On the transition from tin-rich to antimony-rich European white soda-glass trade beads in northeastern North America

Page 1

Journalof Radioanalyticalandl{uclearChemistry, I. 'o1.211, iVo.3 (2000) 559 566

On the transition from tin-rich to antimony-rich European white soda-glasstrade beads for the Senecas of Northeastern North America

M. L. Sempowski , l A. W. Nohe, l J.-F. Moreau,2 I . Kenyon,3 K. Karkl ins,4 S. Aufrei ter ,S R. G. v. Hancock5.6I llochester ll'[useum & Science Center, Rochester, Jrlev l'ork 14603, USA

:Depurtnen|de.ssctenc'e 'sht tmaine.set |aboratoi red'archdologie,(Jnivers i tddtQuebecdChicot t t imt,Chicou| imi .oudbec' ,Cr lnQr1(] , ( ;71|2l

3 Ontario Heritage Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5C IJ3a Parks Cqnada, Onlario Service Cenlre, Ottau,a, Ontario, Canada, KtA 0Nl5

5 .St.tltf'pOXl: Reactor Facilrq, ancl Department of Chentical Engineering and Applied Chemistrt,, LJniversih,of 'l'orctnto,

'l-oronlo, Ontario, Canqda. M5S 3E5

6SI ' t ) t t .P()K| . ' - ) | : t t t ' t | t | . l ' t t t t t ! I )epur| t

(Rcccivcd November 22, 1999)

l t l t a s b c e n s h t l r r t r t h a t s c v c r a l r r t o d i l j c a t i o r r s o c c u r r c d , o v e r t I r e s p a n o f t h e l 7 t h t o l 9 t h c e n t u r i e s . i n t h e a g c n t s u s c d t o o p a c i l i l : - i u r t l p c a n - t n a c

rvhitc sttda-glitss beads that vv'ere transmitted as trade goods to northeastern North Amerrca. l-rn was used at thc beginnrng of thc lTth cclttun

fbllorved bi'Sb latcr in thc century. and then by As during the 18th and l9th centuries. In an attempt to dellne more closely the transition liorn Srr-

rich to Sb-rrch r.r'hite bcads. lvc analyzed 198 white glass beads liom a number o1'archaeological sites in ruvestern New York State Chcrnrcal

analr"s is s l tous that thc arr ival o l 'Sb-rvhi te soda-glass t rade beads began in th is region dur ing the per iod f ionr approximately A l ) 1625-16-10. ancl

that tho haclcornplctc lv rcplaccd Sn-rvhi te beads by A.D. 1675. Speci f ic bead chemistr ies l ink a number of ' the archaeolos. ical s i tes.

Introduct ion

-fypological classifications of European glass trade

beads of many different shapes, colours, and

decorations. recovered I}om North American

archaeological sites, have been of great imporlance to

archaeologists. KIoo and KIDD's 1970 classi f icat ion

sche'nre. l expanded by Knnr l tNs.2 has become the

standard fbr eastern North America.3 While specific

rnulti-coloLrred glass bead types have proven to be useful

tirne-rnarkers fbr the dating of archaeological sites of the

European contact era in noftheastern North America,

single-coloured glass trade beads, commonly found on

these sites, have proven more diff icult to date on the

basis of appearance alone.

Chernical analvses of turquoise blue beads, however,

have greatl l ' refined their use as chronological markers

by indicating changes in chemical composition over

t ime.a 7 Prel i rn inary elemental analyses of whi te glass

trade beads recovered from archaeological sites in

southern Ontario, Canada suggest similar potential. They

demonstrate that early l Tth century Sn-rich drawn glass

beads were replaced sonletime late in that century by Sb-r ich glass beads. rvhich cont inued to be produced into

the l9th centur) , . Arsenic-r ich glass beads appeared by

the late l8th cc-ntury and were in use into the 2Oth

centur.v ' ' . arrd I r - r ich rvhi te glass beads were made dur ing

the latc lgth and ear l \ , ?Oth centur ies.8

[Jnfbrtunately. while we have identif ied the general

terlporal parameters for the Sn-white to Sb-white glass

bead transi t ion, i t was impossible to provide more

precise dates because of the annihi lat ion and dispersal o1'

much of the native population frorn southern Ontario by

the rniddle of the 17th century. Therefore, in an attempr

to document the transition more closely, 198 white glass

beads from two parallel series of Seneca Iroquois sites in

western New York State (see Fig. l) were analyzed.

