OREIGN TRADE (EXEMPTION FROM APPLICATION OF RULES IN CERTAIN CASES) ORDER, 1993 Minitry of Commerce Notification S.O. No. 1056 (E), dated 31-12-1993 In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3, read with section 4, of the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and in supersession of the Imports (Control) Order, 1955 and the Exports (Control) Order, 1988, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before such supersession, the Central Government hereby makes the following Order, namely :- 1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Order may be called the Foreign Trade (Exemption from application of Rules in certain cases) Order, 1993. (2) It shall come into force on the date of its publication in the Official Gazette. 2. Definitions. In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires, (a) "Act" means the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992); (b) "Import Trade Regulations" means the Act and the rules and order made thereunder and the export and import policy; (c) "Rules" means the Foreign Trade (Regulation) Rules, 1993; (d) Words and expressions used in this Order and not defined but defined in the Act shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in the Act. 3. Exemption from the application of rules. (1) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to the import of any goods. (a) by the Central Government or agencies, undertakings owned and controlled by the Central Government for Defence purposes;
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OREIGN TRADE (EXEMPTION FROM APPLICATION OF RULES IN CERTAIN CASES) ORDER, 1993
Minitry of Commerce
Notification S.O. No. 1056 (E), dated 31-12-1993
In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3, read with section 4, of the Foreign Trade
(Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and in supersession of the Imports (Control)
Order, 1955 and the Exports (Control) Order, 1988, except as respects things done or omitted to be
done before such supersession, the Central Government hereby makes the following Order, namely
:-
1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Order may be called the Foreign Trade (Exemption
from application of Rules in certain cases) Order, 1993.
(2) It shall come into force on the date of its publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Definitions. In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires,
(a) "Act" means the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992);
(b) "Import Trade Regulations" means the Act and the rules and order made thereunder and theexport and import policy;
(c) "Rules" means the Foreign Trade (Regulation) Rules, 1993;
(d) Words and expressions used in this Order and not defined but defined in the Act shall have the
meanings respectively assigned to them in the Act.
3. Exemption from the application of rules. (1) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to the
import of any goods.
(a) by the Central Government or agencies, undertakings owned and controlled by the Central
Government for Defence purposes;
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(b) by the Central Government or any State Government, statutory corporation, public body or
Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company through the agency of the Purchase
Organisations of the Ministry of Supply, that is India Supply Mission, London and India Supply
Mission, Washington;
(c) by the Central Government, any State Government or any statutory corporation or public body or
Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company, orders in respect of which are placed
through the Directorate General, Supplies and Disposals, New Delhi;
(d) by transhipment or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as ships stores to any country
outside India except Nepal and Bhutan or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as aforesaid
but subsequently released for use of Diplomatic personnel, Consular Officers in India and the
officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempt from
payment of duty under the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue) No. 3, dated 8th January, 1957 and the United Nations (Privileges and
Immunities) Act, 1947 (46 of 1947) respectively;
(e) imported and bonded on arrival for sale at approved duty-free shops, whether to outgoing or
incoming passengers, against payments in free foreign exchange;
(f) which are in transit through India by post or otherwise, or are redirected by post or otherwise to
a destination outside India, except Nepal and Bhutan provided that such goods while in India are
always in the custody of the postal or customs authorities;
(g) for transmission across India by air to Afghanistan or by land, to any other country outside India,
except Nepal and Bhutan under claim for exemption from duty or for refund of duty either in whole
or in part :
Provided that such goods are imported by or on behalf of the Govern-ment or a country bordering
on India or that the importer undertakes to produce within a specified period evidence that such
goods have crossed the borders of India or in default to pay such penalty as the proper officer of
customs may deem fit to impose on such goods :
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Provided further that nothing contained in this item will exempt any goods from the Import Trade
Regulations;
(h) by the person as passenger baggage to the extent admissible under the Baggage Rules for the
time being in force except quinine exceeding five hundred tablets or 1/3 Ib powder or one hundredampoules :
Provided that in the case of imports by a tourist, articles of high value whose re-export is obligatory
under rule 7 of the Tourist Baggage Rules,1978 shall be re-exported on his leaving India, failing which
such goods shall be deemed to be goods of which the import has been prohibited under the
Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962):
Provided further that the import of gold in any form including ornaments (but excluding ornamentsstudded with stones or pearls) will be allowed as part of baggage by passengers of Indian origin or a
passenger holding a valid passport issued under the Passports Act, 1967 (15 of 1967) subject to the
following conditions, namely :-
(a) that the passenger importing the gold is coming to India after a period of not less than six months
of stay abroad;
(b) the quantity of gold imported shall not exceed 5 Kilograms per passenger;
(c) import duty on gold shall be paid in convertible foreign currency; and
(d) there will be no restriction on sale of such imported gold;
(i) by any person through the post or otherwise for his personal use, or by any institution or hospital
for its use except
(a) vegetable seeds exceeding one Ib. in weight;
(b) beer;
(c) tea;
(d) books, magazines, journals and literature which are not allowed to be imported under the Policy
for the time being in
force;
(e) goods, the import of which is canalised under the Policy;
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(f) alcoholic beverages;
(g) fire arms and ammunition;
(h) consumer electronic items (except hearing aids and life-saving equipments, apparatus and
appliances and parts thereof):
Provided that the c.i.f. value of goods imported as aforesaid at any one time shall not exceed rupees
two thousand.
