Operational plan for management of Wasmannia auropunctata ... plan public.pdf · DRAFT #2 – 23 December 2009 1 Operational plan for management of Wasmannia auropunctata (Little

DRAFT #2 – 23 December 2009

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Operational plan for management of Wasmannia auropu nctata (Little Fire Ant) on the island of Maui, Hawaii.

Prepared by:

Cas Vanderwoude Plant Pest Control Branch,

Hawaii Department of Agriculture

Teya Penniman Maui Invasive Species Committee

Kuhea Paracuelles

Maui County

Forest Starr Kim Starr

United States Geological Survey

November 2009


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Operational plan for management of Wasmannia auropu nctata (Little Fire Ant) on the island of Maui, Hawaii. ....................... ...................................................................... 1

Background ........................................ ............................................................................ 5

Current situation on Maui........................................................................................................ 5

Goal .............................................. ................................................................................... 6

Objectives ........................................ ............................................................................... 6

Roles and responsibilities ........................ ..................................................................... 6

Maui LFA Taskforce ................................ ....................................................................... 7

Treatment plan .................................... ........................................................................... 8

Objective ................................................................................................................................ 8

Actions ................................................................................................................................... 8

Action 1-3: treatment, local surveillance and post-treatment monitoring ............................. 8

Action 4: local quarantine ...................................................................................................10

Surveillance plan ................................. ......................................................................... 11

Objective ...............................................................................................................................11

Actions ..................................................................................................................................11

Methods ................................................................................................................................11

Surveys of neighborhoods with high levels of recent landscaping ......................................11

Survey of high-risk certified and non-certified nurseries that import plants from the Big Island. ................................................................................................................................11

Surveys of landscapers, arborists, haulers, suppliers of mulch and other landscaping materials. ...........................................................................................................................12

Checks of plants at farmers markets et c. ..........................................................................12

Communications plan ............................... ................................................................... 13

Project Summary ...................................................................................................................13

Problem/Need and Target Groups: ........................................................................................14

Objective ...............................................................................................................................14

Actions ..................................................................................................................................14

Design comprehensive public education and outreach campaign ......................................14

Create and purchase materials that will be used in the education and outreach campaign 15

Evaluation ..........................................................................................................................16


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Alternatives ........................................................................................................................16

Budget - MISC Little Fire Ant Project ..................................................................................17

Data collation and mapping ........................ ................................................................ 18

Appendix 1 Standard Operating Procedure: Containment of Littl e Fire Ants ....... 19

Purpose and scope................................................................................................................19

Background ...........................................................................................................................19

Materials ................................................................................................................................19

Method ..................................................................................................................................19

Appendix 2 Standard Operating Procedure: Distributi on of ant bait granules ....... 21

Purpose and scope................................................................................................................21

Background ...........................................................................................................................21

Materials ................................................................................................................................21

Method ..................................................................................................................................21

Appendix 3 Standardised surveillance and monitoring procedure for surveys of Little Fire Ants .................................. ............................................................................ 24

Purpose .................................................................................................................................24

Scope ....................................................................................................................................24

Work instructions ...................................................................................................................24

Overview ............................................................................................................................24

Equipment and supplies needed ........................................................................................24

Planning the survey ...........................................................................................................25

Bait preparation..................................................................................................................25

Conducting the survey .......................................................................................................25

Keeping records .................................................................................................................26

Appendix 4 Survey protocol for detecting Little Fire Ants usin g chopsticks baited with peanut butter ................................ ........................................................................ 30

Supplies needed: ...............................................................................................................30

Obtain permission to access property ................................................................................30

Bait preparation .....................................................................................................................30

Survey Procedure: .................................................................................................................31

Appendix 5 Data capture and management procedure fo r LFA surveillance ......... 32


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Downloading and storage of data ..........................................................................................32

Combining data from 2 units and saving as a single data file for sample screening ...............33

Uploading waypoint data back onto a GPS ............................................................................33

Appendix 6 Trial Protocol: Little Fire Ant efficac y trial, Waihee, Maui ................... 34

Problem Statement ................................................................................................................34

Project approach ...................................................................................................................35

A. Experimental Bait matrix ................................................................................................35

B. Application methods ......................................................................................................35

Methodology ..........................................................................................................................36

Treatment ..........................................................................................................................36

Experimental layout and plot design ......................................................................................36

Measurements .......................................................................................................................36

References ............................................................................................................................36

Appendix 7 List of Maui high-risk businesses to be surveyed ................................ 38

Appendix 8: Maui consignees receiving plants from the Big Island June 2008-Oct 2009 ............................................................................................................................... 43

Appendix 9. Certified Nurseries in Maui .......... .......................................................... 44


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Background The Little Fire Ant (LFA) is a destructive stinging ant with a pan-tropical distribution. It forms supercolonies that blanket the ground and vegetation where they out-compete other ants, prey on invertebrates and promote phytophagous insects including scales, mealybugs and aphids. They are easily dislodged from vegetation when people and domestic animals pass by, at which time they will impart a painful sting.

Since being detected on the east coast of the Big Island in 1999 (Conant and Hirayama 2000), LFA have spread rapidly and are now common in coastal areas between Puna and Laupahoehoe. A small infestation was also discovered on Kauai which is being actively suppressed. In September 2009 this species was detected on a property in Waihee, Maui.

Current situation on Maui

On Maui, only a single infestation has been confirmed at this time (November 2009), located in Waihee (Figure 1). Local delimiting has established the infestation boundaries, which shows it is restricted to a single property, covering approximately 0.3 acres. The property is used for a variety of purposes including food production. A number of crops are grown in the infested area including taro, star fruit and banana. The property was treated in late October 2009 with Esteem™ in crop areas and Amdro™ in non-crop areas. The property owner has requested anonymity and for this reason property maps are excluded from this plan

Figure 1. Approximate location of Little Fire Ant infestation on Maui


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Goal To eradicate Little Fire Ants from Maui and minimize the risk of future incursion

Objectives 1. Contain and eradicate the currently known infestation and prevent further spread by

human mediated means.

2. Inspect all likely trace-forward and trace-back locations

3. Implement a surveillance program of high risk sites to identify other possible incursions on Maui.

4. Raise public awareness of Little Fire Ants, encourage reporting of other infestations through a public outreach program, disseminate information to other agencies and the media.