Archaeological context of the bead samples

The bead samples derived ftoni f ifteen Seneca

Iroquois s i tes which were occupied frorn the late l6th

through the early l Sth centuries in western New York

(see Fig. l ) . Dur ing th is per iod, there were two dist inctgroups of Seneca, each occupying a separate vil lage in

close proximity to the other, plus one or more srnall

associated vi l lages. Like other northern l roquoian

people, the Seneca abandoned their villages and moved

approximately every l5 to 20 years. usually to a new site

only a few rniles away. The result is two parallel

sequences of vil lage sites - an eastern and a western

series. The Seneca were the first Iroquoian group whose

sequential moyements during the peri0d irnrnediatelyfollowing E,uropean contact were traced

archaeological ly,g-12 and these ear ly formulat ions have

undergone only s l ight rnodi f icat ions s ince that t ime. l i I5

Furthennore, the unusual cont inui t l , o1' the sequence of-

Seneca sites for the early historic period has rnade it a

benchmark for cornparative studies of archaeological

assemblases from other areas.

0 ) i 6 573 I : 000 { ; s t ) 17 00(' .'(J00 . lkutle m iut K ioclo. Budupest

,1 kudt m iai K tud o. l) udupe s t

K|uver .lcadentit PubIi.shers, Dordrec ht

Page 2

M [- SF-MrcWSKI Ct AI.: ON THE TRANSII'ION FROM TIN-RICH'IO AN'IIMONY-RICI-I f:LIROPE,\N \\'Ht I'I1 SOI)A-GI-,\SS

scale

1 0 m i l e s

Hudson River

Lake Onlar io

BochesterL a k e E r i e

{{

II

Mohawk River

((iiIItt

//\ _ - _

((

Est i rnates of occupat ion dates fbr the indiv idual s i tes

in the two series are somewhat more problematic, but af'elv kcy historic events and changes in assemblages of

European ntanuf"actured goods have permitted

approximat ions of beginning and ending dates for eachpair of contenlporary sites. While furlher refinements are

rnevi table. the present sequence and chronology of

Seneca sites appears to be close to the mark, with errors

l ikely to be within 5 to l0 year margins. Dur ing theperiod under study' here, the Seneca were acquiring

lruropean-lltade glass beads, along with other types of

rlanulirctured goods. in trade or exchange either with

Iluropean rtrerchants, prirnarily the Dutch, or from other

native groups. Extensive archaeological investigations

conducted at rnost of the Seneca vil lage sites have, in

turrr. yielded good-sized glass bead samples, which arenor.r' housed and available for study at the RochesterMuscunr & Science Center. The white glass beadsselcctcd lterc are lrorn fifteen sites, representing sevenl-5- to 20-y 'car t i rne per iods.

tt

Exper imenta l

In two separate test ing phases conducted rn 199_5 and

1997, 198 white glass beads of varying r lanulacrure

(cored and uncored, drarvn and lvound), sizes, and

shapes were analyzed non-destructivelrr,, usinrl

instrumental neutron activation analysis at the Slowpoke

Reactor Facil ity of the [Jniversity of Toronto.l6 -l-hese

beads had to be neutron- i r radiated as l i t t le as possible in

order to minimize the bui ld-up of radioact iv i tv l iorn12256 (hal f - l i fe 2.75 days) and f iorn l2asb

thal{ ' - l i l -e 60.9

days) in the Sb-r ich beads. so that they could be returned

to t l ie Rochester Museunr & Science Center rv i th in a

reasonable amount of t ime.

Beads of mass 5- I 0 rng were first cleancd

ultrasonically, as required. They were stored individuall l,,

in 1.2 ml polyethylene vials, were i r radiated ser ia l ly tbr

f i ve minu tes a t a neut ron f lux o f 1 .0 .1012 n .cm l .s l .

