Overview It is well known by educators that children learn in
various ways and have their own individual styles and strategies.
Some may enjoy group work others individual work. Some may prefer
teacher instruction with worksheets and firm directions, rather
than self generated research projects. There are numerous ways
children learn, but how does the surrounding environment, affect a
child's learning ability and influence the learning strategies they
employ?
This website aims to explore these issues, in addition to
introducing a number of different types of learning environments,
then specifically focussing on classroom layouts and how this
impacts on learning. This is followed by discussion about what
factors influence classroom design and hints to help teachers best
set up their classroom.
Learning Environments It has been found that children learn in a
variety of ways. For example, memorisation, hands on, peer or
individual learning, problem, inquiry or worksheet based, child or
teacher-centred. We suggest that the different ways in which a
child learns is partially related to the type of learning
environment available. These learning environments may also affect
the child's ability and motivation to learn. Below are a number of
learning environments we believe contribute to a child's learning
in unique ways:
School Classroom "Out of Classroom" Settings Home Schooling 21st
Century Classrooms School Classrooms
This is a quote from John Dewey about the classroom environment.
The only way in which adults consciously control the kind of
education which the immature get, is by controlling the environment
in which they act, and hence think and feel. We never educate
directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. Whether we
permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design
environments for the purpose makes a great deal of difference. And
any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative
influence is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated
with reference to its educative effect. (Dewey, John. Democracy and
Education. New York: The Free Press, 1944,pp. 18-19)
This is a photo of a kindergarten classroom. Notice how there
are specific areas for working and reading. This is one way you
might consider to set up your kindergarten classroom.
This is a photo of a year one classroom. Notice it is a little
bit more formal than the kindergarten room. The desks are still set
up in a cluster arrangement.
This is a year four classroom. Children are still sitting in
groups. Take note of the computer areas. See how they are set aside
from the main learning area. This is a good way to minimise
distractions.
This is a photo of an upper primary room. Although it is still
arranged in the group format notice how sophisticated the
arrangement is.
"Out of Classroom" Settings School Classrooms are not the only
settings for effective learning. More and more educators are using
"Out of Classroom" settings as learning environments, where
children become educated through experience rather theory.
Experiential education is about placing the learner and their
learning in a real environment that is relevant to their prior
knowledge and the knowledge they will acquire. In the following
pages we explore a number of "Out of Classroom" learning
environments and reflect on how these contribute to a child's
learning and development. Excursions Community Natural Learning
Environments Home Schooling
In South Australia the Education Act (1972) specifies that
children of compulsory school age must be enrolled in a Government
or non-Government school. The age of school attendance is from 6 to
15 years old. The Minister for Education and Childrens Services has
delegated the authority to approve school exemptions from
attendance at school for Home Education to the Executive Director
of Schools. Exemption from a school is usually for a period of 12
months.
Home Education is a choice exercised with the full knowledge of
responsibilities in relation to the requirements of a suitable
curriculum, resources and facilities to support the program.
The Department of Education and Childrens Services is under no
obligations to provide any support or resources. That the
child/children are enrolled at a nearby school. That the program is
reviewed annually. The Process Physical Learning Environment
Frequently Asked Questions Answers General Information School of
the Air 21st Century Classroom
Schools all over the world have implemented computers and
computer learning in the dailying teaching curriculum, even as
early as kindergartens.
Benefits for the Teachers Benefits for the Students Physical
Learning Environment Learning Outcomes Benefits for Teachers
The internet allows the teacher to exchange lesson plans and
ideas. Computers for the classroom is more efficient and less time
is spend in the library searching for books. The internet allows
the teacher to find information for a variety of stimulus. Benefits
for Students
As students are exposed to computers they become more confident
in the area of Information Technology (IT). Students develop skills
to access information quickly and more efficiently and become
seekers of information and evaluators. Fifty years ago students
were taught to recite informtaion, and today, they are taught to
fin information and analyse it.
