Origin, Evolution, Purpose and Antiquity of Intricate and ...

Origin, Evolution, Purpose and Antiquity of Intricate and

Geometric Patterns in Indian Rock Art: Prehistoric to the

Present

Saleem Shaik1

1. Indian Council of Historical Research, 35 Ferozeshah Road, New Delhi - 110 001,

India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 04 August 2020; Revised: 13 October 2020; Accepted: 01 December 2020

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 8.1 (2020): 303-324

Abstract: Since the discovery of rock paintings in India in 1867, the beauty and intricacy of the intricate

and geometric patterns found in the Indian rock art sites have always remained enigmatic and a puzzle to

understand about their origin, evolution and purpose including antiquity of such kind of representations.

Numerous theories have been proposed regarding the emergence and evolution including the purpose and

antiquity of such kind of representations. Present paper highlights about the factors in the emergence and

evolution of intricate and geometric patterns in order to understand about the purpose and antiquity of

the same and suggests about the importance of carrying out ethnographic study of such kind of rock art

motifs among the indigenous communities in order to understand about the abovementioned aspects.

Keywords: Prehistoric, Geometric Patterns, Antiquity, Evolution, Modern Art, Heritage

Management, Ethnographic Approach

Introduction Despite 153 years of research on various aspects of rock art in India, the origin (factors

in the emergence of rock art), purpose and antiquity (age) of rock paintings have still

remained much debated aspects (Mathpal 1984, 1992; Shaik 2015, 2017) whereas

depiction of the intricate and geometric patterns to decorate the rock shelters can be

considered as the reason behind the emergence of intricate and geometric patterns

(Tyagi 1992; Sonawane 2002) including to decorate the body portion of animal and

square shaped female figures found at various rock art sites in different parts of the

Indian Sub-continent (Shaik 2020a in press). So far more than 7500 painted rock shelters

have been reported from different parts of India (Figure 1a). In India, prehistoric

paintings were discovered as early as 1867. Since then, due to the efforts of various

scholars useful information on various aspects was brought to light and published. On

the basis of the rock art attributes/parameters such as study of rock painting’s style,

superimpositions, theme, subject matter, patina, colour and context of rock paintings,

one can suggest a relative chronological sequence for Indian rock art until the paintings

and other art forms can be dated directly. On the basis of the excavations at Bhimbetka

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the ‘S’ shaped human figures in green colour were assigned to Upper Palaeolithic

period (Wakankar 1976, 1984a&b, 1992, Wakankar and Brooks 1976) and Wakankar

established a relative chronological sequence to different types of rock paintings and

assigned them to Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Early Agriculturists and Cattle

Keepers phase (Neolithic and Chalcolithic), Historic and late Historic periods. But the

study of rock paintings found in the rock art sites located in the ‘S’ belt of central India

has revealed that the ‘S’ shaped human figures are found superimposed on the

intricate pattern at Jaora (Figure 1b) and similar representations were also reported

from Lakhajoar, Ladi Ki Karar, Firengi and Kathotia (Tyagi 1992).

Figure 1a: Map of rock art sites in India

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Figure 1b: ‘S’ shaped human figures in green colour superimposed on intricate pattern

in red colour at Jaora

Figure 2: ‘S’ shaped human figures in dancing postures at Kharwai (a), Lakhajoar (b)

and Hathitol shelter of Raisen-Ramchhajja

According to Tyagi (1992), “intricate patterns are the earliest rock paintings in India”.

Opinions among scholars differ regarding the antiquity and purpose of intricate and

geometric patterns found in the rock art sites of India. The intricate patterns found at

various rock art sites are extremely fragmentary and almost merged with the surface of

the rock. This might have led Mathpal (1984) and Neumayer (1983) to consider them as

the earliest rock paintings. According to Wakankar (1976, 1984, 1992 Wakankar and

Brooks 1976), “the ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human figures in green and dark red

colours belongs to earliest group of rock paintings”. A few more ‘S’ shaped dancing

human figures reported by Kumar (1981) were also assigned to the Upper Palaeolithic

period (30,000-12,000 years B.P). Despite recent research, the precise chronological

bracket of Upper Palaeolithic period in India is also yet to be established firmly, thus


