On the Home Front

On the Home Front

Minorities in WarHome Front Contributions

What group do you think was excluded from this establishment?

Why?

• US negotiated the Bracero program due to labor shortage (1942-64).

• Mexican citizens worked in US—about 4 million.

• US farmers became dependent upon Bracero laborers.

Bracero workers on a California farm (1944)

• The Braceros converted the agricultural fields of America into the most productive in the planet.

• Working conditions for migrant workers were harsh and often unsafe. Their wages were low, and they were often taken advantage of.

Bracero Program• Labor shortages were most

severe in agriculture.• White farmers went to war,

blacks took up factory jobs, and Japanese were interned

• Agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies.

• The Bracero Program was a diplomatic agreement between the United States and Mexico for the importation of temporary contract laborers from Mexico to the United States.

Zoot Suit Riots•Zoot suits, popular with

Latino youth, were seen as unpatriotic during a time when cloth was being rationed.

•The riots began in Los Angeles, amidst a period of rising tensions between white sailors and the Los Angeles' Mexican-American community.

How are these images different in theirdepiction of African Americans?

Double V Campaign• Double V Campaign:

Victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home.

• Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and Harlem experienced race riots in 1943.

Executive Order 8802

• Executive Order 8802: said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin“

• Signed after A. Philip Randolph's March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941

• Created the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) - Required companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry.

•After the start of the war, employers in Detroit turned to a ready pool of African American labor from the South.

•June 20, 1943 racially motivated riots broke out in across Detroit.

•Eventually, 6,000 federal troops had to be called in to quell the violence.

Rioters overturn a car

Armed homeownerProtecting home

Japanese InternmentIn 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese citizenship living in California. Why do you think only

Japanese were interned?

Japanese Internment

•Aerial Photo of Granada Center from the Water Tower - Granada Relocation Center, Amache, Colorado.

Japanese Internment

The Attack on Pearl HarborChanged Peoples’AttitudesAcross the Country

Japanese Internment

Executive Order 9066• Executive Order 9066

provided for the removal of enemy nationals from military areas, specifically removing those of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast.

• The U.S. government relocated and interned about 110,000 Japanese and Japanese –Americans who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States to camps called "War Relocation Camps," out of fear they would provide aid to Japan.

• Of those interned, 62% were American citizens

Japanese arriving on Pacific Electric train at Santa Anita Assembly Center are met with police, soldiers and searches.

• In her memoirs, Eleanor Roosevelt recalled being completely floored by her husband’s action. A fierce proponent of civil rights, Eleanor hoped to change Roosevelt’s mind, but when she brought the subject up with him, he interrupted her and told her never to mention it again.

Eleanor Roosevelt

Japanese Internment• Many camps were built quickly by civilian

contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living.

• Because most internees were evacuated from their West Coast homes on short notice and not told of their assigned destinations, many failed to pack appropriate clothing

• Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all in remote, desolate areas far from population centers. Internees were typically allowed to stay with their families, and were treated well unless they violated the rules.

Korematsu v. US• Fred Korematsu sued the US

government, stating that the President and Congress went beyond their war powers by implementing exclusion and restricting the rights of Americans of Japanese descent.

• In a 6-3 decision, the Court held that the need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights, citing the WWI doctrine of “clear and present danger”.

• In 1988, President Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation said that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs.

Korematsu v. United States

Facts of the Case During World War II, Presidential Executive

Order 9066 and congressional statutes gave the military authority to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from areas deemed critical to national defense and potentially vulnerable to espionage. Korematsu remained in San Leandro, California and violated Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the U.S. Army.

Question Did the President and Congress go beyond

their war powers by implementing exclusion and restricting the rights of Americans of Japanese descent?

Decision: 6 votes for United States, 3 vote(s) against

The Court sided with the government and held that the need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights. Justice Black argued that compulsory exclusion, though constitutionally suspect, is justified during circumstances of "emergency and peril."