Genesee A l b a n y

E ive l

N E W

l i t g I M a p o t ' N u t ' Y o r k S t a t c s h o w i n g t h e S e n e c a r c g i o n ( = n . l ) . 1 5 7 0 - 1 7 1 0 ) . K c 1 t o S e n e c a s i r e s . l A c l a r l s . l ( ' u l b c r t s o n . l l r a r n .J ( ' an re ron .5 l )u t ch I l o l l o rv .6 l ]ac to ry Ho l lo rv :7 Fug le . { J [ . i n ra ,9 War ren , 10 Corn ish . l l l ] os le r M i l l s . l r P t l re r I I pusc : I3 S tcc les

l ' l l v {enz is : l 5 Dann . l 6 Marsh : l 7 Roches te r . l unc t ion : l 8 Bough ton H i l l ; l g l l ea le :20 Sn l ,de r -McClu re

IIIrIrNN

_s60_s60

Page 3

M I,. SF.N4I'O\\'SKI Ct AI.: ON THE TRANSI'TION FROM TIN-RICH TO ANI'IMON\'-RIC]H EUROPEAN WHII'F, SODA-GI,.\SS

[: ' ive to seven minutes after irradiation, the induced

radioactivity was counted for f ive minutes using a hyper-

pure germanium detector-based gamma-ray spectro-

meter. This produced analytical concentration data for

Co, Sn, Cu, Na. Al , Mn. Cl and Ca. The samples were

recounted for f ive to thirty-three minutes the next day to

measure the concentrations of the longer-l ived

radioisotopes of Na, As, Sb and K. The sodium

nleasurenlents were used to l ink both counts. Elemental

concentrations were calculated using the comparator

method. based on elemental standards. Beads of larger

masses were irradiated at suitably lower neutron fluxes

to make just enough radioactivity for reasonable

chern ica l ana lyses .

Resul ts and discussion

In v iew of the goal of def in ing the Sn-r ich to Sb-r ich

transition pcriod of white glass beads in western New

York Statc. throueh the non-destructive chernical

analysis of beads from fifteen archaeological sitesranging in time llom the late l6th century to rhe earl1,l Sth century, 188 drawn white soda-glass beads wereidentif ied from the sample collection. They represenr thefocus of this paper. The remaining l0 beads consisted o1-wound potash-glass beads (see below). Although rhenumbers of relevant beads are relatively small (188). it isclear that, as in Ontario, drawn white soda-glass beads

from western New York were opacified solely with Sn in

the late l6th and early lTth centuries, and were opacified

solely with Sb by the late l Tth century.

Table I shows that the Warren. Cornish and floslel

Mif fs s i tes (A.D. 1625-1640) exhibi t thc f . i rsr Sb-r ich

beads. I t a lso shows that the Dann and Marsh si tes (A.D.

1655-1615) y ie lded the las t o f the Sn- r ich beads.

Table ? summarizes the transition from Sn-rich to

Sb-r ich beads in temporal s l ices of approximately l5 ro20 years for both sequences of Seneca sites. Comparison

of the numbers of beads at the eastern and western

I 'able I . t. isting of East Seneca and West Seneca sites.

vvith a summary of the opacifiers used in the whitc glass beads fbund thercirr

Approxrrrrate E/W Sen

Dates

SbS n

Cirnreron

Dutch I lo l lovv

Iractor \ I lo l lon '

II 'arre n(- or t t t .s l t

Bo.s ley. \ l r l ls

Stee le

l)ov'er Hou.se

,\len:rs

Dunn

,\larsh

Bcale

I l ough ton I l i l l

Rochcster . lunct ion

Snyder/McClurc

= 1 5 9 5 - 1 6 1 0

= 1 6 1 0 - 1 6 2 5

= 1 6 1 0 - 1 6 2 5

=1625- 1610=r625-16.10

=1625-1610

=t610- t655=1610-1655

=1610 1655=r655 t675=t 655 1 675=167 5-1687= I 675- l 687=l67 5- 168 ' l= 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 1 0

