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Orthomolecular medicine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Orthomolecular medicine
Alternative medicine / fringe therapies
Claims Health effects of dietary supplements, particularly
vitamin megadoses.
Related fields aturopathy
Original proponents !inus "auling #coined term$
%e&H '(())*+
Orthomolecular medicine- isa form of complementary and
alternative
medicine aimed at maintaining health through nutritional
supplementation and based on the assertion that there is an
optimum
nutritional environment in the body and that diseases
reflect
deficiencies in this environment.
0reatment for disease, according to this vie1, calls for the
"correcting of
imbalances or deficiencies based on individual biochemistry" by
use of
substances natural to the body, such as vitamins, minerals,
amino acids,
trace elements and fatty acids.2+3 Fe1 medical or scientific
e4perts support
this approach56* even the accuracy of calling the orthomolecular
approach a form of
medicine has 7een 8uestioned since the -)*(s.9
0he approach is sometimes referred to as megavitamin therapy-
7ecause its practice
evolved out of, and in some cases still uses, doses of vitamins
and minerals many times
higher than the recommended dietary intake. Orthomolecular
practitioners may also
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incorporate a variety of other styles of treatment into their
approaches, including
dietary restriction, megadoses of non-vitamin nutrients and
mainstream
pharmaceutical drugs.[1][9] Proponents argue that non-optimal
levels of certain
substances can cause health issues beyond simple vitamin
deficiency and see
balancing these substances as an integral part of health.[1]
!he term "orthomolecular" as coined by #inus Pauling to mean
"the
right molecules in the right amounts" $ortho is %ree& for
"right"'.--
"roponents of orthomolecular medicine hold that treatment must
7e 7ased on each
patient:s individual 7iochemistry.--2
0he scientific and medical consensus is that the 7road claims of
efficacy advanced 7y
advocates of orthomolecular medicine are not ade8uately tested
as drug therapies.6 ;t
has 7een descri7ed as a form of food faddism and even
8uackery.-+ "roponents point to
mainstream sources that have pu7lished research supporting the
7enefits of nutrient
supplementation-3-6 and to instances 1here conventional medicine
uses vitamins as
treatments for some diseases.
Ho1ever, some vitamins have 7een linked to increased risk of
cancer and death.-*-9
-) 0he scientific consensus vie1 is that for normal individuals,
a 7alanced diet contains
all necessary vitamins and minerals, and that routine
supplementation is not necessary
a7sent specific diagnosed deficiencies.(
Contents hide
- History and development
&cope
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2 Orthomolecular psychiatry
+ "rinciples
3 "revalence
6 %edical and scientific reception
6.- %ethodology
6. vitamin =
6.+ ?se in A;'&
6.+.- 'eaths resulting from illegal vitamin trials in &outh
Africa
6.3 Alleged institutional 7ias
* &ee also
9 Citations
) Further reading
).- &upport
). Criticism
-( =4ternal links
-(.- &upport
-(. Criticism
History and developmentedit
;n the early (th century, some doctors hypothesised that
vitamins could cure disease,
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and supplements 1ere prescri7ed in megadoses 7y the -)2(s.-
0heir effects on health
1ere disappointing, though, and in the -)3(s and 6(s, nutrition
1as de@emphasised in
standard medical curricula.- Riordon:s organiation cite figures
from this period as
founders of their movement, although the 1ord BorthomolecularB
1as coined 7y
!inus "auling only in -)6*.
Amongst the individuals descri7ed posthumously as
orthomolecularists are %a4 erson,
1ho developed a diet that he claimed could treat diseases, 1hich
the American %edical
Association:s -)+) Council on "harmacy and Chemistry found
ineffective52 and the
&hute 7rothers, 1ho attempted to treat heart disease 1ith
vitamin =.+ &everal concepts
no1 cited 7y orthomolecularists, including individual
7iochemical variation-2 and
in7orn errors of meta7olism,-36 de7uted in scientific papers
early in the (th
century.
;n -)+9, William %cCormick theoried that vitamin C deficiency
played an important
role in many diseases and 7egan to use large doses in patients.*
;n the -)3(s, Fred R.
