susceptible

cereal hosts l ike pearl mi l le t (Pennisetum glaucum),

sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum)

and barley (Hordeum vulgare) are g rown regularly

(Delfosse et al. 1999). Durable resistance to c lump in

groundnut germplasm is lacking. A l though several

thousand groundnut genotypes were screened for c lump

resistance in experimental sick plots, none of these were

consistently resistant or tolerant to IPCV (Reddy et al.

1988). Genotypes that showed resistance (no infect ion)

or l ow disease incidence in one t r ia l showed severe

infect ion in subsequent tr ials at the same location. The

var iat ion in resistance/tolerance reaction in genotypes in

the sick plots was due to uneven distr ibut ion of v irus

inoculum in the fields, wh i ch depends on the germinat ion

of resting spores of P. graminis and environmental

conditions (Reddy et al. 1988). A reliable virus inoculat ion

procedure is essential to accurately evaluate groundnut

genotypes for I P C V resistance. A l though I P C V can be

transmitted by mechanical sap inoculat ion, it seldom was

used for resistance screening probably due to low

Rate of Transmission of Indian PeanutClump Virus to Groundnut byMechanical Inoculation

AS Reddy, P Lava Kumar* and F Waliyar (ICRISAT,

Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India)


' C l u m p ' is one of the major v i ra l diseases of groundnut

(Arachis hypogaea) caused by the Indian peanut c lump

virus ( I P C V ) in the Indian subcontinent (No l t et a l .

1988). A simi lar disease in A f r i ca is caused by peanut

c lump virus (PCV) (Thouvenel and Fauquet 1981). Bo th

PCV and I P C V belong to the genus Pecluvirus, and they

have simi lar physical, b io logica l and transmission

properties, but their coat proteins are h igh ly variable.

Various isolates of IPCV and PCV occur in endemic

regions (No l t et al . 1988). IPCV and P C V are transmitted

through seed and by a root endoparasite, Polymyxa

graminis. Several serological ly dist inct isolates of PCV

and I P C V were ident i f ied in As ia and Af r ica .

Table 1. Transmission of I P C V - H after mechanical inoculation with sap extracts prepared from virus-infected French bean.

Date ofinoculation

03/09/0421/09/0423/09/0401/10/0412/10/0415/10/0426/10/0429/10/0403/11/0406/12/0413/12/0429/12/0431/12/0410/01/0517/01/0524/01/05

Mean

Groundnut cv JL 24

Incubationperiod1

1819212018182120212321232321202220.5

Infected/Tested2

6/713/209/1416/1712/2014/206/1114/1714/250/259/242/6

14/2413/2614/2621/28

177/286

Infection3

(%)

856564946070558256

037335850547562

Temperature4

Max

30.031.031.030.530.029.529.329.630.029.629.629.729.830.029.330.329.9

Min

21.021.021.020.018.018.418.017.916.111.312.413.614.015.516.816.516.9

French bean cv Topcrop

Days toinfection1

65655656655666675.5

Infected/Tested2

6/69/105/5

10/1014/159/1010/1015/1510/103/5

9/1014/1510/104/5

9/109/10

144/156

Infection3

(%)

10090

1001009390

100100100609093

10080

1009092

Temperature4

Max

29.430.830.430.430.929.529.028.928.629.229.228.929.330.029.730.529.6

M in

21.421.721.921.119.715.718.719.215.910.111.015.215.411.614.819.117.0

1. M a x i m u m number of days at w h i c h a l l the virus- infected plants showed symptoms.2 . Number o f plants.3. Infect ion conf i rmed by D A S - E L I S A .4. Mean temperature ( °C) recorded dur ing days to infect ion.

IAN 25, 2005 37

38 IAN 25, 2005

Table 3. Infection in groundnut cultivar JL 24 after ino culation with partially purified IPCV-H preparation s.

Date of inoculation

20/01/05

03/02/05

15/02/05Mean

Incubation period1

28

26

25

26

Dilution

1:1001:10001:5000

1:1001:10001:50001:100

Infected/Tested2

4/52/51/5

4/42/51/58/9

22/38

Infection3 (%)

804020

100402089

57

Temperature4

Max

31.7

33.3

34.7

33.2

Min

16.3

16.3

17.4

16.6

1. M a x i m u m number o f days at w h i c h al l the v i rus- in fected plants showed symptoms.

2 . Number o f plants.

2 . In fec t ion con f i rmed by D A S - E L I S A .

3. Mean temperature ( °C) recorded du r ing days to in fec t ion .

Table 2. Transmission of IPCV-H to groundnut cultivar JL 24 using inoculum from virus-infected groundnut lea ves.

Date of inoculation Days to infection3

18/11/04 2119/12/04 2304/02/05 1911/02/05 18Mean 21

Infected/Tested2

5/209/2619/2017/2450/90

Infection3 (%)

2535957155

Temperature4

Max

29.229.733.234.431.6

Min

11.513.515.416.714.2

1. M a x i m u m number of days at wh i ch al l the v i rus- in fected plants showed symptoms.

2 . Number o f plants.

3. Infect ion conf i rmed by D A S - E L I S A .

4. Mean temperature ( °C) recorded dur ing days to in fec t ion .

in fect ion rate achieved by this method. In this study, rate

of IPCV [Hyderabad isolate (H) ] transmission to groundnut

by mechanical inoculat ion was assessed using the virus

infected leaf sap and purif ied virus preparations as inocu lum.

For the inocu lum preparat ion, 0.05 M potassium

phosphate buffer, pH 7 contain ing 0 . 1 % (v /v )

mercaptoethanol was used (referred as inoculat ion buffer) .

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cu l t ivar Topcrop at

cotyledonous leaf stage and groundnut cul t ivar JL 24 at

three-leaf stage were used for inoculat ion. Bo th these

cult ivars were h igh ly susceptible to IPCV infect ion. Pr ior

to inoculat ion test plants were kept in dark for 12-16 h.

Test plants were dusted w i t h carborandum (600 mesh)

and freshly extracted inocu lum was immediate ly appl ied

onto the leaves w i t h a double layer mus l in -c lo th pad.

Inoculated leaves were washed w i t h d ist i l led water and

covered w i t h sheets of paper and kept in dark overnight .

They were maintained in greenhouse chambers f i t ted

w i t h air-coolers to lower the day temperature ( 2 7 - 3 5 °C ,

depending on the external temperature), w h i c h were

operated dur ing dayt ime only . Plants were regular ly

moni tored for symptoms and tested for the v i rus in leaf

samples (1:20 w / v ) by D A S - E L I S A (double ant ibody

sandwich - enzyme- l inked immunosorbent assay) using

I P C V - H immunoglobu l ins as described by No l t et a l .

(1988).

The I P C V - H infected groundnut seed stored at - 7 0 °C

was used as in i t ia l v i rus inocu lum source. In a pre-chi l led

mortar and pestle, seed material (1:10 w /v ) was macerated

in ch i l led inocu lum buf fer and immediate ly inoculated to

French bean. Ve ina l necrosis symptoms, typ ical o f IPCV

infect ion, developed 4 - 7 days after in fect ion. This was

used as the virus source for subsequent experiments. Leafsap extract (1:10 w /v ) prepared f rom 1PCV-H infectedFrench bean was inoculated to 16 batches of French beanand groundnut plants raised in growth chambers ondifferent dates from September 2004 to January 2005(Table 1). Plants were monitored for symptoms up to 30days after infect ion, and they were assayed for I P C V - Hby D A S - E L l S A . French bean plants were readilyinfected w i t h the virus in al l these experiments. Infectedplants showed typical symptoms w i t h i n 5-7 days afterinfect ion. Except on one occasion, 80-100% of theinoculated plants were infected w i t h the virus, w i t h a mean infect ion of 92% for the entire experiment (Table1). The sap inoculated groundnut plants took 18-23 daysto develop symptoms; infect ion in most experiments was50-75%, w i t h a mean infection rate of 62% for the entireexperiment (Table 1). When the groundnut plants wereinoculated w i t h sap extract prepared from the virus-infected groundnut leaves, 23 -90% of the test plants wereinfected, and it took 18-23 days to develop symptoms(Table 2). Groundnut plants were also inoculated w i t hpart ial ly pur i f ied I P C V - H preparations made f rom 100 g virus-infected French bean leaf tissue using theprocedure described by No l t et al . (1988). The part ial lypur i f ied virus pellets were dissolved in 5 ml of 0.02 M sodium borate, 0.03 M potassium phosphate buffer, pH8.3, containing 0.3 M urea, and diluted to 1:100, 1:1000 and1:5000 in inoculum buffer and applied onto the groundnutplants. Test plants inoculated w i t h 1:100 d i lu t ionpreparations showed 80-100% infect ion in three separateexperiments, whereas those inoculated w i t h 1:1000 and1:5000 di lut ions showed 20 -40% infect ion (Table 3).

The night temperature seems to have an effect onI P C V - H infect ion in groundnut plants. Less than 40% ofthe inoculated groundnut plants showed infect ion whenthe night temperature was 12-14°C, and no infect ionresulted when the temperature was <12°C (Tabie 1).Dur ing the same period, there was no difference inpercentage infect ion in French bean, but when the nighttemperature dropped below 11 °C, only 60% infect ionresulted in the test plants (Table 1). Further studies arenecessary to understand the effect of temperature on1PCV infect ion in groundnut.

This study showed that using French bean as inoculumsource, I P C V - H could be eff ic ient ly transmitted togroundnut by mechanical sap inoculat ion and the virushas about three weeks incubation period in groundnut.This method is convenient and al lows reliable screeningof elite groundnut germplasm for resistance to variousIPCV and PCV isolates in relat ively short period.

Rust caused by Puccinia arachidis is an economical lyimportant disease of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) inIndia. The disease is most severe in rainy season, causingy ie ld losses of up to 40% in the state of Karnataka.Recently, up to 80% disease incidence of rust has beenreported in Koppal and Raichur districts ( N R C G 2002).Management of rust by application of chemical fungicideshas been recommended, but this opt ion is expensive andleads to environment po l lu t ion. Al ternat ive ly , neem seedkernel extract ( N S K E ) has been found to reduce the rustincidence to some extent in groundnut (Usman et al .1991). Hence this study was undertaken to f ind out the

IAN 25, 2005 39

Gururaj Sunkad 1.*, Sirkant Kulkarni 2 and VI Benagi3

( I . AlCRP on Groundnut, Regional AgriculturalResearch Station, Raichur 584 101, Karnataka, India;2. Department of Plant Pathology, Agricultural College,University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad580 005, Karnataka, India; 3. Krishi Vignana Kendra,Gulbarga 585 101, Karnataka, India)*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Effectiveness of Neem Seed KernelExtract in Combination with SelectedFungicides for Groundnut RustManagement

Delfosse P, Reddy AS, A, Devi PS, Devi K T ,Maraite H and Reddy DVR. 1999. Indian peanut clump virus (IPCV) infection on wheat and barley: symptoms, yield lossand transmission through seed. Plant Pathology 48:273-282.

Nolt BL, Rajeshwari R, Reddy DVR, Bharathan N andManohar SK. 1988. Indian peanut clump virus isolates: Hostrange, symptomatology, serological relationships and somephysical properties. Phytopathology 78:310-313.

Reddy DVR, Nolt BL, Hobbs HA, Reddy AS, RajeshwariR, Rao AS, Reddy DDR and McDonald D. 1988. Clumpvirus in India, isolates, host range, transmission andmanagement. Pages 239-246 in Viruses with fungal vectors(Cooper JL and Asher MLC, eds.). Wellesbourne, Warwick,UK: Association of Applied Biologists.

Thouvenel JC and Fauquet C. 1981. Further properties ofpeanut clump virus and studies on its natural transmission.Annals of Applied Biology 97: 99-107.

References

40 IAN 25, 2005

References

Jadeja KB, Nandolia D M , Dhruj lU and Khandar RR.1999. Efficacy of four triazole fungicides in the control of leafspots and rust of groundnut. Indian Phytopathology 52:421-422.

NRCG. 2002. Progress Report of Annual Khari f GroundnutWorkshop. Junagadh, Gujarat, India: NRCG. 110 pp.

IAN 25, 2005 41

suitable cost-effective integrated disease managementspray schedule by integration of new fungicides andN S K E .

Fie ld experiments were conducted in a randomizedblock design at the Regional Agr icu l tu ra l ResearchStation, Raichur, Karnataka for two years in 2002 and2003 rainy seasons (June-October). Groundnut varietyK R G - 1 , h igh ly susceptible to rust, was sown in 3 m x 5 m plots w i t h a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. A l l therecommended package of practices for t i l lage, manuring,i r r igat ion, etc were fo l lowed. Fourteen treatments w i t hthree replications were evaluated for control of rust.These treatments included four fungicides, hexaconazole,propiconazole, difenconazole and chlorothalonil in differentcombinations w i t h N S K E . The details of the treatmentcombinations are given below:

T 1: C-C-C (0 .2% - 0.2% - 0.2%)T2: N - N - N (5 .0% - 5.0% - 5.0%)T3: H - H - H ( 0 . 1 % - 0 . 1 % - 0.1%)T4: P-P-P ( 0 . 1 % - 0 . 1 % - 0.1%)T 5: D - D - D ( 0 . 1 % - 0 . 1 % - 0.1%)T6: C-N-C ( 0 . 1 % - 5.0% - 0.1%)T7: H - N - H ( 0 . 1 % - 5.0% - 0.1%)T 8: P-N-P ( 0 . 1 % - 5.0% - 0.1%)T9: D - N - D ( 0 . 1 % - 5.0% - 0.1%)T1 0: N - C - N (5 .0% - 0.2% - 5.0%)T11,: N - H - N (5 .0% - 0.1 % - 5.0%)T1 2: N - P - N (5 .0% - 0 . 1 % - 5.0%)T1 3: N - D - N (5 .0% - 0 . 1 % - 5.0%)T1 4: No spray (wi thout fungicides)

( I n the above treatments, C refers to chlorothaloni l ,N to N S K E , H to hexaconazole, P to propiconazole andD to difenconazole.)