East 8

West 27

liast 5

Eest I 0

Eust i

Ilesr I

Eu.tl i

I4'e st j

Ll est 0

Ll/est 13

East 2

East 0

East 0

West 0

Wcst 0

UU

00

00

-t-tjj

00jj

JJ

99

l 7

55

3 2

l 0

t 5

Teble 2. Opacifier sumntary by period and by East and West Seneca subunits

West East Total sb, %Pcr iod SnSbSbSn

= 1 5 9 0 - 1 6 r 0

= 1 6 1 0 - 1 6 2 5

= 1 6 2 5 1 6 1 0

= I 610 165-j

=165_ j t675

= 1 6 7 0 - 1 6 8 7

= 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 1 0

'l-ruttsil iort

00

27

IIjj

I 3

00

00

00

00

II

BB

99

l 0

l 6

t8

88

55

t 5

55

22

00

00

2222

00

00

t 0

00

I 7

3 7

00

2 7

88

) z

1 6

1 0

t 5

00

00

00

00

1 1

88

26

17

l 5

15

00

00

t l

63

1 0 0

1 0 0

521 9

5 7

56r56r

46 44 3 5 6464 8 r 1 0 7

Page 4

M. M. L. L. SEMPOWSKI SEMPOWSKI et et aI.: aI.: ON ON THE THE TRANSMON TRANSMON FROM FROM TIN-RICH TIN-RICH TO TO ANTMONY-RICH ANTMONY-RICH EUROPEAN EUROPEAN WHITE WHITE SODA-GLASSSODA-GLASS

Seneca sites during the "ffansition period" between A.D.

1625-1640 and A.D. 1655-1675 indicates only slight

differences between the two sequences, in terms of the

relative proportions of white beads opacified with Sn

and Sb, respectively. In the western sequence, we find 19

Sn-rich beads and 18 Sb-rich beads [Sn/Sb:1.1], while

the eastern series manifests 22 Sn-rich beads and 27

Sb-rich beads [Sn/Sb:0.8]. Furthermore, as indicated in

the last column of Table 2, the relative percentage of

white beads opacified with Sb (Sb-rich beads) increases

steadily at all sites, over the course of the transition

period.

Ll'est Seneca c onnections

The revised site sequence for the western Seneca

group has the'following order: Adams -+ Brisbane? -+

Dutch Hollow -+ Lima -+ Power House -> Dann -->

Rochester Junction -+ Snyder/McClure.l5 This sequence

is partially confirmed by chemically matching white

Sn-white or Sb-white glass beads (see Table 3).

The chemical profiles of 6 Sn-rich beads link Power

House with Dann, and those of 3 Sb-rich beads link

Dann with Snyder/McClure.

East Seneca c onnections

Similarly, the proposed site sequence for the East

Seneca people is: Tram -> Cameron + Factory Hollow-+ Warren -) Steele + Marsh -+ Boughton Hill.l5

Table 4 indicates that 11 Sn-white beads link Warren

with Steele, while a tenuous 2 Sb-white glass beads link

Marsh with Boughton Hill.

West and East Seneca connections

Early interactions (A.D. 1610-1625)between the twogroups of Seneca are also confirmed by a set of 12

chemically matching Sn-white glass beads from Dutch

Hollow (west) and Factory Hollow (east) (Table 5).

Similarly, later (A.D. 1655-1710) interactions may be

evidenced by 4 Sb-rich beads that appear to link Marsh(east; A.D. 1655-1675) to Boughton Hil l (east; A.D.

1670-1687) to Snyder/McClure (west; A.D. 1690-1710)(Table 5). Finally, in what appears to be a pt,zzling

temporal anomaly, 4 Sn-rich beads link the early (A.D.

1590-1610) site of Cameron (east) with the much later (A.D.

1655-1675) Marsh site in the same sequence (Table 5).

Table 3. West Seneca connections

sb.ppmppm

AS,

ppm

Na,o,/^o,/^

cl,%%

Sn,

ppm

Mn, K,

ppm %

AI, CA,

Y o %

Power House - West

6',1

70

7 l

Dann - West

80

84

At4

Dann - West

A0s

A06

I 640-l 655

5920 2.2

4800 2. r

5 l l 0 1 . 9

l65s-r675

6580 2 .1

5100 2 .0

6660 <0.8

1655-167 s

463 3.7

531 4.2

1690-1710

527 3.7

1 . 1 8

t . t 2

t . t 4

1 .0s

l . l 6

r .04

r .4 1 .47

1.8 1 .20

2.2 t .32

0.30

0.26

<7t <80

<67 <78<67 <63

t2 .0

12.2

1 2 . l

<38 <100

<56 <64

<38 <86

I 1 . 6

t2 .2

1 0 . I

6 .7

7 . 1

7.3

s0000

36s00

47200

3 1 s 0 0

49600

4 1 1 0 0

<780 <82

39300

40500

40600

0.87

0.90

1 . 9

1 . 5

l . l

7.2

6.7

7.4

t .29

L38

1.22

0.3s

<870 <82

<830 <85

Snyder/McClure - West

A80 t 0.84

Notes:

Beads labeled "A"

were analyzed in 1995. The remainder were analyzed in I99iBead labeling: r: round; c : circular; t: tube.