(j) by or on behalf of Diplomatic personnel, consular officers and Trade Commissioners in India who
are exempted from payment of Customs duty under Notification No. 3 dated the 8th January, 1957
of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue);
(k) from any country, which are exempted from Customs duty on re-importation under section 20 of
the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) or under Customs Notification Nos. 113 dated 16th May 1957,
103 dated 25th March, 1958, 260 and 261 dated llth October, 1958, 269, 271, 273, 274, 275 and 276
dated 25th October, 1958 and 204 dated 2nd August, 1976, of the Government of India, Ministry of
Finance (Department of Revenue) or Notification No. 174, dated the 24th September, 1966 or
Notification No. 103, dated the 16th May, 1978, of the Government of India, Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue and Insurance) or Notification No. 80, dated 29th August, 1970;
(1) of Indian manufacture and foreign-made parts of such goods, exported and received back by the
manufacturer from the consignee for repair and re-export:
Provided that
(i) the customs authorities are satisfied that the goods received back by the said manufacturers are
the same which were so exported; and
(ii) in the case of goods other than those exempted from customs duty on reimportation under
Customs Notification No. 132, dated 9th December, 1961, a bond is executed by the importer with
the customs authority at the port concerned to the effect that the goods thus imported will be re-
exported after repair within six months;
(m) by officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempted
from payment of Customs duty under the United Nations (Privileges and Immunities) Act, 1947 (46
of 1947);
(n) by the Ford Foundation who are exempt from payment of Customs duty under an Agreement
entered into between the Government of India and the Ford Foundation;
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(o) being vehicles as defined in Article I of the Customs Convention on the Temporary Importation of
Private Road Vehicles or the component parts thereof referred to in Article 4 of the said Convention
and which are exempted from payment of customs duty under the notification of the Government
of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue) No. 296, dated the 2nd August, 1976 :
Provided that
(i) such vehicles or component parts are re-exported within the period specified in the said
notification or within such further period as the customs authorities may allow;
(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the "triptyque or Camel-De-Passage" permit are not
contravened in relation to such vehicle or component parts :
Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said
vehicles or component parts of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that
may be in force at the time of import of such goods;
(p) being goods imported temporarily for display or use in fairs, exhibitions or similar events
specified in Schedule I to the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue) No. 157/90-CUSTOMS, dated the 28th March, 1990 against ATA Carnets
under the Customs Convention on the ATA Carnets for temporary admission of goods (ATA
Convention) done at Brussels on the 30th July, 1963:
Provided that
(i) such goods are exported within a period of six months from the date of clearance or such
extended period as the Central Government may allow in each case; and
(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the ATA convention are not contravened:
Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said goods
of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that may be in force at the time
of import of such goods;
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(q) covered by an import licence issued by His Majesty's Government of Nepal and the importer
furnishes a bond to the proper officer of customs in the form prescribed by such officer with a
Scheduled Bank as surety to the effect that he shall pay the duty and pay penalty imposed for
contravening Import Trade Regulations in respect of the whole or any portion of the goods which is
not proved to have entered the territory of Nepal;
(r) of Indian manufacture or by the Central Government or any State Government for repair and re-
export to Indian Embassies abroad or to any other office of the Central Government or State
Government in a foreign country;
(s) being foodgrains, by Food Corporation of India:
Provided that at the time of clearance, a declaration to the effect that the import in question hasbeen approved by the Central Government, is furnished by the importer to the Customs authorities;
(t) being articles of food and edible material, which are supplied as free gift by the agencies
approved by the United Nations Organisation and which are exempted from payment of customs
duty under the Notification of Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of
Revenue) No. GSR 766, dated 21st June, 1975.