5. Collate and map surveillance and treatment efforts.

Roles and responsibilities

The agencies and designated representatives with responsibility for the various objectives are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Responsibilities and designated representatives

Responsibility objective Agency Designated representative

Contact details

Lead agency and program oversight All HDOA Dr Neil Reimer

Neil Reimer, Ph.D. Plant Pest Control Branch Chief Hawaii Department of Agriculture 1428 S. King St., Honolulu, HI 96814 [email protected]

Containment and eradication at Waihee site

1 HDOA PPC

Bob Yonahada

Kyle Onuma

Hawaii Department of Agriculture 635 Mua St., Kahului, HI 96732 808 873-3946, FAX 808 873-3586

[email protected]

Hawaii Department of Agriculture 16 E. Lanikaula St Hilo 96720. Ph 808 974 4140, Fax 808 974 4148 Cell 808 938 6848 [email protected]

Trace-forward and trace-back activities including calls from the public

2 HDOA PQ AnnaMae Shishido

Hawaii Department of Agriculture 635 Mua St., Kahului, HI 96732 808 873-3946, FAX 808 873-3586

[email protected]


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Island-wide surveillance program 3 MISC and USGS Forest and Kim Starr

[email protected]

Public outreach program 4 MISC and Maui County?

Teya Penniman Maui Invasive Species Committee Ph 808 573-6472 [email protected]

Designated media contact All MISC Lissa Fox

Data collation and mapping 3 MISC Brook

Designated technical advisor All HDOA PPC

Cas Vanderwoude

Hawaii Department of Agriculture 16 E. Lanikaula St Hilo 96720. Ph 808 974 4140, Fax 808 974 4148 Cell 808 989 9289 Email [email protected]

Maui LFA Taskforce A Maui LFA taskforce will be created and used as the primary means of disseminating information to all agencies. It will comprise representatives of the following:

1. Hawaii Department of Agriculture (Neil Reimer, Cas Vanderwoude) 2. County of Maui (Kuhea Paracuelles) 3. Maui Invasive Species Committee (Teya Penniman and Lisa?) 4. US Geological Service (Forest and Kim Starr) 5. Department of Land and Natural Resources (Cynthia King)


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Treatment plan

Objective

Contain and eradicate the currently known infestation and prevent further spread by human mediated means.

Actions

1. Treatment of the infested area and a 20 meter buffer area on a monthly basis from November 2009 to October 2010.

2. Localized surveillance beyond the treatment boundary to ensure local spread does not occur

3. Monitoring of site after the treatment program has ceased for a period of two years

4. Maintain a local quarantine by establishment of guidelines for the movement of risk items from the infested area to other locations on the property and beyond.

Action 1-3: treatment, local surveillance and post -treatment monitoring

Preamble

Eradicating an ant infestation is a difficult task and rarely achieved. The accepted approach is to repeatedly treat the infested site, along with a buffer zone, until ants are no longer observed (Drees et al. 2002). Follow-up monitoring of the site is needed for two years or more to ensure no incipient colonies remain (Vanderwoude et al. 2004).

There are few published records of successful LFA eradications. Causton and others (Causton et al. 2005) eradicated LFA from a small island in the Galapagos using repeated applications of Amdro™, a granular ant bait containing hydramethylnon. The site comprised a simple vegetation structure with few trees which is in contrast to the Waihee site which has a complex vegetation structure and many arboreal colonies. Souza and colleagues (Souza et al. 2008) compared a number of commercial ant baits in a tropical fruit orchard near Hilo, Hawaii. Fortnightly applications of Esteem™, a bait containing pyriproxifen (an insect growth regulator) successfully reduced ant abundance to very low levels. However, when treatments ceased, ant abundance quickly returned to pre-treatment levels. The return of ants was attributed by Souza et al. to remaining ant colonies in the fruit trees recolonizing the ground layer. Recent unpublished research (Vanderwoude, pers.com.) has identified an effective paste bait that successfully controls arboreal ant colonies. The bait is comprised mainly of peanut butter, water and indoxacarb. Application methods have also been developed (Vanderwoude and Nadeau 2009) that allow for efficient application to trees and other vegetation.


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Choice of active ingredients

Baits are regarded as “best practice” for ant control because only a portion of the colony is engaged in foraging and many workers remain in the nest. Foraging workers killed while away from the nest are quickly replaced by the queen through increased egg laying. Baits, however, are carried back to the nest and shared with the remaining colony, resulting in increased mortality. Active ingredients suitable for use in ant baits should exhibit delayed toxicity, good efficacy when diluted by trophallaxis, non-repellency and ease of formulation with carriers and attractants. (Stringer et al. 1964). Despite extensive testing, few active ingredients have proved fit for this purpose (Williams 1983, Williams et al. 2001). It is proposed to use three bait types in this eradication program.

-Hydramethylnon

This active is one of the older ones in use today. It is also used for cockroach control and has a safe toxicological profile (its safe to use and has very few non-target impacts). Also it is available from a number of manufacturers which means there is some price competition and will be less expensive to buy. The effects of hydramethylnon baiting might take 2-4 weeks to become apparent in the field. A bait containing hydramethylnon as the active ingredient is registered for use in Hawaii under the trade name Amdro™. It is only permitted for use in limited cropping situations.

-Fipronil

This is a relatively new active ingredient and still under patent. Besides ant control it is also used in vegetable crops, flea control for dogs and cats and termite control, however, the use of fipronil is limited to termite control. Fire Ant baits incorporating fipronil are very fast acting (1-2 days) as the chemical is extremely effective. However, it will have greater non-target impacts especially if not used carefully. Fipronil is very toxic to aquatic life and crustaceans (crabs, shrimps etc), so use near water is not advised. Coconut crabs appear to be very susceptible to this toxin.

-Indoxacarb

Indoxacarb is a new compound and so far has proven extremely effective in ant control. It has a very good toxicological profile and is categorized by the US EPA as a reduced risk pesticide. Results are very quick, 1-2 days. Because it is still under patent, it is more expensive than the other actives and supply could be more difficult. Recent unpublished trials at the UH experimental station in Hilo has demonstrated the efficacy of baits made with this active.

-Insect Growth Regulators

Insect Growth regulators (IGRs) are not a toxin. They work by preventing the queen from laying eggs and also stop insect from pupating. When used for ant control, the results can be very slow because the worker ants are unaffected and can live for many months. They are, however, very effective and their use should be considered if available. There are a number of IGRs available on the market today. The ones with the best record in ant control are s-methoprene and pyriproxyfen. Both of these are used extensively for mosquito control, whitefly


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control as well as flea treatments for cats and dogs. A bait containing pyriproxyfen is registered in Hawaii under the trade name Esteem™ and is labeled for use in a range of cropping situations.