Dlenner also tried vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a 1ide
range of illnesses,including polio.9 ;r1in &tone stated that
organisms that do not synthesise their o1n
vitamin C due to a loss@of@function mutation have a disease he
called Bhypoascor7emiaB.
) 0his term is not used 7y the medical community, and the idea
of an organism@1ide
lack of a 7iosynthetic path1ay as a disease 1as not endorsed 7y
&tone:s contemporaries.
2(
;n the -)3(s, some individuals 7elieved that vitamin
deficiencies caused mental illness.
- "sychiatrists Humphry Osmond and A7ram Hoffer gave people
having acute
schiophrenic episodes high doses of niacin,2- 1hile William
Daufman used
niacinamide. While niacin has no kno1n efficacy in psychiatric
disease, the use of niacin
in com7ination 1ith statins and other medical therapies has
7ecome one of several
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medical treatments for cardiovascular disease.222
;n the late -)6(s, !inus "auling introduced the e4pression
BorthomolecularB-- to
e4press the idea of the right molecules in the right amounts.--
&ince the first claims of
medical 7reakthroughs 1ith vitamin C 7y "auling and others,
findings on the health
effects of vitamin C have 7een controversial and
contradictory.2+23 "auling:s claims
have 7een criticised as over7road.26
!ater research 7ranched out into nutrients 7esides niacin and
vitamin C, including
essential fatty acids.2*
&copeedit
According to A7ram Hoffer, orthomolecular medicine does not
purport to treat all
diseases, nor is it Ba replacement for standard treatment. A
proportion of patients 1ill
re8uire orthodo4 treatment, a proportion 1ill do much 7etter on
orthomolecular
treatment, and the rest 1ill need a skillful 7lend of 7oth.B29
evertheless, advocates
have said that nutrients can prevent,2) treat, and sometimes
cure a 1ide range of
medical conditions, including> acne,+( alcoholism,+-
allergies, arthritis, autism, 7ee
stings, 7ipolar disorder, 7urns, cancer,++2 the common cold,
depression, drug
addiction, drug overdose, epilepsy, heart diseases, heavy metal
to4icity, acute hepatitis,
herpes, hyperactivity, hypertension, hypoglycemia, influena,
learning disa7ilities, mental
and meta7olic disorders,++ migraine, mononucleosis, mushroom
poisoning, neuropathy
E polyneuritis #including multiple sclerosis$, osteoporosis,+3
polio, an hypothesised
condition called BpyroluriaB, radiation sickness, Raynaud:s
disease, mental retardation,
schiophrenia,+ shock, skin pro7lems, snake7ite, spider 7ite,
tetanus to4in and viral
pneumonia.+6
Orthomolecular psychiatryedit
%ain article> Orthomolecular psychiatry
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Hoffer 7elieved that particular nutrients could cure mental
illness. ;n the -)3(s, he
attempted to treat schiophrenia 1ith niacin, although proponents
of orthomolecular
psychiatry say that the ideas 7ehind their approach predate
Hoffer.+*+9 According to
Hoffer and others 1ho called themselves Borthomolecular
psychiatristsB, psychiatric
syndromes result from 7iochemical deficiencies, allergies,
to4icities or several
hypothetical contri7uting conditions 1hich they termed
pyroluria, histadelia and
histapenia. 0hese purported causes 1ere said to 7e found during
an Bindividual
7iochemical 1orkupB and treated 1ith megavitamin therapy and
dietary changes
including fasting.+) 0hese diagnoses and treatments are not
accepted 7y evidence@7ased
medicine.3(
"rinciplesedit
According to A7ram Hoffer, BprimitiveB peoples do not consume
processed foods and do
not have BdegenerativeB diseases.3- ;n contrast, typical
BWesternB diets are said to 7e
insufficient for long@term health, necessitating the use of
megadose supplements of
vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antio4idants, amino acids,
@2 fatty acids, @6 fatty
acids, medium@chain triglycerides, dietary fi7er, short and long
chain fatty acids,
lipotropes, systemic and digestive enymes, other digestive
factors, and prohormones to
1ard off hypothetical meta7olism anomalies at an early stage,
7efore they cause disease.