The Disadvantages of Computers in Schools
A wide consensus among parents and educators believe that
students need to be competent computer users so they are prepared
for life and the workforce, questions have been raised about the
expanding role of computers in schooling and students lives.
Excessive use of computer by students lacks the verbal and non
verbal cues necessary for the development of social and emotional
skills.
Physical Learning Environment
Nearly all schools have at least 1 computer in the classroom.
Students of the School of the Air have a computer each ratio 1:1.
All schools within South Australia have a computer room. The rooms
are set up either in a horse shoe style with the desks flush
against the walls or in rows. There are Information Technology
posters and resources displayed around the room so that students
are surrounded by stimulus that relates to the context of the
learning.
Future Predictions It is hard to suggest how far technology in
classrooms will advance. Maybe classrooms will have web cams in
them allowing parents to actually watch their child/children in the
classroom from either the home or workforce.
Learning Outcomes
Students will learn to use computers to:
Solve problems Communicate
Creative Expression Locate, retrieve, store, organise,
manipulate, interpre and evaluate information.
The skills that students will develop are:
Keyboard skills Use a range of software Apply basic functions of
the system Set up and control a printer Understand and use
appropriate technical skills Appropriate language Retrieve and
store information and develop trouble shooting strategies Word
processing Editing Text Formating Text Telecommunication (internet,
email) Classroom Layout In the following pages you will find
information about the design and layout of classrooms in the past
and the different types of classroom layout you can use. It is
important to consider the way you design your classroom. Your
learning environment must match your teaching style otherwise the
apropriate learning outcomes will not be achieved. After looking at
these pages you will have a better idea about which classroom
layout would best suit the needs of your classroom. Historical/past
classroom settings Rows Groups Alternative Historical/Past
Classroom settings Before schools became institutionalized
government run facilities that they are today they used to be run
in and by the communities and often at home. When school did become
institutionalized a lot of factors changed. The physical
environment was probably one of the biggest factors in this change.
Children went from working in the comfort of their own community
with people that they knew very well to attending a more formal
setting that was in some cases far away from their community. When
they got there classes were quite big so they would not have known
everyone in the class the way they would have in the neighbourhood
classroom. Classrooms were now a formal place of study. Therefore
the design and layout of the classroom were important factors to
consider. The layout and design of these classrooms reflected the
teaching style and curriculum of that period of time. Students
typically sat in rows facing the teacher. Learning was specifically
teacher to student and the classroom layout reflected this.
Teachers expected students to listen and respond only to them.
Student to student learning was not included therefore the standard
classroom design for this period of time was adequate.
Rows
Rows are the typical environment for a teacher-centered
classroom and/or individual learning. Students are aligned in such
a way as they all face the 'front' of the class. The teacher
conducts the instruction from this 'front' position. This type of
physical set-up can be an effective method of behaviour management
.
Groups
Groups are typical of student-centered learning. They provide an
effective environment for collaborative, cooperative,
individualistic and competitive learning. The classroom dynamics
are considerably more complex in this environment as the teacher
uses facilitating techniques to ensure that students are engaged
with the learning process. Students in groups should be situated in
close proximity to the other members of the group so they can
share knowledge, eye-contact and materials without having to
disrupt the other groups in the class. With this in mind , the most
appropriate setting for a group is in circles. This negotiates the
problem of clumping rectangular desks together where the space may
be too great to share these factors (Johnson&Johnson 1991).
Grouping to maximise learning requires the consideration of many
factors. These factors include appropriate integration of advanced
and disruptive students, ensuring racial and cultural diversity,
gender balancing and social skill development. What is of major
importance here is that groups provide a medium in which diversity
within the classroom can enrich individuals, and support the growth
of others. (Dumas 2002) Excursions
Excursions are field trips taken by a class to enhance their
learning of a topic. By venturing outside school grounds, students
are able to take advantage of unique learning environments not
normally encountered within the school classroom. They have the
opportunity to extend and transfer their knowledge beyond the
classroom and learn in a fun, engaging and more stimulating
context. These type of learning environments makes use of
alternative learning strategies and is beneficial for student
learning, particularly in providing: Hands-on, real world
experiences Postive motivation towards subjects Improved
student/student interaction Alternative teaching strategy
Hands-on Experiences Using excursions as a learning environment
encourages students to relate their abstract and conceptual
knowledge to specific "places" which makes recall and understanding
of this knowledge more meaningful.
