Overview v2.0

8/8/2019 Overview v2.0

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OLED(Organic Light Emitting Diode)

.Exploring a New Organo-Electronic

Realm

Presented to: Presented by:

Mr. U.P. Singh Ankur Gupta


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Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology

Bhubaneswar

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar entitled " ORGANIC LIGHTEMITTING

DIODE ( OLED)" has been submitted to Dr. U.P.Singh by Ankur Gupta, Roll

Number 804020 , student of third year B.Tech ( Electronics and Tele

Communication )

Date:

Signature of Guide


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This formal acknowledgement will hardly be sufficient in expressing my deep

sense of gratitude to Dr U.P.Singh , guide of my seminar topic, which is"Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)" He guide me to analysis about the

organic materials and how and also helped me to understand the basic concepts of

this topic.

I am also very grateful to my roommates (Amrit Tiwary, Amit Roy) and otherfriends who provide me help and support in selection and understanding this topic.

Ankur Gupta

( 804020)

ETC-1

KIIT, Bhubaneswar


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WHAT IS OLED?

OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode) is a self light emitting technology

composed of a thin, multi-layered organic film placed between an anode and

cathode. In contrast to LCD/TFT technology, OLED does not require a backlight.

Organic Light-Emitting Diode is any light emitting diode (LED) which emissive

electroluminescent layer is composed of a film of organic compounds. Usually, it

contains a polymer substance that allows an organic compound to be deposited.

The compounds are deposited in rows and columns onto a flat carrier by a printing

process, resulting in a matrix of pixels that can emit light of different colors.

The system can then be used for television screens, computer displays, portable

system screens, or simply be used as a light bulb.Typical OLEDs emit less lightper area than inorganic solid-state LEDs that are designed as a point-light source.


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HISTORY

Bernanose and co-workers produced the first electroluminescence in the early

1950s by applying high-voltage alternating current field to crystalline thin films of

acridine orange and quinacrine. In 1960, researchers at Dow Chemical developed

AC-driven electroluminescent cells using doped anthracene.

In 1963, Weiss et al. First reported high conductivity in iodine-doped oxidized

polypyrrole with a conductivity of 1 S/cm. As of 1974, the discovery was called

lost and a melanin-based bistable switch with a high conductivity ON state.

The material emitted a flash of light when switched.

In a 1977 paper, Shirakawa et al. Reported high conductivity in similarly oxidized

and iodine-doped polyacetylene. The group subsequently won the 2000 Nobel

Prize in Chemistry for the discovery and development of conductive organic

polymers.


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In 1979 Chin Tang discovered electroluminescence in the research department of

Kodak. During his work with solar cells he observed a blue glow of organic

material. In 1987 Tang and Van Slyke introduced the first light emitting diodes

from thin organic layers. In 1990 electroluminescence in polymers was discovered.

The first OLEDs were organic light diodes from small molecules coatable in

vacuum (small molecule or SM-OLED). The later OLEDs are organic light diodes

on the basis of polymers which are applied in liquid phase (Polymer-OLED or

PLED). Polymer-LEDs developed by Cambridge Display Technology allow the

solution of organic material in liquid. Afterwards, the organic material can be

applied by spin coating or in an inkjet printing processing. At present polymer

LEDs still lag behind in picture quality but they promise considerably less

production costs. The printing process is more flexible.


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OLED DEVELOPMENT

1990 OLED was discovered in a useful form

1991 University research was done

1994 Launch of industrial R&D`

1998 First OLED product in the marketplace

OLED will emerge as a leading next generation technology. It is expected that in

the forthcoming years oled will replace led and by OLED display market will see

sales hit $3.1 billion by 2012. It is also expected that lighting market will reach $6

billion by 2018 as the graph shows.

There has been tremendous progress in all aspects of OLED lighting over the past

five years including materials, architectures and manufacturing processes. The

industry consensus is that OLEDs have reached the point where they are now

adequate for niche lighting applications. In the long-term, as their core capabilities

improve, they will ultimately become contenders for mainstream applications that

require an area, rather than a point, source of light. Applications where OLED


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lighting could play a role include backlighting, general-purpose illumination,

architectural and specialized industrial lighting, vehicular lighting, and signage.

Most development activity is being targeted at the 1000-nit brightness level,

generally considered to be the entry point for general-purpose lighting (anattractive opportunity for OLED lighting simply because the addressable market is

so large). About 24 billion light bulbs for general illumination are sold worldwide

every year.