• In times of crisis the government over steps its boundaries and takes away individual liberties Sedition/Espionage Acts-WWI

Palmer Raids- In fear of a Communist Uprising

Hollywood 10- Cold War- In

fear of a Communist Spies

Japanese internment- WW2

Patriot Act- September 11th

Eleanor Roosevelt• First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt became

the model for all first ladies to come. She was highly involved in her husband’s political career, and was the first First Lady to have an independent personal cause to advocate while in the White House. Each First Lady since then has determined a social cause to dedicate her time to as an extension of her husband’s political power (e.g. Laura Bush’s fight for literacy, Michelle Obama’s advocacy of healthy living).

• She wrote a daily newspaper column that explained her beliefs on humanitarian issues (“My Day”), held weekly press conferences for female journalists only, traveled extensively in support of the New Deal, and later on for the war, visiting factories and farms, encouraging Americans that the White House was mindful of their plight.

Eleanor Roosevelt• As much as she was an

advocate for her husband’s policies, often Eleanor was a thorn in the president’s side, refusing to let her personal beliefs be overshadowed by political dealings.

• She advocated the African-American civil rights movement, flew with the Tuskegee Airmen, and invited Marian Anderson to sing in front of the Lincoln Memorial when she was denied an invitation to the White House, invited the Tuskegee Airmen to the White House, advocated against the internment of Japanese-Americans.

Rosie the Riveter•Rosie the Riveter is a cultural icon of the

United States, representing the American women who worked in factories during World War II, many of whom produced munitions and war supplies.

•In 1944, unemployment hit an all time low of 1.2% (as opposed to 25% a decade earlier).

Rosie the Riveter•A real-life Rosie brought the character to

life. Her name was Rose Will Monroe. The Hollywood star Walter Pidgeon was touring the Ford Motor Company aircraft assembly plant when he met Monroe. On his recommendation, she starred as herself in a government film promoting the war. The famous illustrator Norman Rockwell then created a "Rosie" image to appear on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post, May 29, 1943 — the Memorial Day issue.

Rosie the Riveter

Rosie the Riveter

Rosie the Riveter

Women on the Homefront

Migration•There was large-scale migration to

industrial centers, especially on the West Coast.

•Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. Commuting by car was limited by gasoline rationing. People car pooled or took public transportation, which was seriously overcrowded. Trains were heavily booked, with uniformed military personnel taking priority, so people limited vacation and long-distance travel.

All-American Girls Professional Baseball League(AAGPBL)

•Baseball was America’s past time, but the war would not stop young players from being drafted

•An all-female league was developed to continue the season

Bell RingerA statue commemorating the contributions of minorities in WWII is to be built. Which group do you think deserves to be honored most and why?

Home Front Support

Victory• The “V for Victory” slogan

began as a symbol of unity and defiance for Belgium and France; it was adopted and made popular by Winston Churchill, and found its way to the US.

• The symbol appeared everywhere, nearly overnight, on posters, buttons, postage stamps, and even women’s hairstyles, nicknamed “victory rolls”.

Rationing• In May of 1942, the Office of Price Administration (OPA) began regulating prices of practically all consumer goods and a rationing system for products that were determined to be of utmost priority for the war effort.

• By 1943 one needed government issued ration coupons to purchase typewriters, coffee, sugar, gasoline, bicycles, clothing, fuel oil, silk, nylon, stoves, shoes, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, and many other items.

• Some items—like new automobiles and appliances were no longer made.

• Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding.

Everyone helped out!

Cooking without Sugar!

Homemakers were faced with the challenge of feeding their families on greatly reduced

portions of food, resulting in some interesting recipes.

Sugar Rations for children• All schoolchildren had

to have a weekly dose of VIROL, a sweet and sticky extract of malt, in order to make sure they got the proper ration of vitamins; (and you weren't allowed much time to suck the spoon to get all the sticky off it!)

Grilled Pigeon • Pigeons for grilling must be very young, when

they are often known as 'squabs'. • Wash and dry the birds and split lengthways.

Season, then brush the birds generously with melted fat.

• Preheat the grill and place the birds with the skin side uppermost on the grill pan. Cook for 5 minutes. Turn them over and brush the underside with more fat. Continue cooking for a further 5 minutes, then turn the birds over once more and cook until tender.