In a l l the treatments, these protective fol iar sprayswere applied. The first spray was given immediately afterthe appearance of rust pustules on lower leaves of theplant, ie, 45 days after sowing and two subsequent sprayswere g iven at 10 days interval. The spray solut ion usedper p lot was 1, 1.5 and 2 L for the first, second and th i rdsprays, respectively. The observations on diseaseintensity were recorded 10 days after the th i rd spray atnatural epidemic condit ions. Ten plants were selectedrandomly f rom each p lot and plants were rated for rustseverity on a 1-9 scale (Subrahmanyam et al . 1995). Percent disease index (PDI ) was calculated using thefo l l ow ing formula:

P D I = x 100

The P D I values were transformed by angulartransformation and analyzed statistically. D ry pod y ie ldwas also recorded. Disease control (%) and pod y ie ldincrease over control were calculated and data wereanalyzed statistically.

The comparison of pooled means indicate that a l ltreatment combinations signif icantly reduced the severityof rust and also increased the pod y ie ld as compared w i t huntreated control (Table 1). However, they showeddifferential effects in contro l l ing the disease. A m o n g thetreatment combinations, hexaconazole was signif icant ly(P = 0.05) effective fol lowed by difenconazole andpropiconazole. Further, combination of hexaconazolew i t h N S K E ( H - N - H ) showed better control (53.93%)than D - N - D (53.53%) and P-N-P (52.37%). Thesetreatments were also effective in increasing the pod y ie ldin the same pattern as they control the disease. A m o n gthem, H - N - H treatment was h igh ly effective w i t h moreyields. The spray combination of H - N - H reduced onespray of hexaconazole wi thout compromising on diseasecontrol . A lso , N S K E and hexaconazole reduced the costtowards crop protection.

Jadeja et al. (1999) reported that among differenttriazoles tested best control of rust on groundnut wasachieved w i t h three sprays of hexaconazole anddifenconazole w i t h more pod y ie ld . Usman et al. (1991)used different neem products and recorded lesserincidence of rust w i t h higher benefit-cost ratio in N S K E -applied plots. By using a combination of hexaconazoleand N S K E we observed further reduction in the quanti tyof fungicides required for effective disease contro l .Results of this study are also supported by Patil (1996)who suggested that rust of sunflower (Helianthus annuns)can be managed effectively w i t h a spray schedule ofpropiconazole and N S K E (5%) w i t h higher y ields. Thepresent findings are in agreement wi th Shivashankar andKadam (1993) who reported that spraying of neem leafextract in combinat ion w i t h recommended fungicidesrecorded numerical superiority in reducing rust incidencein groundnut.

42 IAN 25, 2005

Salinity is an ever-increasing problem, especially in areaswhere lands are irr igated w i t h water containing salts.Wor ldwide, about 100 m i l l i on ha of arable land is affectedby sal ini ty, wh ich accounts for about 6 - 7 % of the totalarable land (Munns and James 2003). Sal ini ty adverselyaffects plant growth at al l stages and at seedling andreproductive stages in particular, dramatical ly reducingthe crop y ie ld (Munns et al. 2002).

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is an importantcommodi ty in many developing countries, part icular ly inIndia where the ni trogen (N) - r i ch crop residues are alsoused as fodder. The product ion of groundnut in Indianeeds to be increased from the current 8 m i l l i o n t to about14 m i l l i o n t by 2020 to meet the increasing demand of theo i l and confectionery industry (Girdhar 2004). Thisincrease w i l l have to be part ial ly achieved by g row inggroundnut in lands considered so far as unsuitable foragriculture, l ike rice (Oryza sativa) fa l low affected bysal ini ty dur ing the postrainy season.

L i t t le is known about the sal ini ty tolerance ofgroundnut and no attempt has been made to breed sal initytolerant groundnut varieties. A protocol is a prerequisitefor understanding the response to salinity stress, assessinggenetic var iabi l i ty and ident i fy ing surrogate traits andmechanisms contr ibut ing to tolerance. Therefore, the firststep to this work is to standardize a screening protocol touse for the selection of tolerant materials. A l though thisprotocol w i l l be used to test large number o f genotypesfor their y ie ld response under sal ini ty, its standardizationcan be done on the basis of the vegetative biomassreduct ion under salt treatment.

In this art icle, we report the results of two experimentsthat were carried out to standardize a protocol to screengroundnut for sal ini ty tolerance. Our objectives were:( i ) to ident i fy an op t imum NaCl treatment; ( i i ) to explorethe potential tolerance mechanisms; and ( i i i ) to assess thegenotypic var iat ion for sal ini ty tolerance in groundnut.

V Vadez', N Srivastava, L Krishnamurtby,

R Aruna and SN Nigam (ICRISAT, Patancheru

502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India)


Standardization of a Protocol to Screenfor Salinity Tolerance in Groundnut

Agronomy/PhysiologyPatil PV. 1996. Studies on sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi Schw. PhD thesis, University of AgriculturalSciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India. 238 pp.

Shivashankar SP and Kadam DN. 1993. Efficacy of neemleaf extract against foliar diseases of groundnut. IndianPhytopathology 45:72.

Subrahmanyam P, McDonald D, Waliyar F, Reddy LJ,Nigam SN, Gibbons RW, Ramanatha Rao V, Singh AK,Pande S, Reddy PM and Subba Rao PV. 1995. Screeningmethods and sources of resistance to rust and late leaf spot ofgroundnut. Information Bulletin no. 47. Patancheru 502 324,Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institutefor the Semi-Arid Tropics. 24 pp.

Usman M R , Jaganathan R and Dinakaran D. 1991. Plantdisease management of groundnut with naturally occurringplant products. Madras Agricultural Journal 78:152-153.

IAN 25, 2005 43

Exper iment 2 (Exp 2). Four salt treatments were

imposed, 0, 1.34,1.68 and 2.02 g kg-1 soi l , corresponding

to an application of solut ion of 0, 100, 125 and 150 mM

concentrations. Salt treatments were applied al l in one

dose at sowing. Plants were sown on 19 February and

harvested on 13 A p r i l 2005. At harvest, leaves, stems and

pods were separated and dried as in Exp 1.

Cr i te r ia to assess salt tolerance. Salt tolerance was

assessed on the basis of total biomass (shoot + roots) in

Exp 1 and on shoot biomass alone in Exp 2 as shoot

biomass and total biomass in Exp 1 were found to be very

closely associated ( r2 = 0.93, data not shown). The total

biomass or shoot biomass is hereafter referred as biomass

for brevi ty. A lso the ratio between the biomass produced

under salinity to that of control was used to assess salt

tolerance (Kr ishnamurthy et al . 2003a, 2003b).

Measurement of plant traits. Lea f size: A few days

before harvest, the two most fu l ly expanded leaves in the

main stem were collected for the leaf area measurement.

The ratio of the replication-wise values under sal inity

div ided by mean control value for each genotype and

treatment gave an estimate of the relative reduct ion in

leaf size due to sal inity.

Stem/leaf rat io: Af ter harvest, stems and leaves were

separated and their ratio computed for each ind iv idual

plant.

Nodulat ion: In Exp 1, at harvest, the nodule number and

nodule dry mass were measured and their relative decreases

under sal inity were computed (repl ication-wise values

under salinity d iv ided by mean control value for each

genotype and treatment).

SCMR: In Exp 2, the chlorophyl l content of leaves at 49

days after sowing was assessed using the S P A D (Soi l and

Plant Analysis-Development) ch lorophyl l meter reading

(SCMR) . The SPAD readings were recorded on 4 leaflets

of the top two most fu l ly expanded leaves of the main

stem, and averaged. The ratio of repl icat ion-wise values

under salinity d iv ided by mean control value for each

genotype and treatment gave an estimate of the relative

reduction in ch lorophyl l .

Na concentration in leaves: In Exp 1, 150 mg of f inely

ground leaf sample was digested in 4 ml of concentrated

sulfuric acid w i t h 0.5% selenium powder at 360°C for 75

m i n on a block digester and the digest was di luted to 75

m l . Us ing this digest K and Na were estimated (Sahrawat

et al. 2002) using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer

(Var ion model 1200, Austral ia).

Table 1. Ratio of biomass of groundnut under salinity tobiomass under control in different NaCI treatments.

NaCl (mM) treatment Exp 11

0 1

50 0.84+0.08100 0.59+0.08

125

150 0.33+0.04

Exp 2'

1

0.61 ± 0.09

0.39 + 0.07

0.25 + 0.02

1. Data are the average ratios of 6 groundnut genotypes (+SD). Mean

biomass across genotypes in 0 mM treatment was 10.6 g plant-1 in

Exp 1 and 6.3 g plant -1 in Exp 2.


Growth conditions and salt application. Two experiments

were carried out in a glasshouse, w i t h day/night

temperature of 28/22°C. In both experiments, six

genotypes belonging to different botanical types [ I C G

(FDRS) 10, ICGS 44, ICGS 76, I C G V 86031, JL 24 and

T A G 24] were g rown in 15-cm diameter pots f i l led w i t h 2

kg of A l f i s o l , col lected f rom the experimental station at

the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-

A r i d Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru, India. The soil was

fert i l ized w i t h d iammonium phosphate ( D A P ) at 300 mg

kg-1 soi l , and also treated w i t h carbofuran to prevent

thrips infestation and thereby peanut bud and stem

necrosis incidence. Four seeds were planted per pot and

later thinned to two seedlings per pot. F ive replicated

pots per treatment and genotype were grown. In both the

experiments, NaC l was applied at a f ixed rate in g kg-1 of

soi l . The required salt was dissolved in water needed to

saturate the soi l to f ie ld capacity (23% w / w ) . Plants were

grown for seven weeks in both the experiments and then

harvested.

Experiment 1 (Exp 1). Four salt treatments were imposed,

0,0.67,1.34 and 2.02 g kg-1 of soi l . They corresponded to

a solution concentration of 0, 50, 100 and 150 mM NaCl ,

in the amount sufficient to saturate the soi l at field

capacity. In this experiment, salt was applied in three

split doses, w i t h in the in i t ia l 10 days after sowing, to

avoid a rapid bui ld-up of salt in the soi l . Plants were sown

on 18 August and harvested on 6 October 2004. At

harvest, the plants were separated into leaves, stems,

roots, pods and nodules and dried to constant weight in a

hot air oven at 70°C. Since pod weight was negl ig ib le in

the different salt treatments, pod weight was not

considered in the analysis.

Biomass response to salinity. In Exp 1, plants were l i t t leaffected by 50 mM NaC l treatment, al though there weresignif icant genotypic differences (F ig . 1). S imi lar ly , inboth Exp 1 and Exp 2 the genotypic response for biomassproduct ion at 150 mM was m in ima l . In Exp 1, 100 mMNaCl appeared to induce large genotypic biomassdifferences, w i th genotypes ICGS 44, ICGS 76 and JL 24having higher biomass than I C G (FDRS) 10, I C G V86031 and T A G 24 (P = <0.001) (F ig . 1). In Exp 2,although the 100 mM concentration induced somedifferences between the genotypes, ie, ICGS 44 andICGS 76 also had a h igh biomass compared to I C G V86031 and T A G 24 (P = 0.042), the 125 mMconcentration brought about larger contrast betweengenotypes, w i t h ICGS 44 reaching the highest biomasswhereas JL 24 and T A G 24 were the lowest (P = 0.003)(F ig . 1). Across experiments, it appeared that ICGS 44achieved consistently the highest biomass at 100 mMwhereas I C G V 86031 and T A G 24 had the lowest biomass.

Wh i l e the ratio of biomass product ion under sal inity tothat of control was l i t t le affected at 50 mM concentration(0.84), the ratio decreased to a value as l o w as 0.59 and0.61 at 100 mM concentration in Exp 1 and Exp 2,respectively (Table 1), and 0.39 at 125 mM in Exp 2. Inboth experiments, the ratio of biomass product ion wasseverely decreased at 150 mM N a C l (0.33 in Exp 1 and0.25 in Exp 2). The consistent results across experimentsclearly indicated signif icant genotypic differences.Therefore, we used the treatment from the two experimentsg iv ing the most genotypic contrast, ie, the 100mMtreatment in Exp 1 and 125 mM treatment in Exp 2, toidenti fy surrogate traits and mechanisms contr ibut ing tosal ini ty tolerance.

Plant morphology and salinity tolerance. Leaf size reduct ion: In Exp 2, genotypes showing good growthunder 125 mM treatment seemed to maintain leaf size close to that of control (Table 2). The regression of therelative leaf size reduct ion at 125 mM treatment on theratio of shoot biomass under sal ini ty revealed a signif icant association (r2 = 0.45, P = <0.01), showingthat tolerant plants were able to maintain the leaf sizecloser to that of control (data not shown).