29
Orthomolecularists say that they provide prescriptions for
optimal amounts of
micronutrients after individual diagnoses 7ased on 7lood tests
and personal histories.2
- !ifestyle and diet changes may also 7e recommended. 0he
7attery of tests orderedincludes many that are not considered
useful 7y medicine.3(
"revalenceedit
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Orthomolecular medicine is practiced 7y fe1 medical
practitioners.332
A survey released in %ay, ((+ 7y the ational Center for
Complementary and
Alternative %edicine focused on 1ho used complementary and
alternative medicine
#CA%$, 1hat 1as used, and 1hy it 1as used in the ?nited
&tates 7y adults age -9 years
and over during ((. 0he survey reported uses in the previous
t1elve months that
include orthomolecular related uses> onvitamin, nonmineral,
natural products -9.)G,
'iet@7ased therapies 2.3G, %egavitamin therapy .9G.3+
Another recent CA% survey reported that -G of liver disease
patients used the
antio4idant silymarin, more than 6G used vitamins, and that Bin
all, *+G of patients
reported using CA% in addition to the medications prescri7ed 7y
their physician, 7ut
6G did not inform their physician of their CA% use.B33
=ven though the health 7enefits are not esta7lished, the use of
high doses of vitamins is
also common in people 1ho have 7een diagnosed 1ith cancer.36
According to Cancer
Research ?D, cancer patients should al1ays seek professional
advice 7efore taking such
supplements, and using them as a su7stitute for conventional
treatment Bcould 7e harmful
to their health and greatly reduce the chance of curing or
controlling their cancerB.3*
%edical and scientific receptionedit
%ethodologyedit
Orthomolecular therapies have 7een criticied as lacking a
sufficient evidence 7ase forclinical use> their scientific
foundations are too 1eak, the studies that have 7een
performed are too fe1 and too open to interpretation, and
reported positive findings in
o7servational studies are contradicted 7y the results of more
rigorous clinical trials.3
39 Accordingly, Bthere is no evidence that orthomolecular
medicine is effectiveB.
"roponents of orthomolecular medicine strongly dispute this
statement 7y citing studies
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demonstrating the effectiveness of treatments involving
vitamins, though this ignores the
7elief that a normal diet 1ill provide ade8uate nutrients to
avoid deficiencies, and that
orthomolecular treatments are not actually related to vitamin
deficiency.-( 0he lack of
scientifically rigorous testing of orthomolecular medicine has
led to its practices 7eing
classed 1ith other forms of alternative medicine and regarded as
unscientific.3)6(6-
;t has 7een descri7ed as food faddism and 8uackery, 1ith critics
arguing that it is 7ased
upon an Be4aggerated 7elief in the effects of nutrition upon
health and disease.B662
6+ Orthomolecular practitioners 1ill often use du7ious
diagnostic methods to define
1hat su7stances are BcorrectB5 one e4ample is hair analysis,
1hich produces spurious
results 1hen used in this fashion.-(
"roponents of orthomolecular medicine contend that, unlike some
other forms of
alternative medicine such as homeopathy, their ideas are at
least 7iologically 7ased, do
not involve magical thinking,63 and are capa7le of generating
testa7le hypotheses.66
Orthomolecular is not a standard medical term, and clinical use
of specific nutrients is
considered a form of chemoprevention #to prevent or delay
development of disease$ or
chemotherapy #to treat an e4isting condition$.6*
'espite a lack of evidence for its efficacy, interest in
intravenous high dose vitamin C
therapy has not 7een permanently e4tinguished, and some research
groups continue to
investigate 1hether it has an effect as a possi7le cancer
treatment.696)
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I increase overall mortality.*+ utritional treatments are not
generally accepted as
7eing helpful for psychological health.*3 ;ts claims have 7een
criticied 7y most
medical organiations, including the American Cancer &ociety,
the American "sychiatric
Association, the ational ;nstitute of %ental Health,3( the
American Academy of
"ediatrics,*6 CHA%"?&, and the Canadian "aediatric
&ociety. 0he American %edical
Association descri7es as BmythsB the ideas that ade8uate
nutrition is not readily
achieva7le 1ith normal food, all food gro1n 1ith pesticide is
poisonous, all food
additives are poisonous, vitamin and mineral deficiencies are
common, that the cause of
most disease is poor diet, 1hich can 7e prevented 7y nutritional
supplements. **
&imilarly, the American Cancer &ociety comments that the
current scientific evidence
does not Bsupport use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the
conditions for 1hich it is
promoted.B &ome supplements have e4hi7ited 7enefits for
specific conditions, 1hile a
fe1 have 7een confirmed to 7e harmful5 the consumption of
nutritious foods is the 7est
recognied method to o7tain vitamins, minerals, and nutrients