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adding to the confusion about the antiquity of associated rock art and art objects

whereas the microlithic assemblages found in different parts of India have been dated

between 45,000 years Before Present (Mishra et al 2013) and 35,000 years Before Present

(Clarkson et al 2009). Tyagi has also observed that in a number of rock shelters, intricate

patterns were executed on the surface of rock shelters and they are not superimposed

on any of the earlier paintings. Interestingly, the ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human

figures painted in green were found superimposed on some of the intricate patterns in

red colour such as those at Jaora, and similar representations found at Ladi-Ki Karar,

Cheel Dant, Firengi and Kathotia rock art sites are poorly preserved and could not be

identified and photographed (Tyagi 1992) (Figure 1b). On the basis of his study, Tyagi

(1992) also supports the theory that was proposed by Wakankar, that the ‘S’ shaped

dynamic dancing human figures in green colour can be assigned to the Upper

Palaeolithic, but they are not the earliest paintings in India.

Figure 3: Serpent figure decorated with Geometric pattern at Sagar

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Figure 4: Square shaped human figures at Chanttaneshwar (a) and Nalda (b) in Hadoti

Plateau in south-eastern Rajasthan

Figure 5: Geometric patterns at Urden (a) and Bhimbetka (b) in Madhya Pradesh

On the basis of his studies, Tyagi (1992), who re-examined the rock paintings

thoroughly in the Betwa source region, i.e., in the semi-circular ranges of the Vindhyas

passing through Raisen, Sehore and Bhopal districts and the comparative study of

these rock paintings with those found in the rock shelters of Gupha Masir indicates


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that the simple geometric designs engraved on ostrich eggshells of the Upper

Palaeolithic period were also represented in the form of pictographs. Depiction of a

serpent figure decorated with intricate patterns in red colour covering both ends and

the central part of a rock shelter was found at Kathotia. According to Tyagi (1992), “the

intricate patterns filled in on the body portion of the serpent figure probably developed

into the tradition of depicting intricate spiral patterns”. According to Woodhouse,

“these intricate spiral patterns are the results of trance experience of the shamans and

were painted when the rock artist was under the influence of trance conditions,

hallucination or that these designs were painted by the shaman” (in Tyagi 1992).

Figure 6: Intricate patterns at Ramtol (a) and Hathitol (b) in Hadoti Plateau, south-

eastern Rajasthan

Figure 7: Geometric patterns at Chapria (a-d) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern

Rajasthan

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Figure 8: Geometric patterns at Nalda (a and b) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern

Rajasthan

Figure 9: Geometric patterns at Gararda (a&d), Gopichand Ka Chhajja (b) and Chapria

(c) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern Rajasthan

Prof. W. Davis suggests that these designs were painted when the artist was under the

influences of physically stressful conditions and their close association with the

animals and a part of their belief system, which is an important vision of hunters,

shamans or artists of a particular community whereas the absence of the ethnographic

parallels makes it difficult to prove this assumption (Tyagi 1992). Tyagi suggests that


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Indian pictographs can be compared with the anthropomorphic figures found in South

Africa whereas the spiral designs found in India do not have any similarity with those

found in the reported rock art sites across the globe. The spiral intricate patterns found

in the rock art sites of India were variously termed as: - P. Francis, an American scholar

called them as the ‘Spiral Greek Key’ and ‘Ogee designs’, Neumayer called ‘Honey-

comb Patterns’ (1983), Mathpal as ‘Geometric and Maze Patterns’ (1984), and

Wakankar called them as ‘endless designs’ (Wakankar and Brooks 1976). But the spiral

intricate designs found in India have a distinct similarity with conventional designs

engraved or carved on the bone and ivory plaques, pendants and bracelets found at

Mezin, a site in Crimea, Russia (Clark 1977).