Ratio of stem to leaves: Stem por t ion in groundnutrepresent a substantial part of the dry matter (Table 2).The rat io of stem to leaves dry weight and the ratio ofshoot biomass under sal ini ty were correlated w i t h a h igh ly signif icant relat ionship (r2 = 0.56, P = <0.01) (data

Results

44 IAN 25, 2005

We have shown that the 100-125 mM range o f NaC ltreatments was suitable to screen for sal ini ty tolerance ingroundnut. The material screened in this study was veryl imi ted, but large differences could be shown for responseto sal ini ty stress. So, there is a good scope for ident i fy inggenotypes w i t h higher level of tolerance from largerscreening of diverse sets of materials.

Certain aspects of the plant morphology, ie, thereduction in leaf size and the stem/leaves ratio in responseto sal ini ty stress prov ided interesting insights. Thereduct ion in leaf area in sensitive plants under sal initystress indicated arrest of leaf expansion, wh ich eventuallyl imits the area available for photosynthesis. Further research

Discussion

not shown). This shows that al though Na accumulation instems in relat ion to leaves was not measured, a largerstem proport ion may serve as a Na sink and confer highertolerance to sal ini ty.

N status and salinity tolerance. Nodula t ion: N i t rogenf ixat ion is very sensitive to sal ini ty (Rao et al. 2002). InExp 1 the number and dry mass of nodules reduceddrastical ly w i t h increasing sal ini ty, especially atconcentrations above 100 mM NaC l (Table 2). A h igh lysignif icant posit ive relat ionship (r2 = 0.40, P = <0.05)was found between the relative nodule biomass reduct ionand the ratio of shoot biomass under sal ini ty, indicat ingthat the more sensitive genotypes suffered a relat ivelylarger decrease in nodulat ion compared to theirrespective controls (data not shown).

Ratio SCMR: Since nodulat ion was decreased in Exp 1,there was an interest to measure SCMR as an indirectmeasure of shoot N status. A l though there was a trend tohave plants w i t h relat ively less decrease in the SCMRvalues compared to control being also more tolerant(Table 2), this trend was not signif icant (r2 = 0.24, P =

0.29). Several S C M R measurements recorded at variousdates after sowing fai led to show any signif icant trend(data not shown).

Na accumulat ion in leaves: In most plants, theaccumulat ion of Na in shoot brings about deleteriouseffect, and the plant strategy is to l i m i t the Na bui ld-up inthe shoot tissues. A l t hough it was found that the Naconcentration in shoot increased w i t h the salt treatment(Table 2), there was no relationship between the shoot Naconcentration and the relative sensit ivi ty of plants to salttreatment (data not shown).

IAN 25, 2005 45

Table 2. Mean (±SE) values of nodule dry mass, Na concentration in leaves, ratio of stem/leaves, leaf area and SCMR indifferent NaCl treatments tested against six groundnut genotypes.

Genotype

Nodule dry mass (g) (Exp 1)ICG (FDRS) 101CGS 44ICGS 76lCGV 86031JL 24TAG 24

Na concentration (%) (Exp 1)ICG (FDRS) 10ICGS 44ICGS 76ICGV 86031JL 24TAG 24

Stem/leaves ratio (Exp 1)ICG (FDRS) 10ICGS 44ICGS 76ICGV 8603 1 JL 24TAG 24

Stem/leaves ratio (Exp 2)ICG (FDRS) 10ICGS 44ICGS 76ICGV 86031JL 24TAG 24

Leaf area (of 8 leaflets) (cm2) (Exp 2)ICG (FDRS) 10ICGS 44ICGS 76ICGV 86031JL 24TAG 24

SCMR1 (Exp 2)ICG (FDRS) 10ICGS 44ICGS 76ICGV 86031JL 24TAG 24

1. SCMR = SPAD chlorophyll meter reading.

Control

0.168 + 0.0100.168 + 0.0230.204 + 0.0300.221 ± 0.0130.160 + 0.0100.131 + 0.007

0.12 + 0.010.13 + 0.020.11 + 0.020.15 + 0.020.12 + 0.010.19 + 0.03

0.84 + 0.040.99 + 0.040.98 + 0.040.87 + 0.070.86 + 0.050.82 + 0.11

0.78 + 0.070.83 + 0.050.72 + 0.030.65 + 0.030.68 + 0.020.70 + 0.04

47.4 + 3.325.7 + 2.830.1 + 2.840.0 + 3.747.9 + 6.218.8 + 1.5

39.4 + 0.646.5 + 2.450.1 + 2.546.0 + 5.242.3 + 3.339.5 + 1.8

50 mM

0.096 + 0.0080.134 + 0.0150.139 + 0.0210.136 + 0.0230.136 + 0.0170.132 + 0.011

0.24 + 0.040.20 + 0.040.15 + 0.030.15 + 0.030.14 + 0.020.28 + 0.04

0.96 + 0.041.08 + 0.070.94 + 0.010.83 + 0.060.87 + 0.060.90 + 0.10

100 mM

0.075 + 0.0230.132 + 0.0200.163 + 0.0310.084 + 0.0130.106 + 0.0240.074 +0.015

0.21 + 0.030.23 + 0.040.17 + 0.010.23 + 0.030.28 + 0.050.27 + 0.05

0.83 + 0.081.08 + 0.040.98 + 0.050.83 + 0.080.97 + 0.080.88 + 10.12

0.73 + 0.041.06 + 0.270.62 + 0.040.77 + 0.170.59 + 0.040.81 + 0.05

38.7 + 2.924.5 + 2.024.9 + 3.025.3 + 2.337.7 + 2.917.1 + 2.1

41.4 + 1.336.9 + 1.4 45.2 + 2.440.1 + 2.339.6 + 2.238.6 + 0.8

125 mM

0.62 + 0.030.84+0.080.64 + 0.060.59 + 0.040.56 + 0.050.73 + 0.04

33.2 + 3.821.3 + 1.620.1 + 1.824.1 + 1.828.3 + 2.313.9 + 0.9

35.0 + 3.640.3 + 2.043.7 + 2.833.8 + 1.130.7 + 1.933.1 + 2.0

150 mM

0.018 + 0.0030.056 + 0.0030.091 + 0.0210.036 + 0.0000.048 + 0.0180.041 + 0.006

0.55 + 0.060.73 + 0.130.41 + 0.050.33+0.040.80 + 0.220.57 + 0.08

0.86 + 0.050.80 + 0.040.84 + 0.080.99 + 0.010.86 + 0.050.88 + 0.03

0.61 + 0.020.69 + 0.020.59 + 0.040.58 + 0.030.56 + 0.030.69 + 0.02

26.2 + 2.416.7 + 1.414.9 + 1.419.3 + 2.026.2 + 3.011.2 + 1.2

32.6 + 4.136.8 + 1.342.6 + 2.932.1 + 1.233.1+ 1.431.2 + 2.3

ICG(FDRS)10

ICGS 44

ICGS 76

ICGV 86031

JL 24

TAG 24

Salt treatment (mM NaCI)

0 50 100 125 150

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

ICG(FDRS)10

ICGS 44

ICGS 76

ICGV 86031

JL 24

TAG 24

Exp 2 10

8

6

4

2

00 50 100 125 150

Salt treatment (mM NaCI)

Figure 1. Shoot dry mass of groundnut under different salt treatments in Exp 1 and Exp 2. (Note: Data are means of five replicatedplants per genotype and treatment and the vertical bars denote SE.)

46 IAN 25, 2005

Exp 1

Girdhar I K . 2004. Management of soil and water salinity forgroundnut production. Pages 260-272 in Groundnut researchin India (Basu MS and Singh NB, eds.). Junagadh, Gujarat,India: National Research Centre for Groundnut.

Krishnamurthy L, Rai K N , Hash CT and Serraj R. 2003a.Screening pearl millet germplasm for tolerance to soil salinity.International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 44:155-157.

Krishnamurthv L, Reddy BVS and Serraj R. 2003b.Screening sorghum germplasm for tolerance to soil salinity.International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 44:90-92.

Munns R, Husain S, Rivelli AR, James RA, Condon AG,Lindsay MP, Lagudah ES, Schachtman DP and Hare RA.2002. Avenues for increasing salt tolerance of crops, and therole of physiologically based selection traits. Plant and Soil247:93-105.

Munns R and James RA. 2003. Screening methods forsalinity tolerance: a case study with tetraploid wheat. Plant andSoil 253:201-218.

Netondo GW, Onyango JC and Beck E. 2004. Sorghum andsalinity: I. Response of growth, water relations, and ionaccumulation to NaCI salinity. Crop Science 44:797-805.

Rao DLN, Giller KE , Yeo AR and Flowers TJ. 2002. Theeffects of salinity and sodicity upon nodulation and nitrogenfixation in chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Annals of Botany89:563-570.

Sahrawat K L , Ravikumar G and Murthy KVS. 2002.Sulfuric acid selenium digestion for multi-element analysis in a single plant digest. Communications on Soil Science and PlantAnalysis 33:3757-3765.

Referencesis therefore needed to compare the leaf expansion oftolerant and sensitive genotypes under salinity stress andto assess the potential role played by abscisic acid. Theratio of stem/leaves was also an interesting aspect relatedto the possible storage of Na. I t has been found insorghum (Sorghum bicolor) that plants under sal initystore a large amount of Na in the stem, as compared toleaves and young leaves (Netondo et al . 2004). We foundin sorghum that there was a h igh ly signif icant correlationbetween the sal inity tolerance and the stem/leaves ratio(our on-going unpublished wo rk in sorghum). The sameturned out to be true in groundnut, where stems could beused as Na storage. Further investigation is needed todissect the precise local izat ion of Na in the shoot parts oftolerant and sensitive groundnut genotypes.

The N status of plants under sal inity appeared to beseverely affected along w i t h a drastic reduction in leafsize. It is too early to conclude that nodulat ion reductionwas the cause for the reduced product ion of biomassunder sal inity in sensitive genotypes, as nodulat ion is anendogenous variable (nodulat ion affects shoot g rowthbut shoot growth in turn also affects nodulat ion). Furtherw o r k w o u l d be needed to explore whether the N2 - f ixat ionprocess is the most sensitive physiological mechanism ingroundnut exposed to sal inity.

N o w that this protocol is set up, further work is neededto investigate the range of y ie ld response to 100-125 mMNaCI treatment, using a large range of genotypes.

Acknowledgments. This w o r k was supported by a special project grant f rom the Water & Food ChallengeProgram (CP#7). Special thanks to Mr N Jangaiah forexpert technical assistance.

IAN 25, 2005 47

48 IAN 25, 2005

The district and state level data related to area, productionand product iv i ty of groundnut and ra infa l l were col lected


The distr ict-wise annual ra infa l l , area, product ion andproduct iv i ty of groundnut in Gujarat and the correlationcoeff icient between rainfal l and product iv i ty arepresented in Table 1.

Rainfa l l distr ibut ion in G u j a r a t . The annual rainfal l o fGujarat is 851 mm w i t h a var iab i l i ty of 31 %. The rainfal lvaried from as l ow as 330 mm w i t h the highest annualvar iabi l i ty of 69% in Ku t ch district to as h igh as 2088 mmw i t h the lowest var iab i l i ty o f 29% in Dangs distr ict ofSouth Gujarat region. Junagadh distr ict has a peculiarrainfal l characteristic of h igh rainfal l as in a humid areaand a h igh var iab i l i ty l i ke an ar id cl imate. Kheda distr ictin M idd le Gujarat w i t h 941 mm rainfal l has 4 7 %var iab i l i ty but Junagadh distr ict in Saurashtra region w i t h992 mm rainfal l has 54% var iab i l i ty . Except Dangs andValsad the ra infa l l is h igh ly erratic in a l l the districts.Khambete and Biswas (1978) observed that more than95% of annual ra infa l l in Gujarat occurs dur ing thesouthwest monsoon season and neither the annual nor theseasonal ra infa l l d is t r ibut ion shows skewness.

Area , production and yield of groundnut in Gu ja ra t .The groundnut area in Gujarat var ied f rom 2.34 m i l l io nha in 1962 to 1.05 m i l l i o n ha in 1987-88 w i t h an averageof 1.91 m i l l i o n ha and year-to-year var iab i l i ty o f on ly1 1 % . The production varied from 2.87 m i l l i on t in 1988-89


for 43 years (1960-2002) from the publications of theDepartment of Agr icu l ture , Gujarat. The col lected datawere used to compute relat ive y ie ld index ( R Y I ) as g ivenby Kanwar (1972) for each year and for each distr ictseparately and f ina l ly averaged over the years. Thestatistical parameters l i ke mean, standard deviat ion (SD) ,coeff icient o f var iat ion ( C V ) and correlat ion coeff icientwere calculated to interpret the results and determine theefficient cropping zones. The fo l l ow ing formula wasused to calculate R Y I :

R Y I = (Average y ie ld of the distr ict / Average y ie ld ofthe state) x 100

Three categories of cropping zones were classified asmost eff icient (>125), eff icient (100-125) and noteff icient (<100) by using R Y I values. Considering theCV values for R Y I , the cropping zones were classified asmost stable (<25%) , stable (25 -50%) and unstable(>50%) . A l l the districts were grouped in f ive regions,v i z , Ku t ch , Saurashtra, No r th Gujarat, M idd le Gujaratand South Gujarat.