(2) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to
(a) any goods exported by or under the authority of the Central Government;
(b) any goods other than foodstuffs constituting the stores or equipment of any outgoing vessel or
conveyance;
(c) any goods constituting the bona fide personal baggage of any person, including a passenger or
member of a crew in any vessel or conveyance, going out of India:
Provided that the Wild Life (dead, alive or part thereof or produce therefrom) shall not be treated as
part of such personal baggage;
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(d) any goods exported by post or by air under the conditions specified in postal notice issued by the
Postal Authorities;
(e) any goods transhipped at a port in India after having been manifested for such transhipment at
the time of despatch from a port outside India;
(f) any goods imported and bonded on arrival in India for re-export to any country outside India,
except Nepal and Bhutan;
(g) any goods in transit through India by post or any goods re-directed by post to a destination
outside India except Nepal and Bhutan:
Provided that such goods while in India are always in the custody of the postal authorities;
(h) any goods imported without a valid import licence and exported in accordance with an order for
the export of such goods made by the proper officer of Customs;
(i) products approved for manufacture in and export from the respective Free trade Zones/Export
Processing Zones and 100 per cent Export Oriented Units except textile item covered by bilateral
agreements, exports to Rupee Payment Countries under the Annual Trade Protocol and Exports
against payment in Indian Rupees to former Rupee Payment Countries:
Provided that conditions imposed by the Board of Approval on an Export Oriented Unit of Export
Processing Zone unit will be binding on such a unit;
(j) export of Blood group Oh (Bombay Phono type) meant for scientific research or emergency
medical treatment, as life saving measure on humanitarian grounds by the Director, National Blood
Group Reference Laboratory, Bombay on the basis of a certificate issued by him to this effect in each
case;
(k) export of samples of lubricating oil additives. Lube Oil, crude oil and other related petroleum
products and raw materials used to manufacture Lube Additives by Lubrizols India Limited,
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, from their
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installation in India to Lubrizol's Laboratories in the United States of America and the United
Kingdom for evaluation and testing purposes.
anana
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Banana (disambiguation).
Banana
Banana 'tree' (Musa acuminata 'Lacatan'). Illustration from the 1880 book Flora de Filipinas by
Francisco Manuel Blanco
Hybrid parentage
Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana
Colla 1820
Cultivar group
See Banana Cultivar Groups
Origin
Southeast Asia, South Asia
Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they
produce. Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red.
Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species Musa acuminata
and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana orhybrids Musa acuminata × balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific
names Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca are no longer used.
Banana is also used to describe Enset and Fe'i bananas, neither of which belong to the Musa genus.
Enset bananas belong to the genus Ensete while the taxonomy of Fe'i-type cultivars is uncertain.
In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. By
contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. The distinction is purely
arbitrary and the terms 'plantain' and 'banana' are sometimes interchangeable depending on their
usage.
They are native to tropical South and Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticatedin Papua New Guinea.[1] Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.[2] They are grown in at
least 107 countries,[3] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and
nomenclature system of bananas based on Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca. Despite this,
Musa paradisiaca is still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion.[17][18]
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds' and Shepherd's system. The
accepted names for bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana or Musa acuminata × balbisiana,
depending on their genetic ancestry.
Synonyms include:
Musa × sapientum L.
Musa paradisiaca L.
Musa × paradisiaca L.
Musa paradisiaca L. subsp. Musa sapientum J. G. Baker
Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin
Musa violacea J. G. Baker
Musa cliffortiana L.
Musa dacca P. F. Horaninow
Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin
Musa × paradisiaca L. subsp. sapientum(L.) C. E. O. Kuntze
Musa × paradisiaca var. dacca (P. F. Horaninow) J. G. Baker ex K. M. Schumann
For the banana cultivar previously referred to as Musa sapientum, see Latundan Banana.[19] Forbananas and plantains previously referred to as Musa paradisiaca, see Plantain.[17]
For a list of the cultivars classified under the new system see Banana Cultivar Groups.
Comparison between the two wild banana ancestors in the Simmonds and Shepherd table (1955)
Species Musa acuminata Musa balbisiana
Color of pseudostem Black or grey-brown spots Unmarked or slightly marked
Petiole canal Erect edge, with scarred inferior leaves, not against the pseudostem Closed
edge, without leaves, against the pseudostem
Stalk Covered with fine hair Smooth
Pedicels Short Long
Ovum Two regular rows in the locule Four irregular rows in the locule
The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of Islam.
There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with bananas. The spread
of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts
(such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in
texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the
medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world.[20] In650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Nowadays, banana consumption increases
significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.
Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West
Africa in the 16th century.[25] The word banana is of West African origin, from the Wolof language,
and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[26]
Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in New Guinea,
Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and the Philippines.
There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with
pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The DoubleMahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong
banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow
fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.
Mike Peed, The New Yorker[27]
Plantation cultivation
Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.
Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight) fluoresce in blue when exposed to UV light.
