Osaki Sci teacher ed NUE

51

SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS TEACHER PREPARATION IN TANZANIALessons from teacher improvement projects in Tanzania: 1965-2006 1

Kalafunja Mlang’a O-saki

Department of Curriculum and Teaching

University of Dar es salaam, Tanzania

Visiting Professor, Naruto University of Education

Abstract： The United Republic of Tanzania (area: 945.087 ㎢ ) was formed after the union between Tanganyika and

Zanzibar in 1964. Tanganyika got its independence from Britain in 1961 and inherited a very small elitist

secondary education sector with less than 1000 children enrolled in forms 1-6 for a population of 8 million.

Zanzibar, likewise inherited a small sector following the revolution that overthrew the Sultan in 1964.

　　　　　In 1967 Tanzania launched the Education for Self Reliance philosophy whose main vision was to improve

education by developing, in learners, enquiry and critical thinking skills, and self confidence. Inquiry

Science curricula were imported from abroad to achieve these goals. The first curriculum materials brought

included the African Primary Science program materials from the USA which were adapted to a form called:

Elimu ya Kufikiri: Mwulize fukufuku (Thinking science: Ask the ant lion). Others included the Nuffield

Science Project (adapted throughout East Africa into a form called: School Science Project of East Africa-

SSP) and the corresponding School Mathematics Project for East Africa-SMP, sometimes nicknamed Simple

Mathematics for the Poor 2. These projects were introduced in schools when there was a largely expatriate

teacher population from the US, Britain and other western countries since indigenous teachers were

insufficient to run the expanded secondary school sector. The situation was similar throughout East Africa

then, namely, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.

　　　　　A corresponding teacher preparation program was designed and run from 1968, funded by UNESCO, to

produce a large number of science and mathematics teachers for the school system to replace leaving

expatriates and equip new schools. There was also an In-Service component designed to use the teachers

who existed in the schools adapt the Nuffield and other imported materials to the local situation. The SSP,

SMP and APSP continued to run until the first cohort completed the cycle. For the junior secondary schools,

it was the first group to sit for the 1970 Ordinary level Cambridge Overseas Examination in Biology,

Chemistry, Physics and mathematics. For various reasons the SSP, SMP, and APSP were discontinued after

only the first trial, although the spirit of the materials was somehow reflected in later developed textbooks.

Among the reasons for discontinuation of the materials included lack of enough trained teachers to teach by

inquiry approach and also lack of sufficient equipment for the experimental approach of SSP and SMP in the

expanding school system.

　　　　　Tanzania continued to develop its own science and mathematics teaching and learning materials through the

Tanzania Institute of Education, which from 1973 were examined by the National Examinations Council of

Tanzania (after breaking from the Cambridge Overseas Examinations System).

　　　　　However, a survey conducted in 1995 (Chonjo et al, 1995) found that few teachers used inquiry or did

experiments; classes were large, gender awareness among teachers was low, and a Unified Science Project

started in the early 1990s had become unpopular. Experimental design skills among teachers had

deteriorated, as well as use of the local context in lesson presentation (Knamiller et al. 1995). Three new

professional development programs were launched. These were:

1 First presented at the Expert Meeting held at Naruto University of Education 25TH November, 20062 Nickname coined by those who did not want change from the traditional Highway or Pure Mathematics, which did not require much derivation of proofs from first principles.

Research Article NUE Journal of International Educational Cooperation，Volume �，��，��

52 NUE Journal of International Educational Cooperation, Volume �

　　　　　　�）the Science Education in Secondary Schools (SESS) Project, concentrating on in service education

and training of resource persons, or trainers, based at the Ministry of Education and Culture;

　　　　　　�）the Teacher Education in Mathematics and Science (TEAMS) focusing on review of undergraduate

science teacher education programs at the University of Dar es Salaam, doing research and training of

postgraduate students, as well as developing In Service training materials.3 And

　　　　　　�）Science Teacher Improvement project (STIP) focusing on what they called the “Starter Experimental

Approach” which run mainly in Church schools.

　　　　　　The products of these projects, which have ran for almost 10 years each, fed into a new project of In

Service Education for Science and Mathematics Teachers (also called Education II project, financed by the

African Development Bank). A large number of teachers have been trained through this program, although

no evaluation of its impact has been done yet.

　　　　　　The curriculum review made on the UDSM teacher education program since 2001 and the INSET initiatives

of the recent projects have brought many hopes for a learner-centred approach in science and mathematics

teaching in Tanzania. However, the recent expansions of secondary education by the Secondary Education

Development programme (SEDP) has increased demand for teachers and the expanded university intake is a

serious challenge to inquiry learning and learner centred teaching. The recruitment of young semi-trained high

school leavers as secondary school teachers compounds the professional development process further.

　　　　　The lessons from the recent developments in Tanzania include:

　　　　　　�）The need to set acceptable standards for entry into the teaching profession and the teacher education

curriculum as defined in the Teacher Education Masterplan (MOEC, 2000) and beyond;

　　　　　　�）The need to link initial teacher training with induction of new teachers and further professional

development into experienced, expert teachers;

　　　　　　�）The need to develop a support and reflective system for teachers at school level in handling growing

pedagogical challenges including large classes, increasing learner variation in ability and other

professional demands.

　　　　　　�）The need to assist teachers develop both vertical professional development (experience towards expert

teaching) and horizontal development (reasonable understanding of the demands of professional practice).

3 See Ottevanger, W, Feiter, L, O-saki, K. M, Akker, J van der (2005). The Teams Project in Tanzania: From Intervention to capacity building.