Approach

It is not possible to get 100% control from a single ant bait treatment. The chemicals listed above typically provide 70-85% control, leaving a small residual population. A total of 8-12 treatments over 2-5 years might be necessary for complete removal of the ant from the site (Drees et al. 2002). Developing a treatment regime should take local climatic conditions into account. Treatment during a wet or monsoon season will not be very effective because the baits are affected by rain. For places with distinct wet and dry seasons, it is recommended to treat 2-3 times per year during drier months. If the climate is the same all year round, then regular treatments need to be scheduled. The baits need to be applied to dry soil followed by 12-24 hours without rain. In some locations this could be the most difficult aspect of the treatment program. The climate in Maui is mild all year round which is very conducive to growth of LFA colonies. It is recommended that treatments be applied all year round as weather permits.

Treatment procedure

The infested site and a 20 meter buffer zone is to be treated monthly for one year as follows:

1. Amdro™ applied to the ground layer of non-crop areas at label rates. Application to be with hand powered spreader or with mechanical blower

2. Esteem™ applied to the ground layer of crop areas at label rates. Application to be with hand powered spreader or with mechanical blower

3. PB bait containing Avaunt™ applied to trees and vegetation as per trial protocol attached.

Monitoring during this time will be conducted to gather efficacy data. Local survey of the surrounding area is to be conducted every three months to ensure no infested areas have been excluded from treatment. After treatment is completed, the site and surrounds are to be surveyed every three months for two years to confirm area freedom.

Action 4: local quarantine

Local quarantine will be managed by HDOA Plant Quarantine staff in Maui, in co-operation with the land-owner. Items capable of vectoring movement of LFA beyond the site are to be prevented from movement or be treated in a manner approved by Plant Quarantine staff. As a guide, the treatment provisions in the USDA Imported Fire Ant Program manual (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/domestic/downloads/fire_ant.pdf) may be adopted subject to Plant Quarantine approval.


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Surveillance plan

Objective

Implement a surveillance program of high risk sites to identify other possible incursions on Maui.

Actions

1. surveys of neighborhoods with high levels of recent landscaping

2. Systematic survey of high-risk certified and non-certified nurseries that import plants from the Big Island

3. surveys of landscapers, tree trimmers, haulers, suppliers of mulch and other landscaping materials

4. checks of plants at farmers markets etc

Methods

Three survey methods will be employed as deemed appropriate by the survey team: vial baiting, chopstick baiting and visual surveys. Vial baiting is the most systematic of the three methods and most suitable for surveys of industrial sites and nurseries where most of the site has suitable habitat. Chopstick baiting is especially useful when targeting habitat trees (palms, banana, ti and homoptera-susceptable plants) as well as individual potted plants. Visual surveys are appropriate when targeting discreet locations within a large site or for covering large areas quickly.

Surveys of neighborhoods with high levels of recent landscaping

High risk areas where recent landscaping activity will be located using ArcView to overlay the tax map key (TMK) maps for Maui from 2005 and 2009. This will identify land parcels that have recently been subdivided. New subdivisions generally install new plantings as part of the development process. It is the locations of these new landscaping areas where survey efforts will be focused. Visual surveys, supplemented with peanut butter baits where appropriate, will be conducted at each of these neighborhoods. Any suspect ants that fit the general description of LFA will be collected with collection locations geo-referenced using a GPS. Sites without suspect ants will also be geo-referenced as a negative site.

Survey of high-risk certified and non-certified nur series that import plants from the Big Island.

A list of nurseries and landscape suppliers that are known to import plant material from the Big Island has been compiled and is appended. These nurseries will be surveyed using baited


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peanut butter vials following the procedure appended. Bait vials will be examined under a microscope and any suspect LFA samples will be forwarded to HDOA Honolulu for verification.

Surveys of landscapers, arborists, haulers, supplie rs of mulch and other landscaping materials.

A list of 205 high risk businesses has been compiled and is appended. Some of these businesses will not pose a risk as they may work entirely off-site thereby eliminating the need for survey. Although some businesses may work off-site, equipment such as trucks, earthmoving machinery may be stored on the property and these should be surveyed. The main survey method used for these businesses will be visual surveys supplemented with strategic peanut butter baiting. For large areas, systematic vial baiting may also be used.

Checks of plants at farmers markets et c.

Farmers markets, school fairs and other events where plants are sold will be checked opportunistically. Survey method used here will be peanut butter baiting with vials or chopsticks. Vendors with plants harboring suspect ants will be asked for their contact details.


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Communications plan

Project Summary

Hawaii has no native ants. Over 40 ant species have become established in our state. While most of the ant species now in Hawaii are a nuisance, few pose a major threat to our environment, health, agriculture, and economy. The little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) is one that poses a severe threat. The little fire ant (LFA) is known from one or two locations on Kauai, but is becoming increasingly common on the island of Hawaii. In just 10 years, LFA has spread dramatically beyond the initial sites. The Ant Specialist with the Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA) reports that in the Hilo area it is now likely that most homes are not more than a mile from the nearest LFA infestation. HDOA is receiving daily reports from residents who are “at their wit’s end” over the infestations.

The threats associated with LFA include the following:

• They are difficult to detect until the infestation has become rather large.

• The ants deliver painful, multiple stings when disturbed, creating large, itchy welts on the skin. For highly susceptible individuals, allergic reactions are possible.

• Pets can be blinded by a fungal infection that follows stings from the ants. Reports of pets being blinded are increasing in the Hilo area.

• Agricultural workers refuse to work in infested areas or demand higher pay because the ants sting them after falling off trees or branches.

• Chemical treatment imposes additional costs on agricultural producers, business owners, and residents.

• Native land and seabirds, and turtles may be harmed or killed by the ants.

• Tourism may be affected at infested sites.

To date, there is only one known infestation on Maui. However, it has not been possible to determine the source of this infestation. It is suspected that other locations likely exist on Maui. To help prevent a repeat of the disaster that is unfolding on the island of Hawaii, we must marshal significant public support to detect any other locations on Maui. Early detection and rapid response are needed. A simple survey technique has been developed that can be used by members of the public by placing peanut butter-smeared vials in suitable ant habitat.

The public purpose of this project is to detect the little fire ant, if it exists elsewhere on Maui. Funding from the County of Maui Office of Economic Development will help engage the public in searching for the little fire ant and reporting suspect ants for identification, and if necessary, control. Funds will be used to secure needed outreach materials, vials for collecting ants, and a microscope, and to produce and broadcast radio and television spots. These funds will be


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productive long after the end of the contract as the outreach campaign will continue into the indefinite future.

Problem/Need and Target Groups:

The little fire ant poses a substantial threat to Maui’s economy, quality of life, and native ecosystems. The ant is currently impacting businesses, agricultural producers, homeowners, and companion animals on the Big Island where populations are spiraling out of control. The potential distribution of little fire ant populations in Maui County includes the homes, businesses, tourism sites, and agricultural lands of Maui, Molokai, and Lanai.

