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Operational amplifiers
Types of operational amplifiers (bioelectric amplifiers have
different gain values) Low-gain amplifiers (x1 to x10)
Used for buffering and impedance transformation between signal
source and readout device
Applications are measurement of action potentials and other
high-amplitude bioelectric events
Medium-gain amplifiers (x10 to x1000) Recording of ECG
waveforms, muscle potentials etc.
High-gain amplifiers (x1000 up to x106 ) Sensitive measurements,
like recording EEG (brain potentials)
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Operational amplifiers
Circuit symbol of the operational amplifier
Vout=Aol(Vin(+)-Vin(-))
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Operational amplifiers
Behavior of op-amps Output voltage can be in range from negative
to positive supply voltage
- Rail-to-rail ops allow widest voltage range (nearly up to
supply voltage)- Normal op-amps have lower output voltage range
The (-) input produce an output signal that is 180 out of phase
with the input signal
The (+) input produce an output signal that is in phase with the
input signal
No current flows in to either input terminal of the op amp
(infinity Input impedance )
Op amp with negative feedback works as an amplifier (the two
input terminals are at the same voltage)
Op amp with positive or no feedback works as a comparator
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Operational amplifiers
Attributes of ideal op-amps Open-loop Gain is infinite
No offset voltage
Input impedance is infinite (acts as an idea voltmeter)-
bioelectric amp must have very high input impedance because all the
bioelectric signal source exhibit a high source impedance
Output impedance is zero (acts as an idea voltage source)
Zero noise contribution
Bandwidth is infinite (no frequency-response limitations, no
phase shift)
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Basic amplifier configurations
Basic amplifier configurations Inverting amplifier or
follower
Non-inverting amplifier or follower
Summing amplifier
Differential amplifier
Transimpedance amplifier (amplifies and converts input current
to output voltage)
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Inverting amplifier or follower
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Inverting amplifier or follower
The input-output plot of an inverting amplifier (fig) Linearity
over a limited range of Vin The op amp is saturated at 13V (further
increase in Vin no change in
Vout)
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Inverting amplifier
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Error sources - Inverting amplifier
Fig. 7-4 shows detailled circuit of an inverting amplifier Bias
currents Ib- and Ib+ and output load current Io Three types of
internal resistance and capacitance
(1) Common-mode Rcm and Ccm, referring to internal ground Vee
(2) Differential Rdiff and Cdiff between positive and negative
input (3) output Ro
Internal ground reference Vee as middle of positive and negative
supplyErrors through external components Rs creates a 0.5% gain
error (from the ideal -1V/V), Rs becomes part of a
voltage divider with R1 at the input.-This small error can sum
up in multiple staged amplifiers
Ro creates another gain error through voltage divider behavior
with the load resistance of the following stage
- In this case Rl is large enough, so the influence from Ro isnt
strong enough
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Error sources - Inverting amplifier
Errors through internal components
Rcm (is parallel with R1) causes small errors, as it is usually
> 1000M
Through Ccm (< 5pF) higher gain errors will be produced in
higher frequencies (Rc=1/jc)
-Example: at 1 Mhz Ccm reactance is at 32k, which shunts the
external resistance, therefore creating a higher gain error
Other errors
Bias current Ib- (nA-fA) creates a voltage at the feedback
resistor which shows up at the output-In values: Ib- = 10nA,
therefore 0.1 mV across R2, with Eout = 10V that means an error of
0.001%; therefore the error is rather small in this case
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Non-inverting amplifier or follower
Unity gain non-inverting amp is used as a Buffer And for
impedance matching between a high source impedance and a
low-impedance input circuit
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Non-inverting amplifier or follower
Input - Output characteristic of a non-inverting amplifier
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Non-inverting amplifier
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Non-inverting amplifierand errors
Details in circuit displayed in fig 7-8 Input signal drives very
high internal impedance (Rcm, Rdiff etc.).Therefore
very little gain error is induced Small gain error is produced
by the voltage divider consisting of Ro and RL Furthermore
additional gain errors are created through the bias currents
flowing through the feedback resistances (Ib- and Ib+)
Bias currents correlate to ambient temperature Fig 7-10 provides
an overview
concerning the influence fromambient temperature to bias
current
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Non-inverting amplifier Example
ph probe amplifier
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Summing amplifier
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Summing amplifier
It is used to remove undesirable dc voltage from a signal.
Vo=0 if=0 ij+ib=0
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Differential amplifier
Produces an output voltage proportional to the difference
between the voltage applied to the two input terminals
The voltage gain is the same as for inverting followers when the
ratio of feedback resistor to input resistor is equal at both
terminals.
Unity gain when all four resistor are equal Removes common-mode
noise and amplifying the differential signal.
One op-amp differential amplifier
U4
U3
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Differential amplifier
The input resistance of one op amp differential amplifier is to
low for high-resistance source. Satisfactory for low-resistance
source such as Wheatstone bridge
Solution: add two non-inverting gain followers of high input
resistance Instrumentation amp has also higher gain
Differential Gain of the two non-inverting combined
followers:
One op-amp differential amplifier
Three op-amp differential amp or Instrumentation amplifier
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Instrumentation Amplifier
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Sensors and Op-amp Examples
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Transimpedance amplifier
current to voltage converter A positive input current pulse
produces a negative output voltage The If is almost equal to Iin
since Ib is small Example (fig): 10nA input gives 0.1V output Most
common bioelectric amp is the photodiode amplifier
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Integrator - a low pass filter
Gives as an output the integral of an input When a voltage is
applied to the integrator, a current I2 begins to charge
C1.
It is function as a low-pass filter with frequency response: The
gain decreases as f (f=2f) increases
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Differentiator - a high pass filter
Gives as an output the differential of an input
It is function as a high-pass filter with frequency response:
The gain increases as f (f=2f) increases
Input Output
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Active filters
Frequency Response:
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Comparators
Compares the input voltage with some reference voltage and gives
in the output positive or negative saturation limits of the
op-amp
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Comparators
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Schmitt Trigger Comparator
Operational amplifiersOperational amplifiersOperational
amplifiersOperational amplifiersBasic amplifier
configurationsInverting amplifier or followerInverting amplifier or
followerInverting amplifierError sources - Inverting amplifierError
sources - Inverting amplifierNon-inverting amplifier or
followerNon-inverting amplifier or followerNon-inverting
amplifierNon-inverting amplifierand errorsNon-inverting amplifier
ExampleSumming amplifierSumming amplifierDifferential
amplifierDifferential amplifierInstrumentation AmplifierSensors and
Op-amp ExamplesTransimpedance amplifierIntegrator - a low pass
filterDifferentiator - a high pass filterActive
filtersComparatorsComparatorsSchmitt Trigger Comparator