562

Page 5

M. L. SEMPO'WSKIet aI.: ONTT{ETRANSMONFROMTIN-RICHToAIITMoNY-R.ICHEURoPEANrInrInsopa.GL4,SS -

Table 4. East Seneca connections

Na,

%%

CI,

%%

AI, CA,

% %Mn, K,ppm %

Sn,

ppm

As,ppm

Sb,ppm

Cameron - East

447 447 rr

A48 t

A49 t

Marsh - East

A03 t

Wanen - East

3 0 c

3 l c

3 2 c

3 3 c

3 4 c

4 2 c

Steele - East

6 2 r

6 3 r

6 4 c

6 5 c

6 6 c

Marsh - East

0 l r

Boughton Hill - East

429 429 tt

0.620.6s0.75

0.34

0 .31

0.33

0.33

0.76

0.73

0.71

0.69

0.73

0.83

0.78

0.79

0.73

0.77

0.76

0.79

0.83

J . t

4.0

4.6

4.3

6.5

6 . 1

6.0

5.6

7.0

8.2

6 .8

6.2

6.5

6.9

6.5

4.2

4 .1

0.63

0.67

0.68

0.63

0.70

0.67

0.76

0.78

0.66

0.73

0.68

0.70

0.66

0.62

<73.<85

<63

<80

<63<73

<77

<59

<64<56<56

<68

<74

1590-1610

1060 2. r

875 3.3

859 2.6

1655-1675

1010 2.9

r625-1640

4040 3.9

3630 4.34850 4.84270 5.043t0 4.84280 3.6

I 640-1655

4620 4.94370 4,94380 4.94340 4.64870 5.1

16s5-1675A

3770 <0.5

16'10-t687

3680 <0.6

6.3

6.0

s.9

6.2

7.4

7.2

7 .6

7 .7

7.6

8.8

7.2

7.6

7.4

7.9

6.7

7.3

<120

< l l 0

<180

130200

135000

152000

144600

36s00

41600

3 5 1 0 0

41600

36000

34400

3s700

45400

4r600

29600

36100

(goo

<740

<50<50<60<60<83

<76 <1700

140 <36<45 <41

I 10 <59<55 <48

t20 <46

<27 14500

<34 14800

Table 5. West and East Seneca connections

Sn,ppm

As,ppm

Sb,ppm

Mn, K, Nap p m % %

CI,

%%

AI, CA,

% %

Dutch Hollow- West

1 6 c

1 7 r

l 8 r

2 0 r

2 l c

2 2 r

2 3 r

2 4 r

Factory Hollow - East2 5 r

2 6 r

2 7 r

2 8 c

Marsh - East

402 402 tt

Boughton Hill - East

M 7 r

/.28 /.28 rr

Snyder/Iv1cClure - West

465 r

0.69

0.72

0.75

0.69

0.75

0.75

0.72

0.73

0.72

0.78

0.78

0 .81

0.83

0.72

0.90

0.93

4.6

5.2

4.7

4.6

5 . 1

5 . 1

4.0

4.6

4.7

4 .1

4 .1

4.2

s.6

5 . 1

5 . 1

5.9

0 .81

0,74

0.80

0.73

0.75

0.70

0.87

0.69

0.67

0.69

0.66

0.72

0.68

5.3

5.6

4.8

5.2

5.3

4.5

5.6

4.4

5.7

5.0

4.2

4.3

2.7

<0.6

<0.6

1 . 5

7 . 1

7.3

7 .7

7.0

7.7

7.7

7.5

I . )