In addition to anticipated economic impacts, the ants pose an alarming risk to Maui’s native insects as well as to its native land and sea birds. The threat to Maui’s rich and diverse native biodiversity is incalculable.

Objective

Educate and involve the public in reporting suspected infestations of the little fire ant.

Actions

1. Design comprehensive public education and outreach campaign to engage the public in reporting potential little fire ant populations.

2. Create and purchase materials that will be used in the education and outreach campaign.

Design comprehensive public education and outreach campaign

Use of Community Resources

The Maui Invasive Species Committee, a broad coalition of public and private partners, includes biologists, foresters, resource managers, and other experts. Partners of the Maui Invasive Species Committee include: University of Hawai‘i, Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, Haleakalā National Park, Maui County Department of Water Supply, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey – Biological Resources Division, The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, Maui Land and Pineapple Company, and Tri-Isle Resource Conservation & Development Council, Inc. MISC is a project of the University of Hawaii’s Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit.

The full time MISC staff includes the MISC Manager, Vertebrate Operations Supervisor, Field Crew Supervisor(s), Field Staff, Data Technician, Public Relations & Education Specialist, and Program Specialist. All staff and field crew positions are filled by island residents and thereby have direct links to the local communities benefited by the program. Several projects have utilized local community volunteers and this resource will most certainly be tapped to assist with


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little fire ant detection activities.

An extensive public relations campaign has been implemented to raise awareness of residents on invasive species issues, including the little fire ant. The campaign and educational outreach program has been conducted utilizing all forms of media and reaching a broad audience.

Methods:

An extensive public relations campaign will be designed to raise awareness of residents about the little fire ant. The campaign and educational outreach program will utilize all forms of media to reach a broad audience. This program will publicize HDOA’s actions and enlist public cooperation and assistance. The focus of the outreach campaign will be threefold:

1- Educate the public about the threat posed by the little fire ant.

2- Encourage residents to report suspect locations.

3- Encourage residents to collect and provide samples of suspect ants.

The outreach campaign will inform the public about how to identify suspect ants and how to collect, handle, and deliver samples of ants.

Targeted audiences for the campaign will include:

• Nurseries

• Landscaping companies

• Agricultural businesses

• Construction companies that might use earth-moving equipment from the Big Island

• Hotel staff

• Veterinarians

• Harbor workers

• High school science classes

• General public

Create and purchase materials that will be used in the education and outreach campaign

The education and outreach campaign will likely focus on:

1- Production and distribution of informational flyers. The flyers would be distributed to public places, including community centers, grocery stores, schools, parks, ferries, harbors, and other locations. The flyers would also be prominently displayed at any public events where MISC has an educational booth.


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2- Creation of Public Service Announcements (PSAs) for broadcast on local radio stations.

3- Creation of a short video for television broadcast (public and possibly private cable company).

4- Design, printing and installation of large posters on public buses.

5- Maintenance of a display on the little fire ant at the Kahului Airport.

6- Creation of a large-scale fire ant model to bring attention to the issue at public events or schools.

7- Production of a PowerPoint presentation for training and awareness workshops for targeted audiences.

8- Development of classroom visit materials for use with Maui’s high schools to encourage students to conduct ant-baiting activities across Maui.

9- Promotion of the Report-a-Pest website as one reporting option.

The campaign will be based on recommendations of subject matter experts (both serving on MISC and through partner agencies). As administrator of the project, Tri-Isle RC&D will be responsible for oversight and management of grant funding.

Evaluation

The MISC Manager, with assistance from the MISC Public Relations Specialist, will be responsible for follow-up evaluation and reporting results. As principal sponsor of the Maui Invasive Species Committee, Tri-Isle RC&D will continuously monitor activities and progress of the projects to ensure progress is on track with respect to the targeted accomplishments.

Alternatives

Given the extent of the little fire ant infestation on the Big Island and the movement of goods between islands, it is anticipated that efforts to detect the little fire ant will continue into the foreseeable future. The threat posed by the little fire ant makes continued vigilance crucial.

Tri-Isle RC&D and MISC are constantly exploring potential funding sources. Additional funding to adequately address any discovered little fire ant populations will be needed. However, failure of the County to act now will greatly exacerbate the current problem by allowing undetected populations to spread into more areas, some of which could become impossible to contain.

Matching funds from County, State, and private sources are used to leverage federally-based funds. This is a common requirement of many federal funding sources and the leverage strategy will continue to help enhance the value of County resources. Additionally, the State of Hawaii has stated its commitment to continue addressing invasive species issues statewide.


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Budget - MISC Little Fire Ant Project

Tri-Isle RC&D Council Inc

Outreach Materials & Services

Printing, models, broadcast time, vials, bait, microscope, ant kits for schools

$20,000 $20,000

TOTAL EXPENDITURES $20,000 $20,000


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Data collation and mapping


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Appendix 1

Standard Operating Procedure: Containment of Littl e Fire Ants

Purpose and scope

This standard operating procedure describes recommended methods for containing a newly discovered outbreak of Little Fire Ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) and for ongoing prophylactic containment of existing outbreaks.

Background

Little Fire Ants are spreading rapidly through the Pacific region. It is an invasive species with substantial economic, social and environmental impacts. Eradication of this pest requires that ants are contained within infested areas and do not spread beyond treatment boundaries

Materials

• Maxforce Fire Ant Granules, Amdro or similar product

• “Scott” brand bait spreader

Method

The intent of treatment of a containment line is to create a treated buffer between areas known to be infested and areas believed to free of Little Fire Ants. It may be thought of as a prophylactic treatment that provides an extra level of security. Amdro™ or similar products are easily distributed using a “Scott” brand bait spreader. The aperture is set at “1” (Figure 2) and the operator winds the spreader handle at approximately 60 rpm while walking at 3 km/h (Figure 3). The swath width thus created is approximately 4 meters. Therefore three passes along the containment line should be sufficient to deliver a 10-15 meters treated zone.

It is important that the same zone is treated on successive operations as this provides a continuous barrier to spread by Little Fire Ant colonies. The path taken by the operator should be carefully selected and wherever possible, a track or open area should be chosen. The centre of the containment path should be as close as practically possible to the edge of the treatment area.


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Figure 2. Image of a “Scott” bait spreader showing the winding handle (a), the aperture adjustment (b) and correct grip. Set the aperture at “1”.

Figure 3. Using Scott bait spreader.

a –

aperture

t b –


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Appendix 2

Standard Operating Procedure: Distribution of ant b ait granules

Purpose and scope

This standard operating procedure describes recommended methods for treating the ground within a designated outbreak of Little Fire Ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) or Red Imported Fire Ants (Solenopsis invicta).

