P1 Bamboo Management and Utilization-Review 2013-Revised

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Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Forestry

Research Center

Research Project On:

BAMBOO MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION IN

SELECTED DISTRICTS OF ETHIOPIA

Initially (in 2008) developed by Yigardu Mulatu (MSc ), Berhane Kidane

(MSc.), Demelash Alem (MSc.), Tesfayhe Hunde (MSc.),Seyum

Kelemeworek (PhD.), Alemayehu Rifera (MSc.), Abreham Yirgu (MSc.),

Yohans Adane (MSc.)and Abayneh Deraro (PhD.)

Revised (in 2011, Based on M & E report ) by Mehari Alebachew

Finally Revised (during the 2013 national research review, based on

progress of the project) by Yigardu Mulatu (PhD), Forestry Research Center,

Addis Ababa

April, 2013

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1. BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION

Bamboo is a perennial plant, which belongs to the Poaceae (sometimes called ramineae)

family (Wong, 2004). In terms of taxonomy, it is considered as a giant grass.

Ecologically, bamboo plants have tree-like functions (Dwivedi, 1993; John & Nadgauda,

2002; Yuming et al., 2004).Bamboos range from the size of grass to a giant of 40 meters

in height and 30 cm in diameter (Dwivedi, 1993; Kosso, 2001). Once established, most

bamboo species continue to be perennial until they flower and then die (Lakshmana,

1994; John & Nadgauda, 2002).

Although many bamboo species are characterized by simultaneous flowering at long

intervals of up to 120 years, few studies have revealed the length of the flowering interval

for very-long-lived bamboo species by observing the whole life cycle of a single clone

(Isagi et al., 2004) and it is impossible to predict exactly when flowering is likely to

occur (Anantachote, 1988). According to Dwivedi (1993), the period between two

gregarious flowerings of bamboo species over the same area is believed to be rather

constant and is called the physiological cycle.

There are about 75 genera (Scurlock et al., 2000) and 1500 species of bamboos in the

world (Bystriakova et al., 2004), the largest proportion being in Asia, which account for

about 1000 species and covering an area of over 180 000 km2 (Scurlock et al., 2000).

Five hundred species in 40 genera are recorded in China (Yuming et al., 2004). On area

basis the largest proportion of bamboos are found in India, consisting of 136 species over

an area of ten million hectares (Jamaluddin et al., 1999).

Africa has about 43 bamboo species on over 1.5 million hectare of land (Kigomo, 1988).

But the diversity is the lowest, where five species representing five genera occur.

Madagascar has 40 species of which 32 are endemic. From the mainland Africa,

Tanzania has the largest number of species (4), followed by Malawi, Uganda and Zambia

(3 species each). The greatest potential wealth of bamboo (two co-occurring species) is in

East Africa, especially around Lake Victoria, and in southern Africa in Zambia and

Zimbabwe, while the countries of West Africa have only a single species of woody

bamboo, principally O. abyssinica, (Bystriakova et al., 2004).

On area basis, Ethiopia has the largest bamboo in Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000) and

contains 67 % of the bamboo in Africa (Kassahun, 2003). The bamboo species found in

Ethiopia are the African alpine bamboo (Yushinia alpina) and the lowland bamboo (O.

abyssinica). Yushinia alpina was previously called Arundinaria alpina (A.alpina). These

two species are indigenous to Ethiopia and endemic to Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000). The

solid-stemmed O. abyssinica covers an area of more than 800, 000 ha, which accounts

85% of bamboo area coverage in the country (Embaye, 2000). In Ethiopia, O. abyssinica

is prominent in river valleys and locally on the escarpment of western part of the country

such as the Benshangul Gumuze regional State (Ensermu et al., 200). It co-exists with

several other species especially the Combretum-Terminalia broadleaved deciduous

woodland vegetation common to this part of the country (Sebsebe Demsew et al., 2003).

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Bamboo has a considerable potential to the socioeconomic development and environmental

protection (Baghel et al., 1998; Kumar et al., 1998; Perez et al., 1998; Sharma et al., 1998;

Kumar and Sastry, 1999). It is becoming so increasingly important in the world’s forest economy,

because 1) it is a superior wood substitute, 2) it is cheap and efficient, 3) it is environmentally

friendly i.e. it has high potential for environmental protection and wide ecological adaptation 4)

the world forest is shrinking. Globally, 1 billion people live in bamboo houses; the economy of

2.5 billion people comes from bamboo. Annual trade earns 5-7 billion USD from bamboo

(tropical timber earns 8 billion USD) (Maxim, 2005).

The values of bamboo are being satisfactorily utilized by tropical Asian countries. For instance,

there are 25,000 bamboo based industries in India providing employment for about 20 million

people (CIBART, 2004). China, which has 4.2 million hectares of bamboo, generates an

approximate total of 40 billion birr annually. It earns US$ 130 million from export of edible

bamboo shoots. Annual export of woven bamboo is valued at 117 million. Bamboo is also

important raw material for many pulp and paper industries in China, India, Thailand and other

Asia countries. Bamboo provides major uses in the rayon, handloom, fishing and sericulture

industries, where it supports the livelihood of million of people (Kumar and Sastry, 1999).

However, bamboo resource of Ethiopia is underutilized and has been neglected by development

practitioners. Currently, its use is by far below its potential; Its uses have been customary and

mainly limited to hut construction, fencing and to a lesser extent production of handicrafts,

furniture, containers for water transport, and storage, baskets, beehive, firewood, fodder, house

utensils, and various art-facts, walking sticks (Embaye, 2004). In some localities farmers generate

income by selling raw bamboo culms and some communities like the Gumuz people in

Benshangul Gumuz region state use bamboo shoot as food.

The country should have potential to generate an approximate of 9.5 billion birr annually. Based

on the CSA (Central statistical Authority) survey of 1997 this output accounts for almost three

times of the gross value of production on handicrafts, urban informal sector operators and small

scale manufacturing establishments in Ethiopia. Based on detailed studies carried out in Ethiopia

(Luso consult, 1997; as cited by Pole, 2002), it would be possible to harvest one third of the total

stock every year on sustainable basis (3 million tones of oven dry biomass). This could be used to

supply part of the particleboard, fiberboard, pulp, furniture, construction and energy requirement

of the nation. Its potential for industrial use has yet to be popularized, as it is presently undertaken

in many tropical Asian countries (Embaye, 2000).

Currently, there is indiscriminate forest loose and depletion hence the unique bamboo resource

will be disappearing before its economical and environmental advantage is appreciated, unless

important reversing mechanisms could not take place (ibid, 2004). The current economic policy

of the nation strongly urges development practitioners to contribute to the economic development

of the country. By the year 2020, Ethiopia is envisioning to reach middle income group countries

of the world. In this regard bamboo can contribute more in generating income since it can be

processed in to products for domestic use and export market. It can also create employment

opportunity to a considerable portion of the society and harness environmental degradation

problems.

Despite these facts; research and development activities on bamboo resource of the country is

scanty. Bamboo is not included in tree planting programs in which millions of tree seedlings have

been established every year. Up to now only a very limited research works have been undertaken:

vegetative propagation of highland bamboo (Tesfaye Hunde and Yohannes Adane,

2005),propagation of lowland bamboo by seed (Kassahun Embaye et al, 2003), utilization-

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suitability of Yushania alpina for oriented particle board (Seyum Kelemework, 2005), the use of

lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica)as re-enforcement in construction (Melaku

Abegaz, 2004) and ecological aspects and resource management of bamboo (Kassahun Embaye,

2003), Socioeconomic study (Ensermu et al., 2000) seed and fruit characteristics of lowland

bamboo (Demelash Alem, 2006), Natural Regeneration and Growth Habitat Assessment of

Lowland Bamboo in Mandura Woreda, Metekel Zone (Yigremachew Seyoum et al, 2007),

ongoing research activities by Pawe and Holetta Research Centers and, studies by the UNIDO

(United Nation Industrial Development Organization)/East African Bamboo Project (2006-2007).

As compared to the significance of the commodity (bamboo resource), the research conducted so

far is scarce. Information generated from the aforementioned research activities is an eye opener

to create awareness and plan further research. Currently there area many research questions from

different stakeholders such as farmers, investors and development practitioners on the

propagation, management and utilization of the resource. There is also a need to establish bamboo

plantations to fetch the benefits that can be accrued from the resource. Based on this

understanding the following eight research components are identified to be addressed under this

project proposal.