Excursions for children are also an opportunity for them to get
first hand real experience with subject matter, which will assist
them in connecting their new knowledge with what is taught in the
class. As such they are gaining deep understanding to enable them
to transfer their theoretical knowledge to situations in the world
outside the classroom (Umphrey, 2002). Typical excursions could
include:
Museums Zoos Fire and police stations (i.e. work places) Marine
aquariums Ecotourist trails Botanical Gardens Science Centres or
Planetariums Senior citizen homes
Libraries All excursions should be designed to fit into
curriculum areas and cover key learning areas and skills.
Student Attitudes & Motivation Excursions can excite,
arouse, interest and inform students. They can open up new worlds,
give them insights and new perspectives into subjects and in some
cases they just may be the best way to learn (Michie, 1998). Use of
excursions as a pedagogical practice can improve students attitudes
and motivation towards the subject area (Michie, 1998). It is hoped
that this enthusiasm will be transfered to the classroom in other
subject areas but also be built on, by encouraging students to
undertake further research. Excursions are novel and different and
are the perfect vehicles for children to apply their classroom
knowledge in a "real environment". This will help them become
responsible for their own learning, become empowered learners and
help them foster a love for learning.
Student/Student Interaction Socialisation between students is a
very important factor influencing a child's dvelopment and
learning. If a child does not interact well with other students
(for whatever reason) they tend to become isolated both in the
social setting and within the classroom (Prac observations). This
leads to limited sharing of ideas or cooperation amongst peers.
Although these children may learn well individually this lack of
group work and inability to mix with others prevents them from
developing both social and academic skills important now and in the
future. Excursions enable students to work in small groups, which
help them learn and develop skills such as effective oral
communication between peers (Michie, 1998), co-operation, working
together, taking responsibility and reporting skills. Small group
work can also encourage student driven learning rather than teacher
centred learning. Alternative Teaching Strategy Excursions provide
not only alternative learning strategies for students but also
provide teachers with alternative teaching methods. Research states
that excursions are effective and novel pedagogy and teachers
report wanting to use them more frequently. However, for optimal
learning benefit the outcomes of the excursion need to be
integrated into the set teaching program (Michie, 1998). Excursions
require teachers to use teaching methods that are not the "norm" or
regularly practised. It is an opportunity for teachers to go out of
their comfort zone, learn and become confident in new and different
teaching strategies (Michie, 1998). It may then encourage them to
use alternative novel approaches for other subject areas in the
future. This in turn can only improve classroom lessons and make
learning more interesting and engaging for their students.
Therefore, excursions add variety that is beneficial to both
student and teachers. Consideration Factors for Classroom
Design
If a classroom is designed attractively, effectively and for
maximum logistical use, the classroom itself can become an
effective teaching and learning tool. The right classroom will
encourage particular teaching theories, promote a variety of
learning styles and help to manage behavioural problems. Moreover,
a mentally stimulating and challenging room can motivate a child's
learning, encourage achievement and effort and provide an inviting
environment where they can foster a love for learning. There are a
number of important factors to consider when setting up and
mantaining a classroom. To explore our suggestions just click on
one of the options below.
Behaviour Management Mental Stimulation Teaching Theory Student
Learning Style Behaviour Management
Behaviour management issues are always a concern for teachers,
especially new teachers or student teachers. While there are many
things you can do in your classroom to reduce the amount of
behavioural problems, the physical environment can also be a major
behavioural management tool. By looking at the following pages you
will gain some insight as to what you can do to encourage good
behaviour in the classroom. Classroom design must be considered if
you are having behaviour management problems in your clasroom.