Background

Little Fire Ants are spreading rapidly through the Pacific region and or Red Imported Fire Ants are a known invasive threat to the region. They are both invasive species with substantial economic, social and environmental impacts. Eradication of these pests requires that ants are contained within infested areas and treated with products that will eradicate them.

Materials

• Maxforce™ Fire Ant Granules, Amdro™ or similar product

• “Scott” brand bait spreader

Method

The intent of treatment with granular baits is to deliver an even distribution of the bait over the soil surface at an approximate rate of 2kg product per hectare. Maxforce Fire Ant Granules, Amdro and similar products are easily distributed using a “Scott” brand bait spreader. The aperture is set at “1” and the operator winds the spreader handle at approximately 60 rpm while walking at 3 km/h (see standard operating procedure for containment). The swath width thus created is approximately 4 meters. An overlapping series of parallel swathes is recommended. This is accomplished by starting on one boundary of an infested site and proceeding 1 metre inside the boundary. Once the operator reaches the end of the treatment area, he or she takes 2-3 paces towards the untreated area and returns parallel to the original path (see Figure 4). Continuing this process, the designated area can be systematically covered. It is important that all ground is treated including spaces between buildings and corners of gardens. An additional sweep around buildings, garden edges and other structures is recommended. Rainfall within 12 hours of treatment will reduce effectiveness so plan to conduct treatment when rain is not expected for 12 hours.


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Starting point

End point Treatment area boundary

Approx 2-3 metres


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Figure 4. recommended method for distribution of a nt bait granules


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Appendix 3

Standardised surveillance and monitoring procedure for surveys of Little Fire Ants

Purpose

The purpose of this document is to outline the procedures for conducting surveillance and monitoring for Little Fire Ants (LFA) on Maui.

Scope

This standard operating procedure provides a standardised surveillance method for use during the delimiting and survey of risk sites on Maui, Hawaii in response to the detection of Little Fire Ants (Wasmannia auropunctata).

Work instructions

Overview

Surveillance for ants is accomplished by placing vials baited with attractive food items in a grid pattern over the entire area to be surveyed, and collecting the vials after 60-90 minutes exposure. While the baits are in the field, any ants foraging nearby will be attracted to the baits and these can be sealed inside the vials and identified in the laboratory. This procedure only covers general surveillance.

Equipment and supplies needed

Bait materials

• A sufficient number of “Biolab” 60cc bait vials or similar. Light coloured lids are preferred as it makes lab sorting more efficient.

• 1 jar of “creamy” peanut butter per 1000 baits

Bait preparation

• Nitrile gloves

Survey equipment and supplies


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• Map of survey area

• GPS

• Spare batteries

• Hi-Visibility vests if working in hazardous locations

• Supermarket bags or other bags (the reusable ones are best)

• First aid kit

• pens

• Permanent marker vivid pens

•

Planning the survey

When planning the survey, work out the area you want to cover and obtain a map or aerial image of the site. Google Earth is a good source of maps. Contact the property owner at least a day before the survey to make sure you have permission to enter. In the case of an airport or sea port, try to pick a time when no planes are expected or ships are being loaded/unloaded. Also, plan to do the survey during clear weather when rain is not expected.

Each team should be made up of two people and one team should be able to place and collect around 200-400 baits in a day. When preparing baits, make up around 150 per person working in the survey. If you know the size of the area you have to cover, you can also use these rates to work out how many days you will need to complete the survey. Keep a record of the number of baits placed and the total person-hours for each site for planning future surveys.

Bait preparation

Its best to make only enough baits for a days work. This way the baits will be fresh and attractive to ants (ants are not as interested in old baits). If possible, make them up the day before and store them in a refrigerator overnight. This way you can make an early start before temperatures get too hot.

Little Fire Ant baits contain a thin smear of peanut butter. Smear a line of peanut butter (half the size of a pea) on the inner side of each bait container on the side corresponding with the back of the label1. This can be done with a finger dipped in peanut butter. Wearing nitrile gloves will prevent peanut butter adhering to fingers.

Conducting the survey

The aim of the survey is to thoroughly sample the ants at the site. This is done by placing baits in a grid pattern over the entire area. The spacing between baits is different for each survey

1 This makes it easier for the entomologist to identify specimens.


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type and these are listed in Table 1. It is not important to have the grids at exactly these intervals as long as they are approximately correct. Sections that are all concrete or bitumen do not need to be sampled because LFA rarely nest in these locations. Common ant habitats are listed in Table 2 and it is important that these are all sampled.

Bait vials should be collected 60-90 minutes after placement. It takes much less time to retrieve vials than it does to deploy them. As a guide, teams should place vials for 1-1.5 hrs, then stop and retrieve the vials they have deployed in the order they were deployed. This way, the vials placed at the beginning will have been out for 60-90 minutes and the ones deployed last will have been exposed for about 45-60 minutes.

Surveillance should not occur during or after rain when the ground surface is still wet, or on windy days. Also no rain is to occur between placement of bait traps and their retrieval. If rain is imminent, it is a good idea to stop deploying baits and retrieve the ones already out. If this is not possible, collect the baits one hour after the rain has stopped. If not many ants are at the baits, it might be necessary to re-survey the rain-affected section.

Bait vials should be placed in the shade where possible. As a hint place your vials away from prevailing wind and angle the entrance slightly to the ground. This helps prevent vials filling with water if you encounter a sudden down pour.

Any unusual ants (that look different to common established species) sighted while conducting surveillance should also be collected.

Keeping records

Global positioning systems (GPS) allow streamlined data collection. During the survey, mark waypoints for each bait placed and record the waypoint number on the vial. After the day’s survey, download the waypoints onto a computer, print them out and email the data to the entomologist. Send the samples to the entomologist with the print-out and a summary sheet containing other collection details (date, location team members etc) These waypoints can be plotted onto a map using Google Earth or ArcInfo.


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Table 1. Detailed specifications for Little Fire Ants

. Little Fire Ants Delimiting Surveys Post Treatment Monitoring

General (outside known infested zone)

Methods vials pitfall traps and vials vials

Baits/ Food lures

Peanut butter Peanut butter Peanut butter

Vial spacing 100/ha, 1 vial every 10m. Once no ants detected, switch to 1 vial every 5 m at least 20m beyond the limits of detection

400/ha, 1 vial every 5m

200-400/ha, 1 vial every 5-7m depending on available resources

Pitfall spacing 1 pitfall trap every 10m (Pitfall traps contain 70% ethanol, some glycerine)

Time in field 45 min, maximum up to 1.5 hours

45 min, maximum up to 1.5 hours (Pitfall traps 5-7 days)

45 min, maximum up to 1.5 hours

Frequency/ length of programme

Immediately, if results negative follow up every three months for 2 years

If results positive, treat and monitor out to delimiting boundary

three months for 2 years beyond last detection

Six monthly annually (2 rounds per year)

Buffer zone 20m 20m 50m

Visual Surveillance

Very efficient in high density areas especially if surveyors are familiar with the ant. Habitat is 3 dimensional- in soil, intermediate canopy, vegetation, target bananas and coconut trees first. A good visual method is to use a smear of peanut butter on a plastic card as a bait.