crucial for good health.2
arrie Cassileth, an adviser on alternative medicine to the
ational ;nstitutes of Health,
stated that Bscientific research has found no 7enefit from
orthomolecular therapy for any
disease,B3 and medical te4t7ooks also report that there is Bno
evidence thatmegavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in
treating any disease.B*9
A -)*2 task force of the American "sychiatric Association
unanimously concluded>
0his revie1 and criti8ue has carefully e4amined the literature
produced 7y megavitamin
proponents and 7y those 1ho have attempted to replicate their
7asic and clinical 1ork. ;t
concludes in this regard that the credi7ility of the megavitamin
proponents is lo1. 0heir
credi7ility is further diminished 7y a consistent refusal over
the past decade to perform
controlled e4periments and to report their ne1 results in a
scientifically accepta7le
fashion. ?nder these circumstances this 0ask Force considers the
massive pu7licity 1hich
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they promulgate via radio, the lay press and popular 7ooks,
using catch phrases 1hich are
really misnomers like Bmegavitamin therapyB and Borthomolecular
treatment,B to 7e
deplora7le.*)
;n response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure
childhood psychoses and
learning disorders, the American Academy of "ediatrics la7elled
orthomolecular
medicine a BcultB in -)*6.9(
"roponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that some vitamins
and nutrients are no1
used in medicine as treatments for specific diseases, such as
megadose niacin and fish oil
for dyslipidemias, and megavitamin therapies for a group of rare
in7orn errors of
meta7olism.- A revie1 in the Annals of ;nternal %edicine
concluded that 1hile some
therapies might 7e 7eneficial, others might 7e harmful or
interfere 1ith effective medical
therapy.9- A recent study of over -6-,((( individuals provided,
in the 1ords of the
authors, Bconvincing evidence that multivitamin use has little
or no influence on the risk
of common cancers, cardiovascular disease, or total mortality in
postmenopausal
1omen.B9 A recent meta@analysis in JA%A suggested that
supplementation 1ithcom7inations of antio4idant vitamins
#7eta@carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin =$ may
increase mortality, although 1ith respect to 7eta@carotene this
conclusion may 7e due to
the kno1n harmful effect in smokers.92
&afetyedit
;n the ?nited &tates, pharmaceuticals must 7e proven safe
and effective to the satisfactionof the F'A 7efore they can 7e
marketed, 1hereas dietary supplements must 7e proven
unsafe 7efore regulatory action can 7e taken.9+ A num7er of
orthomolecular
supplements are availa7le in the ?& in pharmaceutical
versions that are sometimes 8uite
similar in strength and general content, or in other countries
are regulated as
pharmaceuticals. 0he ?& regulations also have provisions to
recognie a general level of
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safety for esta7lished nutrients that can forgo ne1 drug safety
tests. "roponents of
orthomolecular medicine argue that supplements are less likely
to cause dangerous side@
effects or harm, since they are normally present in the 7ody.3
&ome vitamins are to4ic
in high doses*( and nearly all #1ith the possi7le e4ception
of
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responsi7le.)3)6 0o distinguish 7et1een these possi7ilities, a
num7er of randomied
controlled trials 1ere performed and meta@analysis of these
controlled clinical trials have
not sho1n any clear 7enefit from any form of vitamin =
supplementation for preventing
chronic disease.)*)9))-(( Further clinical studies sho1 no
7enefit of vitamin =
supplements for cardiovascular disease.-(- 0he current position
of the ational
;nstitutes of Health is that there is no convincing evidence
that vitamin = supplements
can prevent or treat any disease.-(
eyond the lack of apparent 7enefit, a series of three
meta@analyses reported that vitamin
= supplementation is associated 1ith an increased risk of death5
one of the meta@analyses
performed 7y the Cochrane Colla7oration also found significantly
increased mortality for
the antio4idant vitamins A and [email protected](2-(+-(3 A
su7se8uent meta@analysis
found no mortality 7enefit from vitamin =, 7ut also no increase
in mortality either.-(6
?se in A;'&edit
&everal articles in the alternative@medicine literature have
suggested that orthomolecular@
related dietary supplementation might 7e helpful for patients
1ith H;
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'eaths resulting from illegal vitamin trials in &outh
Africaedit
%ain article> %atthias Rath
%atthias Rath has 7een e4tensively criticied for presenting his
vitamin supplements as a
treatment for A;'& and for testing them in illegal trials in
&outh Africa.--2--+ A
former associate of !inus "auling, Rath has promoted vitamins as
a treatment for H; asic
Health "u7lications. ;& -@3)-(@6@+. OC!C 2-2-)69. O!