In: Journal of International Co-operation in Education (Hiroshima University), Vol. 8 (1), 111-123.

Introduction

　The United Republic of Tanzania is located in East

Africa and has an area of 945,087 km2-the 12th largest of

the 53 countries in Africa. The population in 2006 is

estimated to be 38.5 million4. It is surrounded by Kenya

in the North, Uganda, Ruanda and Buriundi in the North

West, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in the

west, and in the south west by Zambia and Malawi. In

the south there is Mozambique, and in the east it has a

coastline bordering the Indian Ocean. It has an heterogenous

population made up of over 95% indigenous Africans of

about 120 ethnic groups; the rest making up a mixture of

Asians, Arabs, European and other nationalities. Early

humans are thought to have originated in the Olduvai

Gorge in Tanzania, where human fossils discovered by

the Leakeys in 1959/79 were found to be 1.75 million

years old. Stone age tools and pre-historic rock paintings

found in Tanzania also adds to the evidence of early

human origin. Early humans probably evolved in Tanzania,

dispersed at some time and returned later to do various

activities. Over 40% of the land is conserved as game

reserves and national parks where large herds of

mammals such as wilderbeest, zebra, giraffe, antelope,

lions, leopards hyena, wild dogs and many birds,

reptiles, and inverterbrates roam about. Famous tourist

attractions include Mount Kilimanjaro (5895ⅿ) Ngorongoro

Crater, the Serengeti, Selous, Lake Manyara and Gombe

Stream National Parks and Zanzibar Islands.


53

Education system

　Tanzania follows the 7-4-2-3 education structure, with

seven years of compulsory primary education, four

years of junior secondary after which students do the

Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE),

two years of senior secondary which end by doing the

Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination

(ACSEE). After this level students can choose to join

higher education institutions to study for degrees, or

tertiary education colleges to undertake professional

diplomas in business education, technical and vocational

education, teacher education, health education etc.

　Tanzania inherited a rather elitist system of education

with primary, secondary education as the main structure

but with a very small tertiary education sector. Elitism

was clear in the number of children attending school,

and worse, those going further than primary school

level. The curriculum was also very academic

especially from secondary school level and beyond.

Primary education was semi-vocationalized following

the “Education for Adaptation” Policy of the British

Colonial government (Cameron and Dodd, 1966). By

1961, secondary education was academic and designed

for the minority who would fill the positions then

existing in government. The transition rate from

primary to secondary level was below 15% up to 2003

when steps were taken. Current (2007) transition stands

around 30% with UPE almost fully achieved.

Education for Self Reliance

　In 1967, the government introduced the Education for

Self Reliance (ESR) Policy paper 5 which re-defined the

purpose of education in the country. According to ESR,

the purpose of education was to develop:

　�）An enquiry mind,

　�）The skill to learn from others and to make relevant

judgements on what to adopt or adapt;

　�）Thinking critically and

　�）Developing confidence and mental liberation

　The policy (or philosophy) of ESR evolved from the

larger philosophy of Socialism and Self Reliance

enshrined in the Arusha Declaration6. ESR was designed

to review the previous curriculum and the experience of

schooling in order to produce children who were more

confident, curious, inquisitive and with critical, liberated

Box 1　shows the economic situation.

　　　　　　　Source: Ministry of Planning Statistics, 2006.

Box 1: Basic facts about Tanzania: 2005Area: 945,087 ㎢ [ including Zanzibar] (59,050 water) -12th largest in Africa.

Population (2006 estimate): 38,500,000.

Population density: 42 per sq ㎞ .(64% rural).

Annual population Growth: 1 .83 % P.a (2006 est).

Highest point: Kilimanjaro Uhuru peak: 5895 ⅿ .

Lowest Point: Indian Ocean

Economy:GNP growth (2005): 12.1 billion US $ (up 6.8% from 2004)

GNP per capit (2005): US $ 340

Agriculture 50%

Trade: 　16%

Business Services　10%

Mining: 　2% (growth 15% in 2005 compared to 2004)

Tourism growth 8% in 2005 compared to 2004.

Main exports: Coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, cashew nuts, gemstones, gold,

4 Source: Government Projections, Ministry of Planning and Development, 2005.5 Nyerere, J. K (1967). Education for Self Reliance. Dar es Salaam. Govt. Printer

SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS TEACHER PREPARATION IN TANZANIA


minds. The text of this philosophy was not directly

transtlated into operationalised school practices and

hence was left open to various forms of interpretation (See

Komba, 2006). Curriculum planners based at the

Tanzania Institute of Education adopted science and

mathematics curricula imported from abroad and

thought they would promote inquiry mind and critical

thinking. Three curriculum packages selected included:

　� The African Primary Science Project materials for

primary schools which focused on promoting

thinking. (Imported from the US). This was adapted

into a form called: “Thinking Science: Ask the Antlion”

because it was based on an investigative study of the

behaviour of the ant lion, translated into the Kiswahili

form: Elimu ya Kufikiri: Mwulize Fukufuku. (Thinking

Science: Ask the ant lion). Primary school teachers

continued to be recruited from among school leavers

until after 1980 when it was made mandatory for

primary school teacher trainees to be recruited only

from among secondary school graduates.

　� The School Science Project (SSP) and School

Mathematics Project (SMP) which were adapted

from Nuffield Science materials were introduced

from around 1968. Selected school teachers were

trained to rewrite and adapt the Nuffield and SMP

into a suitable form called the School Science

Project (SSP) which covered Physics, Chemistry

and Biology and

　� School Mathematics Project (SMP) for East Africa

which was an activity based mathematics curriculum

similar to the SSP.