Arrangement
Behavioural management layout tips
Arrangement The arrangement of furniture in the classroom can
both benefit and inhibit a students learning. Before you decide to
arrange your furniture in the classroom, you need to think about
what outcomes you want your students to have. If you are a teacher
who likes quiet, uninterrupted work that is mainly teacher
directed, then designing your classroom by clusters, or an open
plan (like in the pictures below) may distract the students from
achieving the desired outcome.
Children feel frustrated when their learning environment does
not match their learning style. If this happens then children will
become disruptive and inattentive because they are confused about
what it is they are supposed to be doing. The arrangement of
classroom furniture affects the intellectual, social and emotional
learning of a student. This is why classroom design is a
fundamental aspect of education. The teacher is often the one who
arranges the furniture therefore the teacher is influencing the
learning environment before they even start teaching. Setting up
your classroom into specific learning areas is a good way to reduce
behavioural management problems.
Classroom design best suited for behaviour management
problems
Learning centres
Pictures of classrooms with behavioural management in mind
Behaviour Management Layout Tips
1. Move the tables further apart 2. Use tape lines to designate
activity specific areas 3. Use visual barriers where they are
needed. Suggested items: file cabinets, rolling chalkboards and
book shelves 4. Put unneccessary items out of sight and out of
reach
5. Organize materials for easy use 6. Adjust temperature 7.
Adjust height of visual aids 8. Adjust furniture to appropriate
height levels Mental Stimulation Neurological research has revealed
that to promote and encourage maximum learning capacity within our
brains it is vital to stimulate the synapses and neurons
(responsible for carrying valuable knowledge) during school age
years (Tracy, 2000). The age at which stimulation is most valuable
is debatable, however some experts suggest the key years for
learning are 0-10years. Therefore, as educators we need to be able
to stimulate, encourage and hook our students into learning, and
learning about many different subjects and topics (Tracy, 2000) One
way to do this is to create a classroom that is physically
appealing, mentally stimulating and engaging. The pages below
highlight ways in which this is possible and hopefully will lead to
an atmosphere that encourages and promotes positive and effective
student learning.
Seating Arrangement Temperature Room aesthetics Lighting Music
Traditional Teaching
Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the
controller of the learning environment. Power and responsibility
are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor (in
the form of lectures) and decision maker (in regards to cirriculum
content and specific outcomes). They regard students as having
'knowledge holes' that need to be filled with information. In
short, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that
causes learning to occur (Novak, 1998)
Learning is cheifly associated within the classroom and is often
competitive. The lesson's content and delivery are considered to be
most important and students master knowledge through drill and
practice (such as rote learning). Content need not be learned in
context. (Theroux 2002, Johnson &Johnson 1991) The most common
seating arrangement used by the traditionalists is rows.
Student-centered teaching
Competitive Learning
Competitive learning exists when one student goal is achieved,
all other students fail to reach that goal. (Johnson &
Johnson,1991) Competitive learning can be interpersonal (between
individuals), where rows are most important or intergroup (between
groups), where a group setting is appropriate. There have been many
critisisms of this type of learning. These critisisms include -
Because there is only one winner, all other students must fail -
May be linked to high anxiety levels, self-doubt, selfishness and
aggression - May promote cheating - Interferes with the capacity to
problem solve (Johnson & Johnson, 1991) In light of these
critisisms teachers must identify what knids of competetive
activities would have destructive
or constructive outcomes. Groups can be arranged to host
interpersonal competitions seperately from one another. This is one
strategy to maximise the number of winners the class. Competitive
learning is most appropriate when students need to review learned
material. This bypasses the need to problem solve in regards to any
new material. Intergroup competition can be seen as an appropriate
competitive strategy as it maximises the number of winners. It is
also important to ensure homogeneous grouping to maximise the
chance of winning for all groups. Homogeneous grouping allows the
groups to be as evenly matched as possible to provide a challenging
environment for competition. One particular grouping strategy is
called bumping (Johnson & Johnson1991). This invovles ranking
groups from highest to lowest in acheivement through cooperative
learning. Then through interpersonal competition in clusters
students are ranked in thier clusters. The highest acheiving member
is then moved up to the higher ranked group, and the lowest ranked
member is moved down to a lower ranked group. Competitive learning
can also be a cooperative activity when the students formulate
thier own term and rules of the contest, giving them ownership of
the activity (Johnson & Johnson,1991).