Cropping System

Assessment of Efficient GroundnutCropping Zone in Gujarat, India

DD Sahu* and BM Patoliya (Department of Agronomy,

College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University,

Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat, India)


Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is the most importantoilseed crop in Gujarat, Ind ia and occupies an area of1.91 m i l l i o n ha w i t h a product ion of 1.47 m i l l i o n t. Thiscrop is g rown in almost a l l the eight agrocl imatic zones ofthe state irrespective of so i l , c l imate and ra infa l l patterns.Crop production and productivity in agriculture is dependenton cl imate in general and weather in particular. The totalproduct ion of any crop depends on the actual acreageunder cul t ivat ion and the weather condit ions dur ing thecrop l i fe per iod whereas the product iv i ty of the cropdepends on both the soi l characteristics and weatherconditions dur ing the season (Venkataraman andKrishnan 1992). The studies on long-term effect ofsowing t ime and rainfal l d is t r ibut ion revealed that therainfal l amount and dist r ibut ion dur ing the g rowth per iodsignif icant ly affected the groundnut product ion andproduct iv i ty at Junagadh, Gujarat (Sahu et al. 2004).Veeraputhiran et al. (2003) have assessed and ident i f iedthe efficient cropping zones for r ice (Oryza sativa) andgroundnut in Tami l Nadu, India.

Though generally crop area is increasing every year insome regions, the product ion and product iv i ty aredecl in ing due to many obvious constraints. Rainfal l is themost v i ta l factor affecting dry land kharif ( rainy season)crops. Hence the assessment of eff icient groundnut areasfor max imum and stabil ized product ion and product iv i tyis essential. Junagadh distr ict is the most eff icient andstable zone for groundnut. The total area under groundnutin Saurashtra region is 1.6 m i l l i o n ha but the product iv i tyis 708 kg ha-1, wh i ch is considerably lower than the otherregions of the state of Gujarat. The y ie ld potential o fgroundnut is higher in other regions of the state than theSaurashtra region.

IAN 25, 2005 49

Table 2. District-wise efficiency and stability of groundnut production in Gujarat, India.

Region/District

KutchSaurashtraAmreli

BhavnagarJamnagarJunagadh

RajkotSurendranagarNorth GujaratAhmedabadGandhinagar

Mehsana

BanaskanthaSabarkantha

Middle GujaratKhedaVadodaraPanchmahal

South GujaratBharuch

SuratValsadDangs

Relative yield index (RYI)

Mean

144

94

9167

141

7394

129127109

113123

199

130

134

137

17114287

SD

111

23

35353032

58

1168737

3358

19373

80

92146

8645

CV (%)

77

2439

53214362

9069

3429

47

97

5660

67

866052

Efficiency

Most efficient

Not efficientNot efficientNot efficientMost efficient

Not efficientNot efficient

Most efficientMost efficient

EfficientEfficientEfficient

Most efficientMost efficientMost efficient

Most efficientMost efficientMost efficientNot efficient

Stability

Unstable

Most stableStableUnstable

Most stableStable

Unstable

UnstableUnstableStableStableStable

Unstable

UnstableUnstable

Unstable

UnstableUnstableUnstable

50 IAN 25, 2005

to 0.14 m i l l i o n t in 1987-88 w i t h an average product ionof 1.47 m i l l i o n t in the past 43 years. The product iv i tyvaried f rom 1577 kg ha-1 in 1988-89 to 133 kg ha-1 in1987-88, the disastrous drought year. A m o n g districtsRajkot has the highest average area (0.39 m i l l i o n ha)fo l lowed by Junagadh (0.37 m i l l i o n ha), Jamnagar (0.35m i l l i o n ha) and Amre l i (0.26 m i l l i o n ha). Junagadhdistr ict ranks first in total product ion (0.39 m i l l i o n t)fo l lowed by Rajkot (0.22 m i l l i o n t) , Jamnagar (0.20m i l l i o n t ) and A m r e l i (0.19 m i l l i o n t ) . Kheda distr ictranks first in product iv i ty w i t h 1167 kg ha-1, fo l lowed byJunagadh (1024 kg ha1) , Surat (987 kg ha-1), Ku t ch (932kg ha-1) and Gandhinagar (920 kg ha- 1) .

The relat ionship between distr ict-wise rainfal l andproduct iv i ty of groundnut was found to be strong andsignif icant for Rajkot and Banaskantha whereas it wash igh ly signif icant for A m r e l i , Bhavnagar, Jamnagar,Mehsana, Sabarkantha and Panchmahal districts. However,the relat ionship was not signif icant for Ahmedabad,

Kheda, Valsad, Surat and Bharuch districts that are h ighrainfal l areas (Table 1).

Efficient cropping zones. The distr ict-wise average R Y Iis presented in Table 2. The results reveal that out of 19districts in Gujarat on ly 10 districts were under mosteff icient cropping zone for groundnut. Considering theh igh R Y I values, the most eff icient districts forgroundnut cul t ivat ion are Junagadh, Ku tch , Ahmedabad,Gandhinagar, Kheda, Vadodara, Panchmahal, Valsad,Surat and Bharuch wh i ch fal l under differentagrocl imatic regions. A m o n g the ten districts on ly twodistricts, Junagadh and A m r e l i , exhibi ted the moststabil ized R Y I ; f ive districts, Bhavnagar, Rajkot,Mehsana, Banaskantha and Sabarkantha, exhib i ted a stabil ized R Y I . Jamnagar, Surendranagar and Dangsdistricts were classified "not ef f ic ient" cropping zonesfor groundnut because R Y I was very l o w and unstable.

Kanwar J. 1972. Cropping patterns, scope and concept. Pages11-32 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Cropping Patternof India. New Delhi, India: Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch.

Khambete NN and Biswas BC. 1978. Characteristics of shortperiod rainfall in Gujarat. Indian Journal of Meteorology,Hydrology and Geophysics 29(3):521-527.

Sahu DD, Patra BK and Patoliya B M . 2004. Effect of sowingtime and rainfall distribution on groundnut yield. InternationalArachis Newsletter 24:39-42.

Veeraputhiran R, Karthikeyan R, Geethalakshmi V,Selvaraju R, Sundersingh SD and Balasubramanian T N .2003. Crop planning-climate Atlas principles. Coimbatore,Tamil Nadu, India: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.

Venkataraman S and Krishnan A. 1992. Crops and weather.New Delhi, India: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, pp.563-565.

under the crop is most negl igible. Hence efforts shouldbe made to increase the area under the crop in otherregions of the state to enhance the groundnutproduct ion in the state as a whole.

As the study was done at distr ict level to identi fy themost efficient cropping zones for the crop, in-depth studyshould be undertaken at taluka and vi l lage levels of theconcerned districts to have micro- level crop p lanning anddelineation of most effective and efficient cropping zones.

References

From the above study the fo l lowing conclusions are drawn:

• Junagadh distr ict is the most eff icient and most stablecropping zone for groundnut.

• A m r e l i , Rajkot and Bhavnagar districts have morearea and stable yields but the product iv i ty is very l ow .

• The districts of No r th Gujarat region such asMehsana, Sabarkantha and Banaskantha are eff icientzones w i t h stable y ie ld for groundnut but the spread isvery l ow .

• Ku tch , Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Kheda, Baroda,Panchmahal and South Gujarat districts are mosteff icient zones for groundnut but the product iv i ty isvery unstable and the spread is very poor may be dueto l ow or h igh rainfal l in these districts.

• A l though the y ie ld potential of groundnut is good inM idd le Gujarat and Nor th Gujarat regions, the spreadis very low. Hence efforts should be targeted toincrease the area of the crop in these districts toenhance the groundnut product ion in the state.

• The area under the crop in the districts of Saurashtraregion is very h igh but the product iv i ty is l ow .

• This study suggests that w i t h relat ively lower R Y I inA m r e l i , Bhavnagar, Jamnagar and Rajkot the crop isg rown extensively but w i t h higher R Y I in Ku tch ,Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Anand, Vadodara,Panchmahal, Surat, Bharuch and Valsad the area

Conclusions

IAN 25, 2005 51


H a u l m qual i ty characteristics predictions by N l R S .The statistical comparison of ni t rogen content, in v i t roO M D and metabolizable energy content o f 90 haulmsamples as bl ind-predicted by N I R S and as analyzed byconventional laboratory analysis is presented in Table 1.

There was very good agreement between N IRSpredicted and measured values (Table 1). The R2 for the

Groundnut breeding lines and cultivars used. Thegroundnut genotypes, 860 in a l l , were g rown dur ing thepostrainy season 2001/02 at l C R I S A T , Patancheru, usingestablished I C R I S A T protocols. The genotypes camefrom diverse spectra of groundnut improvement: mediumduration, confectionery type, rust and late leaf spotresistant and aflatoxin resistant materials. Twelve cult ivars(checks) were repeated in the 2002/03 postrainy seasonfor the in i t ia l assessment of year-to-year effects.

H a u l m quali ty analysis. Haulms were analyzed by a combinat ion of conventional laboratory techniques andNear Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) . The N I R Sinstrument used was a FOSS Forage Analyzer 5000 w i t hsoftware package W i n l S I I I . From 860 haulm samples,180 representative samples were selected based on theirN I R S spectra for conventional analyses of haulmnitrogen content by Kje ldahl method and haulm in v i troorganic matter d igest ib i l i ty ( O M D ) and metabolizableenergy content as described by Menke and Steingass(1988). The selected set of 180 haulm samples wasrandomly d iv ided into 2 subsets of 90 samples each, onefor development of the N IRS cal ibrat ion equations andthe other for val idat ion procedures after b l ind-predict inghaulm nitrogen, in v i t ro O M D and metabolizable energycontent. Relationships between bl ind-predicted andconvent ional ly analyzed variables were described by R2

and standard error of predict ion (SEP).


M Ch Ramakrishna Reddy1. D Ravi1,SN Nigam2 and HD Upadhyaya2 (1. International Livestock

Research Institute ( ILRI), Patancheru 502 324, Andhra

Pradesh, India; 2. ICRISAT Patancheru 502 324, Andhra

Pradesh, India)


Food-Fodder T r a i t s i n G r o u n d n u t

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is one of the key crops ofthe semi-arid tropics. It is commonly cult ivated as a food-feed crop that provides pods for human food and haulmsfor l ivestock feeding (Larb i et a l . 1999, Omokanye et al.2001). From farmer part ic ipatory studies in the Deccanplateau of India, Rama Dev i et al . (2000) concluded thatfood from grain/pods and fodder f rom the crop residuesalmost equally contr ibute to l ivel ihoods in mixed-croplivestock systems. I t was because of this important dual-purpose usage of groundnut that the groundnutimprovement group of the International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi -Ar id Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) andlivestock nut r i t ion group of the International L ivestockResearch Institute ( I L R I ) , Patancheru, India started toexplore col laborat ively the potential for improv ing pody ie ld and haulm quantity and qual i ty. Successfulinclusion of haulm fodder traits into groundnutimprovement has three prerequisites:

1. L ivestock-nutr i t ional ly important genotypic var iat ionin haulm value (quanti ty and qual i ty ) ;

2. Laboratory infrastructure that can predict fodderqual i ty in a large number of plant entries; and

3. No serious trade-off between pod and haulm traits.

The work reported here investigated haulms from 860 . breeding lines and cult ivars of groundnut consideringthese three prerequisites.

Uti l izat ion

Table 1. Comparisons of NIRS blind-predicted nitrogen, in vitro organic matter digestibility ( O M D ) and metabolizableenergy ( M E ) content with actually analyzed values in haulms of 90 groundnut genotypes.

NIRS blind-predicted trait

Haulm nitrogenHaulm in vitro O M DHaulm in vitro ME

Agreement between NIRS predicted (y) and analyzed value (x)

y = 0.18 + 0.9x; R2 = 0.94; SEP1 = 0.06y = 8.2 + 0.85x; R2 = 0.92; SEP = 0.88y = 0.5 + 0.93x; R2 = 0.93; SEP = 0.13

1. For assessments of standard error of predict ion (SEP), see also mean and range in Table 2.

52 IAN 25, 2005

IAN 25, 2005 53

intakes and therefore low livestock product iv i ty (Van

Soest 1994). Ni t rogen content of haulms among

genotypes varied by almost 100% (Table 2), ranging

from 1.2 to 2.3% (or 7.5 to 14.4% protein content) w i th a

mean value of 1.7%. Thus, haulms even from genotypes

relat ively low in nitrogen w i l l supply m in imum microbial

ni trogen requirement result ing in acceptable levels of

intake and therefore l ivestock product iv i ty (see also

et al. 2005). S imi lar ly , a range of about 10 units

in in v i t ro O M D (Table 2) w i l l have important effects on

l ivestock product iv i ty . As shown recently ( et

al. 2005), the differences amongst genotypes for haulm

digest ib i l i ty o f 7 . 1 % ( in v ivo) and 7.5% ( in v i t ro) were

associated w i t h differences in l ive weight gain in sheep of

about 100 g day-1.

The range in metabolizable energy content amongst

genotypes was proport ional ly sl ight ly higher than the

range in in v i t ro O M D , conf i rming the important

differences amongst genotypes for haulm qual i ty.

Br ie f ly , metabolizable energy content is potent ial ly a

more precise estimate of fodder qual i ty than digest ib i l i ty

because losses in urinary and methane energy are taken

into account, and metabolizable energy values can be

direct ly used to predict m i l k y ie ld and meat product ion.

relationships were we l l above 0.90, wh ich is considered

excellent part icular ly for b io log ica l methods l ike

determinat ion o f in v i t ro O M D and metabol izable energy

content assessed on the basis of inoculat ion of substrate

w i th rumen microorganism. N IRS analysis is much quicker

and cheaper than convent ional analysis and is easy to

integrate into rout ine crop improvement wo rk , wh i l e

convent ional analysis is not. Establishment of accurate

N I R S equations for predict ions of groundnut haulms

quality is, therefore, an important step towards implement ing

groundnut improvement for haulms fodder qual i ty.