　These materials focused on an experimental approach

that also touched on the historical development of the

ideas in each topic and a great deal of outdoor and

laboratory activity. Biology learning involved a lot of

bird watching, ecological sampling, collecting and

identification of specimen and doing experimental write-

ups, while chemistry had a lot of practical work of

analysis of substances, titrations; physics and maths had

lots of field visit and measurement taking, calculations

and games.

　Though exciting for learners, these programs faced

three main problems as schools were expanded and

student populations increased:

　First, they were based on expensive laboratory

equipment which, though some were bought in a

UNESCO funded project in 1968-70, could not be

replaced regularly any more, as costs were rising.

Second, the secondary school science teachers were

leaving the schools either to find work elsewhere in case

of expatriates (as contracts expired and couldn't be

renewed) or were appointed into government and

parastatal managerial positions which had better pay

(local graduates). Third, around 1972, when Cambridge

were examining, there was some lack of communication

between the school managers and the Cambridge

Examination Board on the curriculum then on trial in

some schools. A traditional examination was set for

students who had followed the Inquiry Curriculum for

the four years, leading to their failure because it

demanded facts rather than processes. The poor

performance of the students doing the experimental SSP

and SMP curricula in comparison to the control group

was interpreted as a weakness of the Inquiry curricula,

through in fact, they had been given the wrong

examination. Due to this, teachers, parents and other

conservatives were mad and thought it was the new

syllabus that was weak. This pressure group forced the

closure of the trial in mid 1970s. The Institute of

Education, therefore, abandoned the emphasis on

Inquiry science, and continued to write textbooks that

focused more on remembering facts and formulae

instead of experimental work. A survey (Chonjo et al,

1995) found that science and maths teaching had

seriously deteriorated and reduced to copying and

memorization for examinations. Practical work had

virtually been stopped and an ‘alternative to practical

examination’ introduced since the mid 1980s had been

interpreted by teachers to mean there was no need for

practical science.

Pre-service teacher education　In terms of teacher training, the introduction of the

SSP and SMP was accompanied by the intensive

training introduced at the University of Dar es Salaam

6 Tanganyika Government (1967). The Arusha Declaration and the Philosophy of Socialism and Self Reliance. Dar es Salaam. Government

Printer.


55

from 1968, funded by UNESCO. This was a three-year

undergraduate training programme which led to the

award of the B.Sc with education degree (and BA with

ed) and thereafter the graduates went directly into the

schools. These graduates studied two academic subjects

(e.g Physics and Maths, Physics and Chemistry, Chemistry

and Maths, Botany and Zoology and prepared to teach

in secondary schools). There was also a parallel program

called Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) which produced

graduates who train teachers and work in adult

education institutions. These did one academic subject

(either maths, chemistry, physics, geography, a social

science or language, etc) and studied more courses in

educational psychology, educational administration,

curriculum or adult education to increase their knowledge

of professional education issues. In 1990, it was decided

that the three year programs were too short to produce

an effective teacher. They were revised and elongated to

four years. The B.Ed students did more optional

subjects in the fourth year while the BA (ed) and B.Sc

(ed) students did extra courses in their academic

subjects to prepare for better teaching at advanced level.

Schools, however, recruited both BSc (ed) and B.Ed

graduates due to increasing demand.

Teacher Education Assistance in Mathematics and Science (TEAMS) project　In 1995, the University of Dar es Salaam, co-

operating with 3 Dutch Universities, established the

Teacher Education Assistance in Mathematics and

Science (TEAMS) project funded jointly by the

governments of Tanzania and the Netherlands. TEAMS

had three important achievements:

Revision of Pre-service undergraduate training　The project reviewed the quality of undergraduate

programs in science education, namely BSc (ed) and

B.Ed at the University of Dar es Salaam, and found that

despite the good work going on, there was a great

weakness in the quality of teacher preparation and this

was contributed by over-emphasis of content development

at the expense of pedagogical training. The science

education staff restructured the undergraduate program

and introduced one new course in each discipline and

one compulsory pedagogy course to try and match

university level science and school curriculum. The five

new courses were called:

　�）Physics for Education students

　�）Chemistry for education students

　�）Mathematics for education students

　�）Biology for education students, and

　�）Science and mathematics Education- which was

an advanced pedagogy course designed to reflect

on the history and philosophy of science, students

conceptions, practical work, selection and use of

textbooks etc.

　These courses have ran for six years now and produced

graduates that are now working in the schools.

Unfortunately some courses were shelved in 2005

following a restructuring of the four year program into a

three years to cut costs. The issue of ‘how long a

professional program should be’ has been a hot issue

for discussion in Tanzania. Some academics think that

once a person knows the subject matter, teaching skills

will come automatically through experience and hence

funds should not be invested in lengthy pedagogical

training. This is, of course, a fallacy held by many and

still a subject of research in all professions.

Staff Development and capacity building in science education 　The TEAMS project also run a parallel training

programs for selected academic staff, whereby four

staff completed PhD in pedagogy in sand-witch

programs run jointly by Dutch Universities and the

UDSM, and one at the University of Pretoria South

Africa. A Master of Education (M.Ed) program in

science education was also designed and established

from 2001. It has now produced over 18 graduates while

in 2006, 12 are registered. The program consists of two

semesters of course work introducing students to

research methods, basic issues in curriculum design,

ICT, professional development and science and society

followed by design of a research project and writing of a

dissertation. Optional courses focus on areas of interest

such as: Assessment, ICT, Science and Society, Environmental

Education. It is now becoming popular with more

students applying each year and ready to seek for

sponsorship. In 2005-6, over 60 students applied but the

faculty selected only 12 based on existing capacity. The

goal is to strengthen this program so that it can produce

more qualified master teachers who can work as

mentors, curriculum developerrs, teacher educators and

professional development staff in the education sector.



