Option M (Rome) 1.9

ROMECaesar and Pompey - Political

Competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil War

Political Developments in the Late Republic

Political Competition and responsibility for outbreak of the

Civil War

Background: Political Competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil War

Caesar had success in Gaul against Vercingetorix and asked that his command be continued to the end of 49BC. He had achieved a great deal in his nine years in Gaul. Suetonius tells us that Caesar’s actions in Gaul and efforts in Briton were outstanding as he brought together about 640 000 square miles and increased Rome’s annual income by400000 gold pieces. He began building a new Forum with his spoils from Gaul and that he organised gladiatorial games and a public banquet in honour of his daughter Julia. The Senate was frightened by his support and popularity.

Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar

The consul M Marcellus suggested that a replacement for Caesar be found soon because the Gallic war was over. It was popular but illegal as it would have disregarded the law Of Pompey and Crassus of 55BC on Caesar’s behalf. Marcellus continued to target Caesar and try and humiliate him. He had some of Caesar’s allies, some Transalpine Gauls whoCaesar had treated as Citizens, beaten.Many other motions were also targeted at Caesar including stopping the tribune’s veto on the law about offices, the retirement of some of Caesar’s soldiers however these were vetoed by tribunes loyal to Caesar. Gold stater of Vercingetorix

By 50BC Caesar needed more support. In order to gain this support he organised to pay the debts of the tribune G. Scribonius Curio. He now fought for Caesar in Rome by Vetoing any discussion of Caesar’s replacement. He then proposed that Pompey should give up his extraordinary command at the same time as Caesar. Curio may have known (at least according to the source DIO) that Pompey would refuse and this would give Caesar an excuse for refusing to dismiss his troops as well. This motion was rejected and Caesar became more and more suspicious of Pompey who proposed Caesar leave His province by 13th Nov

Curio vetoed this. Caesar was not prepared to accept Pompey’s superiority. He once again proposed that both men give up their commands in order to preserve the balance Of power in the state and reduce the tension.At this time there was a threat of war in Syria. Rome needed more troops to fight this war. The senate decided to decree that Caesar and Pompey should both sacrifice a legion And send them to the east to fight. It was fair in principal but not in practice. Pompey had previously lent Caesar a legion. At this point Pompey asked for that legion back to send them to the east. Effectively Caesar had to send two troops and Pompey none. To make It even worse for Caesar, when the war didn’t happen the legions were kept in Italy which Strengthen Pompey’s position further

At this point Pompey fell seriously ill. When he recovered the people of Rome were joyous. Unfortunately Pompey confused this admiration with power. It made him overconfident and dismissive of Caesar. In December Curio urged that a vote be taken on the proposal that both men resign their commands. For the senators dreading another civil war this was a reasonable suggestion. The vote in the senate resulted in 370 for Curio’s proposal and twenty-two against. The extreme 22 optimates reacted! C Marcellus (the consul 50BC) dismissed the Senate and spread rumours that Caesar was marching on Rome. He placed a sword in Pompey’s hands and demanded that he defend the state and gather troops. Pompey hesitated but agreed in the end.

Curio left to join Caesar at the end of 50. Caesar still had supporters in Rome however. Marcus Antonius (Antony) and Cassius, tribunes for 49, continued to work for Caesar. Cicero tried to negotiate between the groups.In 49BC Antony read a letter from Caesar to the Senate. Caesar wrote that the commanders (himself and Pompey) should give up their powers at the same time. He said that it was unfair and unreasonable to expect him to surrender his post while Pompey kept his. He knew the only reason that the Optimates wanted him to give up his powers is that the Optimates wanted to prosecute him for his actions as consul. Caesar threatened to make civil war if Pompey did not comply.

The moderates in the senate were angry. The tone of the letter was threatening. But they were still keen for peace. Unfortunately Lentulus, the consul for 49BC, declared that he would override the senate if they tried to adopt a policy of reconciliation with Caesar. Pompey’s father in law Scipio Metellus proposed that Caesar had to give up his army by January 7th or be declared a public enemy. At this point it was clear that the efforts of Antony, Cassius and Cicero at reconciliation had failed.On January 7th the senate warned Antony and Cassius to leave and Cato, Lentullus and Scipio had the senate declare a state of emergency. They were then able to pass the SCU. Pompey and the consuls assumed control of Rome, Antony and Cassius left Rome quickly and fled to join Caesar. Those senators that supported Caesar fled as well.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon

Caesar had a choice – to end all his political hopes and face prosecution or use force and reverse the situation. His response – On the 10th Jan 49BC he crossed the Roman frontier leading one legion at the River Rubicon, and so doing committed Rome to civil war – “Alea iacta est The die is cast”The senate didn’t realise that Caesar only had one legion. There was widespread panic. People believed that the republic was dead. Pompey escaped to Capua with his supporters, the optimates and the consuls. Even though the escaped Rome, they were able to send out two legions. The war was long and drawn out. Caesar suggested on numerous occasions that both men put down their swords, but Pompey refused.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon

Caesar Returned to Rome in December of 49 BC, and was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse. Caesar kept his dictatorship for eleven days, tenure sufficient to win him a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus as his colleague. Afterwards, Caesar renewed pursuit of Pompey, then in Roman Greece.

Coin of Caesar (as dictator perpetuo)

Ptolemey’s army attacked Caesar at Alexandria but he quickly defeated them and placed Cleopatra on the throne. Caesar and Cleopatra never married, due to Roman law that prohibited a marriage with a non-Roman citizen but they had a child Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Caesar)At one point Pompey escaped to Egypt. Unfortunately for Pompey it wasn’t the safe haven that he believed it could be. He was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy XIII. Caesar had been following Pompey’s army and it led to his famous role in the Alexandrine civil war - a war between Ptolemy and his sister/wife/co-regent – Cleopatra. Caesar sided with Cleopatra. Maybe he was enthralled by her beauty or perhaps he chose not to side with Ptolemy due to his involvement in the death of Pompey - he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift.

Caesar is presented with Pompey’s head in a painting by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini

After spending some months in Egypt Caesar needed to continue fighting – the war had not ceased with the death of Pompey. During the remaining years of the civil war Caesar fought Pharnaces (where his victory was so quick that he wrote “I came, I saw, I conquered”) as well as campaigns in Africa and against CatoPompey’s sons and supporters escaped to Hispania. Caesar followed and in the battle of Munda (March 45BC) he finally defeated the last of his opposition. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague). He then became Dictator perpetuo (Perpetual Dictator) of Rome.

ROMECaesar and Pompey - Political

Competition and responsibility for outbreak of the Civil War

Political Developments in the Late Republic