Variations amongst genotypes for haulm fodder qual i ty

trai ts. H i gh l y s igni f icant differences amongst genotypes

were found for ni trogen content, in v i t ro O M D and

metabol izable energy content of the haulms (Table 2).

Further, the range in these traits was large enough to have

important relevance for l ivestock feeding. For example,

low ni t rogen content is often considered the most l im i t i ng

factor in ut i l izat ion of crop residues as fodder. Rumen

microbes require a m i n i m u m of 1 to 1.2% ni t rogen (or

6.25 to 7.5% prote in, since protein is calculated as N x

6.25) in the fodder to ef fect ively degrade it . N i t rogen

content be low this threshold results in l ow voluntary feed

Table 3. Relationships between hau lm and pod traits in gr oundnut.

Trait comparisons1

Haulm N (x) versus pod yield (y)

Haulm N (x) versus haulm yield (y)

Haulm in vitro OMD (x) versus pod yield (y)

Haulm in vitro OMD (x) versus haulm yield (y)

Haulm in vitro ME (x) versus pod yield (y)

Haulm in vitro ME (x) versus haulm yield (y)

Haulm yield (x) versus pod yield (y)

Digestible haulm yield (x) versus pod yield (y)

n

860

839

860

839

860

839

839

839

Relationship

y = 1427 + 1303x; r = 0.28; P <0.0001

y = -2911 + 3569x; r = 0.26; P <0.0001

y = 2163 + 25.7x; r = 0.05; P = 0.13

y = -617 + 173.9x; r = 0.23; P<0.0001

y = 734 + 365x; r = 0.13; P <0.0001

y = -5816+ 1129x; r = 0.27; P <0.0001

y =2671 +0.31x; r = 0.46: P<0.0001

y = 2708 + 0.52x; r = 0.45; P <0.0001

1. N = N i t rogen ; O M D = Organic matter d igest ib i l i ty ; ME = Metabol izable energy.

Table 2. Means and ranges of nitrogen content, in vitro or ganic matter digestibility (OMD) and metabolizable energ y (ME)content and their least significant difference (LSD) and probability values (P) for haulms of 860 groundnut genotypes.

Haulm trait

Nitrogen (%)In vitro OMD (%)In vitro ME (MJ kg-1)

Mean

1.756.3

7.9

Range

1.2-2.351.7-61.1

6.9-8.9

LSD

0.161.90.4

P

<0.0001<0.0001<0.0001

54 IAN 25, 2005

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) haulms provide importantfodder resources for l ivestock feeding in mixed crop-l ivestock systems in developing countries (Larb i et al .1999, Rama Dev i et a l . 2000, Omokanye et al . 2001). Inthese systems fodder shortage is considered one of themajor constraints to h igh l ivestock product iv i ty and itscorol lary, h igh income f rom the market ing of l ivestockproducts. Shr ink ing common property resources and thel i t t le or no scope to expand arable land are furtherl im i t i ng the avai labi l i ty of fodder resources in the rainfedsemi-arid tropics. These factors are increasing the valueof groundnut as a food-feed crop for wh i ch both pod andhaulm yields and qual i ty traits are important. Improv ingthe product iv i ty of groundnut can address pod as w e l l ashaulm traits, but there is a - lack of in format ion on thevar iab i l i ty amongst cult ivars for the fodder qual i ty oftheir haulms. This w o r k reported here investigated thevar iab i l i ty in cult ivar-dependent fodder qual i ty o fgroundnut haulms through measurement of product iv i typarameters of young sheep.

M S Vellaikumar1, R Devulapalli1,SN Nigam2, HD Upadhyaya2 and A Khan1 (1. International

Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Patancheru 502 324,

Andhra Pradesh, India; 2. ICRISAT, Patancheru 502 324,

Andha Pradesh, India)


Preliminary Observations on LivestockProductivity in Sheep Fed Exclusively onHaulms from Eleven Cultivars ofGroundnut

Rama Devi K, Bandyopadhyay R, Hal l AJ, Indira S, PandeS and Jaiswal P. 2000. Farmers' perceptions of the effects ofplant diseases on the yield and nutritive value of crop residuesused for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau:Findings from participatory rural appraisals. InformationBulletin no. 60. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.35 pp.

Van Soest PJ. 1994. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. 2nd

edition. Ithaca, New York, USA: Cornell University Press.476 pp.

Broad sense her i tabi l i ty for fodder traits estimated in12 cult ivars (that served as checks in the t w o consecutivegrowing seasons) g rown in 2001/02 and 2002/03 postrainyseasons was 0.72 for ni t rogen content, 0.72 for in v i t roO M D and 0.67 for metabolizable energy content.

Relationship between pod yields and hau lm quant i tyand qual i ty. The relationships between haulm fodderqual i ty traits and pod and haulm y ie ld in 860 genotypesare reported in Table 3. It is encouraging to note thathaulm fodder qual i ty traits and pod and hau lm yieldswere not inversely related. Even though h ighly signif icant,the relationships were generally weak (Table 3). Thestrongest relat ionship (R2 = 0.21) was observed betweenpod and haulm y ie ld , but even in this relat ionship most ofthe var iat ion (79%) remained unaccounted for. The latterf ind ing suggests that hau lm yields should be recorded inits own right in groundnut improvement since a considerabledegree of independence seems to exist between pod andhaulm yields and h igh pod y ie ld is not automatical lyassociated w i t h h igh hau lm y ie ld . To summarize, therelationships presented in Table 3 show that h igh podyield and superior haulm quality and quantity are compatibletraits.

References

Blummel M, Vellaikumar S, Devulapalli R, Nigam SN,Upadhyaya HD and Khan A. 2005. Preliminary observationson livestock productivity in sheep fed exclusively on haulmsfrom eleven cultivars of groundnut. International Arachis Newsletter 25:54-57.

Larbi A, Dung DD, Olorunju PE, Smith JW, Tanko RJ,Muhammad lR and Adekunle lO. 1999. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) for food and fodder in crop-livestock systems:forage and seed yields, chemical composition and rumendegradation of leaf and stem fractions of 38 cultivars. AnimalFeed Science and Technology 77:33-47.

Menke KH and Steingass H. 1988. Estimation of the energyfeed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro gasproduction using rumen fluid. Animal Research andDevelopment 28:7-55.

Omokanye A T , Onifade OS, Olorunju PE, Adamu A M ,Tanko RJ and Balogun R O . 2001. The evaluation of dual-purpose groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) varieties for fodderand seed production in Shika, Nigeria. Journal of AgriculturalScience 136: 75-7.9.

IAN 25, 2005 55

Table 1. Organic matter digestibility ( O M D ) , organic matter intake ( O M I ) , digestible organic matter intake ( D O M I ) and liveweight gain ( LWG) estimated when haulms from 11 groundnut cultivars were fed to sheep.

Cultivar

ICGV 89104ICGV 91114T M V 2 ICGV 92093ICGV 92020ICGV 86325ICGS 76ICGS 11DRG 12ICGS 44ICGV 86590

LSD

OMD (%)

72.772.671.471.969.767.366.467.468.665.667.02.2

OMI (g/kg0.75)1

92.993.498.193.794.394.4

100.185.686.287.789.911.3

DOMI (g/kg0.75)1

67.567.970.067.465.763.566.457.759.157.560.0

8.9

LWG (g day-1)

15113512211910594

1007468695141.4

1. L i v e weight was expressed as metabolic l i ve weight, wh ich is l ive weight to the power of 0.75 to account for possible absolute difference in l ive

weight between groups.

Signif icant differences amongst cult ivars were observedfor O M D , organic matter intake ( O M I ) , digestible organicmatter intake ( D O M I ) and l ive weight gains ( L W G ) in


Haulms from improved germplasm/released groundnutcult ivars ( I C G V 89104, I C G V 91114, T M V 2 , I C G V92093, I C G V 92020, I C G V 86325, ICGS 76, ICGS 11,ICGS 44, D R G 12 and I C G V 86590) were harvested atfu l l pod matur i ty from seed mul t ip l icat ion trials at theInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi -Ar idTropics ( I C R I S A T ) , Patancheru, India. Four of thecultivars ( D R G 12, ICGS 11, ICGS 44 and I C G V 86325)were harvested and fed in two different years. Haulmswere fed ad l i b i tum as sole feed to g row ing Deccanisheep wh ich had a mean in i t ia l l ive weight of about 18 kg .Ad l i b i t um feed intake was adjusted by a l low ing less than10% of refused feed. The haulm of a cul t ivar was fed tosix sheep kept in metabolic cages. The sheep wereadapted to a cul t ivar for 3 weeks, f o l l ow ing wh i ch feceswere collected for 10 days. The sheep were weighedbefore the start of the tr ia l and before and after the 10-daycol lect ion period on two consecutive days for wh i chmean weights were calculated. The groundnut haulmswere analyzed in the laboratory for ni t rogen content byKjeldahl method and for neutral detergent f iber ( N D F ) ,acid detergent f iber ( A D F ) , acid detergent l i gn in ( A D L )and for in v i t ro true organic matter d igest ib i l i ty ( O M D )as described by Goer ing and Van Soest (1970).

Materials and methods sheep (Table 1). Greatest differences amongst cult ivarswere observed for dai ly L W G . L i ve weight gains in thefour cult ivars ( D R G 12, ICGS 11, ICGS 44 and I C G V86325) that were harvested and fed in t w o different yearsd id not di f fer signif icant ly (P >0.05) between the years.Therefore mean values over the two years are reported inTable 1. When fed haulms of cult ivar I C G V 89104,sheep gained dai ly more than 150 g l ive weight , wh i chwas probably close to the growth potential of Deccanisheep (N Krishna, formerly at A N G R A U , Hyderabad,India, personal communicat ion) wh i le sheep gained onlyabout 50 g on haulms of cult ivar I C G V 86590. Thecultivar-dependent var iat ion in L W G varied by almostthreefold. These observations conf i rm that groundnuthaulms are excellent fodder for ruminant l ivestock,probably as good or better than most of the plantedforages in the semi-arid tropics, and that l ivestockproduct iv i ty can be increased through choice ofgroundnut cultivars.

The indirect haulm quali ty estimates, O M D , O M I andD O M I accounted for 0.71 (P = 0.001), 0.34 (P = 0.06)and 0.76 (P = 0.0004) of the variat ion in dai ly L W G ,respectively. The strong posit ive relationship betweenO M I and L W G is encouraging because O M I can beestimated by simple laboratory techniques based onrumen microorganisms, ie, in v i t ro O M D . Establishedrelationships between laboratory haulm quali ty traits andthe product iv i ty of l ivestock when fed the haulms areessential i f haulm qual i ty is to be effectively targeted inmult id imensional crop improvement, since animalexperimentation is unsuitable for routine screening workin crop improvement work .

56 IAN 25, 2005

Table 3. Relationships between laboratory haulms quality m easurements (as in Table 2) and digestibility, intake an d liveweight gain ( L W G ) measurement in sheep fed haulms from 1 1 cultivars of groundnut 1.

Variable

Nitrogen

NDF

ADF

A D L

In vitro O M D

O M D

0.06 (P = 0.86)

-0.17 (P = 0.62)

-0.22 (P = 0.52)

-0.70 (P = 0.02)

0.72 (P = 0.01)

O M I

-0.18 (P = 0.57)

0.25 (P = 0.45)

0.35 (P = 0.29)

-0.36 (P = 0.27)

0.10 (P = 0.77)

DOMI

-0.09 (P = 0.80)

0.08 (P = 0.81)

0.12 (P = 0.72)

-0.62 (P = 0.04)

0.45 (P = 0.17)

LWG

-0.11 (P = 0.75)

0.04 (P = 0.90)

-0.29 (P - 0.40)

-0.76 (P - 0.007)

0.74 (P = 0.01)

1. O M D = Organic matter d igest ib i l i t y ; O M I = Organic matter intake; D O M I = Digest ib le organic matter in take; N D F = Neutra l detergent f iber ;

A D F = A c i d detergent f i be r ; A D L = A c i d detergent l i gn in .

Table 2 presents laboratory fodder qual i ty traits,

content of n i t rogen (N x 6.25 is an estimate of crude

protein content), N D F , A D F , A D L and i n v i t ro O M D ,

wh ich are of ten employed in roughage and forage

analysis. F rom the perspective of ruminant nu t r i t ion , un -

supplemented fodder should contain a m i n i m u m of 1.2%

of ni t rogen (Van Soest 1994) required as a cr i t ica l basal

nutr ient for the rumen microbes to digest fodder

ef f ic ient ly . The results in Table 2 show that a l l haulms

had ni trogen content we l l above this threshold level .

Neutral detergent f iber is an approx imat ion of total cel l

wa l l content (cel lulose + hemicel lulose + l ign in) and the

digest ib i l i ty o f N D F by rumen microbes depends on the

chemical structure o f N D F , part icular ly the degree o f

l ign i f ica t ion. On the other hand cel l contents (100 -

N D F ) are thought to be almost completely digestible and

al l haulms investigated consisted o f more than 5 0 % of

cel l content (Table 2). In v i t ro O M D var ied amongst

cult ivars by 7.5 units, wh i ch is of s imi lar magnitude to the

range in O M D observed in sheep (7.1 percentage units,

see Table 1). Mean in v i t ro O M D was 83.5% compared

to 6 9 . 1 % in sheep, w h i c h agrees we l l w i t h the theoretical

dif ference of 12.9 percentage units (Van Soest 1994)

expected for the part icular in v i t ro d igest ib i l i ty method

employed, w h i c h was a " t r u e " d igest ib i l i ty measurement,

rather than the "apparent" d igest ib i l i ty measurement

obtained in sheep.