Research Gap

The following are research questions are not yet answered:

Propagation methods

Management methods for optimum yield stand dynamics

Suitability of bamboo for different products, nutritive value of bamboo shoots,

Important pests and disease and their control measures

Performance of introduced bamboo species in the country

Seed storage nature of lowland and highland bamboo

Economic contribution and ethno-botany of bamboo

2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

2.1. Long-term objectives

To develop improved technologies of bamboo for sustainable production and utilization

thereby contribute to environmental protection and food security of the country.

2.2 Specific objectives:

1) Determine the best propagation techniques for bamboo employing offset and layering

techniques

2) To develop an efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol for bamboo

3) Investigate regeneration, culm characteristics and yield of bamboo under different

harvesting intensities

4) To determine best weeding frequencies on the early performance of O.abyssinia

seedlings.

5) Investigate and determine nutrient content of bamboo shoots

6) Evaluate the performance introduced bamboo species

7) Assess important pests and diseases.

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8) To determine the best storage medium and storage time for O.abyssinica and Yushinia

alpina seeds.

9) Develop silvicultural management techniques to maximize productivity of lowland

bamboo stands (Technique and intensity of harvesting)

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT The project is composed of six main components and six sub-components. The main components

include 1) Developing propagation techniques, 2) Bamboo stand characterization and

management, 3) Nutritive value of bamboo shoot, 4) Assessment of potential pests and diseases,

5) Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species.

3.1 Rationale of project components and sub components

3.1.1 Developing propagation techniques for highland and Lowland bamboo in Ethiopia Success in plantation development relies on the combined applications of the various disciplines

in forestry, the most important aspect being the availability of quality planting materials

(seedlings). This is because; the performance of plants on reforestation (afforestation) sites

depends on the ability of the planting materials (seedlings) to adapt to the field conditions. It

must, therefore, be noted that the supply of quality planting materials through improved

techniques is a prerequisite for any successful large-scale forest plantation program.

According to Merlyn (2006), bamboos can be propagated either by sexual (reproductive) or

asexual (vegetative) means. Sexual propagation is by means of seeds. However, this is not

popular in the country due to the irregularity and rarity of flowering of common bamboo species.

Vegetative or asexual propagation makes use of different parts of bamboo plants as propagation

material. There are various methods of vegetative propagation described by various authors,

ERDB-DENR/FAO/UNDP (1994) and PCCARD (1991). These are: (a) Clump division, (b)

Basal Culm Division or Offset, (c) Culm cutting, (d) Branch cutting, (e) Ground layering, (f)

Branch Marcotting (air layering), (g) Tissue culture: Given these various propagation methods,

the most common method practiced in Philippines and Asian countries is culm cutting with some

procedural variations found practical and effective by individual propagators. Offset method is

found to be effective in propagating species where culm cutting is not so successful.

In Ethiopia, the indigenous knowledge of farmers in propagating bamboo is by using the offset

method. Offset method is superior to culms and culm cuttings (Tesfaye Hunde & Yohannes

Adane, 2005). However the problems in using this method are 1) excavating out offsets is a

Tire sum and labor intensive work 2) offsets are also difficult to transport for long distances

because of their heavy weight and long length, 3) Excavating out offsets can damage the

adjoining rhizome so the neighboring culms. Establishing large scale plantation by using this

technique is very expensive and unfeasible. Previous research works in the propagation of

bamboo in the country are not successful in bringing effective technique and hence further

research that focuses on different techniques that were not tested well in previous researches is of

paramount importance both on lowland and high land bamboo species.

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From experience, an offset of a highland bamboo weighs 20-30 kg. Minimizing at least the culm

weight by removing it at effective height can help. Producing seedlings from the stand itself while

the mother plant is within the stand can be another option, so evaluating the response of bamboo

for both ground and air layering and coming up to a decision is important.

Many important crop plants are increased vegetatively and grown as clones. Suitable methods for

vegetative propagation have been developed over many centuries. These traditional

‘macropropagation’ techniques (or ‘macro-methods’) which utilize relatively large pieces of

plants, have been refined and improved by research. For instance, methods of applying fine water

mist to prevent the desiccation of cuttings, better rooting composts and the control of temperature

in the rooting zone, have considerably enhanced the rate at which many plants of horticultural or

agricultural interest can be multiplied. In recent years, micro propagation techniques are also

advancing for plant multiplication (George et al. (eds.), 2008).

Over the centuries, villagers have replanted bamboos by dividing up clumps and their

underground stems or cutting up the underground stems (rhizomes) of clumping species.

However many species produce extremely large plants and it is not always easy to dig out pieces

for propagation. A number of other techniques have been developed for a variety of species in

many areas of the world. Many of them have been refined by appropriate research over the past

20years (Banik, 1995). Vegetative propagation has been found to cut costs of bamboo plantations

in comparison to the use of more conventional vegetative methods.

Starting from very recent years, the need of planting bamboo in larger scale than ever before has

become increasing in Ethiopia, accordingly, cost effective and efficient techniques of propagation

are required. Though, viability of seeds of O. abyssinica is relatively longer (three years,

unpublished works of the Forestry Research Center) and has higher germination rate, seeds are

not available on regular basis (LUSO, 1997; Azene Bekele, 1993). Besides, culms produced from

seed longer period (seven years) to reach harvestable size. Under these circumstances, other

techniques of propagation become important. Propagation methods by clonal/vegetative

propagation is cost effective and desirable for large-scale application (Reddy, 2006).

Several methods of vegetative propagation techniques using offsets, rhizomes, culm and branch

cuttings, layers, and macroproliferation of seedlings are being practiced for different species

(Banik, 1995; Kleinhenz and Midmore, 2001; Pattanaik et al., 2004; Othman, 2005). These

methods also suit to the requirements of farmers and non-government organizations (NGOs) for

their low cost and ease of management. Unlike tissue culture/micropropagation techniques,

macropropagation techniques do not requires laboratory facilities, expensive chemicals, etc.

(Jiménez and Guevara, 2007). Rhizome-based propagules can be directly planted into the field. In

the cutting methods, culm cuttings or branch cuttings of desirable sizes are planted in polybags or

nursery beds to raise saplings (Koshy and Gopakumar, 2005).

Clump-based vegetative propagation technique is a time-tested and widely practiced method in

Asia (NMoBA, 2004; Banik, 1995). A segment of the rhizome is severed or separated from the

parent rhizome and nurtured to develop into an independent source of planting material. The

detached portion of the rhizome carries all the elements needed for the growth of a new plant. It

may be separated with other parts of the plant such as rhizome offsets, roots and culm. Common

to all methods of rhizome-based propagation is the cutting away of a part of the rhizome from a

healthy and mature clump. Nevertheless, studies on vegetative propagating Ethiopian bamboo

species are limited.

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Tissue culture techniques have offered many practical advantages to various aspects of

development in tropical forestry. These advantages include production of disease free plants as in

populous spp. (Ahuja, 1993), selection of mutant varieties and in vitro clonal propagation (Rani

and Raina, 2000), preservation of selected genotypes, somatic hybridization and genetic

engineering, as in white pine (Pinus monticola) (Percy et al., 2000). It has also been used as a tool

for the production of important secondary compounds from in vitro plant materials (Mulabagal

and Sheng, 2004). This is of great importance for commercialization of potential tree species. The

sole aspect of tissue culture that has so far been widely applied in tropical forestry is the

possibility of propagation of elite, endangered, or difficult to propagate trees (Pena and Seguin,

2001).

Micro propagation and morphogenesis have been attained through organogenesis or somatic

embryogenesis of many important trees (Steven and Ben, 1999). The development of successful

protocols for axillary budding (particularly for hardwoods), adventitious budding (particularly for

conifers) (Minocha et al., 1995) and somatic embryogenesis for a number of tropical tree species

(Raghavan, 1986; Anonymous, 1998), have been reported. However, unlike agricultural crops

and horticultural plants, tissue culture of forest species in the tropics is still lagging behind. This

is mainly because several difficulties arise, which can seriously affect the performance of

explanted tissues from trees. These problems include difficulties to obtain sterile explant

materials, tardiness of in vitro responses of explants, vitrification, browning of cultures, and

difficulties in acclimatization of plantlets to field conditions, and somaclonal variations. Despite

the profound research endeavors, tissue culture of bamboos is not yet advanced. Tissue culture of

bamboos has never been worked up on so far in Ethiopia.