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Table 2. A list of common ant habitats

1. Tree trunks (visual inspection and bait at base if appropriate). 2. Flowers and trunks of trees. 3. Shrubs and poles. 4. Building edges and foundations. 5. Concrete slab edges. 6. Cracked concrete. 7. Disturbed sites. 8. Drains and culverts. 9. Electrical generators and fittings. 10. Exposed rocks. 11. Fence palings. 12. Grass areas. 13. Verges. 14. Hot water pipes and heaters. 15. Isolated weeds. 16. Logs. 17. 18. Low vegetation (including grass). 19. Plant pot bases. 20. 21. Rubbish piles. 22. 23. Soil. 24. Tree crotches and hollows. 25. Vertical surfaces. 26. Weed and plant re-growth. 27. Wooden structures. 28. Underneath stones or concrete rubble.


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Appendix 4

Survey protocol for detecting Little Fire Ants usin g chopsticks baited with peanut butter

Taken from the Hawaiian Ant Plan (2007)

This method allows for relatively quick coverage of large areas. However, it relies on trained surveyors that can accurately identify LFA in the field with a hand lens. When trained surveyors are not available, follow the protocol for survey with vials

Supplies needed:

• Jar of PB (the cheap hydrogenated kind works best)

• Chopsticks (buy by the case at local paper-products companies)

• Orange day-glo spray paint (the kind WITHOUT toluene in it)

• Plastic-bags for disposing of used chopsticks

• Ziploc bags (quart size)

• Permanent/sharpie marker

• Raid (spray can) insecticide

• Bright colored flagging (use the same color throughout the island survey)

• Field notebook & pencil

• Small cooler with blue ice

• GPS unit

Obtain permission to access property

Call property owners and obtain permission to access and survey for LFA. This step may best be left to HDOA cooperators (check with them first).

Bait preparation

Chopsticks need to be painted with day-glo paint so you can relocate them in the field. Both sides need to be painted. If you paint only one side, you will waste time trying to place every stick paint-side up on the ground. You only need to paint the two ends (paint them well). You don’t need to paint the middle.

Make a sandwich of 1" X 2" boards 3 ft long, with the chopsticks lined up transverse between


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them so you can flip them over easily. Use rubber bands on the ends of the boards to hold the chopsticks in. Paint each end of the chopsticks then flip the sandwich over and paint the other side of each end. Alternatively, line up as many as you can on a junk table and spray paint the ends of all day-glo orange. Flip them over when dry and spray again.

When painted and dry, break all chopsticks in half. This can be done by using a chopper of some kind (like a corn detassler) to cut the sticks in half. Next, separate the sticks so you end up with 4 short sticks per pair of chopsticks. One end of each half stick will now be orange. You will need a lot of prepared-chopsticks. Prepare a case or box at a time.

Survey Procedure:

LFA do not like hot sun. Morning or overcast days are the best times to bait. If surveying at midday on hot, low humidity days, try to place baits in shady spots.

Starting at the corner or edge of the area (or property) to be surveyed, dip the unpainted end of a chopstick in peanut butter so you get a very light coating extending about ½ way up the stick. Place the PB chopstick on the ground. Whenever possible, place at the bases of trees/shrubs, and in shady spots.

Continue placing chopsticks on the ground, every 5-10m, around the entire perimeter of the property in question. Only place baits in suitable sites such as under shrubs or trees. Placing baits in the open is unlikely to attract LFA, which, if present, will be found under and in the trees nearby.

Leave the chopsticks in place for at least 45 minutes, but not more than 2hrs before collecting them. When you collect the sticks, identify presence/absence of LFA as you collect them.

If LFA are not present, shake off as many of the other ants (or other insects) that are on the stick as possible and deposit used sticks into a plastic bag for later disposal.

If ants that closely resemble LFA are present , collect some for lab/HDOA confirmation. Put the chopstick with ants into a zip lock bag. Write the site address and date on the Ziploc with permanent marker. Make sure no ants are on the outside of the bag, then put the bag into another Ziploc, so the sample is double bagged. Take a GPS waypoint and write the waypoint number on the bag.

When all survey chopsticks at the site have been collected, store all bagged LFA (and possible LFA) samples in the cooler and spray the inside of the plastic bag containing the other used chopsticks with Raid (one or two zaps) to kill any ants present, and tie the bag closed.

If LFA were not found during the survey, take a gps waypoint of the site and note the waypoint number in a field notebook for later GIS entry as a negative site.

Back at the office/lab, put all ant samples collected into the freezer a minimum of overnight to kill them. If LFA (or possible LFA) were collected, contact HDOA immediately to notify them and to arrange for identification of specimens, or verification of your IDs.

Enter info/data from field notebooks, data forms or hand-held computers into an excel


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spreadsheet. Coordinate with HDOA and MISC to ensure the same spreadsheet format is used for all surveys.

Appendix 5

Data capture and management procedure for LFA surve illance

This procedure describes how surveillance data are to be downloaded, manipulated and stored for future use.

The location of sample vials placed on ports are recorded with a Global Positioning System (GPS). Where two GPS units are used on the same port survey, unit number 2 should be set to start recording from waypoint 501. A team is unlikely to place more than 500 vials a day so the combined waypoints from unit 1 and unit 2 will each have a unique number and geo-location.

Downloading and storage of data

There are a number of programs that can be used to download and store data from GPS units including freeware programs EasyGPS2, DNRGarmin3 or Garmin Mapsource which costs a few dollars.

The following instructions apply to Garmin Mapsource:

1. connect the GPS to the computer and turn on power 2. start the Mapsource program 3. click “transfer”, then choose “receive from device” a popup window will appear showing

the GPS unit and allowing a choice of waypoints, tracks and routes to be downloaded. [see figure 1].

4. If your GPS does not appear in the “device” box, click “find device”. If the device can not be found, check the cables and make sure the GPS is turned on.