The relationships between laboratory haulm qual i ty

estimates and digestibil i ty, intake and L W G measurements

in sheep fed on the haulms are reported in Table 3.

Signi f icant inverse relationships were observed between

A D L and O M D , D O M I and L W G i n sheep. Signi f icant

posit ive relationships were observed between in v i t ro

O M D and O M D and L W G i n sheep. General ly, the

laboratory measurements accounted for approximately

50 to 5 8 % of the var iat ion in the measurements in sheep.

To conclude, substantial var iat ion in fodder qual i ty o f

groundnut haulm from this sample of cultivars was observed,

such that the var iab i l i ty could be explo i ted through crop

improvement for higher livestock product iv i ty . F rom the

laboratory measurements in v i t ro O M D and l ign in content

seem to be suitable for use in the in i t ia l screening of

germplasm but further development of the laboratory qual i ty

traits is required.

References

Goering HK and Van Soest PJ. 1970. Forage fiber analyses(apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications).Agricultural Handbook No. 379. Washington, DC, USA:USDA-ARS.

Larbi A, Dung DD, Olorunju PE, Smith JW, Tanko RJ,Muhammad IR and Adekunle IO . 1999. Groundnut (Arachishypogaea) for food and fodder in crop-livestock systems:forage and seed yields, chemical composition and rumen

Table 2. Content of nitrogen (N), neutral detergent fiber(NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent ligni n(ADL) and in vitro organic matter digestibility ( O M D ) inhaulms from 11 groundnut cultivars.

Cultivar

ICGV 89104

ICGV 91114

T M V 2

ICGV 92093

ICGV 92020

ICGV 86325

lCGS 76

ICGS 11

DRG 12

ICGS 44

ICGV 86590

N(%)

1.8

1.8

1.8

3.1

2.6

2.4

1.6

2.0

2.2

2.2

2.1

NDF ADF

( % ) ( % )

42.1 25.0

38.5 25.6

43.7 29.8

33.0 25.6

36.6 27.0

39.2 25.9

42.4 27.6

39.6 25.7

37.8 26.6

40.7 26.7

40.1 28.5

A D L(%)

3.8

3.9

5.2

5.3

5.1

5.1

5.2

5.8

5.7

5.6

5.1

In vitroOMD (%)

88.0

87.9

83.5

86.0

80.5

80.5

83.0

82.9

82.2

83.7

80.7

plant diseases on the yield and nutritive value of crop residuesused for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau:Findings from participatory rural appraisals. InformationBulletin no. 60. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India:International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-AridTropics. 35 pp.

Van Soest PJ. 1994. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. 2nd

edition. Ithaca, New York, USA: Cornell University Press. 476 pp.

degradation of leaf and stem fractions of 38 cultivars. AnimalFeed Science and Technology 77:33-47.

Omokanye AT, Onifade OS, Olorunju PE, Adamu AM,Tanko RJ and Balogun RO. 2001. The evaluation of dual-purpose groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) varieties for fodderand seed production in Shika, Nigeria. Journal of AgriculturalScience 136:75-79.

Rama Devi K, Bandyopadhyay R, Hall AJ, Indira S, PandeS and Jaiswal P. 2000. Farmers' perceptions of the effects of

IAN 25, 2005 57

Abegaz EG, Kerr WL and Koehler PE. 2004. Role ofmoisture in flavor changes of model peanut confections duringstorage. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie/Food Scienceand Technology 37(2): 215-225.

Acosta-Martinez V, Upchurch DR, Schubert A M , Porter D and Wheeler T. 2004. Early impacts of cotton and peanutcropping systems on selected soil chemical, physical,microbiological and biochemical properties. Biology andFertility of Soils 40(1): 44-54.

Adebowale KO and Lawal OS. 2004. Comparative study ofthe functional properties of bambara groundnut (Voanazeiasubterranea), jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) and mucunabean (Mucuna pruriens) flours. Food Research International37(4): 355-365.

Adeniji AA and Omonijo OA. 2004. Replacement value ofpalmkernel cake for groundnut cake in the diets of weanerrabbits. Livestock Production Science 85(2/3):287-291.

Akram M, Jain RK , Chaudhary V, Ahlawat YS andKhurana SMP. 2004. Comparison of groundnut bud necrosisvirus isolates based on movement protein (NSm) genesequences. Annals of Applied Biology 145(3): 285-289.

Alabi O and Olornnju PE. 2004. Evaluation of neem seedextract, black soap and cow dung for the control of groundnutleaf spot at Samaru, Nigeria. Archives of Phytopathology andPlant Protection 37(2): 123-127.

Alam G. 2004. State of the Indian farmer: a millennium study.Volume 5. Technology generation and IPR issues. New Delhi,India: Academic Foundation; and Department of Agricultureand Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government ofIndia. 172 pp.

58 IAN 25, 2005

Amado M, Qi Y, Comelli E M , Collins BE and Paulson JC.2004. Peanut agglutinin high phenotype of activated CD, T cells results from de novo synthesis of CD45 glycans. Journalof Biological Chemistry 279(35): 36689-36696.

Amedie B, Hiremath SM, Chittapur B M , Halikatti SI andChimmad VP. 2004. Intercropping of grain legumes insorghum. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences17(1): 22-27.

Anitha K, Chakrabarthy SK, Rao RDVJP, Girish AG,Thakur RP, Varaprasad KS and Khetarpal RK. 2004.Interceptions of bacterial wi l t of groundnut from introducedgermplasm - a case study. Indian Journal of Plant Protection32(1): 93-97.

Asare E Kwasi, Sefa-Dedeh S, Sakyi-Dawson E andAfoakwa EO. 2004. Application of response surfacemethodology for studying the product characteristics ofextruded rice-cowpea-groundnut blends. International Journalof Food Sciences and Nutrit ion 55(5): 431-439.

Ashok J, Fakruddin B, Paramesh H, Kuruvinashetti MSand Kullaiswamy. 2004. Differential response of groundnut,Arachis hypogaea L.. genotypes for in vitro callus inductionand regeneration using mature embryo explants. Journal ofOilseeds Research 21: 134-136.

Azpilicueta CE, Zawoznik MS and Tomaro M L . 2004.Phytoalexins synthesis is enhanced in groundnut plantsinoculated with Bradyrhizobium sp. (Arachis). CropProtection 23(11): 1069-1074.

Banterng P, Patanothai A, Pannangpetch K, Jogloy S andHoogenboom G. 2004. Determination and evaluation ofgenetic coefficients of peanut lines for breeding applications.European Journal of Agronomy 21(3): 297—310.

Bashir NS, Sanger M, U and Ghabrial SA. 2004.Expression of the peanut stunt virus coat protein gene isessential and sufficient for production of host-dependentribbon-like inclusions in infected plants. Phytopathology94(7): 722-729.

Bentur M G , Parameshwarappa KG and Malligawad L H .2004. Stability analysis in large seeded groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. genotypes for pod yield and its component traits.Journal of Oilseeds Research 21: 17-20.

Betts CJ, Flanagan BF, Caddick H T , Dearman RJ andKimber l. 2004. Intradermal exposure of BALB/c strain miceto peanut protein elicits a type 2 cytokine response. Food andChemical Toxicology 42(10): 1589-1599.

Publications

SATCRIS Listing

The fol lowing 2004 list of publications have been generatedfrom ICRlSAT's electronic bibliographic database SATCRIS- the Semi-Arid Tropical Crops Information Service. Copies ofentries can be obtained by writ ing to:

Senior ManagerLibraryICRlSATPatancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

Groundnut publications

Faeste CK, Levik M, Wiker HG and Egaasa E. 2004. Caseof peanut cross-allergy to lupine flour in a hot dog bread.International Archives of Allergy and Immunology 135(1): 36-39.

Ferguson M E , Bramel PJ and Chandra S. 2004. Genediversity among botanical varieties in peanut (Arachishypogaea L.). Crop Science 44(5): 1847-1854.

Ferguson M E , Burow M D , Schulze SR, Bramel PJ,Paterson A H , Kresovich S and Mitchell S. 2004.Microsatellite identification and characterization in peanut (A.hypogaea L.). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108(6): 1064-1070.

Garay A H , Sollenberger LE, Staples CR and Pedreira CGS.2004. 'Florigaze' and 'Arbrook' rhizoma peanut as pasture forgrowing holstein heifers. Crop Science 44(4): 1355-1360.

Ghosh PK. 2004. Growth, yield, competition and economicsof groundnut/cereal fodder intercropping systems in the semi-arid tropics of India. Field Crops Research 88(2/3): 227-237.

Grichar WJ, Besler BA, Brewer KD and Langston VB.2004. Using diclosulam in a weed control program for peanutin south Texas. Crop Protection 23(11): 1145-1149.

Hales BJ, Bosco A, Mills K L , Hazell LA, Loh R, Holt PGand Thomas WR. 2004. lsoforms of the major peanut allergenAra h 2: IgE binding in children with peanut allergy.International Archives of Allergy and Immunology 135(2):101-107.

Hayashida O and Hamachi 1. 2004. Fluorophore appendedsaccharide cyclophane: self-association, fluorescent properties,heterodimers with cyclodextrins, and cross-linking behaviorwith peanut agglutinin of dansyl-modified saccharide cyclophane.Journal of Organic Chemistry 69(10): 3509-3516.

Hemalatha S, Rao VP and Reddy BN. 2004. Groundnut,Arachis hypogaea L. growth and yield as influenced byevapotranspiration deficits. Journal of Oilseeds Research21: 42-46,

Herselman L, Thwaites R, Kimmins F M , Courtois B, vander Merwe PJA and Seal SE. 2004. Identification andmapping of AFLP markers linked to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) resistance to the aphid vector of groundnut rosette disease.Theoretical and Applied Genetics 109(7): 1426 - 1433.

Immer U, Reck B, Lindeke S and Koppelman S. 2004.Ridascreen Fast Peanut, a rapid and safe tool to determinepeanut contamination in food. International Journal of FoodScience and Technology 39(8): 869-871.

Jat HS and Ahlawat IPS. 2004. Production potential andeconomic viability of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) + groundnut(Arachis hypogaea) intecropping in Indo-gangetic plains.Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 74(3): 126 - 129.

Bhadoria PS, El Dessougi H, Liebersbach H and ClaassenN. 2004. Phosphorus uptake kinetics, size of root system andgrowth of maize and groundnut in solution culture. Plant andSoil 262(1/2): 327-336.

Bheemaiah G and Subrahmanyam M V R . 2004. Growth andyield of groundnut intercropped with Tamarindus indica underdifferent levels of fertility. Indian Journal of DrylandAgricultural Research and Development 19(1): 94-96.

Branch WD and Fletcher SM. 2004. Evaluation of advancedGeorgia peanut breeding lines with reduced-input and withoutirrigation. Crop Protection 23(11): 1085-1088.

Bronson KF , Trostle CL , Schubert AM and Booker JD.2004. Leaf nutrients and yields of irrigated peanut in thesouthern high plains: Influence of nitrogen, phosphorus, andzinc fertilizer. Communications in Soil Science and PlantAnalysis 35(7/8): 1095-1110.

Chang CS and Sung J M . 2004. Nutrient uptake and yieldresponses of peanuts and rice to lime and fused magnesiumphosphate in an acid soil. Field Crops Research 89(2/3): 319-325.

Chu GX, Shen QR and Cao JL. 2004. Nitrogen fixation andN transfer from peanut to rice cultivated in aerobic soil in anintercropping system and its effect on soil N fertility. Plant andSoil 263(1/2): 17-27.

Dar W D . 2004. ICRlSAT - using biotechnology to improvecrop productivity in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Advanced Biotech 3(6): 16-19.

Devi MC and Reddy M N . 2004. Lipid composition ofgroundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) plants inoculated with vamfungus and rhizobium. Legume Research 27(3): 157-163.

Dobaria JR, Rathnakumar AL and Bharodia PS. 2004.Genetic analysis of yield components and confectionery traitsin crosses involving large seeded genotypes of groundnut,Arachis hypogaea L. Journal of Oilseeds Research 21: 11-16.

Dubey RK, Kaul JN and Kaur N. 2004. Effect of plantgeometry and water-soaking duration of pod on summergroundnut (Arachis hypogaea). Indian Journal of AgriculturalSciences 74(7): 392-393.

Ellis AK. 2004. Deliberate ingestion of peanut as a suicideattempt. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 49(10): 708-710.

European Association for Grain Legume Research. 2004.Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on GrainLegumes and 2nd International Conference on LegumeGenomics and Genetics: Legumes for the Benefit ofAgriculture, Nutrition and the Environment: their Genomics,their Products, and their Improvement, Dijon, France, 7-11Jun 2004. Paris, France: European Association for GrainLegume Research; and Dijon, France: lNRA Genetics andEcophysiology of Legumes Unit. 198 pp.

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Jayabalan N, Anthony P, Davey M R , Power JB and LoweK C . 2004. Hemoglobin promotes somatic embryogenesis inpeanut cultures. Art i f icial Cells, Blood Substitutes, andBiotechnology 32:149 -157.

Jyothi M R , Kumari CR, Obulamma U and Lingam B. 2004.Response of early rabi groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. tospacing, irrigation and plant protection levels. Journal ofOilseeds Research 21:171-172.