There are, of course, other education masters programs

running in the Universities, including the general M.A

in education, Masters in applied social psychology,

educational administration etc.

In-service education　TEAMS also ran an In-Service Education prototype

development program which developed lesson materials

that were used in professional development, and later

improved and exported to other projects, including

Education II, Zanzibar trainers’ project, etc. The main

thrust of these lessons was to encourage interactive and

transformative learning strategies in schools and

promote the use of outdoor activities, and laboratory

practical work. Attachment 1 shows a sample lesson

prepared for these workshops.

The Science Education in Secondary school Project (SESS) 　SESS was designed to improve classroom

performance in secondary science and mathematics and

was based at the Ministry of Edaucation and Culture

since 1996. It was jointly financed by the Tanzanian and

German governments. The project identified 15 pilot

schools country wide and improved the condition of

textbooks (at least ensuring that 3 children shared one

science or math textbook) and laboratory facilities by

purchasing a minimum laboratory working apparatus kit

for each school. It also launched a Training of Trainers

Program which was based in zones and was supported

by a National Resource Person training team. An

internal review in 2000 showed that while textbooks and

laboratory facilities had been improved in project

schools, classroom practice had changed very little

(Osaki, 2000). Following recommendations of that

review, project management was improved and by end

of project in 2003, the project had produced a calibre of

trained resource persons who are working in the

secondary school sector and some of whom are

exemplary school, inspectors. By 2006, the project had

been mainstreamed into the secondary education

department of the Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training and its resource persons continue to run INSET

whenever they are called upon to do so.

The Science Teacher Improvement Project (STIP)

　The Science Teacher Improvement project (STIP),

supported by the German government organization

GTZ, operated in schools run by the Christian Social

Services (CSSE) organisation from about 1995 and its

main goals were similar to those of SESS but had a

specific focus on a starter experiment before any new

science/math topic was taught. This project run several

trial workshops in church schools and ended in 2003 but

its ideas were mainstreamed into SESS and are now part

of the Ministry of Education INSET training focus.

Education � Project

　In 2002 the Ministry of Education applied for

financial assistance from the African Development

Bank to assist it improve the science/math situation in

schools in three ways:

　�）Purchase of relevant textbooks

　�）Construction of science laboratories

　�）Design of science INSET courses and materials.

　The ADB supported the project and thus it was

advertised for tender. The Faculty of Education at the

University of Dar es salaam was awarded the tender and

completed the task in 2006. The main products of the

project include modular training materials for the

following groups in the secondary sector:

　�）Science teachers (physics, chemistry, biology,

mathematics);

　�）Science/maths teacher educators

　�）School Inspectors

　�）School heads on the management of science

teaching and learning reources.

　These modules, which focus on interactive teaching,

experiments and field work were completed, tried out

and revised and have been used for running workshops

in newly established schools during 2005 throughout

the country. No evaluation has yet been done for this

project.


57

Secondary Education Development program 2005-2009.

　In 2004 the Ministry of Education and Culture had

launched the Secondary Education Development

program which implies a large expansion of the

secondary sector to take in more students. As

Ottevanger et al (2005) and the Education Ministers's

annual report (Tanzania, 2006) indicate, since January

2005 to-date the secondary school intake has more than

doubled and hence the programs designed by TEAMS

are of crucial importance in producing teachers and

advisers for the system. The demand for secondary

school teachers has also more than doubled and the

government has taken the following measures to ensure

that the system functions effectively:

　�）Increased the capacity of Universities to admit

more undergraduates into the teaching degree

programmes. The University of Dar es Salaam main

campus has doubled its intake of BSc (ed), BA (ed)

students and maintained the B.Ed student intake,

while also encouraging the Postgraduate Diploma

in Education program to increase enrollment;

　�）Two new constituent colleges were formed in

2005. The Dar es Salaam Teachers College was

converted into the Dar es Salaam University

College of Education (DUCE) with an initial intake

of 500 students in 2005 but raised to 1500 freshmen

intake in the 2005-6 academic year, all studying

eucation; and the fomer Mkwawa High School was

converted into the new Mkwawa University

College of Education, with an intake of around

1000 first year students. Other public universities

are also admitting education students and private

universities and colleges have been opened up in

Moshi, Zanzibar, Mbeya, Dodoma, and Mwanza.

　�）To increase the speed of producing teachers, the

four year university degree programme was

reduced to three years under instruction from the

Ministry of Education. Thus the new admission

cohort since 2005-6 academic year will graduate in

three years. There may be an impact on quality of

teachers but the government is less concerned with

this at the moment.

　�）There is also teaching diploma programme

offered in 35 Teachers’ Colleges run by the

Ministry of Education, which admits in the lesser

qualified advanced secondary graduates, offers

them a two- year diploma program, then posting

them to teach at lower secondary school (form 1-4)

level. This program is also being revised. For the

first time, the University of Dar es Salaam and its

colleges are also offering a Diploma in Education

program. Diploma students take two teaching

subjects (e.g Physics, & Maths, Chemistry &

Physics, Chemistry& Biology etc) and education

courses and graduate after two years. The present

group will be allowed to proceed and complete the

undergraduate programme in two (instead of three)

years if they pass the diploma with disctinction).

　�）Finally the Ministry of Education has also

launched in 2005, a ‘crash’ training program for

Advanced level finalists who prefer to join

teaching immediately after completing form 6.