3.1.2. Management of bamboo stands

3.1.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands

Appropriate harvesting techniques are important to establish sustainable utilization and

conservation management schemes. Felling cycle and thinning are the key harvesting activities

that require appropriate decision. Thinning activities are important for bamboo culm vigor from

rhizome. These silvicultural operations depend on the rhizome characteristics; shoot recruitment

rate and density of stumps of the bamboo forest. Though there are no comprehensive rhizome

characterization studies done so far on Ethiopian bamboo species, rhizomes of highland bamboo

have relatively longer rhizome neck (spacer length) hence can be selectively harvested in area

basis by introducing different intensities.

In lowland bamboo, the rhizome is purely sympodial/ pachymorph, hence all the clumps are

congested; hence one should know what harvesting technique to employee before applying

different intensities. Proper harvesting of bamboo stands is important measure to maximize

productivity and increase stand value. If not harvest, the rate of increment in bamboo culms is

reduced due to the limited space available for the newly grown culms to survive (Parkash and

Xhanna, 1979). According to Kadambi (1949), after each cleaning and thinning there was an

increase in culm production on some species of bamboo. Harvesting is considered as one of prime

operation in bamboo plantation establishment for two reasons: it leads to the sustainable

production of culms and it can improve future pole production quantitatively and qualitatively

(Bamboo farming, 1994). A 4-year felling cycle was most widely used but in the Philippines a 2-

year cycle is practiced. However, the thinning and felling intensity should be determined based on

the species type and local biophysical conditions.

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O. abyssinica (lowland bamboo) is a clump forming bamboo that extend 3-13 m high and 5-10

cm in diameter, nearly solid (Phillips, 1995). According to FAO and INBAR (2005), the major

portion of Ethiopia’s bamboo (85%) is the lowland bamboo found in the Combretum–

Terminalia-Deciduous woodlands of western Ethiopia together with other associated grasslands.

In Ethiopia, the species is found in two forms in the altitudinal limit of 1200-1800 masl: (1) dense

and as extended natural bamboo stand; with or without some scattered bushes/trees (2) sparsely

populated or scattered natural bamboo stands: found with bushes and scattered tree, constituting

roughly about 20% of vegetation (WBI, 2003) Appendix 1). Estimates by LUSO Consult reported

the number of culms per ha as 8124 or 19.53 t/ha dry weight (LUSO, 1997). If managed, a clump

produces 10-15 culms per clump per year.

According to the local community, as reported by Demissew Sertse et al. (2011), lowland

bamboo flowers every 30-35 years. During the 2010 mass flowering period that started before

seven years in, Guba and Mankusha areas of Metekel Zone caused mass death of over 85% of the

estimated total 400,000 ha bamboo in Benishangul-Gumz region (Demisew Sershe, 2010),

As O. abyssinica is a clumping bamboo species and has no management, stand congestion has

becomes a serious problem. Congested clumps pose a problem not only for the felling of the

culms but also of fire due to the enclosed dead and dry culms (Ram Prasad (1988). Congested

clumps do not allow new shoots to come up easily; even if any shoot comes up it becomes

malformed (Suwannapinunt, 1988). Many working plans prescribe retention of a

minimum number of old culms varying from 6 to 10 for providing support to the new culms (A.

N. Chaturvedi, 1988) and avoidance of unnecessary retention of the dead and dried culms in a

clump for quite a long period so as to allow the new shoots to come up in more beneficial way

Suwannapinunt, 1988). In most bamboo forests, the cutting cycle ranges from three to four years,

based on working convenience N. Chaturvedi (1988).

Development of new culms, however, takes place near the previous year’s culms. Consequently,

culms older than three years do not provide any support to the new culms.

Prescription for management of clumping bamboos are forwarded in different countries for

obtaining high productivity with the desired quality of culms. For instance in India, horseshoe

harvesting technique is recommended for G. hasskarliana, a sympodial type rhizome, as older

culms are often inside the clumps (Suwannapinunt, 1988). The clump is worked into a horseshoe

to enable a man to get into the clump easily and work on all three sides and harvest old (older

than three year old) culms. The frequency of cutting cycles is based on working convenience

(Chaturvedi, 1988). Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral. The

productivity of bamboo forests depends on the production and size of new culms. The

management, in general, involves a selective felling system with a felling cycle of four years in

Kerala, India with prescribed felling rules (Kumar, 1988). Culms less than two years old should

not be cut and removed; All the new culms and 25 percent of the old culms should be retained;

No clump should be clear felled except after flowering and when seeding has been completed;

Culms should be cut as low as possible leaving one internode above ground; Cutting should begin

from the side opposite to where new sprouts are emerging.

On the other hand, X-shaped harvesting techniques is a recommended technique due to the least

destruction and lower initial removal of bamboo culms for natural stands of Giaganthocloa

scortechinii (most extensively found clumping bamboo in Malaysia) bamboo clumps with

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minimum number of 26 culms/clump (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009). The same report indicated

that higher number of culms and lower dying culms were produced employing X-shaped

harvesting technique as compared horse shoe shape harvesting (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009).

Harvesting is done by cutting culms older than three years while leaving the younger ones

since these are physiologicaly more active, have vigorous rhizomes and can produce more

culms (Ueda 1960; 1968). In management, therefore, the selection system with a three or four

year rotation is recommended and those culms more than three years old are harvested from

each clump. In bamboos with sympodial type of rhizome, older culms are found inside the

clumps, therefore the horseshoe harvesting technique is recommended (Suwannapinunt, 1988).

However, other Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral

(Chaturvedi, 1988).

In Ethiopia, information on the type of harvesting technique and harvesting intensity is lacking

for bamboo stands. Therefore, the objectives of this research is to determine the effects of (1)

different harvesting techniques and (1) determine the intensity of harvesting on productivity and

culm size of natural lowland bamboo stands from field experiment.

3.1.2.2. The effect of different weeding frequency on the early

Performance of O. abyssinica

Since lowland bamboo currently is flowering gregariously, plantation establishment and

subsequent management activities are important options to safeguard the extinction of this species

are indispensable. Taking the versatile use of lowland bamboo to the local community and its

potential to bring an additional household income to the farmers, this activity is believed to bring

a solid contribution to food security. Among the various management practices that should be

practiced on young seedlings, weeding is of a paramount importance.

Because resources are limited, different plants, if planted together, compete each other. And

hence optimum level of spacing is required to get better yield. As far as possible this competition

should be kept to the possible minimum through different management options (Dupreiz & De

Leener, 1998).The frequency of weeding and cultivation should also be looked for in order to

Identify optimum level of management for better performance of the species.

But there are no research works done on this species with this regard to plantation establishment

and management despite the indications that O.abyssinica could grow together with other species

and it is one of the shade loving plants especially during its establishment phases. Therefore

determining appropriate weeding frequency is very important for the growth and development of

the species since site specific managements are very important especially in the tropics

(Shreppers et al., 1998). Establishment of this type of experiment will also be used as a

demonstration site for the farmers so that they will use the technology for the development of the

species in the surrounding and to consider it as one of the economic species as the success of

Demonstration sites and bases will help encourage farmers to mobilize more technical inputs into

the production of bamboo resources and products (Yushan, 2001).

3.1.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses

3.1.3.1 Bamboo shoots

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Ethiopian native bamboo species shoots are not widely used as edible food. However, bamboo

shoots are used very widely in Asian-Pacific countries for a long time. Shoots are famous for

various delicious dishes as main courses and ingredient. It’s considered as a healthy food rich in

nutrition, which contains about 16 kinds of amino acids. Bamboo shoots contains several nutritive

Substances that human body needs such as carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber and many other

inorganic substances and vitamins. Moreover, bamboo shoots have certain extent of hygienic and

pharmaceutical values. In this research the nutrient values of Ethiopian bamboo shoots and

harvesting time will be determined. In addition to these best shoot preserving and fresh shoot

processing techniques will be identified.