Individualistic learning
Cooperative learning
Collaborative learning
Competitive learning
".Personal and environmental factors do not function as
independent determinants, rather they determine each other."
-Bandura
Individualistic Learning
This type of learning exists when the learning or achievement of
one student is independent and seperate from the achievements of
the other students in the class (Johnson&Johnson,1991).
Individual learning implies that knowledge and cognitive skill are
assets that teacher can tranfer to the learner (Saloman &
Perkins, 1998). This learning can be described as teacher-centered;
that is, the teacher provides the major source of information,
assistance, critisism and feedback. Students work alone and are not
expected to be interrupted by other students. In this regard,
students may be seated as far from each other as space permits.
Learning resources and materials need to be organised so that each
student has immediate access to the appropriate materials. This
type of learning aims to be individually beneficial and assessment
is commonly judged against a set criteria.
"In some cases, what is transmitted by instruction is well
assimilated by the child because it represents in fact an extension
of some spontaneous constructions of his own. In such cases, his
development is accelerated."- Piaget
Co-operative Learning
Co-operative learning occurs when students work collaboritively
towards a common goal (Panitz,1996) Acheivements are positively
correlated with the other cooperating students. Students work
together in small clusters or groups. Effective co-operative
learning promotes- positive interdependence - a feeling of
connection with other members of the group as they accomplish a
common goal - individual accountability - every member of the
group is held accountable for the group's achievements - face to
face interaction - group members engage at close range and are
influenced by each other's verbal communication - social skills -
students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in
effective group cooperation - group processing - groups may reflect
and discuss how well they are functioning as a unit and how
effective thier working relationships are. (PLSB,1999) Effective
cooperative learning relies on group management techniques, social
skills training and studentcentered teaching methods.
Individualistic learning
Collaborative learning
Competitive learning
"...without interchange of thought and co-operation with others
the individual would never come to group his operations into a
coherent whole..."- Piaget
Teacher Hints Here are some useful hints that we have gathered
about the learning environment and how it effects student's
learning outcomes. You may find it useful when you plan your
classroom layout.
1. Keep in mind your teaching style and the learning outcomes
you wish to acheive when you are setting up your classroom. 2. Keep
your classroom design cluster free. Only have the resources you are
using ready to access. 3. Carefully consider your needs as a
teacher and the needs of the students, particularly ensure that
every child can see and hear from every part of the room and that
there is plenty of space to move around and help students. 4.
Maximise classroom space and this helps with cleanliness. 5. Design
your classroom to optimise natural light and temperature. 6.
Consider the particular year level you are teaching (the layout for
a reception class will be vastly different to a year 7 class). 7.
Always ensure you can make eye contact with all students in the
class. 8. Be aware of health and safety issues. 8. Make materials
and supplies easily accessible to prevent delays, disruptions and
confusion. Perhaps store frequently used materials in a number of
different places around the room. 9. Learning can be more effective
if children have the opportunity to move around and interact with
others and obtain information from different parts of the room.
Consider this when arranging seating, special corners, equipment
and resources. 10. When using posters and decorating walls try to
remember the cultural diversity represented within the classroom.
11. Make particular effort to display each childs work, rotating
when necessary. 12. It is useful to test out your newly design
classroom to decide whether it is logistically appropriate and that
it creates the atmosphere and learning environment you hoped for.
13. Create a strong child-centred environment with little stress
that enables productive learners to work to the brains natural
learning ability. 14. Providing an environment that is conducive to
optimal learning and that stimulates positive brain learning is the
sole responsibility of the teacher facilitating the students in
his/her classroom. Enriching the environment is a step towards
producing a more productive classroom.