Currently they undergo a one-month intensive

training programme and are given a license to teach

thereafter. They have an opportunity to undergo on-

the-job professional development either by joining

the diploma or degree programme part time or full

time later on. This approach worries many because

if they don't upgrade, could be a very weak teaching

force in schools, just like the Universal Primary

Education teachers trained in similar manner in 1977.

Reflections

A few lessons have been learned from these aactivities:　�）There is no right formula on how long a teacher

education program should run, though there is need

for balanced training in subject matter, professional

studies (psychology of learning, pedagogy etc),

field experience with professional feedback and on

the job coaching. Tanzania has come a long way,

restructuring and running Pre-service teacher training

programmes that have not often been formally

evaluated and revised until foreign assistance is

available. The three year undergraduate education

programs designed in 1968 went to four years in

1990 and were returned to 3 years in 2005 without

any systematic evaluation. There is now need to

evaluate and mainstream programs before

experiments become too long and too costly.

　�）The small secondary sector until 2004 led to

production of very few highly qualified graduate

teachers for the education system. The now



expanding primary and secondary sector needs

experienced professionals; the challenge is to

produce more of them and learn from others

education systems. In the advancing developing

countries of South East Asia, one main

contributing factor is better trained teachers at all

levels, especially graduates at primary and pre-

school level. We should aim at least for a minimum

of diploma qualification at primary and degree at

secondary school level by 2015.

　�）Since the expansion in 2005 the demand for

science and mathematics teachers is growing

steadily and it will peak in 2009 when 50% of the

primary school leavers nationwide are expected to

join secondary school form 1. (Currently about

30%) are being promoted to secondary. With an

estimated 500,000 or more (currently 243,359)

children joining form 1 in 2009, and over 60%

doing science, the demand for well trained teachers

is very high.

　�）There is a very big challenge to improve the

quality of teacher training in Universities and the

Ministry of Education teachers’ colleges, because

school class sizes are very large now and expansion

is at critical level (Class sizes of up to 70-80 in

secondary school are now common). Much of this

may require expansion of In Service Education and

Training, but pre-service training needs to be

improved tremenously as well, and linked to

induction and long term professional development.

　�）The lessons learned in implementation of

TEAMS, SESS, STIP and Education II projects are

a great support for the expanding secondary sector.

These include the following:

　　� That increased laboratory supplies do not

necessarily make teachers more inquiry oriented

(Chonjo et al, 1995, Osaki, 2000);

　　� That the supply of textbooks must be accompanied

with addressing local relevance and teacher

training on how to encourage textbook use in

classrooms and for homework (SESS Evaluation,

2000);

　　� That the activity aproach, laboratory experiments

and other innovations taught in workshops may

not be practiced in school if there is no follow

up, including peer coaching, mentoring and

effective school management (Knamiller et al.

1995);

　　� That as enrollment expands, student diversity

increases and teachers need to be prepared for a

more constructivist approach to teaching and

handling of individual student problems.

　�）Recent research underscores the need to promote

reflective practice and life long professional

development, rather than one shot pre-service

training (Schon, 1986). The view that professional

skills develop from knowledge accumulated from

progressive practical experience through the stages

of novice, competent and expert (Dyerfus, 1986)

are gaining momentum. Recently, Alba et al (2006)

have proposed the need for a combination of

vertical development (skills that accompany

experience) and horizontal development

(understanding of practice and within the practice

in question). Our challenge is to research and

develop a model that balances these two aspects of

professional training.

　�）The postgraduate education programs need to be

expanded in order to produce more leaders and

researchers to serve the education system. The

University of Dar es Salaam has indicated the need

to expand enrollment and also create a larger

Graduate School of Education for this, which will

run postgraduate programs in science and maths

education, language education, counselling and

managementand other educational fields. These

can assist in producing professionals for the other

universities and the education sector in general.

We hope to co-operate with the other institutions

globally in Asia, Europe and elsewhere in order to

share experiences and professionally support each

other in this process.

　�）Finally research into teacher education, classroom

management and pedagogical practice are areas we

are working on now in collaboration with others in

the Tanzanian Institute of Education. Since 2001

we have produced over 20 M.Ed research

dissertations in the M.Ed program, most of which

focus on design, trial and formative evaluation of

teaching materials, evaluation of existing practices

including practical work, assessment practices,

concept development, and review of curricula

packages. We have also published materials that

reflect our research collaboration with colleagues

within Southern Africa (See Osaki et al 2002,

Osaki et als. 2004). These efforts will continue and


59

focus more on overall professional development of

teachers in science and mathematics.

　No education system can rise above the quality of its

teachers. We hope that we can raise the quality of

Tanzanian teachers to a level where they can run a

professional development and reflective process at

school level while receiving support from an effective

learning and teaching research program.

References

Alba, Dell G, Sandberg, J. (2006). Unveiling professional

development. A critical review of stage models.

Review of Educational Research,76 (3), 383-412.

Cameroon J. and Dodd, W.A (1966). Society, schools

and progress in Tanganyika. Review by: P.S. Treger

In: British Journal of Educational Studies vol 19 (3),

(1971). Pp 342-3.

Chonjo, P. N, O-saki, K. M, Possi, M & Mrutu, M

(1995). Science Education in Secondary Schools.

Situational Analysis. Dar es salaam. Ministry of

Education and Culture & GTZ.

Dreyfus, & Dreyfus (1986). Mind over machine. The

power of intuiton and expertise in the era of the

computer. New York. Free press.

Knamiller, G. W Osaki, k. M. & Kuonga H (1995).