But while the demand for lighting will increase as development proceeds in Asia,

Africa and Latin America, it also seems likely that fewer bulbs, tubes and lighting

arrays will be bought, simply because these lighting products are achieving longer

lifetimes. As a result, NanoMarkets expects the addressable market to fall to about

10 billion units by the end of the forecast period. This represents OLED lightingsales for the general-purpose lighting market of about $1.1 m in 2008, growing to

almost $2.3 bn in 2015.

NanoMarkets also expects OLED sales for the backlighting market to grow from

close to nothing this year, to $1.1 bn in 2015 (see figure 2), while architectural and

specialized industrial lighting applications will grow from about $1 m this year, to

around $1.9 bn in 2015.


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ARCHITECTURE

Oled is divided into three layers which are each optimized for electron transport,

hole transport and luminescence. Starting from bottom we have a substrate whichcan be of plastic or glass. It is a material on which organic layers and two

electrodes are placed. Substrate is coated with conductive indium-tin-oxide (ITO)

serving as an anode. Sputtered indium-tin-oxide (ITO) electrodes on glass

substrates are used for hole injection. There the ten thousandth part of a layer is

applied. Above that we have a layer consisting of metal called the conducting

layer. This layer is made up of organic plastic molecules that transport holes from

the anode. Example is polyaniline.


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Above conduction layer we have an emissive layer which is made up organic

plastic molecules( different from those of conducting layer ) that transport

electrons from the cathode through conduction layer. This is the layer where light

is emitted . One such polymer for this layer is polyfluorene .

Above that we have again a conducing layer for the transport of electrons. It is

made up of same material of which conducting layer for holes is made.

Above all we have cathode which emits electrons when current is passed through

it. The cathode may be transparent or non transparent depending upon the type of

oled to be made. This completes the architecture of oled. Moving to the next slide.

An apparatus such as a light source has a multi-element light extraction andluminescence conversion layer disposed over a transparent layer of the light source

and on the exterior of said light source. The multi-element light extraction and

luminescence conversion layer includes a plurality of light extraction elements and

a plurality of luminescence conversion elements. The light extraction elements

diffuses the light from the light source while luminescence conversion elements

absorbs a first spectrum of light from said light source and emits a second

spectrum of light.


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HOW DOES IT WORK??

OLEDs basic structure consists of organic materials positioned between thecathode and the anode, which is composed of electric conductive transparent

Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). The organic materials compose a multi-layered thin film,

which includes the Hole Transporting Layer (HTL), Emission Layer (EML) and

the Electron Transporting Layer (ETL). By applying the appropriate electric

voltage, holes and electrons are injected into the EML from the anode and the

cathode, respectively. The holes and electrons combine inside the EML to form

excitons, after which electroluminescence occurs. The transfer material, emission

layer material and choice of electrode are the key factors that determine the qualityof OLED components.

We all know that when electrons and holes are combine with each other, energy is

emitted as light . Same is the case here.

During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is

positive with respect to the cathode. A current of electrons flows through the

device from cathode to anode, as electrons are injected into the upper conducting

layer of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn from the lower conducting


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layer at the anode. This latter process may also be described as the injection of

electron holes into the lower conducting layer.

Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and they

recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of the electron and hole. This happensin the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more

mobile than electrons. This accompanied by emission of radiation whose frequency

is in the visible region .

Depending upon what type of oled is desired, The light is allowed to escape either

from the cathode or substrate. If light escapes from the substrate , it is called

conventional oled as generally see and if light escapes from cathode region, it is

known as TOLED i.e. Transparent OLED. The same is shown in figure.


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In a layered device, interference effects play a critical roleon the angular

distribution of the generated light [1]. Since weare working in the range ofhundreds of nanometers for eachlayer, in an OLED device coherence is not an

issue, and thelight can interfere, mainly in two different ways:

Multiple beam interference occurs when the radiation isreflected back and forth

between the interfaces of one layer. Wide-angle interference takes place between

reflected light and directly emitted light with the same wave vector on the angular

distribution of the generated light [1]. Since we are working in the range of

hundreds of nanometers for each layer, in an OLED device coherence is not an

issue, and the light can interfere, mainly in two different ways:

Concerning microcavity effects, we used a simulation program that calculates the

flux of light passing through a horizontal plane inside the device. Of course,

multiple beam and wide angle interferences are taken into account. In order to

optimize the emission into air, we modified the thicknesses of the different layers

(hole transport layer, electron transport layer, and ITO). Then we optimized the

same structure with an extra layer of a different material embedded between the

ITO and the glass substrate. Figure 4 is an example of how the emission into air

varies with the thickness of two layers.