Kandala C V K . 2004. Moisture determination in single peanutpods by complex RF impedance measurement IEEE Transactionson Instrumentation and Measurement 53(6): 1493-1496.

Karanjikar PN, Jadhav GS and Wakle PK. 2004. Eco-physiology of yield expression in groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. genotypes during post-monsoon season. Journalof Oilseeds Research 21:39-41.

Karikar i SK and Tabona T T . 2004. Constitutive traits andselective indices of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc) landraces for drought tolerance under Botswanaconditions. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth - Parts A/B/C29(15-18): 1029-1034.

Kenney SJ and Beuchat LR. 2004. Survival, growth, andthermal resistance of Listeria monocytogenes in productscontaining peanut and chocolate. Journal of Food Protection67(10):2205-2211.

Khandelwal A, Renukaradhya GJ, Rajasekhar M, Sita GLand Shaila MS. 2004. Systemic and oral immunogenicity ofhemagglutinin protein of rinderpest virus expressed bytransgenic peanut plants in a mouse model. Virology323(2):284-291.

Kitturmath MS, Giraddi RS, Viraktamath SA and SattigiU N . 2004. Evaluation of different feeding additives for bio-degradation of groundnut shell and rice husk using earthworm,Eudrilus eugeniae (Kingberg). Karnataka Journal of AgriculturalSciences 17(1):52-56.

Knudby A. 2004. AVHRR-based model of groundnut yieldsin the Peanut Basin of Senegal. International Journal of RemoteSensing 25(16):3161-3175.

Koppelman SJ, Wensing M, Ertmann M, Knulst AC andKnol EF. 2004. Relevance of Ara h1, Ara h2 and Ara h3 inpeanut-allergic patients, as determined by immunoglobulin E Western blotting, basophil-histamine release and intracutaneoustesting: Ara h2 is the most important peanut allergen. Clinicaland Experimental Allergy 34(4):583-590.

Krishna A. 2004. Impact of different management practices onyield of kharif groundnut. Legume Research 27(1):54-57.

Kumar CA. 2004. Diversity analysis of early-maturinggroundnut germplasm using SSR markers. MSc thesis, AcharyaNG Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,Andhra Pradesh, India. 54 pp.

Kumar NS, Natarajan S, Veeramani A and Kumar PS.2004. Integrated weed management in groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.) under varying plant densities. Indian Journal ofWeed Science 36(1-2):144-145.

Lakshmidevamma T N , Gowda MB and Mahadevu P. 2004.Character association and path analysis in groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.) . Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences38(2):221-226.

Lal C, Rathnakumar AL and Basu MS. 2004. Groundnutbreeder seed production in India: problems and prospects.Indian Farming 54(2):24-27.

Lee SS, Lee SM, Kim M, Chun J, Cheong YK and Lee J.2004. Analysis of trans-resveratrol in peanuts and peanutbutters consumed in Korea. Food Research International37(3):247-251.

Liu Chin-Chi, Tellez-Garay AM and Castell-Perez M E .2004. Physical and mechanical properties of peanut proteinfilms. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie/Food Scienceand Technology 37(7):731-738.

Lou H, Yuan H, Ma B, Ren D, Ji M and Oka S. 2004.Polyphenols from peanut skins and their free radical-scavenging effects. Phytochemistry 65(16):2391-2399.

Maguire LS, O'Sullivan S M , Galvin K, O'Connor TP andO'Brien N M . 2004. Fatty acid profile, tocopherol, squaleneand phytosterol content of walnuts, almonds, peanuts,hazelnuts and the macadamia nut. International Journal ofFood Sciences and Nutrit ion 55(3): 171-178.

Maleki SJ and Hurlburt BK. 2004. Structural and functionalalterations in major peanut allergens caused by thermalprocessing. Journal of AOAC International 87(6):1475-1479.

Mall ikarjuna N. 2004. Meiotic study of intersectional hybridsbetween Arachis hypogaea, A. duranensis and A. diogoi wi thA. glabrata. International Arachis Newsletter 24:7-8.

Mallikarjuna N, Kranthi KR , Jadhav DR, Kranthi S andChandra S. 2004. Influence of foliar chemical compounds onthe development of Spodoptera litura (Fab.) in interspecificderivatives of groundnut. Journal of Applied Entomology128(5):321-328.

Mallikarjuna N, Pande S, Jadhav DR, Sastri DC and RaoJN. 2004. Introgression of disease resistance genes fromArachis kempff-mercadoiinto cultivated groundnut. PlantBreeding 123(6):573-576.

Manjula K, Kishore G K , Girish AG and Singh SD. 2004.Combined application of Pseudomonas fluorescens andTrichoderma viride has an improved biocontrol activityagainst stem rot in groundnut. Plant Pathology Journal20(l) :75-80.

Manjula K, Kishore GK and Podile AR. 2004. Whole cellsof Bacillus subtilis AF l proved more effective than cell-free

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and chitinase-based formulations in biological control of citrusfruit rot and groundnut rust. Canadian Journal of Microbiology50(9):737-744.

Misra JB. 2004. Mathematical approach to comprehensiveevaluation of quality in groundnut. Journal of Food Compositionand Analysis 17(1):69-79.

TE and Nyberg M. 2004. Efficiency of differentextraction solvent mixtures used in analyses of aflatoxins froma certified peanut meal reference material. Food Additives andContaminants 21(8): 781-785.

Monfort WS, Culbreath AK, Stevenson K L , BrennemanTB, Gorbet DW and Phatak SC. 2004. Effects of reducedtillage, resistant cultivars, and reduced fungicide inputs onprogress of early leaf spot on peanut (Arachis hypogaea). PlantDisease 88(8): 858-866.

Mosha TCE and Vicent M M . 2004. Nutritional value andacceptability of homemade maize/sorghum-based weaningmixtures supplemented with rojo bean flour, ground sardinesand peanut paste. International Journal of Food Sciences andNutrition 55(4):301-315.

J, S, Sanchez C, Villaume C andMejean L. 2004. In vitro allergenicity of peanut after hydrolysisin the presence of polysaccharides. Clinical and ExperimentalAllergy 34(9):1429-1437.

Mphande FA, Siame BA and Taylor JE. 2004. Fungi,aflatoxins, and cyclopiazonic acid associated with peanutretailing in Botswana. Journal of Food Protection 67(1): 96-102.

Mukai T, Kaneko S, Matsumoto M and Ohori H. 2004.Binding of Bifidobacterium bifidum and Lactobacillus reuteri to the carbohydrate moieties of intestinal glycolipids recognizedby peanut agglutinin. International Journal of Food Microbiology90(3):357-362.

Naidu GK, Gowda M V C and Motagi BN. 2004. Response toselection for seed dormancy in groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. Journal of Oilseeds Research 21: 21-23.

Nandagopal V, Gedia MV and Makwana AD. 2004.Population dynamics of aphids (Aphis craccivora Koch andHysteroneura setariae Thomes) in relation with weatherparameters in groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. Journal ofOilseeds Research 21: 98-103.

Natchiar S, Jeyaprakash AA, Ramya T N C , Thomas CJ,Suguna K, Surolia A and Vijayan M. 2004. Structuralplasticity of peanut lectin: and X-ray analysis involvingvariation in pH, ligand binding and crystal structure. ActaCrystallographica: Section D 60(2): 211-219.

Nautiyal PC, Bandyopadhyay A and Misra RC. 2004.Drying and storage methods to prolong seed viability ofsummer groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) in Orissa. IndianJournal of Agricultural Sciences 74(6): 316-320.

Nautiyal PC and Gontia NK. 2004. Water use and irrigationstrategies in groundnut. Indian Farming 54(4): 3-6.

Nigam SN, Gir i DY and Reddy AGS. 2004. Groundnut seedproduction manual. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh,India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-AridTropics. 32 pp.

Nogueira M C L , McDonald R, Westphal C, Maleki SJ andYeung J M . 2004. Can commercial peanut assay kits detectpeanut allergens? Journal of AOAC International 87(6): 1480-1484.

Nur HA. 2004. Management of aflatoxin contamination ingroundnut through biological control, host plant resistance andbotanicals. PhD thesis, Acharya NG Ranga AgriculturalUniversity, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.255 pp.

O'Donnell G. 2004. Quibbling over peanuts. Law SocietyJournal: Official Journal of The Law Society of New SouthWales 42(1): 10-14.

Ott JP, Mui r JP, Brown TF and Wittie RD. 2004. Peanutmeal supplementation for growing doe kids on woodlandrange. Small Ruminant Research 52(1/2): 63-74.

Ovando O, Eugenia M, Isola M C , Maldonado AM andFranzoni L. 2004. Purification and properties of iminopeptidasefrom peanut seeds. Plant Science 166(5): 1143-1148.

Oyinlola A, Ojo A and Adekoya LO. 2004. Development of a laboratory model screw press for peanut oi l expression. Journalof Food Engineering 64(2): 221-227.

Pande S, Rajesh TR, Rao KC and Kishore GK. 2004. Effectof temperature and leaf wetness period on the components ofresistance to late leaf spot disease in groundnut. PlantPathology Journal 20(1):67-74.

Pandey S and Singh DK. 2004. Total bacterial and fungalpopulation after chlorpyrifos and quinalphos treatments ingroundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) soil. Chemosphere 55(2):197-205.

Pannu JK, Singh A and Ward OP. 2004. Vegetable oi l as a contaminated soil remediation amendment: application ofpeanut oi l for extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsfrom soil. Process Biochemistry 39(10): 1211-1216.

Patel M, Jung S, Moore K, Powell G, Ainsworth C andAbbott A. 2004. High-oleate peanut mutants result from a MITE insertion into the FAD2 gene. Theoretical and AppliedGenetics 108(8): 1492-1502.

Pensuk V, Jogloy S, Wongkaew S and Patanothai A. 2004.Generation means analysis of resistance to peanut bud necrosiscaused by peanut bud necrosis tospovirus in peanut. PlantBreeding 123(1): 90-93.

EE and Lewis EE. 2004. Suppression of Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne hapla with entomopathogenic

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nematodes on greenhouse peanuts and tomatoes. BiologicalControl 30(2): 336-341.

Pildain M B , Vaamonde G and Cabral D. 2004. Analysis ofpopulation structure of Aspergillus flavus from peanut basedon vegetative compatibility, geographic origin, mycotoxin andsclerotia production. International Journal of FoodMicrobiology 93(1): 31-40.

A, Vinton R and Chapman M D . 2004. Peanut allergen(Ara h 1) detection in foods containing chocolate. Journal ofFood Protection 67(4):793-798.

Proctor AD, Ahmedna M, Kumar JV and Goktepe I . 2004.Degradation of aflatoxins in peanut kernels/flour by gaseousozonation and mi ld heat treatment. Food Additives andContaminants 21(8): 786-793.

Quilambo OA. 2004. Proline content, water retentioncapability and cell membrane integrity as parameters fordrought tolerance in two peanut cultivars. South AfricanJournal of Botany 70(2):227-234.

Rajgopal K, Bandyopadhyay A, Chandran K, Lalwani HB,Ghetia NR and Bhalodia PK. 2004. Morphologicalcharacterization of released groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.cultivars for the DUS requirement. Journal of OilseedsResearch 21:1-10.

Rangaraj S, Ramanathan V, Tuthil l DP, Spear E, OBHourihane J and Alfaham M. 2004. General paediatriciansand the case of resolving peanut allergy. Pediatric Allergy andImmunology 15(5):449-553.

Rao CAR, Chowdry KR, Rao G V K and Reddy W R . 2004.Growth and technological change in groundnut production inAndhra Pradesh. Agricultural Situation in India 61(2): 65-77.

Rathod PS, Halikatti SI , Hiremath SM and Kajjidoni ST.2004. Comparative performance of pigeonpea based intercroppingsystems in northern transitional zone of Karnataka. KarnatakaJournal of Agricultural Sciences 17(2):203-206.

Reddy KM and Chowdegowda M. 2004. Study of engineeringproperties of groundnut pod. Mysore Journal of AgriculturalSciences 38(1):45-50.

Reddy M S , Reddy DS and Reddy P V R M . 2004. Effect ofresidual fertility of different nitrogen management practice tokharif rice on the performance of rabi groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. Journal of Oilseeds Research 21: 47-49.

Ronteltap A, Van Schaik J, Wensing M, Rynja FJ, KnulstAC and De Vries J H M . 2004. Sensory testing of recipesmasking peanut or hazelnut for double-blind placebo-controlledfood challenges. Allergy 59(4): 457-460.

Rous T and Hunt A. 2004. Governing peanuts: the regulationof the social bodies of children and the risks of food allergies.Social Science and Medicine 58(4): 825-836.

Rudrabhatla P and Rajasekharan R. 2004. Functionalcharacterization of peanut serine/threonine/tyrosine protein

kinase: Molecular docking and inhibition kinetics withtyrosine kinase inhibitors. Biochemistry 43(38):12123—12132.

Samui RC, Mandal S and Mondal A. 2004. Effect ofpotassium fertilization on growth, yield and yield attributes ofgroundnut, Arachis hypogaea L. cultivars in new alluvial zoneof West Bengal. Journal of Oilseeds Research 21:173-174.

Sarkar RK and Pal PK. 2004. Effect of intercropping rice(Oryza sativa) with groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) andpigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) under different row orientations onrainfed uplands. Indian Journal of Agronomy 49(3): 147-150.

Sarr B, Lecoeur J and Clouvel P. 2004. Irrigation schedulingof confectionery groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in Senegalusing a simple water balance model. Agricultural WaterManagement 67(3):201-220.