In the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands,
Brazil, and western Africa.[28] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in
Europe, although they were available.[28] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with
detailed descriptions in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
In the early 20th century, bananas formed the basis of large commercial empires, exemplified by the
United Fruit Company, which created immense plantations especially in Central and South America.
These were usually commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states
like Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that these companies and their political backers
created and abetted "servile dictatorships" whose primary motivation was to protect the
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars
(some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[30] These are
propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger
one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 68 months. The
life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or plantingsites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.
Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable
seeds. Lacking seeds, propagation typically involves removing and transplanting part of the
underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical
shoot that develops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However,
small sympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be
left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk.
It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers
without root material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.
In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is
preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as
suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama
disease).
As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.
Cavendish
Cavendish bananas are the main commercial banana cultivars sold in the world market.
In global commerce, by far the most important cultivars belong to the triploid AAA group of Musa
acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They account for the majority of
banana exports.[30] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained
popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group
cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of
the banana plant.[30]
Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Dwarf Cavendish the main export
banana.
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still
grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.[citation needed] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and
Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes
it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish
bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting tocreate a
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country.
These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color
normally associated with supermarket bananas is in fact a side effect of the artificial ripening
process.[citation needed] Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are
refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56 and 59 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures,
ripening permanently stalls, and turns the bananas gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe
bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the
fruit inside remains unaffected.
"Tree-ripened" Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-
yellow as they ripen further. Although both flavor and texture of tree-ripened bananas is generally
regarded as superior to any type of green-picked fruit,[citation needed] this reduces shelf life to only
710 days.
Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", and may show up at the supermarket fully
green. "Guineo Verde", or green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen beforebecoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are best suited to cooking, as seen in
Mexican culinary dishes.
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is
attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in
the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group.
Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. Thestudy
suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and
pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[31]
Storage and transport
Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain
maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling,
rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from
producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3
4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low
concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale.
Unripe bananas can not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the cold.[citation
needed] Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. They can be stored indefinitely frozen,
then eaten like an ice pop or cooked as a banana mush.
Recent studies have suggested that carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene
absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures.[32][33][34] This effect can be exploited by
packing the fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium
permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has
been shown to more than double lifespans up to 34 weeks without the need for refrigeration.
Source: 2009 data, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[3]
* Countries use 2008 FAO data
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing
countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main
cultivars. Bananas are cooked in ways that are similar to potatoes. Both can be fried, boiled, baked,
or chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One banana provides about the same
calories as one potato.
In 2009, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 28% of the worldwide
crop, mostly for domestic consumption. The six leading exporting countries (Table, right) together
accounted for about two-thirds of exports, each contributing more than 6 million tons, according to
Food and Agriculture Organization statistics.
Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because
bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable food source
during the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has beenconsumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical to global food
security.
Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive a
low price for their produce as grocery companies pay discounted prices for buying in enormous
quantity. Price competition among grocers has reduced their margins, leading to lower prices for
growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa
Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the
roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow
of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts
of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on 'Gros Michel', which
was highly susceptible.[39] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because,
among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required forshipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.
According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are
genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining
hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[39]
Tropical Race 4
TR4 is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of
fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the
Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical
Race 4 travels and is its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4,and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to disappear from commercial production by this disease.
Unfortunately, the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.
Black Sigatoka
Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also
known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected
banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and
plantains, impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire
leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen
prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance totreatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In
addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally
justified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received
commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
In East Africa
With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example,
during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 LT; 17 to 22 ST) of bananas per
hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 LT; 6.6 ST)per hectare.
The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of
Uganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste
different from the Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by
adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base of the plant, these new cultivars have
substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Bananas are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness,
the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and
inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananas' flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl
acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil.
During the ripening process, bananas produce a plant hormone called ethylene, which indirectly
affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme
that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananascontain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow
bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the
production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana,
causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[40][41]
Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice
wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular amongst
backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression
Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of travelers. Banana chips are a
snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color
and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice isdifficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature
prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turrón,
and halo-halo. Most of these dishes use the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Pisang goreng,
bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino maruya, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore,
and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United States as banana fritters.
varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For
example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while
the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-
making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[53]
In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening
process, mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to the
Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by
traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified.
In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is
made into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.
Paper
Main article: Banana paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different
senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic
purposes, or paper made from banana fiber, obtained with an industrialized process from the stem
and the non-usable fruits. The paper itself can be either hand-made or in industrial processes.
Cultural roles
Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worshiping River Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, India.
Arts
The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally
released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the
song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.
A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1910
comedy recording features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his
own such incident:[54]
Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't thinkmuch of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer
peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy
come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little