7.5

7 .8

7.2

7.2

8.5

6.7

7.2

8.0

0.57

0.60

r6r0-t625

4380

43s0

42304230

4340

2760

3480

4550

3 130

16lo-162s

44804480

4570

4230

4600

1655-1675

2870

1670-1687

2810

25202520

1690-1710

29202920

126000

133000

122000122000

t27000

132000

124000124000

136000

1 1s000

132000

134000

13 1000

137000

<890

<690

<820

<960

<87 <87t70 <72180 <64<62 <59t20 <55<59 136

<73 <71<67 <61

130 <50180 <51<61 <62

<75 <75

110 16400

72 10400

<34 15400

<37 155000.59

563

Page 6

M. M. L. L. SEMPOWSKI SEMPOWSKI Ct Ct AI.: AI.: ON ON THE THE TRANSITION TRANSITION FROM FROM TIN-RICFI TIN-RICFI TO TO A}ITMO].ry-RICI{ A}ITMO].ry-RICI{ EUROPEAN EUROPEAN WHITE WHITE SODA-GI.ASSSODA-GI.ASS

These small glimpses of inter-village interactions are not

unexpected, given the spatial proximity of the two

sequences of villages, the probable pattern of prescribed

inter-marriage between the groups, and the well known

phenomenon of reciprocal gift exchange which existed

between two such closely associated Iroquoian groups.17

Bead mandacture, shapes, and chemistries

To the west and north of the Seneca region, Sb-rich

glass trade beads do not occur on sites dated before A.D.

1650.8 Since the peoples of Ontario tended to be within

the French trading sphere throughout this entire period, it

appears that Sb-rich beads were acquired from the Dutch

sphere which'predominated in New York from the early

lTth century. Thus, Dutch bead-making houses appear to

have been at least the initial source of the Sb-rich beads

which began occurring on Seneca sites between =1625

and 1640. The timing of this transition in white bead

production is consistent with historical and

archaeological evidence suggesting alterations in Dutch

glass bead production at precisely this time. Following

almost two decades during which the Van Tweenhuysen

and other independent Dutch trading companies had

competed for North American markets, the States

General approved the Dutch West India Company's

request for a monopoly on trade in New Netherlands in

162l.18 The company did not actually begin operating

until 1623, and built Fort Orange near present day

Albany in 1624, essentially curtailing the activities of

their many Dutch competitors and taking control of the"Indian trade" in New Netherlands. As the new company

assumed control of trade with the Mohawk and other

New York Iroquois, changes in glass bead suppliers, or

at least a reduction in their overall number. would be

expected. The monopoly might also have resulted in

some changes in bead manufacturing techniques. A

reduction in the quality and variety of beads available is

suggested archaeologically in the Seneca area by the

disappearance of the more complex, and elaborately

made, striped "polychrome" beads, and their

replacement by simpler monochrome types which would

have been less expensive to produce.l5,l9 ;utr BAART's

investigations on Dutch bead factory sites also supports

the observation that such changes occurred in

Amsterdam bead production at around this time (BRnRr,

personal communication to Charles WRAy, 1982).

The shift from Sn to Sb as the opacifier used in the

manufacture of white drawn soda-glass beads may

represent one such change. An analysis of the form and

shape of the beads involved in this transition helps to

elucidate the possible rationale underlying it. First, the

transition seems to have begun primarily in the

manufacture of solid (uncored) circular white beads,

while that of cored circular white beads, which were

composed of only a thin layer of opacified glass

surroundingaclear glass core, continued to use Sn as the

opacifier. As shown in Table 6, this pattern of Sb-rich

uncored beads and Sn-rich cored beads persists

throughout the transition period, although the number of

exceptions increases over time. Indeed, by A.D. 1655-

70,the majority of cored and uncored beads of all shapes

(tubular, rounded, oval and circular) were being

opacified with Sb. Nevertheless, a significant number of

cored beads (both circular and tubular) continued to be

produced with Sn as the opacifier. By the last quarter of

the 17th century, however, the shift appears to have been

complete; cored and uncored white beads of all shapes

were opacified with Sb, and Sn-rich beads appear to

have been completely replaced.