Figure 10: Geometric patterns at Chapria (a), Gararda (b) and Gopichand Ka Chhajja (c)

in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern Rajasthan

Tyagi considered the enigmatic spiral intricate designs as being unique to the

subcontinent and called them as ‘emblemic inseriation’. He arrived at the conclusion

that the intricate patterns belong to the earliest period, as they were always painted on

the virgin surface of the rocks. According to S.K. Pandey, certain aspects of the

paintings such as the colour, patina, superimposition, style, theme, flora and fauna can

help to date the rock paintings.

The study of rock paintings found in various countries suggests that the rock paintings

of the pre-figurative phase precede those of the figurative phase in many instances.

Depictions in the pre-figurative phase such as the geometric motifs, concentric circles,

spiral designs with variations, and intermediate forms were drawn in a restricted range

of elements. The above mentioned curvilinear motifs are the basic characteristics of all

forms of archaic rock art (Bednarik 1994). This can be applied to the rock paintings of

the pre-figurative phase as well, which forms the most conspicuous feature of the rock

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paintings of this kind found so far in India (Neumayer 1993). In several paintings the

intricate patterns identified as ‘Labyrinthine’ were designed as rhombic meanders and

honey-comb patterns with different designs. Similar depictions cover a large space of

the rock shelter surfaces, and in many rock shelters they are not superimposed by the

earlier paintings (Tyagi 1992).

Figure 11: Geometric patterns at Bakan (a), shields decorated with geometric patterns

at Dharwa (b) and Kanyadeh (c) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern Rajasthan

Chronologically, the symbolic motifs of the pre-figurative or non-iconic phase/category

were followed by those of the figurative or iconic phase/category. The paintings of the

pre-figurative phase such as the ‘S shaped dynamic dancing human figures in green

colour were found superimposed on the intricate patterns of earlier paintings in red

colour. The ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human figures of the earliest phase were

transformed into perfect ‘S’ shapes during the figurative phase, and the paintings of

this style do not depict any other activities except dancing and hunting scenes such as

those at Bhimbetka, Kharwai, Lakhajoar, Firengi, Kathotia and Raisen (Figure 2a, b &

c). They are known for their vigorous dynamism which is not found in rock paintings


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of later periods. This is the striking feature of paintings of the figurative phase. In this

regard, the depiction of an ostrich in green colour, found in one of the rock art sites in

central India, was noticed by S.K. Pandey (see in Tyagi 1992) can prove the authenticity

of the earliest style.

Figure 12: Square shaped human figures at Gopichand Ka Chhajja (a), Chattaneshwar

(b and d) and Bhimlat (c) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern Rajasthan

Study of rock paintings found in Hadoti Plateau (Shaik 2014a&b) and recent

documentation and study of rock art sites in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh

suggests that there are categories of rock paintings instead of phases and similar

patterns/designs were used for different purposes during different cultural periods

and suggests that the intricate and geometric patterns were also used to decorate the

body potion of animal figures including those of rectangular shaped female figures.

(Shaik 2017, 2020 in press, Shaik and Chauhan 2019b, 2020 in press). Among other

patterns/designs, the spiral rhomboid design was repeatedly drawn on the body

portion of huge wild boar, elephant, rhinoceros and deer which are uncommon and the

author of the present paper is of the opinion that such kind of patterns were used to

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decorate the body portion of animal figures including those of square shaped female

figures so that they will look more beautiful whereas representations of square shaped

female figures suggest about the identity of particular indigenous community. The

abovementioned animal figures with such kind of patterns were also identified as

‘Deified animals’ (Misra 1986).

Figure 13: Human figures carrying nets or baskets filled with prey at Urden (a),

Kathotia and Jaora (b), Kharwai (c), and using fish nets decorated with geometric

patterns at Lakhajoar (d) in Madhya Pradesh

According to Tyagi (1992), “even during the Mesolithic period the tradition or practice

of decorating animal figures with intricate or geometric patterns on their bodies was

continued to some extent” whereas the study of rock paintings found in Hadoti Plateau

in south-eastern Rajasthan and Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh suggests that they

were mainly used to decorate the body portion of animal figures ranging from

Mesolithic to Early Agriculturists and Cattle Keepers Phase (Neolithic and

Chalcolithic) and it continued right up to Historic period with slight variations of

decorative designs which can be seen in the form of various designs on the horse rider

figures including soldiers equipped with swords and different types of shields (Shaik

2014a&b, 2020 in press, Shaik and Chauhan 2019b, 2020 in press). The earliest paintings

are in a highly fragmented state and are covered with a thick layer of patina, in such

conditions it is very difficult to study the subject matter of the rock paintings.