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Further readingedit
&upportedit
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Williams Roger John5 Dalita '1ight D #-)*)$. A "hysician:s
hand7ook on
orthomolecular medicine #Health science ed.$. e1 Canaan,
Connecticut> Deats. ;& (@
9*)92@-))@3. OC!C 6((6+-.
Huemer Richard ", ed. #-)96$. 0he Roots of molecular medicine
> a tri7ute to !inus
"auling. W. H. Freeman. pp. )(pp. ;& (@*-6*@-*6-@-. OC!C
-2(()))9. Based on a
collection of papers presented at a symposium of the
Orthomolecular %edical &ociety in
&an Francisco, %ay *I9, -)92, 1ith revisions and additional
papers.B
"auling !inus #-)96$. Ho1 to live longer and feel 7etter. W. H.
Freeman. pp. 2pp.
;& (@29(@*(9)@+. OC!C -*)3.
Hoffer A7ram5 Walker %orton #-))9$. "utting it all together >
the ne1 othomolecular
nutrition #Revised ed.$. %cra1@Hill. ;& (@9*)92@622@+. OC!C
2+3-39-+.
Hoffer A7ram, 1ith "auling !inus #((+$. Healing cancer >
complementary vitamin E
drug treatments. 0oronto> Canadian College of aturopathic
%edicine. ;& -@9)*(3@
--@+. OC!C 3669-*.
%oss Ralph W #((($. Antio4idants against cancer. rooklyn>
=8uino4 "ress. ;& -@
99-(3@9@+. OC!C +*962*(.
"iorno Joseph = Jr5 %urray %ichael 0 #ovem7er ((3$. 0e4t7ook of
natural medicine
#0hird ed.$. =din7urgh> Churchill !ivingstone. p. 269. ;&
(@++2@(*2((@*. OC!C
6-9*9633.
Criticismedit
arrett &tephen #-)9($. 0he health ro77ers > ho1 to
protect your money and your life
#&econd ed.$. "hiladelphia> . F. &tickley. p. 3.
;& (@9)2-2@(2@(. OC!C 6))+-29.
Cassileth arrie R #-))9$. Alternative medicine hand7ook> the
complete reference guide
to alternative and complementary therapies. e1 ork> W.W.
orton. ;& (@2)2@
(+366@9. OC!C 26**)+*.
ender 'avid A #((2$. utritional 7iochemistry of the vitamins
#&econd ed.$.
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Cam7ridge5 e1 ork> Cam7ridge ?niversity "ress. p. 2(. ;&
(@3-@9(299@9.
OC!C 3()+93)+.
rater Walter #((3$. 0errors of the ta7le > the curious
history of nutrition. O4ford5
e1 ork> O4ford ?niversity "ress. p. -(. ;& (@-)@9(66-@(.
OC!C 6(92**3.
=4ternal linksedit
&upportedit
Journal of Orthomolecular %edicine, orthomolecular.org
Official 1e7site for the ;nternational &ociety of
Orthomolecular %edicine, isom.eu
Orthomolecular %edicine Online
Criticismedit
iologically 7ased practices> an overvie1, ational ;nstitute
of Health ational Center
for Complementary and Alternative %edicine
Food, health and 1ell@7eing in ritish Colum7ia. C "rovincial
Health OfficerLs Annual
Report #((3$
&hould 1e B0hank odB for Julian WhitakerP, American Council
on &cience and Health,
#-)))$
Recommendations of the CAHF task force on supplement a7use
#-)9*$
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