5. choose to download waypoints, tracks, and routes. 6. the program will download these and show the waypoints in the left hand section of the

screen. 7. save the GPS file by choosing “save as”, and selecting “ GPS eXchange Format

(*.GPX)” and giving the file an appropriate name. The file name should comply with the format outlined in the previous section

8. Save the file again (with the same name) but this time as a tab-delimited text file , [see figure 3]

2 Go to http://www.easygps.com/download.asp

3 Go to http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mis/gis/tools/arcview/extensions/DNRGarmin/DNRGarmin.html


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9. Open the txt file by right clicking the file, choosing open-with, and selecting Microsoft Excel as the program [figure 4]. The waypoint data will now open in Excel and allow you to modify columns to suit your needs [figure 5].

10. Importantly, when you first save this file, choose “save-as”, and change the file format to “Microsoft Excel 97- Excel 2003 & 5.0/95 workbook (*.xls)” [see figure 6].

11. Data in the additional GPS unit can be downloaded in the same way. 12. ALWAY S back-up these files to a secure drive in case of hard drive or computer failure.

Also, print out a copy of the combined excel file for archive purposes. Combining data from 2 units and saving as a single data file for sample screening

Data from both units can be imported into Garmin Mapsource. It is important that the waypoints on each GPS are unique because if some waypoint numbers are the same, they will be over-written when the second instance of that waypoint number is downloaded.

1. Connect the first unit and retrieve only the WAYPOINT data as in above. 2. Once this has been done, leave the Garmin Mapsource program running, connect the

other GPS unit and download the waypoints for this one also. 3. this file can be saved both as a GDB and a TXT file in the same way as above.

Uploading waypoint data back onto a GPS

There are at least 2 reasons for uploading data back onto a GPS. First, Mapping the waypoints on Google Earth can only be done with waypoints in a GPS. Second, if you need to return to a particular waypoint because a suspect sample has been identified, using the GPS go-to function makes it much easier to do so.

1. To upload all waypoints onto a GPS, first make sure all waypoints on the GPS are deleted.

2. connect the GPS to the computer and turn it on – double click on the GPX file containing the waypoints you want to upload.

3. click on “transfer” and choose “send to device” [figure 7]. A popup window will appear showing the GPS unit and allowing a choice of waypoints, tracks and/or routes to be chosen. Select waypoints only, then click “send” [Figure 8].

4. Garmin Mapsource will now upload all the waypoints onto the GPS. 5. If only one or some of the waypoints need to be uploaded, delete the unwanted

waypoints on the Garmin Mapsource screen before uploading. 6. Make sure when you close the Mapsource program that you do not save changes,

otherwise you will lose data!!! .

Appendix 6


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Trial Protocol: Little Fire Ant efficacy trial, Wa ihee, Maui

Problem Statement

Ants are not an endemic component of Hawaiian ecosystems and cause ecological, economic and social impacts (Krushelnycky et al. 2005). Wasmannia auropunctata (the Little Fire Ant, or LFA) is an invasive ant species native to South America. Over the last century it has spread to mainland USA (Spencer 1941, Osburn 1948), Africa (Wetterer et al. 1999), Australia and the Pacific region (Wetterer and Porter 2003). In the last two decades, Little Fire Ants appear to be spreading more rapidly than before, facilitated by increased trade within the Pacific region. Since the 1990s, new infestations have been discovered in Vanuatu (Vanderwoude 2007), Cairns, Tuvalu, Hawai’i (Wetterer and Porter 2003; Krushelnycky et al. 2005) and more recently, Papua New Guinea (Vanderwoude 2008).

First reported in 1999 on the east side of Hawaii and Kauai (Conant and Hirayama 2000), it is regarded as one the “worlds 100 worst invasives” (Lowe et al. 2000). Little Fire Ants over-run forest and urban ecosystems developing huge interconnected super-colonies that occupy both the ground and arboreal strata (Le Breton et al. 2004). It impacts wildlife populations (Jourdan 1997, Le Breton et al. 2003, Walker 2006), domestic animals, and public health. There is considerable anecdotal evidence that Little Fire Ants sting domestic and wild animals especially on the eyes, causing blindness (Theron 2005). They are a serious agricultural pest, enhancing homoptera populations, stinging agricultural workers (Wetterer and Porter 2003) and interfering with beneficial insects introduced for biological control (Fabres and Brown 1978). Workers have refused to harvest or tend orchards infested with this species in Hawaii4 .

Although eradication efforts have been underway for the small population of LFA on Kauai, LFA has spread rapidly on east Hawaii (Hawaii Ant Group 2007). Control of nests on the ground has been achieved through the use of granular baits developed for another invasive species, Solenopsis invicta (Red Imported Fire Ant). While there is scope for improvement in ground-level control, there is currently no known method to control LFA in arboreal situations, their preferred habitat. Developing a practical method for control of Little Fire Ants in arboreal situations is therefore essential before a response to this invasive species can be considered.

As LFA spread, all agricultural industries in Hawai’i will be affected to varying degrees, especially perennial tree cropping industries such as coffee, macadamia, citrus, banana and heart of palm (Bactris gassipaes). Additionally, LFA has the potential to impact on the tourism industry through decreased enjoyment of outdoor recreation opportunities for visitors and residents alike.

Little Fire Ants often nest in coconuts, bananas and tropical fruit trees where they tend homoptera and predate on invertebrates. Recently, LFA have been detected in Waihee on the island of Maui. The only known infestation, as at November 2009, is on a single property that

4 See http://hawaiihealthguide.com/healthtalk/display.htm?id=613&hhsid=0c022d71674bd3e3df465f733b25ddb1


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grows banana, coconut, guava and star fruit as well as vegetables. An opportunity exists to test arboreal control methods suitable for these crops with a high likelihood that results can be successfully transferred to other tree cropping systems, urban and natural environments in Hawai’i.

Project approach

The aim of this experiment is to provide base efficacy data that will contribute to the development of Little Fire Ant control prescriptions in arboreal situations. The experiment will be established in the three banana stands that exist on the property and on individual rose apple, coconut, guava, star fruit and ornamental trees. The citrus trees on the property will not be treated. Results of the experiment, once refined, can be transferred to other situations where arboreal control of Little Fire Ants is needed.

A. Experimental Bait matrix

Most ant baits approved by EPA and available for sale in Hawai’i have been specifically formulated for Solenopsis invicta (Red Imported Fire Ants). They all use a similar bait matrix, comprising ~20% soya oil as an attractant, ~80% pre-gel defatted corn grit, with a small amount of active ingredient (Williams et al. 2001). Two of these products: Esteem™ (0.5% pyriproxyfen) and Amdro™ (0.739% hydramethylnon) will be used for ant control on the ground layer but this will not form part of the trial.