Depictions of serpent figures were drawn only during the prehistoric period.

According to A.K. Ghosh, “the serpent figures are of guardian animal of the habitats,


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i.e., caves and rock shelters occupied by the prehistoric people and indicate that they

were depicted as a totem or for the pacification of the deity” (see in Tyagi 1992).

Figure 14: Square shaped female figures decorated with geometric patterns at

Karmodiya (a) and (b) shown as carrying a basket at Putli Karar in Raisen District,

Madhya Pradesh

Figure 15: Engraved Ostrich eggshells found at various sites in central India (a) and

engraved Chert core found at Chandravati in Rajasthan (b)

Some of the serpent figures in dark red colour are of the earliest period and the body

portions of such figures were decorated with intricate or geometric patterns. They are

quite big in size 20 m in length and 35 cm in width were found in the rock shelters of

Kathotia whereas another serpent figure decorated with geometric patterns was found

at Sagar in Madhya Pradesh (Figure 3) whereas one more representation of a serpent

figure found at Chanttaneshwar in Hadoti Plateau of south-eastern Rajasthan was

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drawn without any body decorations and it was painted close to the square shaped

human figures decorated with geometric patterns (Figure 4a) (Shaik 2008, 2014a&b).

Sometimes the intricate or geometric patterns drawn on the body portion of serpent

figures are clearly visible such as those at Sagar (Figure 3). Similar patterns drawn on a

serpent figure in white colour was found in the rock shelters of Cheel Dant. It was

assigned to a later period immediately after the earliest paintings (Tiwari 1984).

Figure 16: Horse riders equipped with swords and shields decorated with different

types of designs at Pengawan (a&b), Gelpur (c) and Satkunda (d) in Raisen District,

Madhya Pradesh

The intricate patterns slowly developed into intricate spiral patterns. These depictions

were mostly painted in dark red colour and they have been assigned to a second stage

of the earliest style of paintings. The subject of the pictographs of this stage (2nd stage

known as Mesolithic period) shifted to the depiction of hunters as stick-shaped human

figures accompanied by rectangular shaped female figures with infillings of intricate or

geometric patterns can be seen at various rock art sites such as Putli Karar and

Karmodiya in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh (Figure 14 a&b) (Shaik and Chauhan

2019b and 2020 in press). These were shown in a dancing pose around or near the

animal figures decorated with similar geometric patterns. Some of the female figures

with rectangular shaped body were shown as carrying basket-like objects or using

digging sticks to kill rats hiding inside the burrows and fishing scenes and their head

portions were mostly shown as conical and they were shown in various activities can

be seen at Jaora and Lakhajoar (Figure 13b&d) and Putli Karar (Figure14a) in Madhya

Pradesh and at Nalda (Figure 4b) in Hadoti Plateau in south-eastern Rajasthan. The


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human figures are not so dynamic and look stiff with developed arms and legs without

fingers or toes. The paintings of hunters have decorations on their elbows and a

feather-like decoration on their head. Depictions of hunters were found in camouflage

and similar figures were found superimposed on the intricate or geometric patterns,

and were also shown with infillings on their body portion. This is a unique

composition of the paintings of this period (Mesolithic period). The camouflage looks

very natural and the intricate or geometric patterns underlying these animal figures

give an impression of foliage around them. The emergence of the spiral patterns in a

developed style without any stylistic changes has led scholars to consider them as an

intriguing aspect of this kind of rock art (Tyagi 1988, 1992).