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TYPES OF OLED

We have mainly two types of OLEDs. Passive and Active.

PASSIVE MATRIX OLED ( PMOLED )

Passive oleds are called PMOLED after its name Passive Matrix Organic Light

Emitting Diode.

With Passive-Matrix OLEDs, the display is controlled by switching on rows and

columns. When you turn on row number x and column number y, the pixel at the

intersection is lit and emits light. Each time you can choose just one pixel to

light. So you have to turn these on and off very quickly. You do so in a certain

sequence, and create the desired image. This is somewhat like the interlace-system

used in old CRTs, but the control is done pixel-by-pixel.

Passive matrix (PM) OLED displays stack layers in a linear pattern, much like a

grid, with "columns" of organic and cathode materials superimposed on "rows" of

anode material. Each intersection or pixel contains all three substances. External


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circuitry controls electrical current passing through the anode "rows" and cathode

"columns," stimulating the organic layer within each pixel. As pixels turn on and

off in sequence, pictures form on the screen. PM OLED displays function and

configuration are well-suited for text and icon displays in dashboard and audio

equipment. Comparable to semiconductors in design, PM OLED displays areeasily, cost-effectively manufactured with todays production techniques.

PMOLEDs have a fairly simple structures to design and fabricate, they demand

relatively expensive, current-sourced drive electronics to operate effectively. In

addition, their power consumption is significantly higher than that required by a

continuous charge mode in an active-matrix OLED. Power analyses have shown

that PMOLED displays are most practical in sizes smaller than 2 to 3 in

diagonal, or having less than approximately 100 row lines. PMOLEDs make a grat

job for many products such display applications, including cell phones, MP3

players and portable games.

Passive Matrix is low cost but can only be manufactured economically in colour to

a size of 1.69 (160x128pixels). Standard industry sizes for colour PMOLED is

0.95 (96x64) and 1.5 (128x128). Most of the new development is in

Monochrome Displays using White, Blue or Yellow colouring.

In PMOLED to illuminate any particular pixel line a passive-matrix display,

electrical signals are applied to the row line and column line. The more current

pumped through each pixel diode, the brighter the pixel.

PMOLEDs are very easy and cheap to build, but they are limited to small sizes (up

to 3", typically). The image displaying is a bit complicated (because of the

row/column method). Also the power consumption is not as good as AMOLEDs.


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ACTIVE MATRIX OLED (AMOLED)

The term AMOLED means Active-Matrix OLED.

The 'active-matrix' part refers to the driving method. In an AMOLED, one

controls each pixel directly and this method can be used to create large, high-

resolution displays that are still manageable.

Active matrix (AM) OLED displays stack cathode, organic, and anode layers on

top of another layer - or substrate - that contains circuitry. The pixels are defined

by the deposition of the organic material in a continuous, discrete "dot" pattern.

Each pixel is activated directly: A corresponding circuit delivers voltage to the

cathode and anode materials, stimulating the middle organic layer. AM OLED

pixels turn on and off more than three times faster than the speed of conventional

motion picture film - making these displays ideal for fluid, full-motion video.


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The worldwide AM-OLED market will grow to US$4.6 billion by 2014,

representing a CAGR of 83.3 percent, up from US$67 million in 2007, according

to iSuppli Corp. In terms of shipments that is expected to grow to 185.2 million

units by 2014, rising at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 84.2 percent up

from 2.6 million units in 2007.

Two primary TFT backplane technologies, poly-Silicon (poly-Si) and amorphous-

Silicon (a-Si) are used today in AMOLEDs.

AMOLED, the array is divided into a series of row and column lines, with each

pixel formed at the intersection of a row and column line, just as in a passive-

matrix display. Each pixel now consists of an OLED in series with a thin-film

transistor (TFT). The TFT is a switch that can control the amount of current

flowing through the OLED. In AMOLED, information is sent to the transistor ineach pixel, dictating the brightness of the pixel. The TFT then stores this

information and continuously controls the current flowing through the OLED. In

this manner the OLED is operating continuously, avoiding the need for the very

high currents necessary in a passive-matrix display.