Social Skilling
Group Management
Group Management
Group management is important for maintaining on-task activities
and dealing with students that may be gifted, socially challenged,
disruptive or lazy. Additional management techniques may be
employed or utilised with social skilling. Some examples of
effective group management strategies include the following -
Ensure that the target student is grouped with members that are
proven to be constructive - Groups may be pre-trained in techniques
that will assist them in ensuring that the target student will be
readily accepted and encouraged to perticipate appropriately -
Training the target student with appropriate collaborative and
social skills - Assigning different roles for the individuals in
each group - Assigning one student to an observation role. This
student can report back to the teacher on where they think the
group might be struggling and what strategies they believe would
assist the group. (Johnson&Johnson, 1991)
Social Skilling
Teacher Hints
Social Skilling
Social skilling is an imperative strategy when students are
engaged in collaborative learning activities. This is important to
ensure that the groups are working efficiently and effectively.
Social skilling intervention is important especially when students
are failing to communticate and collaborate effectively with each
other.
Interpersonal and small group skills are the driving force of
cooperative and collaborative learning groups. These skills are
also linked to career and life success. Not only do they facilitate
the building and maintainence of positive, personal relationships
and psychological health, they are skills that are typically valued
by employers (Johnson & Johnson 1991)
Group Management
Teacher Hints
Co-operative Learning
Co-operative learning occurs when students work collaboritively
towards a common goal (Panitz,1996) Acheivements are positively
correlated with the other cooperating students. Students work
together in small clusters or groups. Effective co-operative
learning promotes- positive interdependence - a feeling of
connection with other members of the group as they accomplish a
common goal - individual accountability - every member of the group
is held accountable for the group's achievements - face to face
interaction - group members engage at close range and are
influenced by each other's verbal communication - social skills -
students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in
effective group cooperation - group processing - groups may reflect
and discuss how well they are functioning as a unit and how
effective
thier working relationships are. (PLSB,1999) Effective
cooperative learning relies on group management techniques, social
skills training and studentcentered teaching methods.
Individualistic learning
Collaborative learning
Competitive learning
"...without interchange of thought and co-operation with others
the individual would never come to group his operations into a
coherent whole..."- Piaget
Should Schools Adopt a Constructivist Approach to Education?
Summary of Literary Review There are two opposing viewpoints on how
to properly instruct children in the classroom. There is the
teachercentered approach where the role of the teacher is to
dispense facts and the role of the student is to listen and
memorize said facts. In the child-centered, or constructivist,
approach the children are more in control of their education. They
do hands on activities to promote a higher order of thinking
(analysis, critical thinking), and projects are usually branched
off from the main topic of discussion. Critics of the
child-centered approach say that children waste too much time with
such activities and would be better served learning mathematics
facts
and physics. Advocates of the child-centered approach say that
allowing children to make discoveries of their own is vital to
obtaining a higher order of thinking which better serves children
throughout their lives. Supporters also assert that in most
classrooms there is simply only the occasional child-centered
activity but that classrooms have largely remained teacher-centered
(Abbeduto, 2006). Summary of Yes Position Teachers needs to rethink
their role as teachers. Is a teacher simply the dispenser of
information or is a teacher the facilitator of learning? Windschitl
states that current teachers simply copy the teachers they had had
as children which hinders the goal of going beyond the
teacher-centered method of rote memorization to learning. He says
that therein lies the problem of creating a truly constructivist
classroom. Educators are married to the current norms of curriculum
and standardization. A part of the issue may lie in the greater
depth of knowledge teachers will need to have in the topics that
they teach. Windschitl uses the concept of density as an example.
In a constructivist classroom there would be different groups of
students tackling the issue of density using a variety of methods.