Figure 17: Alpana designs at (a) Golpur (b) in Hadoti Plateau in south-eastern

Rajasthan, (c) and evolved into modern Worli art (d)

Discussion In the initial stages of rock art studies, the beauty and the intricacy of the intricate and

geometric patterns including those of splendid spiral intricate patterns might have

convinced experts to consider as the oldest rock paintings in India (Tyagi 1992,

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Mathpal 1984, Neumayer 1983). But, according to Tyagi (1992), the spiral intricate

patterns are more than being just the purpose of decorative. But the study of intricate

as well as geometric patterns found in the rock art sites of Hadoti Plateau in south-

eastern Rajasthan (Shaik 2014a&b, 2020 in press) and Raisen District of Madhya

Pradesh suggests that the intricate/geometric patterns were used to decorate the rock

shelters as well as to decorate the body portion of animal figures including those of the

square shaped male and female figures (Shaik 2020 in press, Shaik & Chauhan 2020 in

press) or such representations of human figures with different types of body

decorations might also indicate about the identity of different indigenous communities

who occupied the rock shelters in different parts of India during different cultural

periods. This can be attested by studying the concentration of similar

intricate/geometric patterns including those of the square shaped male and female

figures found in different rock art zones. Ethnographic study of such patterns among

various indigenous communities may also help in understanding the purpose of the

intricate and geometric patterns (Shaik 2020 in press).

According to Tyagi (1992), “the depiction of intricate/geometric patterns was started

when the prehistoric people observed various kinds of patterns on the body portion of

serpents/snakes and it might have attracted them to draw such kind of patterns which

can be seen at various rock art sites located in different parts of India” whereas the

study of intricate and geometric patterns found in the rock art sites in Hadoti Plateau

in south-eastern Rajasthan (Shaik 2014a&b, 2017, 2020 in press) and recent study of rock

art sites in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh (Shaik and Chauhan 20191&b, 2020)

suggests the same proposition and supports Tyagi’s observations (1992) about the

origin and evolution of intricate/geometric patterns, and also suggests that the

depiction of various types of human figures such as those of ‘S’ shaped human figures

and different types of animal figures with or without body decorations of

intricate/geometric patterns as well as those of x-ray style animal figures was started

from the same time as those of intricate/geometric patterns (Shaik 2017), and the rock

paintings of the non-iconic and iconic phases can be considered as categories instead of

phases (Shaik 2017, 2020 in press). Because such kind of patterns were found at

Bhimbetka (Figure 5a) and Urden (Figure 5b), Karmodiya, Barla, Ghatla rock art sites

in Madhya Pradesh (Shaik & Chauhan 2019a&b, 2020 in press) and in the rock art sites

of Hadoti Plateau in south-eastern Rajasthan such as Hathitol (Figure 6a), Ramtol

(Figure 6b), Chapria (Figure 7a,b,c&d), Nalda (Figure 8a&b), Gararda (Figure 9a&d),

Gopichand Ka Chhajja (Figure 9b), Bhimlat and Chapria (Figure 9c) whereas two

among the four geometric patterns in red colour are superimposed on faded geometric

patterns in white colour were found at Chapria (Figure 10a; Figure 7b,c&d).

Three geometric patterns found at Gopichand Ka Chhajja and Chattaneshwar are

highly faded whereas the geometric pattern found at Gararda (Figure 9d) has knots or

decoration-like designs at the corners which may suggest that it was either used as

hunting net or for decorative purpose. But the representations of intricate or geometric

patterns found at Bhimbetka (Figure 5b) in Madhya Pradesh and Nalda (Figure 8a&b)


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in Hadoti Plateau were drawn in small shelters and similar representations suggests

that they were painted for decorative purpose or to indicate the identify of particular

indigenous community/ies. Study of concentration/s of such kind of representations

located in different parts of India will help in understanding about the purpose of

similar representations (Shaik 2020 in press).

The purpose of similar geometric patterns found at Gararda (Figure 10b) and

Gopichand Ka Chhajja (Figure 10c) is not clear, but they are similar to snake figures

decorated with geometric patterns whereas the purpose and function of a small

rectangular shaped geometric pattern found at Gopichand Ka Chhajja (Figure 10c) is

also not clear to understand why such kind of geometric patterns are drawn.

Ethnographic study of intricate and geometric patterns including those of other rock

art motifs such as snakes, plants, human and animal figures and other symbols found

in the form of tattoos of different indigenous communities may suggest about the

purpose of such representations, but one has to be careful while trying to interpret

such kind of rock art motifs as there might have been changes during different time

periods spanning a long time in the evolution and purpose of such motifs.