ADVANTAGES OF AMOLED

1.High Perceived Luminance

Perceived luminance is 1.5 times higher than that of conventional lcd display.


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2.Contrast ratio

The contrast of an AMOLED is unbelievable it offers clear images and readability

in any environment.

3.Wide Viewing Angle


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4.True Colours


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ADAVANTAGES OF OLED

1.Low Power


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In this picture we have structures of LCD and Oled. Since in LCDs we have a

gray scale shutter i.e. polarizer for light this makes the structure more complex

whereas in OLEDs the organic layers t themselves produce colours and thus the

structure which leads to low cost of OLED.

2.High Power Efficiency

As we can see in the first picture that for same amount of luminance, we are

getting a better display. For producing the same amount of brightness as shown in

the second picture, OLED will need comparatively lesser luminance.

3. Less Power Consumption


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Organic light emitting diode, or OLED, displays seem to have it all: energy

efficiency and a beautiful, crisp picture that refreshes rapidly. But it's difficult to

make them on a large scale, so OLED televisions remain very expensive. Last

week, DuPont Displays announced the development of a manufacturing process

that the company says can be used to print large, high-performance OLED

televisions at volumes that should bring down costs.

4. Better Displays


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Compared to LCDs, todays dominant flat panel display (FPD) technology,

OLEDs are capable of providing markedly better performance features. Thinner,lighter and more attractive, OLEDs offer much faster response times, wider

viewing angles, higher contrast ratios and brighter, more saturated colors - for a

more enjoyable viewing experience. With operating lifetimes now in the tens of

thousands of hours, OLEDs, with Universal Displays proprietary PHOLED

technology, can also be more energy efficient than LCDs.

OLEDs also have the potential to be cost effective. They have fewer processing

steps and are also less materials and equipment intensive than todays LCDs. As

OLED manufacturing technologies mature, OLED production yields should

continue to improve and larger-scale equipment be brought on line. As a result,

production costs will continue to decrease - ultimately enabling OLEDs to

outperform LCDs on a cost basis.

DISADVANTAGE


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While these screens have many advantages but there are disadvantages also

associated with these screens. Check those OLEd disadvantages below:

Short Lieftime: OLED's biggest disadvantage is that these screens are not for long

use. Compared with LCD, these screens are not designed to last as long. So life

time may be a critical issue and ofcourse a biggest disadvantage of OLED screens.

However, these screens may find good use as mobile phone displays as most

people don't keep phone for more than a year.

Sunlight Effect: Another disadvantage of OLED display is that they are hard to

see in direct sunlight. So if you have open lobbies where sunlight reaches directly,you will not get benefit of vieiwng these screens.

Highly Water prone: OLED screens are highly prone to water. This adds to

another disadvantage as these screens can't withstand even a small water on

display. In this regard, LCD screens are less susceptible to water damage.

High Cost: As mentioned above, current cost is quite high which adds to another

OLED disadvantage.

APPLICATIONS


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1. Light Source

Starting with Light Source.. Not only are OLEDs super efficient, but these 'lamps'

do not contain any 'bad' metals such as mercury, which is present in efficient CFL

lamps. So OLEDs are really the future lighting source, when all things are

considered.

In the race to win the display prize, OLEDs have emerged as a leading contender

for the next-generation. At stake: sales of billions of cellular phones for both voice


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and visual communication as wireless Internet access is forecast to exceed wired

connections in the next couple of years. Plus, in five years retail sales for PDAs

alone will increase by a factor of five, surpassing the 80 million mark. As the list

of potential OLED based displayshandhelds, digital cameras, camcorders,

automotive displays,computers and TV screenscontinues to grow, so does thelist of companies getting involved with OLED research, production and

commercialization. Experts predict that during the next few years OLED displays

will explode, with the market increasing in leaps of around 60% per year.

Currently, more than 80 companies worldwide have OLED development programs

and over a third of them are gearing up for volume production.

Oled TV

Lighting manufacturers are constantly looking for ways to distinguish themselvesin an industry comprised of lightbulbs and fluorescent tubes that sell mostly on

price. Potential differentiators might include the initial price paid, but for

conventional products these are now so low that it is unlikely that any new

technology could offer an improvement. With this in mind, lighting producers are


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seeking other ways to stand out in the marketplace mostly through improved

aesthetics, energy efficiency and improved lifetimes.