3.1.4. Assessment of bamboo pests and disease

3.1.4.1 Bamboo disease

The productivity and suitability of bamboo is affected by different types of pathogens. These

pathogens can attack different parts of bamboo stands (Mahanan, 1997). Fungi is one of the major

responsible pathogen that affect seeds, rhizomes, root stem (culms and culm sheath),

flowers in the natural habitat and also in storage. Moreover, the bamboo litter is

colonized by a variety of fungal species which are saprophytic, sap staining and soft rot

fungi, several root pathogens and sheath rot fungi also perennate in the litter (Jamaluddin

and Tiwari, 1999).

3.1.4.2 Bamboo insect pests

Different parts of bamboo are affected by a variety of insect pests. The culms are more

susceptible to different types of beetles, termite and shoot borers than hard and soft woods, as it

does not contain toxic substances unlike the other species (Kassahun, 2003). Insect pests feeding

on the seeds may have an impact on the establishment of the new plantations. Bamboo under

storage condition either as culms or as finished products is very susceptible to different insect

Damage. From field observation, such problem is found to exist on Ethiopian bamboo species;

there are conditions in which standing bamboo culms are attacked by unidentified pests. It is also

recognized that it is limiting the end use by shortening the service life span of the products. This

might also have an impact on the performance and productivity of the species and will limit the

Uses and income that will be obtained from this resource in the future. Despite, these facts, there

is no any study conducted in the identification of this pest so far. Therefore at this juncture,

identification of the pests and their level of damage are important; as it is the primary work that

should be done before taking any preventive/controlling measures.

3.1.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species

3.1.5.1. Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species

There are about 1500 bamboo species in the world (Zhaohua, 2004); Africa alone has 43 species

(Kigomo, 1993). Ethiopia has narrow genetic diversity in this resource, it has only two species:

Yushania alpine and Oxytenantera abyssinica. With these limited species, it is very difficult to

sustainably supply bamboo raw material and products. Due to mysterious death of bamboo

Rhizomes after flowering and seed setting, some areas that were covered with bamboo are

currently devoid of the species. This is further aggravated by the increasing need for agricultural

and grazing land. Among the various measures that should be taken in averting these problems,

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widening the genetic base of the resource is indispensable. These require introduction and

evaluation of different potential species from different parts of the world.

3.1.6 Effect of different storage conditions on germination and field Emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds. The poor viability of seed, flowering at long intervals and limited availability of seed is the

practical problem in bamboo propagation using seeds both Oxytenanthera abyssinica and

Yushinia alpine. Some studies have been reported on suitable methods for storage of bamboo

seeds (Somen & Steethakshmi, 1989). Therefore devising appropriate storage mechanisms is very

important. Seeds locally can be stored in different storage media such as bottle, sacks, plastic

Boxes, Tin boxes, polyethen bags, cloth bags and jute bags. The storage time for the seeds of the

species is not known.

3.2. Inputs of the project:

The project also includes capacity building (training, field and laboratory equipment, vehicle) and

human resource requirement. This project is expected to be financed by government budget.

3.2.1 Human resource (See Table 1) Table 1. Research staff available at Centers where the project is to be executed

S.N

Research

Centre

Discipline Qualification

PhD MSc BSc Diploma Others

1 FRC Silviculture 1

2 FRC Production Forestry 2 2 2

3 FRC Ecology 1

4 Holetta Forest Genetics 1

5 Holetta Forestry 1 1 2

6 Pawe General Forestry 2

7 Assossa General Forestry 2 1

8 Jimma General Forestry 2

9 D/Zeit General Forestry 1 2 1

Total 2 4 7 6 5

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3.2.2 Facilities Table 2.The status of facilities currently available at centers’ where the project is to be

Executed

Center Facility Office Lab Green

house

Nurs

ery

Vehi

cle

Comput

er

Photocopier Cold

room

Store Communication Library/Information

FRC ** * ** *** ** *** * * * ** ** Pawe *** *** * ** ** ** Assossa ** *** * ** Holetta ** * ** *** * *** *** * *** *** *** D/Zeit ** *** *** * ** *** * None *** adequate

* In adequate ** modest/moderate

13

4. METHODOLOGY TO BE FOLLOWED 4.1. Developing propagation techniques for highland and lowland Bamboo in Ethiopia 4.1.1. Treatments (for highland bamboo)

1. Offsets (farmers method)

2. Rhizome, with out culm

3. Offset (two nodes)

4. offsets (four nodes)

5. offsets (six nodes)

Treatments (for lowland bamboo) 1. Offset

2. Rhizome (with out culm),

3. Offset (with two nodes) or stump,

4. whole culm and

5. Culm cuttings

6. Branch cuttings

Besides testing on the field, whole culm, culm cuttings and branch cuttings will also be evaluated

in nurseries on propagation beds for lowland bamboo. Experimental Design: RCBD, Number of replication=3; Number of plants per treatment=9,

Spacing between Plants: 4 m in the field. Under nursery condition raised beds will be used and

spacing between propaguoles for whole culm and culm and branch cuttings may be reduced to 20

cm based on the size of the propaguol.

Set 3: Tissue culture (Development of mass micro propagation protocols for Bamboo)

Methodology checklist

Basal media

Literatures suggest that bamboo responds so well to either of the following basal media:

Gamborge basal medium, the MS basal medium and the woody plant medium (WPM). However,

fine tuning of protocols developed elsewhere to Ethiopian condition is necessary. Fine tuning is

usually done by selection of the appropriate growth regulator and its amount that should result in

better performance the plant in vitro.

Growth regulators

Auxins: 2,4-D and NAA in various concentrations

Cytokinins: TDZ, Kinetin, Zeatin

Accessories: Activated charcoal, coconut water

PH 5.7

Explants

14

Shoot-tips, Leaves, Nodal buds, Seeds (if available0

Culture condition

In dark for somatic embryogenesis and in light for organogenesis

4.1.2 Data to be collected and analysis The data to be collected includes: date of shoot emergence; date of root emergence and root

length (using planting materials planted at the border so as not to damage the sample plants from

which subsequent data is to be collected); length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging

shoot;. Shoot recruitment rate against time, yield increment against time, shooting performance of

rear and fore ends of a rhizomes structure. The data will be summarized using MS-EXCELL

software and will be subjected for analysis using SPSS and Descriptive statistics.

4.1.3 Procedure: (Steps in site selection, production of planting materials

from different clonal propagation techniques and tending operations)

Site selection

The planting site to be used will be a well drained soil (gently slopped) and nearer to bamboo

forests and other vegetations so as to use them as plus plants (wind break). It will also be nearer

to a water source so as to provide supplemental watering for the four months period after

planting.

Bed Preparation and soil mix to be used

Planting beds should gently sloped or raised with multi-layered particles. A 3-layered structure

made using a layer of gravel, medium sized sand and fine sand will be used. The bottom layer

will be gravel followed by large size and medium sized sand; and the top will be fine sand. Each

layer will be 7-10 cm deep.

Preparation of planting material

Preparation of planting materialswas done by following the Tropical Bamboos Propagation

Manual by Ronald (2005), Manuals for Vegetative Propagation of Bamboos by Banik (1995) and

NMoBA (2004). Age of planting materials: all will be obtained from only one year old plants.

Rhizome with roots (Rhizome): In this method, the whole rhizome with the

accompanying root system will be severed from the parent rhizome.

15

Rhizome with roots and culm (offset) or the traditional method in Ethiopia: In

this case rhizome was severed together will all aboveground plant parts. The upper most part of

the culm was removed, so that bigger portion (12-15 node for big culms) and the corresponding

branches and leaves were retained with the rhizome.

Rhizome with culm-stock (Rhizome-offset): The procedure followed was similar to

that in propagation through offset. The difference was that only the base or lowermost portion of

the culm (2-3 nodes) was retained.

The whole culm method: The culm together with the stump (that keeps moisture and can

also produce new sprouts) was severed from the system. The top was cut with a slanting cut

leaving 12 to 15 nodes for big culms. All primary branches were pruned to two nodes.The

rhizome used in this method need not be big like the offset, rhizome-offset and rhizome methods.

Culms having smaller rhizomes than propagules used under the rhizome-based techniques were

selectively used.