One group may take a purely mathematical approach while another may
use the story of the Titanic. The teacher would need to have an
understanding of the mathematical concepts with density as well as
the complexity of the issue as illustrated in the sinking of the
Titanic. Once a teacher reconciles this issue the hands on,
child-centered, approach will lead children to be more engaged in
the topic being studied and allows them to learn how to think
critically and analytically, as well as learning problem solving
skills. Windschitl believes that the constructivist approach can be
reconciled with state standards. He also states that teachers needs
to have a firm understanding of why they are using the
constructivist approach instead of the widely accepted
teacher-centered approach, since it is inevitable that someone
would ask them why they run their classroom the way they do.
Assessments will need to be made of each childs progress using
journals, reports, and other projects that demonstrate the students
understanding of the topic being studied which will aid in
determining whether or not the class is meeting the standards of
education. To aid teachers in giving children the best education
possible school administrators need to be supportive in the less is
more concept, encourage teacher collaboration, and school wide
changes such as block scheduling. (Windschitl, 1999). Summary of No
Position Hirsch sets out to debunk the constructivist approach
through research comparing ineffective American classrooms and
effective Asian classrooms. He states that classrooms that are
filled with projects where children are responsible for their own
learning did not perform as well as children in teacher-centered
approached classrooms, where there was more focus and time allotted
to learn a subject. Hirsch asserts that there is importance in
drill and practice which helps children retain the information
being learned, following the adage of use it or lose it, and that
the constructivist approach does not offer enough in the way of
drill and practice thereby cheating the students out of retaining
information. He also argues that breadth is more important than
depth. Students need to learn as much as they can about various
subjects because by the time a child is in college the focus of
study narrows. Hirsch also asserts that the policy of best
practices by organizations such as the National Association for the
Education of Young Children, is not founded upon research but upon
pedagogical romanticism. Children learn best by the teacher
introducing new material in small increments and by having the
teacher make connections to previously learned topics that relate
to the new material. Whole class instruction should dominate in the
classroom, and students should be given challenging work to keep
their interest. Hirsch states that children in classrooms with
whole class instruction and a focused schedule are more motivated
and interested in the subjects being taught than children in
classrooms that are filled with workshops and projects. Teachers
that exude warmth as well as a businesslike air have more
successful classrooms than teachers that exude warmth but are more
concerned about a childs self esteem. Over concern about a childs
self esteem causes them to give praises without giving instruction
on how to improve their work. Hirsch addresses the idea of higher
order thinking, and states that higher order thinking is the
difference between a novice and an expert and is domain specific.
Thus the idea that constructivist approach fosters higher order
thinking in the various academic subjects is unfounded. The class
period should be formed into a little drama with a beginning,
middle, and end, well directed but not rigidly scripted by the
teacher (Hirsch, 1996).
My Position Windschitl and Hirsch are both shortsighted. A blend
of the two methods is best. Windschitl makes his argument by
discussing how to solve some of the challenges of the
child-centered approach, completely ignoring the fact that it is
impossible to have students responsible for their own learning all
the time. Hirsch claims that traditional methods of teaching are
best as is indicated in current research. What the research he used
actually says is that time, focus, and knowing what to expect for
the day, or class period, are essential for academic success, as
well as having teachers with high warmth, giving constructive
feedback, and are businesslike in manner; which, in my experience,
can also be interpreted as firm but fair. All of those qualities
are necessary in a teacher whether it be in a child-centered
classroom or in a teacher-centered classroom. Hirschs attack on the
less-more admonitions of various national education organizations
that promote best practices is foolish. Less does not mean
eliminate. More does not mean replace. Best practices promotes that
which is developmentally appropriate, and takes into account the
diversity in the classroom. As Dr. Clifford Hansen, a music teacher
at San Jose City College, once said, if I have 30 students in a
classroom then I need to have 30 different ways to explain the
concept I am teaching (Glasgow, 1969, paraphrased). Dr. Hansen
understood that while for some learning the circle of fifths in the
lecture is sufficient, other students will need to see a diagram,
to hear it, to see it played, to play it themselves, or see it
demonstrated in a real piece of music, or any combination of these.
Does providing sufficient time and attention to the individual
needs of his students in understanding the concept of the circle of
fifths take away precious time from instruction? I think not. On
the other hand there are times when the teacher does act primarily
as the dispenser of knowledge. In Kindergarten there is much in the
way of teacher directed activities because the children are too
young to take charge of their own academic learning. A child is not
going to discover phonics without a teacher telling them about the
relationship between sounds and letters and words. This does not
mean that there can not be some activities that give children
creative freedom, such as painting a holiday themed picture. When
the opportunity occurs you can give them the time they need to
create a good piece of work, the tools they need to do so, and the
techniques on how to use the tools effectively and how to create a
particular effect a child might be looking for (Knight, 2007).
Time, tools and techniques also apply to other subject areas, such
as math. Students need time to master a new mathematical concept,
they need the tools to work with the new math problem, and they
need the techniques to effectively use their time and tools. The
concept is true in every classroom. An artist can not be rushed
when creating a piece of art without compromising the intended
finished work. A child learning how to read can not be rushed
without compromising their ability to become fluent readers. A
child learning number sense can not be rushed into learning
addition and subtraction without compromising their future
understanding of multiplication and division. Breadth is important.
People need to be well rounded. In fact, breadth is so important
that there are general education requirements in college. However,
depth is also needed, otherwise the information will have no
lasting value to the student and will not be retained. The old
adage of, practice makes perfect, is true and correct. We know that
the more you read the better you get at it. The more you work at
playing the piano the easier it gets to sight read and to play more
complex pieces. Practice is important. No one with their head on
straight will say otherwise, and I dare say that most advocates for
a child-centered approach have their heads on straight. Practice,
however, does not denote understanding. If a six year old can read
at a 5th grade level that does not mean they understand what they
are reading. If a preschool aged child knows their ABCs it does not
mean that they connect it to reading. This is where we need
reflective inquiry and innovative classroom activities to gauge the
actual understanding of students, and help facilitate
understanding. Reflective inquiry is often out of the picture in a
teacher-centered classroom where the teacher does most of the
thinking (Brown, 2003). The teacher-centered approach does work,
but it does not mean that we can not do better. Mimeographs and
type writers have been replaced with the more efficient computer.
Should we still widely use those today? Granted, the
teacher-centered approach is not nearly so outdated, and still has
its place, but the argument that its worked for all these years, as
is (Hirsch, 1996), is a bit fallacious and closed minded. Modern
thought and technology have simply made old ideas better.
Both the teacher-centered approach and the child-centered
approach have value. When this is understood by teachers they
pedagogically improve. Over generalizations of the two approaches
lead to a dichotomy that should not exist and can be harmful
(Schuh, 2004). Either approach is not appropriate in all situations
and cannot cover all of the complexities and idiosyncrasies of
subjects and teaching situations (Ahara, 1995). Polarizing the
issue can cause an unbalanced approach to teaching, which would be
a great disservice to students. References Abbeduto, L. (2006).
Should Schools Adopt a Constructivist Approach to Education? Taking
Sides: Clashing Views in Educational Psychology, 4th Ed., 148(2).
McGraw-Hill Ahara, K. (1995). Teacher-centered and child-centered
pedagogical approaches in teaching childrens literature. Education,
115(3), 332. Brown, K. L. (2003). From teacher-centered to
learner-centered curriculum: Improving learning in diverse
classrooms. Education, 124(1), 49-54. Hirsch, Jr., E. D. (1996).
Realitys Revenge: Research and Ideology. American Educator.
Glasgow, J. (1969). Personal Journal. Knight, R. (2007). The Three
Ts. Creative Arts Lecture. Yuba College. Schuh, K. L. (2004).
Learner-centered principles in teacher-centered practices? Teaching
& Teacher Education, 20(8), 833-846.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2004.09.008 Windschitl, M. (1999). The
Challenges of Sustaining a Constructivist