Sasikala B, Ramu YR and Reddy CR. 2004. Pre and post-emergence herbicides on weed control and yield of groundnut(Arachis hypogaea). Indian Journal of Dryland AgriculturalResearch and Development 19(l):78-80.

Schmitt DA, Hsiaopo C, Maleki SJ and Burks AW. 2004.Competitive inhibition ELISA for quantification of Ara h 1 andAra h 2, the major allergens of peanuts. Journal of AOACInternational 87(6): 1492-1498.

Schwach F, Adam G and Heinze C. 2004. Expression of a modified nucleocapsid-protein of tomato spotted wi lt virus(TSWV) confers resistance against TSWV and groundnutringspot virus (GRSV) by blocking systemic spread. MolecularPlant Pathology 5(4):309-316.

Senapati BK, Maity D and Sarkar G. 2004. Stabilityevaluation of summer groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) undercoastal saline zone of West Bengal. Legume Research27(2): 103-106.

Shen Q and Chu G. 2004. Bi-directional nitrogen transfer inan intercropping system of peanut with rice cultivated inaerobic soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils 40(2):81-87.

Singh G and Chandra H. 2004. Production and economicfactors growth in cultivation of groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.crop in India. Journal of Oilseeds Research 21:121-124.

Singh J and Singh DK. 2004. Persistence of imidacloprid, diazinon and lindane in soil under groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivation. Pesticide Research Journal 16(1):66-70.

Sreekant M, Sreeramulu M, Rao RDVJP, Babu BS andBabu TR. 2004. Effect of intercropping on Thrips palmi (Karny) population and peanut bud necrosis virus (PBNV)incidence in mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). IndianJournal of Plant Protection 32(1):45-48.

Srikanth S, Das SK, Ravikumar B, Rao DS, Nandakumar K and Vijayan P. 2004. Nature of fireside deposits in a bagasseand groundnut shell fired 20 MW thermal boiler. Biomass andBioenergy 27(4):375-384.

Sriveni M, Rupela OP, Gopalakrishnan S and Krajewski M.2004. Spore-forming bacteria, a major group among potentialantagonists isolated from natural sources such as termitaria soiland composts used by organic farmers. Indian Journal ofMicrobiology 44(2):95-100.

Stephan O, Weisz N, Vieths S, Weiser T, Rabe B andVatterott W. 2004. Protein quantification, sandwich ELlSA,and real-time PCR used to monitor industrial cleaningprocedures for contamination with peanut and celery allergens.Journal of AOAC International 87(6):1448 - 1457.

Strid J, Thomson M, Hourihane J, Kimber I and Strobel S.2004. Novel model of sensitization and oral tolerance topeanut protein. Immunology 113(3):293—303.

Sujith G M , Ramachandrappa BK and Nanjappa H V . 2004.Weed biomass in relation to irrigation schedules and herbicideapplication methods and pod yield of summer groundnut(Arachis hypogaea L.) in Alftsols of eastern dry zone ofKarnataka. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences 38(1):60-67.

Tano-Debrah K and Gbeddy DV. 2004. Processing of a cowpea-groundnut blend into a miso-like product. InternationalJournal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 55(3):207-214.

Teuber SS. 2004. Peanut, tree nut and seed allergies. CurrentOpinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology 4(3):201-203.

Thenmozhi S, Natarajan S and Selvakumari G. 2004. Effectof humic acid on growth and yield parameters of groundnut(var. VRl 2). Crop Research 27(2-3):205-209.

Thenmozhi S, Natarajan S and Selvakumari G. 2004. Effectof humic acid on quality parameters of groundnut. Crop Research27(2-3):210-213.

Tiyagi SA and Ajaz S. 2004. Biological control of plantparasitic nematodes associated with chickpea using oi l cakesand Paecilomyces lilacinus. Indian Journal of Nematology34(l):44-48.

Tripathy M K , Das BC and Mohanty S. 2004. Efficacy of fewbotanicals against seed beetle (Caryedon serratus Oliv.)(Bruchidae Coleoptera) infesting stored groundnut underBhubaneswar condition. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research38(1):15-21.

Trucksess M W , Brewer VA, Williams K M , Westphal CDand Heeres JT. 2004. Preparation of peanut butter suspensionfor determination of peanuts using enzyme-linked immunoassaykits. Journal of AOAC International 87(2):424 - 428.

Trucksess M W , Whitaker TB, Slate AB, Williams K M ,Brewer VA, Whittaker P and Heeres JT. 2004. Variation ofanalytical results for peanuts in energy bars and milkchocolate. Journal of AOAC International 87(4):943-949.

Tschakert P, Khouma M and M. 2004. Biophysicalpotential for soil carbon sequestration in agricultural systemsof the Old Peanut Basin of Senegal. Journal of Arid Environments59(3):511-533.

Tschakert P and Tappan G. 2004. Social context of carbonsequestration: considerations from a multi-scale environmentalhistory of the Old Peanut Basin of Senegal. Journal of Ar idEnvironments 59(3):535-564.

Tsukamoto S and Nakayama T. 2004. First-principleselectronic structure calculations for peanut-shaped C120

molecules. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials5(5/6):617-620.

van Odi jk J, Bengtsson U, Borres M P , L andAhlstedt S. 2004. Specific immunoglobulin E antibodies topeanut over time in relation to peanut intake, symptoms andage. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 15(5):442-448.

van Odijk J, L, Ahlstedt S and Borres M P . 2004.Introduction of food during the infant's first year: a study withemphasis on introduction of gluten and of egg, fish and peanutin allergy-risk families. Acta Paediatrica 93(4):464-470.

Viquez O M , Konan KN and Dodo H W . 2004. Genomicorganization of peanut allergen gene, Ara h 3. MolecularImmunology 41 (12):1235-1240.

Vironen J, Kellokumpu S, Andersson LC and Kellokumpul. 2004. Comparison of a peanut agglutinin test and animmunochemical faecal occult blood test in detectingcolorectal neoplasia in symptomatic patients. ScandinavianJournal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 64(2): 140-145.

Wendt JW and Atemkeng M F . 2004. Soybean, cowpea,groundnut, and pigeonpea response to soils, rainfall, andcropping season in the forest margins of Cameroon. Plant andSoil 263(1/2):121-132.

Wesley BJ, Babu BH, Swamy R and Reddy TY. 2004.Impact of mechanization in production of groundnut crop inAnantapur region. Indian Journal of Dryland AgriculturalResearch and Development 19(2): 143-145.

Xu F, Xie Y, Zhang X, Zhang S, Liu X and Tian X. 2004.Synergic nitrogen source route to inorganic fullerene-likeboron nitride with vessel, hollow sphere, onion, and peanutnanostructures. Inorganic Chemistry 43(2):8 22-829.

Yang H, Ozias-Akins P, Culbreath AK, Gorbet DW, WeeksJR, Mandal B and Pappu HR. 2004. Field evaluation oftomato spotted wi l t virus resistance in transgenic peanut(Arachis hypogaea). Plant Disease 88(3):259-264.

Young CT, Pattee H E , Schadel WE and Sanders T H . 2004.Microstructure of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L. cv. 'NC 7')

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cotyledons during development. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie/Food Science and Technology 37(4): 439-445.

Zamorano LS, Pina D G , Gavilanes F, Roig M G , SakharovI Y , Jadan AP, van Huystee RB, Vil lar E and Shnyrov V L .2004. Two-state irreversible thermal denaturation of anionicpeanut (Arachis hypogaea L..) peroxidase. ThermochimicaActa 417(1): 67-73.

Zhang C, Doherty-Kirby A, van Huystee R and Lajoie G.2004. Investigation of cationic peanut peroxidase glycans byelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Phytochemistry65(11):1575-1588.

Zhu H, Dorner JW, Rowland DL, Derksen RC and Ozkan HE.2004. Spray penetration into peanut canopies with hydraulicnozzle tips. Biosystems Engineering 87(3): 9—17.

Information for I A N contributorsPublishing objectivesThe International Arachis Newsletter (IAN) is published annually by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics(ICRISAT) and the Peanut Collaborative Research Support Program (Peanut CRSP), USA. It is intended as a worldwide communication linkfor all those who are interested in the research and development of groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and its wild relatives. Thoughthe contributions that appear in IAN are peer-reviewed and edited, it is expected that the work reported wil l be developed further and formallypublished later in refereed journals. It is assumed that contributions in IAN wi l l not be cited unless no alternative reference is available.

IAN welcomes short contributions (not exceeding 1000 words) about matters of interest to its readers.

What to contribute?

Send us the kind of information you would like to see in IAN.• Contributions should be current, scholarly, and their inclusion well-justified on the grounds of new information.• Results of recently concluded experiments, newly released varieties, recent additions to germplasm collections, etc.• Genome maps and information on probe-availability and sequences, and populations synthesized for specific traits being mapped.

Glossy black and white prints of maps should be included, if possible. Partial maps can also be submitted.• Short reports of workshops, conferences, symposia, field days, meetings, tours, surveys, network activities and recently launched or

concluded projects.• Details of recent publications, with full bibliographic information and 'mini reviews' whenever possible.• Personal news (new appointments, awards, promotions, change of address, etc.)

How to format contributions?• Keep the items brief- remember, IAN is a newsletter and not a primary journal. About 1000 words is the upper limit (no more than four

double-spaced pages). In exceptional cases, longer articles may be accepted.• If necessary, include one or two small tables (and no more). Supply only the essential information; round off the data-values to just one

place of decimal whenever appropriate; choose suitable units to keep the values small (eg, use tons instead of kg). Every table should fitwithin the normal type-written area of a standard upright page (not a 'landscape' page). Do not use the table-making feature of the wordprocessing package; use simple tab set to prepare tables.

• Black-and-white photographs and drawings (prepared in dense black ink on a white card or a heavy-duty tracing paper) are welcome -photocopies, color photographs, and 35-mm slides are not. Please send disk-files (with all the data) whenever you submit computer-generated illustrations.

• Keep the list of references short - not more than five references, all of which should have been seen in the original by the author. Provideall the details including author/s, year, title of the article, full title of the journal, volume, issue and page numbers (for journal articles),and place of publication and publishers (for books and conference proceedings) for every reference. Cite references as in this issue.

• Express all the quantities only in SI units.• Spell out in full every acronym you use.• Give the correct Latin name of every crop, pest or pathogen at the first mention.• Type the entire text in double spacing. Please send a file, which should match the printout, on a double-sided/high density IBM-compatible

disk using Microsoft Applications.• Include the full address with telephone, fax and e-mail numbers of all authors.

The Editor wil l carefully consider all submitted contributions and wil l include in the Newsletter those that are of acceptable scientificstandard and conform to requirements. The language of the Newsletter is English, but where possible, articles submitted in other languageswil l be translated. Authors should closely follow the style of the reports in this issue. Contributions that deviate markedly from this style wi l lbe returned for revision, and could miss the publication date. Communications wil l be edited to preserve a uniform style throughout theNewsletter. This may shorten some contributions, but particular care wil l be taken to ensure that the editing wil l not change the meaning andscientific content of the article.

Contributions should be sent before 31 August to:

Africa and Asia

IAN Scientific EditorICRISATPatancheru 502 324

Andhra Pradesh, India

Fax +9140 30713074E-mail [email protected] +9140 30713071

Americas, Europe, and Oceania

IAN Scientific Editorc/o Peanut CRSP1109 Experiment StreetGriffin, GA 30223-1797, USA

Fax +770 229 3337E-mail [email protected] +770 228 7312

Peanut CRSP

The Peanut Collaborative Research Support ProgramThe University of Georgia, College of Agricultural Environmental Sciences

1109 Experiment Street. Griffin, GA 30223-1797, USA

ISSN 1010-5824 60-2005

About ICRISAT

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is a nonprofit, non-politicalorganization that does agricultural research and innovative capacity building for sustainable developmentwith a wide array of partners across the globe. ICRISAT's mission is to help empower 600 million people -the poorest of the poor - overcome hunger, poverty and a degraded environment in the dry tropics throughbetter agriculture. ICRISAT belongs to the Future Harvest Alliance of Centers supported by the ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

Contact information:

ICRISAT-Patancheru(Headquarters)Patancheru 502 324Andhra Pradesh, IndiaTel +91 40 30713071Fax +91 40 [email protected]

ICRISAT-BamakoBP 320Bamako, MaliTel +223 2223375Fax +223 [email protected]

Liaison OfficeCG Centers BlockNASC ComplexDev Prakash Shastri MargNew Delhi 110 012. IndiaTel +91 11 25849552, 25842553Fax +91 11 25841294

ICRISAT-BulawayoMatopos Research StationPO Box 776Bulawayo, ZimbabweTel +263 83 8311 to 15Fax +263 83 8253/8307 [email protected]

ICRISAT-Nairobi(Regional hub ESA)PO Box 39063. Nairobi, KenyaTel +254 20 7224550Fax +254 20 [email protected]

ICRISAT-LilongweChitedze Agricultural Research StationPO Box 1096Lilongwe, MalawiTel +265 1 707297/071/067/057Fax +265 1 [email protected]

ICRISAT-Niamey(Regional hub WCA)BP 12404Niamey, Niger (Via Paris)Tel +227 722529. 722725Fax +227 [email protected]

ICRISAT-Maputoc/o INIA, Av. das FPLM No 2698Caixa Postal 1906Maputo, MozambiqueTel +258 1 461657Fax +258 1 [email protected]

Visit us at www.icrisat.org

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