Tanzania teachers’ understanding of the science

embedded in traditional technologies. In: Research in

Science and Technological Education

Komba, D. (2006). Reflections on Mwalimu Nyerere's

Philosophy of Education for Self Reliance. A paper

read at the International Seminar to Commemorate

the 7th Anniversary of Mwalimu Nyerere. Dar es

Salaam. Faculty of Education. University of Dar es

Salaam.

Nyerere, J. K (1967). Education for Self Reliance. Dar

es Salaam. Government publishers.

Ottevanger, W. Feiter, L O-saki, K M, van den Akker J

(2005). The TEAMS project in Tanzania: From

Intervention to capacity building. Journal of

International Co-oprtation in Education (Hiroshima

Univetsiry) vol. 8 (1), 111-123.

O-saki, K. M (2000). The science Education in Secondary

Schools. Internal project Evaluation. Dar es salaam.

Ministry of Education and GTZ.

O-saki, K. M, Akker, Jan van den, Uiso, C, Ottevanger,

Wout (2002). Science Education Research and

Teacher Development in Tanzania. Vrije Universiteit

Amsterdam (International Cooperation Centre) ISBN

90 365 18 53 9

O-saki, K. M, Hosea, K, Ottevanger, W, (2004). Reforming

science and mathematics education in Tanzania.

Obstacles and opportunities. Dar es Salaam. TEAMS

project

Schon, D (1986). Educating the reflective practitioner.

New York. Basic Books.

Tanzania Government (1967). The Arusha Declaration

and TANU’s Policy of Socialism and Self Reliance.

Dar es salaam. Government printer.

Tanzania Government (2005). Secondary education

Development programme (SEDP). Dar es Salaam.

Ministry of Education and Culture.

Tanzania Govermnent (2006). Hotuba ya Waziri wa

elimu na mafunzo ya ufundi kuhusu makadirio ya

matumizi ya fedha kwa mwaka 2006/7. Dar es

Salaam. Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

Tanzania Government (2006). Basic Education

Statistics (BEST), 2002-2006. National Data.

　Dar es Salaam. Ministry of Education and Vocational

Training.



Attachment 1: Sample Lesson materials format: Education �

1 (a) LESSONS ON MATHEMATICS.

MODULE: 6 : VOLUME

GENERAL: OBJECTIVESTo guide the students to understand the volume of

regular figures.

SPECFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the module the pupils should be able to

find the volume of

　・Cube

　・Prisms

　・Cylinder

　・Cones

　・Sphere

　・Pyramids

REFERENCEInstitute of Education (1997).Secondary Basic

Mathematic Book One

Dar es Salaam.

MATERIALSManila sheets, sand, Models of cylinders, pyramid,

cones, spheres, cubes and prisms.

SEQUENCE OF THE LESSON IN MODULE

LESSON 1　Cube and Prisms　・Derive the formula of volume of Cube and Prism

　・Apply the formula derived to find the volume of

Cubes and Prisms.

LESSON 2　Cylinder　・Derive the formula of volume of the Cylinder

　・Apply the formula of the volume of the Cylinder in

doing calculation

LESSON 3　Pyramids　・Derive the formula of volume of the Pyramid.

　・Apply the formula of the volume of the Pyramid in

doing calculation.

LESSON 4　Cones　・Derive the formula of volume of a Cone

　・Apply the formula of the volume of the Cone in

doing calculation

LESSON 5　Sphere　・Derive the formula of volume of Sphere

　・Apply the formula of the volume of the Sphere in

doing calculation

SAMPLE LESSON

TOPIC: Volume

SUB TOPIC:Volume of cones

GENERAL OBJECTIVE.To guide the students to find the volume of regular

figures.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESAt the end of the lesson the students should be able to:-

　・Derive the formula of volume of the cone

　・Apply the formula of the volume of the cone in

doing calculations.

REFERENCEInstitute of Curriculum Development (1997). Secondary

Basic Mathematic Book One.

Dar es Salaam. Tanzania [Chapter 12 page 281]

MATERIALSManila sheets, sand, Models of cylinders and cones.

PREREQUISITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE　・Area of a circle

　・Define volume of a cylinder

　・Find the ratio of two objects

　・Skills of reading and recording data

LESSON INTRODUCTION (5min)

Review class questions [To be answered orally or on paper]

　� . If packet A has 50kg of rice and packet B has

25kg of rice. What is the ratio of weight of packet

A and packet B?

　� . What is the formula of area of a circle?

　� . What is the formula of volume of a cylinder?

Roll TimeClassDateSubject

80minutesF IMaths


61

Activity

　Students will complete the following table in class

CONLUSION

　The volume of a cone = 1/3 л r2h; where r is radius of

cylinder, h is height of cylinder and л is pie (22/7)

STUDENTS’ WORK SHEET 　1.

　2.　 i. Find the volume of a cone having base radius 14cm

and height 15cm

　ii. If the volume of cone is 462cm3 and height is 9cm.

Find the radius of the base of the cone.

　3. Complete the table

Assignment 　1. A conical ice-cream container is 12cm high and its

base has a radius of 3cm. Find its volume.

　2. Ash is poured in to a conical pile 1.2m high with a base

radius of 22.1m. Find the volume of ash in the pile.

　3. The volume of a right circular cone is 462m3. Find

its radius if the height is 9cm. (Take л = 22/7)

LESSON DEVELOPMENT

STUDENT' S ACTIVITIESTEACHER' S ACTIVITIESSTEP

Students write their prediction on sheet for each set

Divide the students into groups of four and give them set of cylinders and cones. Then ask the students to compare the volume of the cylinders to volume of the cones fin each case.Hint: provide three sets　 i. first set: cylinder and cone have equal radius and height 　ii. Second set: cone and cylinder have different height but equal radius.　iii. Third set: cylinder and cone have different radius but equal height.