Continuity of Intricate/Geometric Patterns from Prehistoric to Recent: Study of

intricate and geometric patterns found in the rock art sites of Hadoti Plateau in south-

eastern Rajasthan (Shaik 2008, 2014&b, 2020 in press) and in Raisen District in Madhya

Pradesh (Shaik and Chauhan 2020 in press) suggests that the depiction of such patterns

has continued well into the Early Agriculturists and Cattle Keepers Phase in the form

of decorations on the shields such as those at Gararda, Dharwa and Kanyadeh rock art

sites located in Hadoti Plateau of south-eastern Rajasthan (Figure 11a,b&c ) and

continued right up to Historic and late Historic periods in the form of shields

decorated with various designs which can be seen at numerous rock art sites located in

different parts of India. Similar soldiers’ figures shown as equipped with different

types of shields decorated with different patterns suggests that they belong to different

groups (Figure 16a-d).

Similar geometric patterns have simultaneously continued and evolved into Alpana

designs during the Historic and late Historic periods can be seen at numerous rock art

sites such as Chamaria, Ratanpura, Satkunda, Morpani, Putli Karar, etc. (Figure

17a,&c) in Madhya Pradesh and Golpur (Figure 17b) in Hadoti Plateau, south-eastern

Rajasthan as well as those of modern art forms such as those of Worli art (Figure 17d),

and later continued in the form of decorative designs known as Rangavalli or Rangoli,

Kollam, Muggu, etc. that can be seen in front of the houses as well as painted on the wall

portions of huts/houses located close to various rock art sites in different parts of India.

But few Rangavalli or Rangoli kind of decorative designs have religious affinity as well

which may suggest that their purpose was changed during the Historic and late

Historic periods. But a few representations of decorative designs are drawn during the

festivals such as Sankranti, Diwali or Deepavali and Dussera, and decorated with flowers,

balls made of cow dung, etc. can be seen in the southern parts of India were mainly

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intended to ward off the evil. But one has to be cautious while using ethnographic

approach to understand the purpose of various types of geometric patterns.

Representations of human figures decorated with geometric patterns were shown as

holding nets and traps filled with prey have been found at few rock art sites in India

such as Bhimlat in Hadoti Plateau in south-eastern Rajasthan (Figure 12c), Urden

(Figure 13a), Kathotia and Jaora (Figure 13b), Kharwai (Figure 13c) whereas using

fishing nets with ropes shown in the form of geometric patterns were found at

Lakhajoar (Figure 13d). Similar representations were drawn during different cultural

periods can be seen at few rock art sites in central India.

Representations of human figures drawn during the Early Agriculturists and Cattle

Keepers Phase were shown as holding axes whereas shields decorated with geometric

patterns such as those at Bakan, Dharwa and Kanyadeh in Hadoti Plateau in south-

eastern Rajasthan (Figure 11a,b&c) (Shaik 2008, 2014a&b) and other representations of

horse riders and soldiers figures drawn during Historic and late Historic periods can

be seen at rock art sites located in Madhya Pradesh were found at Satkunda, Kharwai,

Bhimbetka, Lakhajoar, Pengawan, Chamaria, Gelpur, Urden, Putli Karar, etc (Figure

16a-d) (Shaik and Chauhan 2019b, 2020 in press) and they are similar to those found in

the rock art sites of Pachmarhi Hills in Hoshangabad District (Dubey 2001).

But the continuity of these patterns from prehistoric to Historic and late Historic

periods and up to recent time period also suggest that they were used for various

purposes such as decorative, identity as well as for religious purposes. The

ethnographic study of such kind of patterns among different indigenous communities

will be helpful to understand about the purpose of such kind of motifs.