Table 6. Opacifier summary by period, bead form, and bead shape

SbSn

Form:

Shape:

Uncored

C R O / B

Cored

C R O/B TUncored

C R o/BCored

T C R O / B

22

II

22

33

34

49

33

5 -

; ;

; ;6 8

l 0

JJ

l 0

30

23

53

55

33

55

l 3

II

11

aaJJ

nn

JJ

l 3

JJ

66

22

33

t 1

55

44

55

99

t 4

l 5

I 5

t 0

9 -

3 9

II

55

55

1590-1610

1610-1625

1625-t640

1640-1655

I 655-l 675

1670-1687

1690 -1710

Transition

TotalsII

3 1 0

Key to bead shape: T - tubular, C - circular, R - rounded, O/B - oval/barrel.

s64

Page 7

M. M. L. L. SEMPOWSKI SEMPOWSKI Et Et AI.: AI.: ON ON THE THE TRANSITION TRANSITION FROM FROM TIN-RICH TIN-RICH TO TO ANTIMONY-RICH ANTIMONY-RICH EUROPEAN EUROPEAN WHITE WHITE SODA-GTI,SSSODA-GTI,SS

Table 7. Anomalous white, wound, potash glass beads

AI,

%%

Cuo/oo/o

CI, CO,

% PPm

Mn, K,

ppm %

Cu,ppm

Na,

%%

Sn,

ppm

As, Sb,ppm ppm

Boughton Hill

A55

A56

A57

A58

A59

Snyder/McClure

A60

4.61

A62A62

A63

A64A64

0.45 10.4

0.42 9.7

0.42 9.80.44 10.5

0.40 8.6

0.24 8.3

0.32 6.7

0.33 7.8

0.23 7.7

0.22 5.9

167U1687

0.16 <13 <t20

0 .17 <13 < l l 0

0 .16 <15 <130

0 . 1 5 < t 2 < 1 1 0

0.14 <19 <100

1690-17 10

0.06 <27 <64

0.08 <15 <76

0.10 <10 <99

0.04 <60 <63

0 .23 <12 <110

300

330

350

380

270

1 M

89

93

109

97

tr.4

13 .5

12.7

12.0

t2 .o

t4 .4

t2 .7

12.9

13.9

13 .5

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.5

<360<330

<380

<330<280

<170

<220<220

<290<160

<340

600 <110

520 180

500 <130

550 <89

600 <96

430 150

720 330130 420

420 170

930 230

Initially, then, Sb seems to have been adopted in

place of Sn in the manufacture of beads requiring

relatively larger amounts of opaque white glass (i.e.,

solid white glass beads). This was apparently not the

case for cored beads, however, which required smaller

amounts of opaque white glass, but over time, even

cored white beads came to be opacified with Sb. In

combination, both processes - the production of cored

beads that used very little Sn-opacified glass, and the

shift from Sn to Sb in producing uncored beads - clearly

seem to imply a deliberate effort to reduce the amount of

Sn used in Dutch white bead manufacture. What is not

clear is whether this was due to a decline in the

availability of Sn to Dutch bead makers, or simply to the

fact that Sb represented a less costly alternative

opacifier.

Anomalous white glass beads

Along with the soda-glass beads discussed here were

10 large wound potash-glass beads. The data for the

wound beads are presented in Table 7, confirming the

signal work of I(anxuNS.20 The wound beads from

Boughton Hill are compositionally similar to one

another, and are different from those from

Snyder/McClure, being, on average, slightly higher for

all measurable elements except for K and Sb.

Interestingly, these wound beads show very low levels of

Sn (as well as Sb), suggesting that their production may

represent yet another alternative process relating to the

problem indicated above in soda-glass bead production.

Conclusions

In western New York State, in the lands of the

Senecas, white soda-glass trade beads opacified with Sb

rather than Sn first occur on archaeological sites dating

to the A.D. 1625-1640 period. This is much earlier than

their appearance in Ontario, to the wdst and north, and

implicates the Dutch West India Company as the most

likely commercial source of these Sb-rich beads.

Specific similarities in bead chemistries, in some cases,

provide direct evidence of interactions between the

eastern and western groups of Senecas throughout the

17th century.

The shift from Sn to Sb opacification in the Dutch

manufacture of white soda-glass beads took place very

gradually, apparently in response to either the cost or

availability of Sn relative to Sb. Data from the Seneca

sites studied suggests that the transition was not fully

completed until about 1675, by which time white soda-

glass beads of multiple shapes and forms were opacified

with Sb.

**

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Ian KENvON who died in

1996. Thanks go to F. NEUB (Department of Metallurgy and Materials

Science, University of Toronto) for use of his departmental ultrasonic

cleaner, and to the Rochester Museum & Science Center for the loan

of the bead samples. Figure I was drawn by Patricia MILLER. This

research was made possible by a Social Sciences and Humanities

Research Council grant to R.G.V.H., and was initially, partially

subsidized by an Infrastructure grant to the Slowpoke Reactor Facility

from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of

Canada.