One such technology that could offer these distinct characteristics is organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). According to a report recently published by

NanoMarkets, OLED Lighting Markets 2008, the OLED lighting market will grow

from about $2.8 m this year to around $6 bn in 2015.

2. Keyboard

This keyboard looks like any other keyboard but on a closer view, we find that

each key has a movable cap,a microchip and an OLED which can be configured

using user configurable software. His enables multiple usage of the keyboard.

Each key is a stand-alone display that shows the function currently assigned to it.

Optimuss customizable layout allows convenient use of any languageCyrillic,

Ancient Greek, Georgian, Arabic, Quenya, hiragana, etc.as well as of any other

character set: notes, numerals, special symbols, HTML codes, math functions and

so on to infinity.

In order to extend the service life of the displays and avoid using cables that may

be vulnerable to wear, the screens embedded in the keytops are fixedits only the

transparent caps that are pressed.


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Every button of the keyboard (or, more precisely, a module consisting of a moving

cap, a microchip and a display) can be easily removed to clean or replace.

3. Flexible Displays

Flexible displays have advantage of Low weight which is important for mobile

applications.They are very sturdy and strong. Cost production is very less due to

R2R manufacturing technology.


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A flexible cell phone display can be unfurled and then rolled back up into a

cylinder case. An early prototype show above shows E ink technology at work,

what is absolutely amazing is that the display retains its image even when the

power is turned off.

An OLED consists of an emissive organic material, that when supplied with an

electrical current, can produce a superior full color flat panel display. OLED stands

for organic light emitting diode. OLED or flexible displays do not use crystals theway smart phone LCD screen uses crystals. OLED is much better than both the

LCD and CRT technology. Organic light emitting diode is so incredibly thin; it can

be placed on a substrate such as plastic film or glass. Not only is it thin, but OLED

is so light weight, it is an advantage for hand-held devices, smart phones, cell

phones, laptops and notebooks. Compared to traditional or old CRT displays,

OLED is brighter, sharper and even has a better contrast than LCD. The OLED

imaging quality certainly surpasses that of LCD screens. What is also incredible is

that OLED can be viewed at any angle, a full 170 degrees.

OLED consists of super thin layers that are sandwiched together. An organic

compound is inserted between two electrodes layers which are arranged like a grid

of ways very much like your patio screen door that keeps mosquitoes away.

Electricity goes to one wire on one layer. More electricity goes to another wire of

the grid on the second layer. When the two charged wires meet, an organic layer


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lights up. The colors you see on flexible display are created by lighting up sub

pixels within each pixel. This causes what you call electroluminescent light.

Without getting too complex, a chemical arrangement of the organic material

dictates which colors of light are being produced. When you look at an OLED

display, it's like you're looking at your mosquito screen door itself not the filteredlight coming through it. This is why you can view the OLED screen from any

angle without distorting the image.

CURRENT RESEARCHES


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Since the discovery of OLEDs an amazing development could be realized. The

first patterns of the new displays already offer a brightness of 150 candela per

square meter and contrasts above 100:1. Thus, the new technology starts at the

level of present high-value TFT monitors. The initially only weakly glowing layers

in laboratories became bright shining components which achieve luminosities of

up to 200.000 candela per square meter - a brightness for which you need sun

glasses.

While fixed organic displays slowly enter the market, flexible displays still cause

some problems. They must be encapsuled carefully since light emitting polymers

react sensitive to air humidity and oxygen. In flexible construction concepts this is

still a problem since the film compound is exposed to extreme mechanical stress.

The combination of organic LEDs with electronic circuits could allow completely

flexible displays which may be bent or rolled in at will. Today, every pixel must be

wired with conventional technology and must be triggered seperately. The goal is

to print the electronic circuit directly onto the back. Thus, displays become carrier

systems and even with a film computer behind them they will measure only

milimeters.

Experts predict an OLED display market of up to 2 billion dollars by 2007. In thefuture many consumer devices such as mobile phones, digital cameras, PDAs, and

DVD players are going to be developed with the OLED technology.Roll to Roll

Manufacturing.