An engraved Chert core found at Chandravati in Rajasthan (Figure 15b) (Sonawane

1992; 1995-96; Bednarik 1993) and engraved Ostrich eggshells and beads found at

various sites (Figure 15a) in association with Upper Palaeolithic and Microlithic

assemblages (Sali 1980, 1984; Kumar et al 1988, 1990,1992; Mishra 2004, et al 2013) as

well as representations of intricate/geometric patterns including those of male and

female human figures (Figure 14a&b, Figure 4a&b) and animal figures (Figure 4a) can

be seen at various rock art sites in India whereas the serpents and snakes can be seen at

few rock art sites and all these representations suggests that they were drawn for

decorative purpose. But a few geometric patterns found at Bhimbetka in Raisen District

of Madhya Pradesh (Figure 5a) (Shaik 2020 in press, Shaik and Chauhan 2019b, 2020 in

press,) and Nalda (Figure 8a&b) in Hadoti Plateau in south-eastern Rajasthan (Shaik

2008, 2014a&b) suggests that they were either used for decorative purpose or to

indicate the identity of different indigenous communities who had occupied the rock

shelters during different time periods.

In course of a long time from prehistoric to Historic and late Historic periods the

depiction of intricate/geometric patterns was continued and they have also evolved

and continued right up to recent time period can be seen in the form of Worli art, etc.


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Antiquity of Intricate/Geometric Patterns: In the absence of absolute dates it is very

difficult to assign absolute date/s to intricate and geometric patterns including those of

animal as well as different types of human figures and serpents/snakes. A few efforts

have resulted in establishing a few dates (Agrawal & Kharakwal 1994; Sharma 1996;

Ravindran et al 2012) and a few U-Series and 14C dates ranging from 15.0±9.7 to

5190±310 years BP (Banerjee & Chakravarty 2014; Bednarik et al. 2005) and 5000 years

BP to an engraving (Tacon et al 2013). But establishing absolute dates to oldest rock

paintings such as intricate/geometric patterns, different types of animal and human

figures and serpents/snakes has still remained to solve the disputes about the age of

rock art in India (Shaik 2015).

Heritage Management: Recent documentation and study of 25,466 rock paintings

found in 34 rock art sites located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh suggests that it

is not only essential to establish a chronometric sequence to different types of rock

paintings ranging from Upper Palaeolithic to Historic and late Historic periods before

they disappear or destroyed due to natural as well as anthropogenic factors, but also

suggests to take preventive measures in order to protect the rock art sites for the future

generations as 10,034 figures among the 25,466 figures documented in 34 rock art sites

are faded beyond recognition (Shaik and Chauhan 2019b, 2020 in press).

Ethnographic Approach: It is essential to carry out ethnographic study of different

types of rock art motifs among various indigenous communities located in different

parts of India in order to understand about the purpose/s of the rock paintings, but also

to save this precious heritage for the forthcoming generations.

Acknowledgements I am thankful to Indian Rock Art Research Centre, a part of Indian Numismatic,

Historical and Cultural Research Foundation, Anjaneri, Nashik, Maharashtra for

allowing me to participate in the documentation of rock art sites in Hadoti Plateau,

south-eastern Rajasthan and to work for my doctoral dissertation. I am thankful to

Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali for awarding a Post-

Doctoral Fellowship to work on rock art of Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. I am

thankful to Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi for awarding the Senior

Academic Fellowship. I am thankful to K.P. Singh, Narayan Paliwal from Rajasthan

Vidyapeeth, Udaipur and Vivek Singh Gehlawat and Ravi Devra for helping me in the

documentation of rock art sites in Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh.

I am also thankful to Rajeev Lochan Chaubeyji and his family members from Raisen

and Avinash, son of Mudgalji from Kharwai, Valaram Prajapati, Sevaram, Aniket

Chidar, Malkhan Singh Ajay Singh, and Uddham Singh for assisting me during visits

to various rock art sites. I am thankful to Zulfiqar Ali, Vijay Sharma, Bhopal Circle of

Archaeological Survey of India and Dr Rajesh and Dr Anuradha Panda of Indira

Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalay, Bhopal, Paliwalji, DFO of Obaidullaganj and

Agrawal SDFO, Raisen Division for allowing me to document various rock art sites in

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Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. Line illustrations given in the manuscript have been

reproduced from Eriwn Neumayer’s book Lines on Stone. I am thankful to Erwin

Neumayer.

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