References

l. K. E. KIDD, M. A. KIDD, Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional

Papers in Archaeology and History, I Q970) 45.

2. K. KARKLbIS, in: Glass Beads, Studies in Archaeology,

Architecture and History, (National Historic Parks and Sites

Branch, Parks Canada, Environment Canada, 1985, p. 85.

3. I. T. KH{yON, T. KENyON, in: Proc. 1982 Glass Trade Bead

Conference, C. F. HAvES (Ed.), Research Records, Rochester

Museum & Science Center, Rochester, N.Y., l6 (1985) 59.

4. R. G. V. HANCOCK, A. CT{AFE, I. KENYON, Archaeometry,

36 (1994) 2s3.

5. I. KENYON, R. G. V. HANICOCK, S. AUFREnER, Archaeometry,

37 (r99s)323.

565

Page 8

M. L. SElvPowsKIet al.:ONTFIETRANSITIoNFRoMTTN-RrcHToANTMoNy-RrcHEuRopEANwHrrESoDA-cr-Ass

6. R. G. V. HANCOCK, S. AUFRENER, J..F. MOREAU,I. KNTIYON, iN:

Archaeological Chemistry: Organic, Inorganic and Biochemical

Analysis, M. V. OPNA (Ed.), 1996, p. 23.

7. J.-F. MOREAU, R. G. V. HANCOCK, S. AUFREITER,I. KMIYON, iN:

Proc. 7th Nordic Conference on the Applications of Science in

Archaeology, H. JLTNGER, M. LAVE\ryO (Eds), 1997, p.173.

8. R. G. V. HANCOCK, S. AUFREITER, I. KENYON, 1997, iN:

Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology, Materials Research

Society, Pittsburgh, USA,462 (1997) 181.

9. F. HOUGHToN, in: Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural

Sciences, X(2) (1912) 363.

10. F. HOUGHTON, Researches and Transactions of the New York

State Archaeological Association, III(l l) (1992) 39.

11. C. F. WRAY, H. L. SCHOFF, Pennsylvania Archaeologist, XXIII(2)

( les3) s3.12. C. F. WRAY, Manual for Seneca Iroquois Archeology. Cultures

Primitive, Honeoye Falls, N.Y., 1973.

13. C. F. WRAY,. M. L. SEMPOWSKI, L. P. SATINDERS,

G. C. CERVONE, The Adams and Cuthbertson Sites, in: The

Charles F. Wray Series in Seneca Archaeology, V.I, C. F. HAvES

III (Ed.), Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester,

N .Y . , 1987 , p . 19 .

14. C. F. WRAY, M. L. SEMPOWSKI, L. P. SAUNDERS, TrAM ANd

Cameron: Two early Contact Era Seneca Sites, in The Charles F.

Wray Series in Seneca Archaeology, V.[, C. F. HAYES III (Ed.),

Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester, N.y., 1991,p . 2 1 .

15. M. L. SEMPOWSKI, L. P. SAUNDERS, Dutch Hollow and Factory

Hollow: The Advent of Dutch trade Among the Senecas, in The

Charles F. Wray Series in Seneca Archaeology, V.ilI, C. F. HAYES

III (Ed.), Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester, N.y.,

1999, p.24.

16. R. G. V. HANCOCK, J. Internat. Instit. of Conserv. - Canadian

Group, 3 (1978) 21.

17. W. N. FENroN, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A polittcal

History of the Iroquois Confederacy, University of Oklahoma

Press, Norman, 1998.

18. S. HART, The Prehistory of the New Netherland Company, City ofAmsterdam Press, Amsterdam, 1959.

19. M. L. SEtvfowsKl, A. W. NoFIE, Final Report: Classification and

Analysis of Glass Beads from Three Seventeenth-Century Seneca

Iroquois Sites: Warren Cornish and Bosley Mills, on file at

Rochester Museum & Science Center, 1998.

20. K. KARKLI\S, in: Proc. 1982 Glass Trade Bead Conference,

C. F. HAYES III (Ed.), Rochester Museum & Science Center.

Rochester , N.Y. , l6 (1983) I11.

566