ROLL TOROLL MANUFACTURING


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A R2R Process for Manufacturing Active Matrix Backplanes

Based on Plasma Processing and Self-Aligned Imprint Lithography

Patterning scaling: R2R imprinter compared to panel stepper

comparison made at equal throughput.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 0

-3

1 0-2

1 0-1

1 00

equipmentcost[M$]

/through

put[cm

2/

S]

generation

equipment cost scaling comparison: panel stepper vs R2R imprinter

100 mm R2R imprinter

330 mm R2R imprinter


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Future Uses

1. Fluid Lenses

The tiny fluid lenses will give you the freedom to create astounding photographs

with your camera cell phone are smart phone. No one will know that this picture

was taken from your mobile phone. Camera phone users are certainly not thrilled


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with the quality of the pictures they take with their 1.3 or 2.0 mega pixel camera

phone.

But there are the rare moments when kayaking through a tropical paradise of Fuji

Island, snowboarding and North Pole or checking out the forbidden Palace inChina: when we wish we had a digital camera close at hand. The premise of taking

snapshots is that all of us have images that carry an internal narrative that we rarely

get to share.

The reason for the poor quality picture produced by most camera phones on the

market today is the flash is nonexistent, as well as the camera lens assembly.

Camera phones have lenses of extremely limited focal length giving you results of

the list to be desired for.

2. Portable Pictures

The cell phone projector technology developed by Siemens communications in

Samsung respectively, can detect PDA stylus presses as well as a finger taps on the projected image. The technology is already in development and soon you can

projector your tiny cell phone screen onto a nearby flat surface and enjoy a larger

reading area.


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If you happen to be a gamer, and the cell phone projector technology has a special

treat to offer you. This will solve the problem for many cell phone users that are

becoming nearsighted because they have to squint and decipher the small printing

on a 2 x 2 inch cell phone screen. For professional and hobby photographers, cell

phone projector technology allows you to show your portfolio with just a cellphone and a projector.

3. Nano Emissive Displays

The whole family would gather round the radio to listen to entertainers and stories

sunday night after dinner. The classic cathode ray tube CRT displays require an

electronic gun mounted to the back firing electrons, the way a soldier would fire a

machine gun onto a phosphor coated glass. What really is amazing is that Motorolarecently developed a prototype nano emissive display (NED) containing thousands

of guns. For each pixel.

4. Scrolling Laptops


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Continued progress in Universal Display's FOLED roadmap may, then, enable the

realization of Universal Displays innovative product concept, the Universal

Communication Device (UCD). Envisioned as a truly portable, cell phone-like

communication device, the UCD is designed to offer advanced voice and data

communication capabilities via a roll-out, full-color, full-motion video display

thats as flexible as it is energy-efficient.


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CONCLUSION

The substantially higher efficiencies and longer lifetimes promised by ILEDs andOLEDs over conventional lighting technologies (see table 1) represent a winning

proposition in general-purpose lighting. For residential lighting, there are strong

forces in play by local, regional, national and continental interests to wean

consumers away from incandescent technology and toward more efficient

fluorescent bulbs. The fact that compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs are typically

compatible with existing incandescent sockets is helping in that transition.

In industrial and some commercial lighting, ILEDs are having an impact and are

likely to become firmly entrenched. Accent lighting and other architectural types

of lighting could provide a safe haven for OLEDs in the near-term. Here, the fact

that OLEDs lag behind the more mature ILED technology in characteristics such

as efficiency and lifetime is less important than the design possibilities provided by

a planar sheet of light. Flexible OLED lighting will have a special appeal in this

arena, bringing all of the design freedom that comes with conformal lamps that

curve to mate with irregular surfaces.

The bottom line is that incandescent is, and fluorescent may be, destined for thescrapheap of lighting history, with halogen and others also going the way of the

dinosaur. In the short-term, fluorescent should enjoy a healthy surge in residential

installations, as better-educated consumers adopt its more energy-efficient

technology. The CFLs built with standard incandescent light bulb bases provide a

particularly easy transition model, although the built-in ballasts do not fit some

lamps and fixtures. Long-term, though, lighting belongs to solid-state sources, first

ILEDs alone and then in tandem with OLEDs.


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REFERENCES

http://impnerd.com/the-history-and-future-of-oled

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_diode

http://www.oled-research.com/oleds/oleds-history.html

http://www.voidspace.org.uk/technology/top_ten_phone_techs.shtml#

keep-your-eye-on-flexible-displays-coming-soon

http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/news.phtml/23150/24174/samsung-

say-oled-not-ready.phtml

http://www.cepro.com/article/study_future_bright_for_oled_lighting_

market/

http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/21116/page1/

http://optics.org/cws/article/industry/37032

http://jalopnik.com/5154953/samsung-transparent-oled-display-

pitched-as-automotive-hud

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