I

(15min)

Do given task and fill their observation worksheets

Ask the students to confirm up their prediction by using sand. Fill a cone with sand and then pour the sand into a cylinder. The sand will be full in the cylinder. Ask the students to record their observation.The teacher to demonstrate how to fill sand in a cone.

II

(20min)

Students will report the ratio obtained from the experiment and characteristic of each set

Presentation The teacher will guide the students in presentation and discussion

III

(15min)

Students will try to derive the formula in their groupsExpected answerV = 1/3 л r2h

Ask the students to derive the volume of a cone from the first set (cone and cylinder are equal radius and height) [Hint: The volume of cylinder and ratio of cylinder to cone]

IV

(10min)

Students to listen to the clarification, and then do the task individually.

Clarification and classroom task　・To clarify the derived formula　・Give students task from work sheet　 i. Find the volume of a cone having base radius 14� and height 15�　ii. If the volume of cone is 462 � and height is 9� . find the radius of base

of the cone

V

(15min)

Exp. RecordPrediction

Set �

Set �

Set �

Volume of coneHeight of coneRadius of cone

　　　　　　7cm6cm1

22cm3　　　　　　1cm2

132cm314cm　　　　　　3

308cm3　　　　　　7cm4

　　　　　　42cm4cm5

Exp. RecordPrediction

Set �

Set �

Set �

Volume of a coneHeight of coneRadius of cone

　　　　　　7cm6cm1

22cm3　　　　　　1cm2

132cm314cm　　　　　　3

308cm3　　　　　　7cm4

　　　　　　42cm4cm5



　4. What is the volume of a cone whose radius is

6 .3cm and its height is 3 .8cm? (Take л = 22/7)

　5. The volume of a cone is 308cm3. Find its height if

the radius is 7cm.

ii) Biology sample lessons

BIOLOGY MODULE 2

TOPIC: GASEOUS EXCHANGE.

GENERAL OBJECTIVE: The teacher should guide the

students describe the mechanism of breathing.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson,

students should be able to: -

　a. Differentiate between inhalation and exhalation.

　b. Describe the mechanism of breathing in humans.

　REFERENCES:J.M. Mwaniki and G.G. Geofrey

(2005).Fundamental of Biology

Book II.

　　　　　　　　Dar es Salaam.

　　　　　　　　Mackean D.G. (1989). Introduction

to Biology. Third Tropical Edition.

John Murray Publishers [Page No.

101 - 105].

SEQUENCE OF THE LESSON IN THE MODULE:

Syllabus Content: 6 .2 Gaseous Exchange in Human

(mechanism of breathing).

LESSON SEQUENCES:

LESSON: 1. To explain the concept of gaseous exchange.

　　　　 2. To demonstrate the importance of gaseous

exchange.

　　　　 3. To identify the parts of respiratory system.

　　　　 4. To explain how the parts of respiratory

system are adapted to perform their roles.

LESSON PREPARATION:TOPIC: Gaseous exchange.

SUB TOPIC: Gaseous exchange in humans.

GENERAL OBJECTIVE: To enable the students to

understand the mechanism of breathing in the human

body.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson,

students should be able to: -

　I. Locate and draw the human respiratory organs.

　II. Explain the functions of the respiratory organs.

　III. Describe the mechanism of breathing.

TIME: 80 Minutes.

MATERIALS: Improvised model of human chest.

PRECAUTION: Care should be taken during pushing

and pulling of the model since it is made up of plastic

bottle and plastic bags.

INTRODUCTION: (10min)

　1. Explain the concept of gaseous exchange.

　2. What is the importance of gaseous exchange?

　3. Name three parts of respiratory system.

ACTIVITY: I. (5 min)Oral question:

What are the main components of the human respiratory

system? [nose, trchea, lungs, etc]. Where is the respiratory

system located [chest cavity].

Group the students to 4-8 in a group according to the

number of students. The teacher provides each group

with a locally made model of human chest.

ACTIVITY: II. (10 min)　・The teacher asks the student to close their mouth

and put their hands close to the nostril. Then ask the

students what do you feel?

ACTIVITY: III (10 min)　� Teacher allows the students observe their thoracic

cavity during breathing, and then asks one male

student to expose the chest to be observed by others.

Teacher ask the following questions: -

　i) What is happening to the thoracic cavity?

　ii)What is happening to the chest when a fellowstudent

is breathing in?

　iii)What is happening when a fellow student breathes

out?

ACTIVITY: IV (35min).　The teacher will guide students to practice the

movement of lungs by using the model which resembles

chest in their groups (by pushing up and pushing down

slowly the designed diaphragm). The teacher asks the

students to observe what is happening. Students discuss

and give feed back on what they have observed.

Expected answers:

　i. When breathing in the lungs inflate; when breathing

out the lungs deflate

　ii. Then they suggest breathing in is taken oxygen and

breathing out releasing of carbon dioxide gas

[discussion here to reveal that breathing in takes in all

air but the lungs use oxygen only, while breathing out

gives air rich in carbon dioxide]

SUMMARY:　The teacher will summarize the lesson with the

following points:


63

　Gaseous exchange is the process of giving in oxygen

gas and giving off carbon dioxide. The process includes

the mechanism of breathing which include inhalation

and exhalation. During inhalation, certain things appear.

　 i. The ribs rise up ward.

　ii. The diaphragm flattens.

　iii. Air pressure in the lungs decreases.

　iv. Air moves in the lungs.