Results from a related trial conducted at the UH experimental station in Hilo, show a paste bait containing peanut butter, water, an emulsifier and Avaunt™ 6 g/kg (indoxacarb 1.8 g/kg a.i.) has some potential for use as an effective arboreal bait. It is proposed to test this bait and determine efficacy of this product in an arboreal setting.

B. Application methods

A pneumatic hopper-gun as described by Vanderwoude and Nadau (2009) will be used to apply the bait. Details of the treatment method for each plant type are as follows:

Banana – bait to be directed at the stems to a maximum height of 2 meters. All the low-hanging banana bunches are to be enclosed by polythene bags in order to eliminate the possibility of bait contact with the commodity. Bags are to stay in place for a minimum of 12 hours post-treatment. A maximum of 18 g bait to be applied per tree.

Star fruit and guava – when fruit are present on the tree, only the stem and lower branches are to be sprayed. No contact is to be made between the bait and fruit. Two weeks after the initial application, fruit are to be tested for residue. If unacceptable residues are found, fruit is not to be consumed or sold, and must be destroyed. When no fruit are present on the trees, baits may also be directed into the canopy. A maximum of 18 g bait to be applied per tree.

Coconut – the stem and crown (if this can be reached) will be treated. No contact between bait and coconuts is to occur.


36

Rose apple – When fruit present, only the lower portion of the stem and branches are to be sprayed. No bait contact is to be made with the commodity. Spray may be directed higher in the canopy when no fruit are present.

Citrus – no baiting of citrus is to occur.

Ornamentals – ornamentals are to be baited as needed for control. A maximum of 18 g bait to be applied per tree.

Methodology

Treatment

Indoxacarb (1.8 g/kg a.i. ) in a peanut butter/water/emulsifier bait matrix. The matrix contains a 4.5:3.5 ratio of water to peanut butter with xantham gum added at 0.5 g/kg. The ratio between water and peanut butter may be varied to provide the desired viscosity. Baits are to be applied monthly from November 2009 to October 2010. A maximum of 18 g bait is to be applied to each stem.

Experimental layout and plot design

No control plots are possible as LFA are under active eradication at this site. However, ant abundance in control plots at a related trial will be used to indicate control abundance

Measurements

Ant recruitment to 8 lures made from chopsticks and peanut butter, in each of the three banana stands (24 lures total). Baits are to be placed at the bases of old leaves which are locations likely to contain LFA. Each guava and star fruit tree will have two lures placed at locations likely to contain LFA. Ant abundance at lures will be measured using a digital image taken at the time of assessment and ants counted at a later time. Abundance is to be measured monthly immediately prior to treatment and monthly for 12 months after treatment ceases. Efficacy will be determined by the mean number of ants at lures as a percentage of control counts. Statistical testing will comprise a chi test and results plotted graphically.

References

Causton, C. E., C. R. Sevilla, and S. D. Porter. 20 05. Eradication of the Little Fire Ant Wasmannia auropunctata, (Hymeoptera: Formicidae) from Marchena Island, Galapagos: on the edge of success? The Florida Entomologist 88: 159-168.

Conant, P., and C. Hirayama. 2000. Wasmannia auropunctata (Hymenoptera:Formicidae): established on the Island of Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 64: 21-22.

Drees, B. M., H. L. Collins, D. F. Williams, and A. Bhatkar. 2002. Considerations for planning, implementing and evaluating a spot-eradication program for imported fire ants, pp. 4, Fire Ant Fact Sheet #30. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. USA.

Hawaii Ant Group. 2007. A plan for the prevention of establishment of new ant species in Hawaii, with special attention to the Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) and the


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Little Fire Ant (Wasmannia auropunctata). Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk project. Jourdan, H. 1997. Threats on Pacific islands: the spread of the tramp ant Wasmannia

auropunctata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Pacific Conservation Biology 3: 61-64. Krushelnycky, P. D., L. L. Loope, and N. J. Reimer. 2005. The Ecology, Policy, and

Management of Ants in Hawaii. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 37: 1-25.

Le Breton, J., J. Chazeau, and H. Jourdan. 2003. Immediate impacts of invasion by Wasmannia auropunctata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on native litter ant fauna in a New Caledonian rainforest. Austral Ecology 28: 204-209.

Le Breton, J., J. C. H. Delabie, J. chazeau, and H. Jourdan. 2004. Experimental evidence of large-scale unicoloniality in the tramp ant Wasmannia auropunctata (Roger). journal of Insect Behavior 17: 263-271.

Osburn, M. R. 1948. Comparison of DDT, Chlordane and chlorinated Camphene for control of the little fire ant. Florida Entomologist 31: 11-15.

Souza, E., P. A. Follett, D. K. Price, and E. A. Sta cy. 2008. Field suppression of the invasive ant Wasmannia auropunctata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in a tropical fruit orchard in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology 101: 1068-1074.

Spencer, H. 1941. The small fire ant Wasmannia in citrus groves - a preliminary report. Florida Entomologist 24: 6-14.

Theron, L. 2005. Hypothèse d’une kératopathie liée à Wasmannia auropunctata, le modèle polynésien, Masters thesis, Veterinary Science. University de Liege.

Vanderwoude, C. 2007. Little Fire Ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) in Port Vila: Report to Secretariat of the Pacific Community on activities 5-14th October 2007, and recommendations for future management. VCL New Zealand.

Vanderwoude, C. 2008. Operational plan for management of Wasmannia auropunctata (Little Fire Ant) in East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. VCL New Zealand.

Vanderwoude, C., and B. Nadeau. 2009. Application methods for paste bait formulations in control of ants in arboreal situations. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 41: 113-119.

Vanderwoude, C., M. Elson-Harris, J. R. Hargreaves, E. J. Harris, and K. Plowman. 2004. An overview of the Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) eradication plan for Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 7: 11-16.

Walker, K. L. 2006. Impact of the Little Fire Ant, Wasmannia auropunctata, on native forest ants in Gabon. Biotropica 38: 666-673.

Wetterer, J. K., and S. D. Porter. 2003. The Little Fire Ant, Wasmannia auropunctata: distribution, impact and control. Sociobiology 41: 1-41.

Wetterer, J. K., P. D. Walsh, and L. J. T. White. 1 999. Wasmannia auropunctata (Roger) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), a destructive tramp-ant, in wildlife refuges of Gabon. African Entomology 7: 1-3.

Williams, D. 1983. The development of toxic baits for the control of the Imported Fire Ant. Florida Entomologist 66: 162-172.

Williams, D. F., H. L. Collins, and D. H. Oi. 2001. The red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): An historical perspective of treatment programs and the development of chemical baits for control. American Entomologist 47: 146-159.

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