Culm cuttings: culm segment of bamboos of 2 nodes bearing healthy branches were used

after trimming-off the branchlets to two internodes. The upper most and lower most parts of

culms were not included. Then the cuttings were planted horizontally.

Branch cutting (branches having aerial roots at the base): Prominent primary

branches with five-six nodes were used after trimming-off the branchlets to two nodes. The

cuttings were buried in prepared trenches by slanting roughly by 15o so as to leave its tip sticking

out.

Season of planting: Planting was done on 10 July, 2009, when the soil got sufficiently wet.

The farmers in the area plant bamboo under this moisture regime. This is the time for new shoots

to come out from the actively dividing buds. This is also the starting time of the winter season

hence adequate moisture is available starting from planting.

Regular tending operations

Fencing: The site was fenced to protect intervention by livestock, wild animals or human beings.

Watering: supplemental watering was done when there was no rain for more than a day in

September and October.

Mulching: A layer of mulch of sorghum straw was applied to plots to retain moisture and protect

them from weather extremes.

Weeding and hoeing: was done twice in the rainy season of 2009 (August and September) and

two times in 2010 rainy season (July and September).

16

Control stress factors: avoid extremes such as inadequate or too much water and temperatures.

Light availability for species that take longer periods to root and shade is beneficial. Shading,

when needed, should be such that 50-60% of sunlight reaches the bed. Shading should not be

continuous. It should be avoided during the rainy season or overcast days.

Data analysis

After data was summarized using MS-Excell, analysis will be made employing the different

functions of PASW Statistics 18 (latest version of SPSS, Predictive Analytical Software).

Descriptive statistics was used before the actual analysis to see into the distribution of

observations and outliers. Shapiro-Wilk’s (n<50) test value was used to check whether the normal

distribution of observations was fulfilled or not. The Levene’s test will also used to check

whether the assumption of homogeneity of variances was met or not. Univarate analysis of the

General Linear Model (Three-way-ANOVA, taking replication as one factor). Tukey's Honest

Significance Difference (HSD) test will be used when statistically significant differences

(p < 0.05) is observed.

Budget required for developing propagation techniques of lowland bamboo

Table 2. Budget requirement for developing propagation of lowland bamboo for the coming five years

Budget

code

Description 2013/14 2014/115 2015/16 2015/17 2015/18 Total

6113 Budge for

contract staff 8,000.00

8,500.00 9,000.00

8,000.00

10,000.00

43,500.00

6114 Casual laborer

8,000.00 7,500.00 6,500.00

4,000.00

3,000.00

29,000.00

6212 Stationary

1,000.00

1,000.00 1,000.00

1,500.00

1,500.00

6,000.00

6217 Fuel and

lubricants 4,800.00

4,800.00 5,525.00

6,000.00

7,000.00

28,125.00

6218 Farm supplies

3,500.00

4,000.00 -

- -

7,500.00

6219 Office

supplies 1,000.00

1,000.00 1,000.00

1,000.00

1,000.00

5,000.00

6221 Farm inputs

6,000.00 7,500.00 7,000.00

5,000.00 25,000.00

50,500.00

6223 Laboratory

supplies - - -

- -

-

6231 Perdium

5,000.00

5,000.00 5,600.00

5,600.00

5,600.00

26,800.00

6232 Transportatio

n 500.00

500.00 500.00

500.00

500.00

17

2,500.00

6241 Maintenance

2,000.00

2,000.00 2,000.00

2,000.00

2,000.00

10,000.00

6245 Barbed wire

8,000.00

7,500.00 -

- -

15,500.00

6271 Training

- - -

5,000.00

5,000.00

10,000.00

6313 Fixed asset

10,000.00

4,000.00 3,350.00

3,350.00

3,350.00

24,050.00

Total

57,800.00

53,300.00 41,475.00

41,950.00

63,950.00 258,475.00

Location: Assossa for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland

bamboo

Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2013 for highland bamboo The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008).

The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because

of flowering of the propaguoles. Because of these reasons that make the experiment not

to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to

extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland

and highland species

Responsibilities: Dr. Yosef Amha (Tikureinchine), Mohammed Dololo and Sintayehu Eshetu

(Assossa), Zebene Tadesse and Yared Kebede (Injibara), Dr Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)

4.2. Management of bamboo stands 4.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands Treatments (for highland bamboo):

1. 0 % thinning intensity

2. 25% thinning intensity

3. 50% thinning intensity

4. 75% thinning intensity

5. Clear felling

For highland bamboo, the plot size to be used will be 20 m*2 0m., replicated 3 times, with in 0.6

ha of land.

Procedure: Select stands of highland bamboo that are homogenous in density;

Year 1: Mark the new shoots

Year 2: Mark the new shoots

Year 3: Mark the new shoots; remove all unmarked ones

Year 4: Start application of treatments

Year 5: Application of the treatments on 3 year old culms,

Remove all the remaining 4 year old culms from all the plots

18

Treatments (for lowland bamboo):

For lowland bamboo, harvesting in area basis is not a preferable silvivicultural practice, , rather

considering clumps is advantageous. Besides, technique of harvesting is another factor while

harvesting. Accordingly, there will be two experimental factors (Factor 1 with two levels and

Factor 2 with 6 levels) making 12 treatments when factorially combined and making the total

number of treatments 13, including the control (no harvesting technique and no harvesting

intensity applied).

Factor I: Harvesting techniques (2 levels):

1. Horse shoe harvesting technique;

2. X-shaped harvesting technique

Factor II: Harvesting intensity (6 levels):

1. 50% cutting of culms older than two years;

2. 75% cutting of culms older than two years

3. 100% cutting of culms older than two years;

4. 50% cutting of culms older than three years;

5. 75% cutting of culms older than three years;

6. 100% cutting of culms older than three years.

Three blocks each constituting sufficiently homogenous lowland bamboo stand and clump size

will be selected. From each block, 52 clumps will be identified and the thirteen treatments,

including the control, will be applied allocating four clumps per treatment. Accordingly, the total

number of clumps to be used for the study will be 156 in number. The experimental design will

be factorial randomized complete block design (RCBD).

19

Figure 1. (a) Mature plantation stand of lowland bamboo; (b) horse-shoe and X-shaped

techniques of harvesting of clumping bamboo species

20

Data to be collected

Initial data on the number of number of culms per plot, number of clumps per ha, number of

culms per clump, diameter and height of culms will be recorded prior to application of the

treatments. The number of newly coming shoots, number of recruited culms and number of

aborted shoots will be counted during the shooting season (June-September), after application of

the treatments. Time of shoot sprout; internode length, number of nodes, height, diameter, leaf

size (leaf width and length) of newly produced culms will be recorded. Diameter at breast height

and height of the newly recruited culms will be measure at the end of the shooting season

(September).

Data analysis

Data analysis will be made employing SAS 9. Descriptive statistics will be used before the actual

analysis to check the distribution of observations and to check outliers. One-Way-ANOVA and

two-way-ANOVA will used for mean comparison. Sigma Plot 10 will used to construct graphs.

Budget requirement

Table 2. Budget requirement for harvesting intensity for the coming five years

Budget

code

Description 2013/14 2014/115 2015/16 2016/17 20117/18 Total

6113 Budge for contract staff 0 0 0 0 0 0

6114 Casual laborer 10,000 9500 9000 10,000 9500 48,000

6212 Stationary 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 5,000

6217 Fuel and lubricants 4800 4800 5525 5590 6500 27,215

6218 Farm supplies 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 10,000

6219 Office supplies 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 5,000

6221 Farm inputs 0 0 0 0 0 0

6223 Laboratory supplies

0

0 0 0 0 0

6231 Perdium 5000 5000 5600 5400 5500 26,500

6232 Transportation 500 500 500 500 500 2,500

6241 Maintenance 2000 2000 2000 3000 3000 12,000

6245 Barbed wire 30,000 2000 2000 2000 2000 38,000

6251 Service charge 0 0 0 0 0 0

6256 Land rent 0 0 0 0 0 0

6271 Training 0 0 0 0 30,000 30,000

6313 Fixed asset 10,000 4000 3350 4600 3500 25,450

Total 66300 31800 31975 35090 64500 229,665

Location: Pawe for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland

bamboo

Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2015 for highland bamboo The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008).

The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because

of flowering of the experimental plot. Because of these reasons that make the experiment

not to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to

21

extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland

and highland species

Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff)

Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Yigardu Mulatu (FRC);

Mohammed (AARC)

4.2.2 The effect of different weeding frequency on the early Performance of O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition O. abyssinica fruits will be collected in December from the gregarious flowering of bamboo in

the surrounding and the seeds will be processed to extract seeds out of the fruits. They will be

raised in nurseries to produce seedlings to carry out plantation for the establishment of the

experiment. After the necessary land size is secured and cleared for the research, planting holes

will be prepared with 3m*3m spacing. The dimension of the holes will be 60cm wide, 60m deep.

This will be done two weeks before the onset of the rainy season. Equal sized seedlings in terms

of height and diameter will be selected and used for the experiment by grading while they are in

the nursery. The seedlings will be planted after the depth of soil moisture reached 30cm, which

mostly occurs after three to four days continuous rain. The field lay out will be arranged in

randomized complete block design

Where four levels of weeding (non-weeding, every month, every two months and every three

months) will be tried. Weeding will be made during the rainy season and during the dry season

they will be left as they are except data taking and other observations. The number of seedlings to

be used for each treatment will be 20. Other managements will be applied uniformly to all

experimental units. For the determination of different parameters six central seedlings will be

selected from each treatment in each block. Every month starting from the date of plantation,

height, root collar diameter, number of leaves, number of nodes and internodes will be counted or

measured. Survival count will be taken two times, two weeks after planting and at peak hot month

of the year (April). Starting from the second year, other than the above-mentioned parameters

number of newly emerged shoots from each planted sample seedling will be counted their

corresponding height and diameter at the ground level will be measured. Number of nodes and

their internodes will also be counted and determined.

Data to be collected

Survival count, root collar diameter, height, number of leaves and leaf area,

number of nodes and internodes, time of shoot after planting, number of shots

sprout, new shoot height, survival of new shots, diameter of new shoots,

observable disease and pests.

Data analysis:

Both descriptive and inferential statistics will be used. Data will be checked for normality and

homogeneity of variance and the necessary data transformation will be conducted. ANOVA will

be used to test the significance difference at P=0.05. Mean separation will be done for those

parameters which showed statistical significance difference using least significance difference

(LSD), which is built in SAS.

22

4.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses

4.3.1. Bamboo shoots Sample collection

Fresh bamboo shoots will be harvested from six major bamboo areas namely Hagere-Selam,

Tikureinchine, and Assosa. Fresh shots will be harvested during the rainy season after new shoots

are emerging from rhizomes. Fresh shoots will be classified according to their sizes during

harvesting as follows: -large size, medium size and small size

5 kg weight of fresh shoot from each sizes and a total of 90 kg shoots will be collected from six

sites.

Samples handling

The following precaution will be taken to handle fresh bamboo shoots before testing nutrient

Values

1. Fiberization degree: guarantee the flavor and enhance preserving

2. Cutting area control: reduce the cutting area, which may cause wound respiration in

harvesting

3. Harvesting approach: select edge tools and shoot cell sprain

4. Moisture-molding technology; pilling up after harvesting guarantees the least

moisture diminishing.

The above mentioned precautions will be taken for two reasons:

To prevent the rotting that comes from the bacterial microorganisms invasion and

infection during harvesting time

To prevent the diminish of the physiological activity, to delay the reparation climax and

to avoid moisture diminishing and structure aging

Sample transportation and storage

Sample shoots will be transported by ice-boxes using ammonium liquid for preserving fresh

shoots. The nutrient values of shoots will be tested in Ethiopian Food Research Institute.

Data analysis & experimental design

Completely randomized design (CRD) with factorial experiment will be used to conduct this

experiment. Two factors (6 sites and 3 shoot sizes) are considering evaluating the effect of site

and shooting sizes on the nutrient values. Statistical analysis software (SAS) will be used to

analyze the data using analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure and Duncan’s multiple range

test (DMRT) is used for mean comparison. Based on the nutrient content of the shoots,

appropriate edible shoots grown in each sites will be identified and high grade (sweet shoot)

standard will be recommend.

4.4. Assessment of bamboo insect pests and disease

23

4.4.1 Bamboo insect pest survey Survey of insect pests attacking bamboo in different parts of the country will be made to collect,

identify and preserve economically important insect species. In this survey the type insect pest

attacking the plant, the time and season of attack, plant parts attacked, the stage of the plant

vulnerable to be attacked, the occurrence of the pest and the frequency of the pest infestation and

ecology in general will be recorded. Samples of insects and attacked bamboo plant parts are

collected. Specimens will be prepared for future reference. Information will be gathered from

local people and different sources. Informal questionnaires will be prepared and informants will

be asked to respond to them. In the survey, the environmental condition that favored the pest

attack and the frequency of the pest infestation will be gathered as much as possible from

different sources and informants.

Survey area: Injibara, Shenen for Highland bamboo and Pawe/ Mankush, Assosa for Low land

bamboo

4.4.2 Identification Important insect pest (s) found attacking the bamboo plant will be identified before any

subsequent works shall be followed. The insect feeding habit, attacking season, plant parts

Attacked etc., have to be well identified and literature review works shall also be well done to

Avoid duplications.

4.5.3 Study on Insect Biology and Population Dynamics The biology of the important insect pest should be well known that will help to find the weak

Point of the pest and to devise its control strategy. The biology of the insect could be achieved

from different sources (journals, books, internet, research paper reprints, etc.) and this will help to

reduce time, extra cost and redundancy. Biological study will be done in the laboratory and/or in

the field if sufficient information could not be retrieved from different sources mentioned above.

Data to be collected:

The biological study may include its life cycle, method of feeding, its reproduction methods,

seasonal abundance, insect ecology that favored its multiplication, its behavior, etc.

Data analysis methods

The method of analysis will be dependant on the type and quality of the data to be obtained.

Therefore appropriate software will be employed.

4.5.4 Insect Pest Control Activities Control method will be studied against the important insect pests found attacking the

bamboo tree, bamboo products and byproducts and which passed the identification

process. These control methods will encompass the cultural method (s), physical

method(s), biological method(s), chemical method(s) and a combination of above

mentioned appropriate methods. Data to be collected

Pre and post spray (or any control method) pest population, Number and type of other

pests, etc.

24

4.5.2 Bamboo disease survey Sample collection and isolation

Symptomatic plant parts will be collected from all parts of the plant and will be kept in

paper bags for transport to FRC laboratory for further laboratory works.

Segments or portion of these parts will be incubated in moist chamber at room

temperature for 2-3 days to initiate development of fruiting structures.

These masses of fruiting bodies that will emerge from the section will be transferred to

Petri plates containing 2% Malt Extract Agar (MEA) that is amended with streptomycin

and will be incubated at 250C. Isolation will be made by directly plating symptomatic

tissues onto MEA.

The pure culture will be stored in MEA slants at 50C.

Characterization and identification of isolates

Pure isolates from earlier activity will be transferred to water agar with sterile pine

needles laid on the surface to promote production of fruiting structure.

The plates undergo sporulation process will be incubated for 5-10 days under alternating

cycles of 12 h light and 12 h darkness at room temperature. Single spores will be made

from resulting fruiting structures by spreading spore masses on MEA in a drop of sterile

water.

The morphology of the single spore colony and spore features will use for the

characterization and identification of the species to the genus level.

Pathogenicity test

Each of the isolated fungi will under go inoculation trial in the respective plant part of

the same species on which isolation was made. Prior to inoculation, healthy and

asymptomatic plant parts will be selected and surface sterilized using either ethanol or

sodium hypochlorite.

The isolates that will under this trial will first grow on MEA for 10 days at 250C. Each

isolates will be treated in 10 plants and another 10 plants that are treated with sterile

distilled water or agar block will serve as control for the all the treatments. After 2

months of post inoculation, lesion length or appearance of symptom will be evaluated.

Re-isolation of symptomatic plant parts will be made in order to fulfill Koch’s postulate.

4.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species and provenances 4.6.1 Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species

Identifying potential species (from the already introduced once)

The bamboo species that are already introduced include: 1. Dendrocalmus gigantus- a giant bamboo as the name indicates:

2. Dendrocalmus brandisii

3. Dendrocalmus membranaceous

4. Dendrocalmus hamiltoni

5. Dendrocalmus Vulgaris var. vittata

6. Dendrocalmus tulda

7. B. vulgaris green

8. Guadwa amplexifolia

9. Dendrocalamus asper

10. Bambusa bambos

11. Phylostachyus pubsence

Planting material source for species 1 will be Munesa Shashemene Wood Enterprise, for the other species

the source will be the East African Bamboo Project of the Ministry of agriculture and Rural Development.

Multiply seedlings on propagation bed at FRC and Debre Zeit Research Center as

much as 48 seedlings per site can be obtained.

25

Group the species as highland type and lowland type, using references and their

preliminary performance in the nursery.

Prepare planting sites that can also nurse the new seedlings as much as possible

(nursery sites are preferable)

1. 16 plants will be planted per plot, and the experiment will be

replicated three times (48 seedlings per species per site).

The experimental design to be followed will be Completely Randomized Design

(CRD).

Data to be collected

Number of shoots; length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging shoot; number

of leaves, leaf size (diameter and width); culm diameter; shoot recruitment rate against

time, useable culm yield against time, internode length, number of nodes, height,

diameter of culms, mortality, disease and pest incidence/resistance

Data analysis: The data on the performance and soil conservation potentials of bamboo will be

Summarized using MS-EXCELL software and will be subjected for analysis.

Descriptive statistics will be used.

Location: This experiment was established in June 2010 at Chagni, Jimma and Holeta, and

before four years at Gambo). It will also be established this year (2013) at Alemaya, Tepi, and

Kulumsa.

Duration: Currently, there is more opportunity to test the species at newly opened centers and

higher learning institutes (researchers already employed to handle research on Non-Timber Forest

Resources), hence there is need of extend the duration of the trial for more years (up to 2018).

Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff) Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Negash (JARC), Mohammed (AARC),

Eyasu (HU), Mussa (TARC), Getaneh (KARC)Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)

4.8. Effect of different storage conditions on germination and Field emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds

Seed collection and processing

Mature fruits of O. abyssinica and yushinia alpina seeds will be collected from at least twenty

five clumps for representativeness. Seed collection will be conducted in Pawe special Woreda,

Mandura, and Bullen districts for lowland bamboo and Masha and Dawro area for highland

bamboo since there exists gregarious flowering and seed setting of the species. Seed processing

will be done according to the method followed by Demelash Alem (2006). The fruits will be air-

dried and separated in to single fruits. The fruit aggregates will be threshed manually to extract

seeds. The seeds will be stored properly until initial germination test is carried out. Initial

germination test will be done using 100 seeds with four replications. These sample seeds will be

taken by thoroughly mixing the bulk seeds and taking randomly by hand. Approximately, equal

sized seeds will be used for the study in order to avoid the effect of seed size on the germination

test. The sample seeds will be taken out from bulk sample for initial germination test. The test

will be carried out in Pawe and Forestry agricultural research center laboratory simultaneously

with initial germination test, enough amounts of seeds (0.5kg per each collection medium) will be

stored and will be used in subsequent germination testing periods. The necessary storage medium

26

will be purchased or prepared locally. After initial germination test, seeds to be used for

subsequent germination test will be stored in different storage medium: such as stoppered glass

bottles, screw top plastic boxes, tin boxes, polythen bags (with mouth folded three times and

tied), mouth tied cotton cloth bags and jute bags. The experiment will be continued for 24

months, starting from the first germination test. At intervals of four months, seed samples will be

taken out from each storage container and will be tested for standard germination for two

consecutive years. Four hundred seeds in four replications of 100 seed each will be used in each

test (ISTA, 1996). The germination test will be conducted on non-toxic moist germination paper

on Petri dishes. Field emergence test will be conducted by sowing seed in potting mix of soil. The

Observation on germinating seeds/ emerging seedlings will be recorded until no seeds will

Germinate/emerge).

Initial moisture content and seed characteristics The initial moisture content will be determined by using 25 seeds in 5 replicates of 5 seed each.

For measuring seed size (seed length and width) 100 seeds were randomly selected from collected

seeds. These seeds will be divided in to five replicates of 20 seeds each and their size measured

using a caliper. To determine thousand seed weight, 5000 seeds will be taken randomly from the

collected seeds and divided in to five replicates of 1000 seed each. Each replicate will be weighed

using sensitive balance.

Germination test

Before conducting this test, the germinating medium, i.e. Petri dishes (9.5 cm diameter) with

moist blotting paper, will be set up in the laboratory Pawe Agricultural Research Center (PARC).

The pure seeds will be mixed, and randomly counted to select seeds for the germination test.

Germination test will be carried out using four replicates of one hundred seeds. Seeds will be

sown uniformly and will be watered as needed and will be kept moist but not wet, as this would

have negatively affected those (Kassahun et al., 2003). No seed treatment will be applied;

bamboo seeds do not have dormancy (Banik, 1994; Kassahun et al., 2003). Seeds will be

considered to have germinated after the emergence and development of the radical and plumule

from the seed embryo (FAO, 1985).

Each day the number of germinated seeds will be recorded, and the germinated seeds will be

removed so that they will not be counted again (Gulzar & Khan, 2001). Abnormal seeds, seeds

infected with fungus, and ungerminated seeds will be considered as non-viable. When no further

germination appeared, the total number of germinated seeds for each treatment/factor

combination will be added, to determine the germination percentage of bamboo seeds (Palzer,

2002). Ungerminated seeds will be inspected for viability and for the cause of any seed defect.

From the data collected, the other required germination parameters will be determined. Seed

viability will be determined by adding the values for the germination percentage and the viable

but ungerminated seeds during the germination period.

Germination energy

This will be determined in the seed viability test by recording the germination data until the

number of germinated seedlings declines or falls off.

According to Schmidt (2000), germination energy can be found in one of the three ways. These

include (1) by taking data up to the day of peak germination; (2) so as not to exclude germinable

seeds, it can also be regarded as lasting until daily germination falls to less than 25% of the peak

germination or (3) it can also be calculated based on the number of days required to attain 50% of

27

the germination capacity. Therefore, the germination energy of O. abyssinica will be determined

based on these three methods.

Germination value

The germination value aims to combine in a single figure total germination together with an

expression for germination energy or speed of germination. From the germination test data, the

germination value of O. abyssinica seeds will be computed according to the method of

Djavanshir & Pourbeik (1976):

GV =( DGs )GP

N 10

Where

GV= Germination value

GP= Germination percent at the end of the test

DGS= Daily Germination Speed, obtained by dividing the cumulative germination percentage by

the number of days since sowing.

DGS = The total obtained by adding every DGS figure obtained from the daily count

N= the number of daily count, starting from the date of first germination

10= Constant

Germination speed

According to FAO (1985), germination speed, which is expressed as peak values and is the

maximum mean daily germination (cumulative percentage of full seed germination divided by the

number of days elapsed since sowing date) reached at the time during the period of the test. The

value will be calculated from the germination values for the germination test.

Field emergence test

According to the randomization and lay out used for the laboratory word O. abyssinica seeds will

also be sown on the nursery soil bare rooted and their field emergence will be tested for each

storage time and storage conditions. To do so the nursery in our research compound will be used.

Except the treatment, all the necessary nursery activities will be carried out as usual. Those non-

germinated seeds will be scrutinized for the cause of failures.

Desiccation & storage under laboratory condition

Desiccate seeds by mixing with an equal amount silica gell Placing container under ambient

temperature (25-30). In this trial the Controls stock will be placed in similar containers with

vermiculite in place of silca gel. Seeds will be aerated by mixing once or twice daily to avoid

Anoxia. Dry the seed till targeted moisture content 50%, 70% and 80% of the initial moisture

content reaches. For Target moisture content calculation use the following formula

Weight of seed (g) at TMC= (100-MC after processing)

(100-TMC)*initial seed weight

When the target moisture content is reached a sample will be taken for germination and moisture

content determination. After determining the required moisture content, store the seed under

laboratory at +5 oC.

Experimental design

The experiment will be laid out in factorial randomized complete block design with four

replication. The storage materials will be arranged randomly in each replication in the laboratory.

The storage periods will also be randomly in each storage materials. The factors are storage

condition with six levels and storage time with seven levels and + 5 oC under FRC seed

laboratory, Addis Ababa.

The details of storage condition and storage period is given below

Storage condition storage periods (after seed collection)

28

T0= control

T1 = Glass bottles P1= 0 Months

T2= Plastic boxes P2=4 Months

T3 = Tin boxes P3=8 Months

T4= Polythen bags P4=12 Months

T5 =Cloth bags P5=16 Months

T6= Jute bags P6=18 Months

T7= Clay Pots P7 = 24 Months

T8= “Kil”

T9 = +5 oC FRC seed laboratory3 Data to be collected:

Germination percentage, seed viability, date of 50% germination, date of complete germination,

germination energy, field emergence of seeds, cumulative germination energy, observable pests

and diseases

Data analysis: data will be checked for normality and homogeneity of variance and the

necessary data transformation will be carried out to normalize the data. The SAS software will be

used for analysis and mean separation will be done using LSD, which is built in SAS.

5. Location of the project

Table 5. Location of the project (locations for lowland bamboo and highland bamboo)

S/N Research components/sub components Location

Highland bamboo Lowland bamboo 1 Component 1: Developing propagation

techniques for highland and lowland bamboo

in Ethiopia

Injibara,TikureInchine Assossa

2 Component 2: Bamboo stand management

2.1 Sub Component 1:Management of existing

highland bamboo and lowland bamboo stands

Injibara, Tikureinchine Assossa

2.2. Sub comp 2: The effect of different weeding

frequency on the early performance of

O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition

3 Component 3: Evaluating bamboo for different

end uses

Bore/Hagereselam,Mash

a,Injibara and Shenen

Pawe ,Mandura and

Assossa

4 Component 4: Assessment of bamboo pests

and diseases

Sub component 1: Assessment of bamboo pests Injibara,Shenen Pawe,Mankush and

Assossa

Sub component 2: Assessment of bamboo

diseases

Injibara,Shenen Pawe,Mankush and

Assossa

5 Component 5: Introduction and evaluation of

bamboo species

Holetta, FRC, Debre-

Zeit

Chagni, Gambo,

Jimma

6 Effect of different storage condition on

germination and field emergence of bamboo

Dawro ,Masha Pawe

Table 6.Administrative boundaries of the research areas

S.

N

Research area Administrative

region

Administrative

Zone

wereda Agro ecology

1 Pawe Benishangule

Gumuze

Metekel Pawe special

wereda

lowland

29

2 Assossa “ Assossa Assossa lowland

3 Injibara Amhara Awi Banja highland

4 Shenen/TikueInchine Oromia West shewa Tikureinchine Highland

5 FRC Addis Ababa Bole Bole Highland

6 Holetta Oromia Special zone Welmera Highland

7 DebreZeit Oromia East Shewa AdaA midland

8 Jimma Oromia Jimma Zone Jimma midland

6. Expected outputs of the project

The best propagation techniques of both highland and lowland bamboos will be

identified;

Efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol developed.

Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland bamboo under different

harvesting intensities will be investigated;

Optimum harvesting intensity and techniques of lowland bamboo will be

determined

Nutritive value of bamboo shoots identified

The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best

performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies;

Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known;

The storage behavior of bamboo seed and its germination potential will be know

7. Institutional arrangement

The organizational structure of the project is to be seen in accordance with the business process

re-engineering of the institute that is currently underway. EIAR/Holetta will coordinate and

supervise the implementation of this project. The monitoring and evaluation team of Forestry

Research process, researchers, woreda agriculture officials and experts, farmers, potential

investors, small scale bamboo processors of the nearby research centers will be involved in

monitoring and evaluation of the project.

8. Duration of the project Duration of the project is five years (2008 – 2018 E.C.). Some of the project components will be

finalized in a year time; some others take 2, 3, 4 and 5 years.

Beneficiaries and impact

30

Beneficiaries of the project are farmers, investors, NGOs, GOs, handicrafts, cottage industries.

This project will have great economic, social and environmental role. It also has significant

impact on the target farmers’ livelihood. The outputs of the project have great potential for

scaling-up to a larger number of users/beneficiaries.

Economic benefits

Provide raw material for industries thereby increase the income of investors

Diversify and increase farmers’ income.

Create employment opportunities to the community

Social benefits

The community participation will increase as it is income generating plant

The output of the research will have great contribution in poverty alleviation as it

is income generating plant species with diverse products and services

Great number of the community including especially small income farmers,

investors, small

The project Number of beneficiaries specifying the major social groups that

benefit most

Environmental benefits

The output of the project will have great contribution to the environment as the

species has important characteristics for soil and water conservation and

environmental amelioration.

The project will also have great role in the conservation of remaining forest resources as it is

reports, progress reports, research project evaluating team report, review meetings and travelling

workshops.

10. Dissemination strategy The nationwide production package popularization program by the Federal Government, field

days, field visits, workshops, training of extensionists and farmers, technical manuals, leaflets,

posters, annual report, publications and mass media, Farmer’s Research Groups (FRGs) will be

used to disseminate the technologies to be generated by the project.

11. Monitoring and evaluation plan The mid term evaluation of the project will take place on June 2009 whereas the final

evaluation will be made in June 2012.The monitoring tools that are usually used by the

program include quarterly reports, annual Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

12. Milestone of the project Deliverables Date

(Month,

Year)

The storage behavior and germination potential of lowland and highland

bamboo seeds will be known

30/07/2013

The best propagation techniques for highland and 30/07/2013;

31

lowland bamboos will be identified;

30/07/2015

Efficient micro propagation and invitro regeneration protocol

developed.

30/06/2012

Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland and lowland

bamboos under different harvesting intensities and techniques will be

investigated;

30/07/2013

Nutritive value and preservation techniques of bamboo shoots identified 30/01/2012

The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best

performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies;

30/07/2013;

30/07/2018

The phenotypic variation of different provenances and genetic variability of

Ethiopian highland bamboo will be known and the best performing and with

Desirable characteristics will be selected.

30/07/2013

Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known; 30/07/2013

Table 7. Work plan for old bamboo project

S.N Major Activities Quantity Measurement

Fiscical year

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

1 Seed collection kg 205 100 10

5

2 Seed extraction and storage kg 200 100 100

3 Conduct germination test lab month 8 2 3 3

4 Conduct germination test nursery month 8 2 3 3

5 Marking of new shoots ha 1.8 0.9 0.9

6 removing of un marked shoots ha 0.6 0.6

7 Conduct thinning ha 0.6 0.6

8 Lowland bamboo shoot collection area 1 1

9 Bamboo shoot nutrient analysis month 3 1 2

10 Protocol set up using tissue culture # spp 2 1 1

11 Seedling propagation in the nursery no 300 50 50 100 100

12 Propagation of seedlings in tissue culture using biotechnology no 1000 250

250 250 250

13 Identification of genetic variation using molecular markers month 8 2 2 2 2

14 Assessment of disease and pest location 4 2 2

15 Site clearing and preparation ha 1.5 1.5

16 Field layout and planting ha 1.5 1.5

17 Weeding and cultivation ha 5(3 times) 5 5 5

18 Watering ha 2.8(8xmonth) 2.5(24 x)

2.5(16X)

19 Conduct fencing and strengthening m2 3200 400 40

0 800

20 Data collection ha 10 5 5

32

21 Follow up and supervision month 8 24 24 24 24

22 Report writing no 5 1 1 1 2

23 Manuscript development for completed activities no 2 2

13. Budget requirement for the project

S/N Budget code Description Budget required

2004 2005

1 6113 Contract staff 0 0

2 6114 Casual staff 158584 202987.52

3 6212 Office supplies 17200 20778.88

4 6217 Fuel and lubricants 63726 81569.28

5 6218 Farm supplies 17200 22016

6 6219 17200 22016

7 6221 Inputs 23965.80 30676.224

8 6223 Chemicals 37840 48435.20

9 6231 Perdium 64500 82560

10 6232 Transport 8600 11008

11 6241 Maintenance 24510 31372.80

12 6245 Barbed wire 27520 35225.60

13 6251 Land rent 24080 30822.40

14 6256 Service charge 6020 7705.60

15 6271 Training 18920 24217.60

16 6313 Fixed asset 51600 66048

Total 561465.80 717439.10

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