During exhalation.

　 i. The ribs are lowered.

　ii. The diaphragm arches upward.

　iii. Air pressure increases.

　iv. Air forced out of the lungs.

LESSON EVALUATION: Students to answer these questions　a) Explain the concepts of inhalation and exhalation.

　b)What happens to the diaphragm during in-breathing

and out-breathing?

　c)What can be noticed to the ribs during in-breathing

and out-breathing?

　d)What is the role of the lungs during breathing in

humans?

　e) Name the parts of this model that resemble to human

parts in the body.

Homework: 　i) If you close all the windows in your room at night,

what will happen to you?

　ii)Suppose a charcoal stove is left burning in a closed

room. What happens to the people inside and why?

　iii)When someone has a flu, he breathes with difficulty.

What is happening?

ATTACHMENT III) SAMPLE PHYSICS LESSONS

2　FORCE

Roll

Period

　OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSSONAt the end of lesson the student should be able to:

　　　　　　*define the concept force

　　　　　　*state the S I Unit of force

　　　　　　*describe types of force

　　　　　　*state the application of force in daily life

activities

　LESSON PLAN AND TIMINGACTIVITY APPROXIMATE TIME

Introduction 10 min

Lesson Development 55 min

Conclusion and Summary 5 min

Evaluation 10 min

TOTAL TIME 80 min

REFRENCES: Abbot, A.F (1977).Ordinary level Physics.

Heinemann, 3rd revised edition. ISBN-10 0435670050.

INSTRUMENTS /MATERIALS:　Spring, magnet nails, piece of wood, stone and rubber

band

EXCECUTION OF THE LESSON　The teacher is required to help and guide the student

in conducting their activities in order to help them

make accurate observations and obtaining good results.

INDRODUCTION:　The teacher will ask the student to give some examples

of force where applied in daily life activities.

LESSSON DEVELOPMENT:

　Activity 1　　Thhe teacher will select two students; one to open

the door and another to close the window OR push

or pull a table. Then the teacher will ask the

students what their colleagues have actually done.

　Expected observations　　*The door move in ward /out ward

　　*Door and window are pulled or pushed

　Teacher’s comments During opening and closing the window / door

force is applied. In this case we can define force as

the pull or push on a body.

　Activity 2The teacher will divided students in groups of five.

He / she will provide spring balance, light block

and heavy block. The teacher will let them hook

and pull the blocks by using a spring balance.

Students will record the force on spring balance,

when the body just starts to move.

　Expected result /observation.The students will record the different reading on

light and heavy body [examples 6N, 8N, 11N,

15N] etc.

　Teacher’s comment　　The unit of force is expressed in Newton (N).



　Activity 3The teacher will provide magnets and nails to

students and give them the following instructions

Bring: (a) Like poles of magnet close together

(b) Unlike poles of magnet at close distance

(c)Place toward the nails

Q The teacher will ask the students to report what

they had observed.

Expected Answer 　　Magnet attract each other

　　Magnet repeal to each other

　　The nails attract nails

　Teacher comments The teacher is required to explain the type of force

that was exerted on the magnet. The force is either

attraction / repultion

*Like poles gives repulsive force and Unlike poles

gives attraction force.

　Activity 4 Teacher will distribute rubber band to the students

and then stretch or pull the rubber band to certain

distance

The teacher will ask the students what they feel on

their hands.

　Expected answers:The rubber band is difficult to stretch.

The rubber band is extended.

　Teacher’s comments:Teacher will clarify to the students:

When the rubber band is pull a stretching force is

exerted.

The difficult of stretching the rubber band is due to

restoring force.

　Activity: 5.The teacher will ask the students to state several

application of force in daily life activities.

　Expected applicationsWalking

Pedaling (when riding a bicycle)

Pumping (air or water)

Pulling or pushing a cart.

　Teacher’s comments:Teacher will discuss with students the above

mentioned application of force and give other examples

　　Summary: Teacher will point out the following:

Definition of force as a push or pull, reflected when

an applied area moves.

S.I. Unit of force: is the Newton

Different types of force with their examples.

　HOMEWORK　　i) Briefly explain what the following terms mean:

　a. Compressed force.

　b. Stretching force.

　c. Gravitational force.

　　ii) What kind of force is exerted in each of the

following statements?

　　　a. Falling of coconut fruit from a tree.

　　　b. When a piece of iron is placed close to a magnet.

　　　c. When a moving car slows down after being let free

　　　d. When we apply brakes to a car or bicycle.

Some hints　i) a. Compressed force is the force applied when a

spring is pushed downward.

　 b. Stretching force is a force which is exerted when

a spring extends.

　　 c. Gravitational force is the force that pulls a body

toward the center of the earth.

　ii) a. Gravitational force.

　　b) Attraction force.

　　c) Air resistance

　　d) Friction force

要　　約

　近年のタンザニアの発展からの教訓として次のこと

が挙げられる：�）専門職に就くために満たす基準や

教師教育マスタープラン（MOEC，２０００）に規定さ

れているような教師教育のカリキュラムが設定される

必要がある；�）新任教師への訓練と熟練教師へのよ

り専門的な訓練とを結びつける必要がある；�）大規

模クラスや学習者の能力差，専門的要請などの教授学

的試みを加味した学校レベルでの教師へのサポート体

制や反映させるシステムを構築する必要がある；�）

垂直方向の専門性養成（熟練のための経験）と水平方

向の専門性養成（専門的実践の要請に対する合理的な

理解）の両面に対して教師を支援する必要がある．

（訳責：教員教育国際協力センター）


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