• To give more flavor to the flesh a few chopped herbs can be mixed with the melted fat. Serve the pigeons with redcurrant or apple jelly.

Scrap Drives and Victory Gardens

• Victory Gardens - These gardens produced up to 40 percent of all the vegetable produce being consumed nationally.

• Victory gardens were planted in backyards and on apartment-building rooftops, with the occasional vacant lot "commandeered for the war effort!" and put to use as a cornfield or a squash patch.

• Scrap drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (a raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel and many others.

Necessity being the motherof invention, women beganfinding substitutes forrationed goods like cloth,nylon, leather, and rubber.

Blue Star Banners•The Blue Star Banner

was created in World War I, but hit its height of popularity during WWII. The flag signifies with a blue star the number of family members currently serving in war. Gold stars represent those that have died in battle.

USO• The United Service Organization (USO) is a private, nonprofit organization that provides morale and recreational services to members of the U.S. military.

• It hit its peak during WWII with nearly 1.5 million Americans having volunteered their services in some way

• The organization became particularly famous for its live performances called Camp Shows, through which the entertainment industry helped boost the morale of its servicemen and women.

• From 1941 to 1947, the USO presented more than 400,000 performances, featuring entertainers such as Bing Crosby, Judy Garland, Humphrey Bogart, Frank Sinatra, The Marx Brothers, James Cagney, James Stewart, The Rockettes, Fred Astaire, The Andrews Sisters, Lucille Ball, and most famously, Bob Hope.

Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy - The Andrews Sisters

Blackout!• Lights from homes and

businesses on land would create silhouettes of the Allies’ supply ships, making them easy targets for German U-boats.

• Citizens were encouraged to hang heavy drapes and turn off unnecessary lights, and city streetlights were redesigned so the light shone straight down.

Paying for WarProduction, Payment, and Propaganda

WWII PropagandaGetting America behind the war

The purpose of propaganda is to convince an individual or group to believe or do something they may not already believe in or do.

WWII Propaganda• Office of War Information: It coordinated the

release of war news for domestic use, and, using posters and radio broadcasts, worked to promote patriotism, warn about foreign spies and recruit women into war work.

• Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front—calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half-human creatures.

The Movies Go To War• Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in

coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were.

• Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie-goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens.

• Studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist.

• The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. The OWI's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values.

Income taxes and War Bonds

Buying Bonds• Buying bonds• Issued by the U.S.

Government, they were first called Defense Bonds.

• The name was changed to War Bonds after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

Buying Bonds•Living in the United States with a median

income during World War II meant earning about $2,000 a year.

•Despite the war’s hardships, 134 million Americans were asked to purchase war bonds to help fund the war.

•Stamps also could be purchased, starting at 10 cents each, to save toward the bond.

Paying for War• Bond rallies were held

throughout the U.S. with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness.

• The public paid 3/4 of the face value of a war bond, and received the full face value back after a set number of years.

• Americans were challenged to put "at least 10% of every paycheck into Bonds“, and most workers had an automatic payroll deduction.

• Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club".

WWII: The

Savior of

America's

Economy

• The United States' industrial output during World War II was twice as productive as Germany and five times that of Japan.

• This turned the tide in favor of an Allied victory.

• Part of the success of the United States was the result of the government mobilizing the economy before the U.S. entered the war.

Economic Survival

The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), the government agency which had been set up during the Depression, made loans to companies to help them with the cost of converting to war production.

Roosevelt created the War Production Board (WPB) to set priorities and production goals and to control the distribution of raw materials and supplies.

The automobile factories turned to the production of trucks, jeeps, and tanks. They also built artillery, rifles, mines, helmets, pontoon bridges, cooking pots, and other military supplies, producing nearly one-third of the military equipment that was manufactured during the war. Henry Ford created an assembly line for B-24 bombers.

Unions During War• CIO and AFL grew significantly

during the war.• The major unions supported a

wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances.

• In return for labor's no-strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts