On A Skilling Spree

0

1

On a Skilling Spree: International

Experiences, National Learnings

A Report on How Countries across the World are Providing

Vocational Education

This skill development innovations report is targeted at improving the policy dialogue and

increasing the intellectual debate on the issue of providing vocational education to the largest

demographic segment of the country – the youth. The report covers the experiences in skill

development of Singapore, Korea, China, Germany, France, Australia and Brazil and describes

various policy initiatives that may be worth considering in our goal to reach the target of 500

million skilled people by 2022. Each country is studied on broad parameters of:

1. Policy and Regulatory Framework

2. Best Practices

3. Certification and Assessments

4. International Collaboration

Report Preparation: This report was prepared by Janak A. Jain, Ekta Jalan, Samapika Sanyal,

Minu Phillip and Shashank Shekhar Rai of the Skill Development team of Youth for Policy and

Dialogue.

Funding: The organisation did not receive any funding whatsoever for the preparation of this

report. It was a voluntary exercise undertaken at the personal expenses of the writers.

It is our constant effort to initiate a variety of research and discussions on the issues of skill

development and we hope that this study helps India in skilling better and the policy makers

to plan better.

Team Skills Development Initiative

Contact: [email protected] or +91 880.063.6386

2

Youth for Policy & Dialogue

Youth for Policy & Dialogue is India’s first think tank of young people. The organisation was

formed in 2010 and believes in the fundamental tenets of public policy & dialogue. The

organisation runs four initiatives viz. G20 Research Group, Skill Development Initiative,

Economic & Finance Initiative & Youth Policy Initiative in a non-partisan, independent and

apolitical way. We are a proud affiliate of the G8&G20 Youth Network.

Youth for Policy & Dialogue

India’s First Think Tank of Young People

House No. 885, Sector – 29,

Arun Vihar – Noida (U.P.)

Tel: (91-11) 4248739

Mob: (91-11) 9999428096

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.youthpolicy.in

© 2012 Youth for Policy & Dialogue & Oxfam India

3

On a Skilling Spree:

International Experiences,

National Learnings

A Report on How Countries across

the World are Providing

Vocational Education

4

Contents

Title Page No.

Executive Summary Page 5

Singapore Page 8 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 9 Best Practices Page 10 Certification and Assessments Page 11 International Collaboration Page 13

Korea Page 14 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 17 Best Practices Page 18 Certification and Assessments Page 20 International Collaboration Page 21

Brazil Page 22 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 22 Best Practices Page 25 Certification and Assessments Page 25 International Collaboration Page 26

Australia Page 26 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 28 Best Practices Page 29 Certification and Assessments Page 30 International Collaboration Page 32

Germany Page 33 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 34 Best Practices Page 35 Certification and Assessments Page 37 International Collaboration Page 39

China Page 40 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 43 Best Practices Page 44 Certification and Assessments Page 45

France Page 46 Policy and Regulatory Framework Page 47 Best Practices Page 48 Certification and Assessments Page 49 International Collaboration Page 51

5

Executive Summary

India today stands at crossroads and as we try to transition from a developing economy to a

developed one, from a soft power to an influential one we face challenges unprecedented

and none bigger than that of managing and channelizing in the right direction the huge

demographic dividend that we have in the form of the largest segment of our population

being comprised of the young people. We need to create new jobs and more than just jobs

we need to create an environment which ensures a workforce skilled to manage more than

just one job, a workforce capable of transitioning between different jobs, a workforce willing

to move forward with newer environments of development. India’s current skilling capacity

stands at 3.4 million people per year while over 12 million people join the workforce every

year. Little surprise then that just over 92 per cent of our workforce is engaged in unorganised

labour. We need a capacity of 15 million to reach our targets. We need better assessment

mechanisms. We need to develop a more robust certification system. We need to involve

international agencies to participate in overcoming what is possibly the greatest skilling

challenge in the history. And to top it all we need a friendlier environment supported by a

steadfast policy paraphernalia. The good news is that we are not the first ones to try skill

development. There are a number of models that exist and countries that have tried different

strategies with varying degree of success. And we may have a lot to learn from their

experiences.

The initial problem, as the international experience shows us, lies in the largely differentiated

and compartmentalised structure of education in India where the mainstream education has

no inter-relation with the vocational training. In India, much like Korea and Singapore, the

vocational training is provided as a mandate by the government with the target group being

the youth that is looking forward to employment as opposed to tertiary education. India has

tried adopting the German dual model by introducing the National Vocational Education

Qualification Framework (NVEQF) but it is too early to comment on the success of the

program as we are still in the pilot stage. But it is very clear that we need to bridge the gap

between the mainstream and vocational education and develop a workforce with a firm

grounding in both. France, for instance, has provided for vocational training on schools

6

immediately after high school education and the parallel system of vocational and

mainstream education begins only at the tertiary education level.

But skill development has as much to do with developing a manpower for the future as it has

to do with engaging the current workforce in skilled activities to provide employment for the

unemployed and the semi-skilled. The imperative to promote and bring under the umbrella

of the organised sector thereby lies not just with the government but also with the industry.

Over the last few, owing to the efforts of the NSDC, we have seen a rise in private participation

in skilling but there is need for more industry involvement with greater impetus on in-house

training and developing life skills to enable employees to transition between different jobs

and prepare themselves for future jobs. In Singapore, companies are given incentives

including patent based incentives and quota based incentives to promote in-house training

while in Korea, the government, in order to increase the job competency of the employee,

also introduced support for overseas training. Similarly in Brazil, the System S is highly

privatised with little government intervention and yet it is publicly funded.

Such initiatives, in all the countries we have studied in this report, have also been

accompanied by firm certification and assessment mechanisms. Certification is at the core of

the skill development challenge and having well established mechanisms for the same creates

a platform for qualifying Indian labour at par with the international standards. By 2025, 25

per cent of the world labour force will comprise of Indians and it only stresses the need to

build comprehensive, internationally validated certification mechanisms. Currently, under

NCVT, India has the All India trade Test. This is accompanied by the National Trade Certificate

and National Apprenticeship Certificate. But these accreditations and certifications were not

found to be enough and the NSDC is currently engaged in developing National Occupation

Standards for the Sector Skill Councils. Currently the standards have been developed for the

Telecom Sector, Healthcare and the Rubber Industry. While we try and develop standards for

the rest of the sector skill councils, it would be beneficial to understand how some of the

other countries have developed their standards. This report provides a detailed descriptions

of the studied nations and their certification and assessment mechanisms.

As we move towards a new development paradigm, with increased interaction with our

international partners, there is also a felt need to engage at a larger level with different

7

countries and international organisations, to implement best practices. India has recently

signed MoUs with European Union to build on the skill development activities which is in line

with India’s National Skills Policy, 2009. Besides that the German Federal Ministry of

Education and Research runs a program called iMOVE which promotes international

cooperation and supports the initiation of collaborations and business relations in vocational

training and continuing education. There are also talks with Germany over setting of a

National Qualification Framework and adoption of the dual-style training techniques. Besides

this, India also has a collaboration with the United Kingdom called the UK-India Education and

Research Initiative wherein skill development is an important focus area. But there are more

synergies to tap into and this report also details into how many such collaborations have

worked across the world.

This report also has a separate section on all the countries studied titled Best Practices. This

section covers aspects of regulatory framework, pedagogical techniques, incentivisation of

initiatives et al.

It is our hope that this report provides an insight into how some of our current efforts to

promote skill development may be best directed and that it is put to best use by the

stakeholders of the Indian Skill Development Mission.

Shashank Shekhar Rai

Director, Skills Development Initiative

Youth for Policy and Dialogue

8

Singapore:

Singapore has been able to utilise its resources to the maximum by linking majorly the skill

development initiatives with the economic development goals of the country. Singapore’s

skill initiatives have strong linkage with its economic development strategies and it has

moulded its national strategies to develop skills carefully according to the need of the

economy. As it is a small nation with population of 5.31 million1, it is relatively easy to

implement quick changes in the initiatives taken. Not only has the government emphasised

on short term skill development courses but the initiatives have a concentration also on long

term skills development programs. There is a specific education policy to guarantee this and

ensure rising employability.

In 2011-12, total employment increased by 121,300, slightly higher than the gains of 115,900

in 2010-11. The bulk of the employment gains came from services sectors, which added a

total of 95,100 workers in 2011. Significant employment gains were registered in other

services (23,800), business services, (22,000), wholesale and retail (15,500), financial and

insurance services (10,600), accommodation and food services (9,700), information and

communications (7,800) and transportation and storage (5,700). The unemployment rate

during the same period fell from 2.2 per cent to 2 per cent. This rate was the lowest recorded

in 14 years. On average, 60,600 residents were unemployed in 2011, including 52,900 citizens.

The corresponding figures in 2010 were 64,800 and 57,700 respectively.

1 Population figures estimated as of June 2012

9

Figure 1: Highlights, 2011-12

The overall productivity in 2011-12 increased by 1.0 per cent, significantly lower than the 11

per cent growth in 2010. This was due to lower GDP growth coupled with robust employment

creation. Since the Singapore economy is also largely dependent on its foreign trade, experts

believe the economic downturn in the European countries also played its part in the lower

GDP growth. The nominal average monthly earnings, in the same period, grew by 6.0 per cent,

higher than the 5.6 per cent increase in 2010, on the back of a tighter labour market. The

increase in nominal average monthly earnings was broad-based, with the largest growth seen

in real estate services (9.2 per cent), transportation and storage (7.4 per cent) and finance

and insurance services (6.6 per cent).2

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

Vocational education in Singapore comes directly under the Ministry of Education thereby

promoting a holistic structure of integrated education overseeing both mainstream and

vocational education. There is a tripartite institutional relationship between the 3 bodies

involved in the design and implementation of the policies for vocational education. These

bodies are – The Ministry of Education, The National Institute of Education and the schools

where this education is imparted. The ministry is responsible for developing policies, the NIE

2 http://www.mti.gov.sg

A total increase in employment by

121,300

Unemployment at 2 per cent - lowest in 14

years

Increase in overall productivity by 1 per

cent

Increase in Nominal Average Monthly

Earnings by 6 per cent

10

is responsible for research, evaluation and training to impart the education and the schools

form the final executive body involved with training of the students.

Some of the salient features of this institutional framework are below:

Training of prospective teachers is carried out by the NIE but for professional in-service

development of teachers there are various institutions and sources available.

There is a strong focus on universal development of Mathematics, Science and

Technical Skills.

International benchmarking is extensively used as a tool for improvement and to move

up the educational value chain.

There is a confluence of ideas with the staff of the ministry, NIE and the schools

organising regular visits for the review of international best practices and scope of

implementation of those policies.

International best practices have also been adopted for implementing assessment

techniques.

Best Practices from Singapore:

One ITE and Three Colleges’ Governance System: Under this initiative to build a more

responsive VTE system, the overall plan was to regroup existing smaller campuses into three

mega Regional Campuses, renamed as “ITE Colleges”. The ITE (Innovations in Technical

Education) Headquarters continue to oversee the policy formulation and common functional

areas of interest such as curriculum development, student intake, examinations, quality

assurance and consistency of standards throughout the Colleges. The economy of scale has

helped to achieve synergy and resource savings through greater collaborations and yet

promote competition among the Colleges. At the same time, each College built for a full-time

student enrolment of 7000 and headed by a Principal has more autonomy to grow and

specialize in niche areas, thus adding choices and diversity to the programmes.

Hands On, Minds On, and Hearts On: This is the ideology followed to provide students a

holistic college education experience by providing a platform for integration between theory

and practice through coursework, projects, industry partnership, community service and

global education. The hands on part refers to training for a strong foundation in technical

11

skills; the minds on part refers to a focus on developing independent thinking and flexible

practitioners who are able to cope with changes; and the hearts on refers to the focus on

developing a passion and code of ethics in the students with respect to their work. The intent

is to produce graduates who are market-relevant, enterprising and adaptable as lifelong

learners in a global economy. The curricular is designed as to provide 70% practical (hands

on) and 30 % theoretical (Minds on) preparation. Students are also trained into different life

long basic personal skills like team spirit, never- give- up attitude, sportsmanship, hard work,

stress management etc.

PEPP Model (Plan, Explore, Practice and Perform): The approach is interactive and process

based. Under the guidance of a teacher, the student plans the work to be done, explores the

information required, practices what he has learned and finally performs with competence,

the knowledge, skills and values he has mastered. Through this approach, the student

acquires three key competencies, namely, technical, methodological and social.

Creative and Innovative Teaching and Learning Environment: With the pervasive use of

Information Technology (IT) in the society and knowledge economy, it is important that

students learn in a rich IT-based environment that better prepares them for the real working

world. It ensures excellent infrastructure as well as availability of competent knowledge

provider. The enriched usage of e- learning platform, is helpful with a competitive

environment.

Certification and Assessment:

The Singapore Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ) is a national credentialing system. It

trains, develops, assesses and recognizes individuals for the key competencies that

companies look for in potential employees. Key features of WSQ are:

An occupational and competency-based system, designed to build industry-specific

capabilities

Both singular and flexible training modules, with the option to implement as-is, or

build up to full qualifications

Assessment and certification are based on ability to demonstrate the industry's

required capabilities

12

Accessible to all workers and professionals

Recognizes prior learning, such as work experience and credentials

Qualifications and certifications are based on Industry-agreed standards

WSQ qualifications are comparable to credentials issued by international and local

As the following figure explains:

The assessment of the vocational education programs in Singapore are done both on the basis

of Macro-Economic Indicators and Micro-Economic Indicators. The macro-economic

indicators include Economic Growth Rate, Foreign Direct Investment, Annual Growth Rate in

Productivity, and Data on Skill Mismatch. For example, the growth rate in productivity has

been high largely due to successful implementation of the skill development policies. The

output per hour in the manufacturing sector from 2000 to 2007 was 2.0 units which increased

to 7.7 units in 2007-2011 with an exponential rise to 35 units in 2009-2010. The data on skill

mismatch is collected by comparing the job vacancy rate with the unemployment rate and

then focussing on the performance of some specific indicators including education system,

skills development system and some vocational training institutions. The micro-economic

indicators also include the tendency quality and quantity measurement of the courses taught

through international comparison of the students’ scores. Microeconomic indicators are also

Occupational Competencies:Specific skills required to perform a specific job in the industry

Industry Competencies:Industry specific capabilities

Foundational Competencies:Range of know-how and attributes that are portable across occupations and industries

13

studied by through various studies commissioned by the government of Singapore. These

studies include:

1. Study of Singapore workforce in terms of the distribution of education

2. Growth Rate of output from the various academic institutions

3. Studies on international competitiveness rankings based on both objective and

subjective assessments about the nation’s workforce quality

Such studies have resulted in a gradual increase in the average corporate budget for training.

The average levels of productivity growth were measured to see the effectiveness of the

above increase. This also created a benchmark for identifying the industries that were the

highest users of the levy.

International Collaboration:

To develop an internationally viable labour market, Singapore has chosen services which are

oriented to international markets. For this the country has provided benefits to the MNCs to

set up shop in Singapore and engage in skill building exercises.

To meet the skills gaps, several major MNCs (Tata, Rollei-Werke and Phillips) were

offered total investment packages by the Economic Development Board (EDB),

including incentives for the establishment of Government training centres, in the late

1960s. This experience demonstrated an important phase of economic development

when it was necessary to leverage on foreign government assistance and private

sector industry partners in complementing the formal VTE system.

The Government has also guaranteed the foreign investors the right to hire a

proportion of the graduates from these training institutes. This ensures foreign

investors will not face skill labor shortage in a tight labor market situation, given that

they have some control over supply of skilled labors.

Different companies are given different incentives based on the need of the

companies. The Government granted ROLLEI their right to refusal for a period of 10

years i.e. during that period the wide range of products that ROLLEI was

manufacturing could be placed under a “control of manufacture ordnance” which

required all other potential manufacturers of the same products to seek a license to

14

produce them in Singapore. Such a license would be granted only if ROLLEI refused to

manufacture that item. In the case of TATA, government provided loan finance to the

group to set up their business, reasonable land rents, and paid for the purchase of

training equipment and materials, as well as 70% of operating costs.

Institutionally as well, Singapore has sought to create platform for further collaboration

internationally. From 1979 to 1984 the following institutions were established with a

collaboration of two governments of respective countries.

1. Japan – Singapore Training Center

2. The German Singapore Institute for production Technology

3. The Japan – Singapore Institute of Software Technology

4. Siemens Nixdorf –EDB Center for Advanced die and Tool Making

5. The Bridgeport – EDB Computer numerical control library

6. The Mituyo –EDB Meterology laboratory

Thus, the German-Singapore institute became an industry training centre, with world leaders

in several different technologies providing training. And Japanese electronics companies such

as Seiko, Sankyo Deiki, Matsushita and Mitutyo provided expertise in surface mount

technology, IC design, and computer numerical control technology; European companies such

as Siemens, Asea, and Carl Zeiss contributed equipment and skills in the areas of artificial

intelligence, laser and vision technology; and Hewlett Packard and Auto Desk provided

training and expertise in CAD/CAM robotics and simulation software. This training centres

model was soon expanded to several other industries as well.

South Korea:

The Korean Skill Development initiatives have primarily been led by the government and the

vocational education strategies have been linked well with the economic development goals

to reduce poverty and increase employment. The Korean case offers a good example of the

active role played by the government in skills development of workers. Korea is well known

15

for adopting a government-led skills development system to assure industry the supply of a

skilled workforce and to protect the vulnerable groups of population. The International Labor

Organization (ILO) General Assembly Report of 2008 also listed Korea as a successful catch-

up country, along with Hong Kong, Ireland, and Singapore. The report alluded to the

government-led education and vocational training policy as one of the reasons for Korea’s

rapid economic progress. The role of the government in Korea was critical, much like the role

of the government in India, due to three major factors as described in the paper3 by Young-

Sun Ra and Kyung Woo Shim. The basic need for skill development in the country was derived

out of the rapid industrialisation which resulted in frequent mobility of the workforce. This

further resulted in greater movement of labour from the rural to urban areas. Besides the

dynamic of a changing economy and the workforce, there was also a need to develop skills

that would suit the future needs of the economy. This called for efforts from the government

to not just train the people in similar skills but also to create new jobs in diverse sectors. Skill

development initiatives have also been successful in times of economic downturn in the

country by protecting the vulnerable or socially underprivileged groups of the population

from the effects of the downturn as well as from the competitive job market.

The success of the skill development initiative is apparent with constant increase in the

minimum wage in the country and the subsequent rise in the number of people applying for

the minimum wage. In 2008, the minimum wage was Won 3,770 which increased to Won

4,860 in 2013, an increase of 22.42 per cent over a span of 5 years. During the same time

period the number of people who applied for minimum wage increased from 15,351 to 17,510

– an increase of 14.06 per cent.4 Below are the graphs detailing the same:

3 Young-Sun Ra, Kyung Woo Shim; “The Korean Case Study: Past Experience and New Trends in Training Policies” 4 Ministry of Labour and Employment, Republic of Korea: http://tinyurl.com/dycotnh

16

Historically, in 1967 when it first started off with Vocational Training Act, South Korea aimed

at providing skilled people to cater the needs of industry. Korea has successfully adapted its

programs according to the needs of the economy and the level of development the country

is facing. The skills development system complemented the economic cycles of the Korean

economy—from supplying skilled workers for export-oriented light industries in the 1960s

and early 1970s, heavy and chemical industries in the 1970s and 1980s and technically more

advanced and knowledge based industries in the 1990s and 2000s. The government has also

concentrated on securing training opportunities for the disadvantaged groups, such as, the

unemployed, non-regular workers, the aged, females, the under-educated, and SME workers,

in order to reduce relative poverty and social polarization.

3,7704,000 4,110

4,3204,580

4,860

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Min

imu

m W

age

Years

Minimum Wage

15,351

15,88216,103

16,479

17,048

17,510

14,000

14,500

15,000

15,500

16,000

16,500

17,000

17,500

18,000

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

No

. of

Wo

rker

s

Years

Number of Workers who Applied for Minimum Wage

17

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

Korea’s vocational training programs revolve around two major acts – The Framework Act on

Vocational Training and the Vocational Training Promotion Act.5 In the Framework Act, the

vocational training is provided as a mandate by the government with the target group being

the youth that is looking forward to employment as opposed to tertiary education. The focus

of the act is towards providing the labour force for the manufacturing sector of the economy.

The act also includes a certain set of trainings all of which are provided for by the government

with use of the training material as supplied by the government with the trainers being

required to be qualified to a set code. All the trainees, with the exception of those with a

scholarship, are required to pay for their own training and are required to join work after the

completion of the training.

The Promotion Act was passed in order to motivate individual enterprises to train their

workers based on their needs. The scope, as per this act, involved the young people looking

to join the workforce as well as the current employees of the concerned enterprise. The act

also provides a comprehensive plan for developing and enhancing the workers’ skills and

competencies. The act gives the freedom of the curriculum to the enterprise while

maintaining holding of a licence as a prerequisite to join in as a trainer.

To meet the skill gap, Korea started with programmes that targeted both formal and non-

formal skill building. Both these forms of vocational training were developed and

implemented complementarily so as to adequately supply the human resources needed for

industrialization. With advances in technology, the formal vocational education gradually lost

its traditional role and has now elevated its level to higher education (technical or junior

colleges), and non-formal vocational training has also targeted high school graduates who do

not proceed with higher education (vocational training colleges and polytechnic colleges) and

already employed workers of enterprises.

The Ministry of Labour is at the heart of the vocational education innovation in Korea with a

close network with the vocational Training Institutions, Trainees, and Enterprises. The

5 Kim, Mee-Souk; “Vocational Training in Korea”; Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training

18

Ministry of Labour also looks after the HRD service of Korea, the Korea University of

Technology and Education and the Polytechnics.

When the vocational training policy was first introduced in 1967, the government adopted a

training subsidy policy for the largest 16 companies. The objective of the subsidy policy was

to instil the training culture among enterprises on the premise that training is a public good.

Although the subsidy did help the establishment of the in-plant training system among large-

scale companies, it could not be spread to other enterprises without the increase in the total

amount of subsidy, and its sustainability was limited by the constraint in government budgets.

In the mid-1970s, as the capability of private enterprises increased with economic

development, the government initially mandated that enterprises of a certain scale (e.g. on

the basis of the number of employees) in key industries invest in their workforce (up to 10%)

through in-house vocational training, and then gave all large scale enterprises an option to

choose either provision of in plant training or the payment of a training levy. Later on the

standard for the training obligation was changed from the number of workers to the amount

of training expenses as a percentage of total wage bill and varied types of training was

recognized. Since 1995, the training expenses have been reimbursed from the training fund

established with the training levy collected from all enterprises under the Employment

Insurance (EI) System.

Best Practices from Korea:

Since 1967, when it first started off with Vocational Training Act, it aimed in providing skilled

people to cater the needs of industry. Korea has successfully adapted its programs according

to the needs of the economy and the level of development the country is facing. The skills

development system complemented the economic cycles of the Korean economy—from

supplying skilled workers for export-oriented light industries in the 1960s and early 1970s,

heavy and chemical industries in the 1970s and 1980s and technically more advanced and

knowledge based industries in the 1990s and 2000s. The government has also concentrated

on securing training opportunities for the disadvantaged groups, such as, the unemployed,

non-regular workers, the aged, females, the under-educated, and SME workers, in order to

reduce relative poverty and social polarization.

19

The kind of support that the government has given for vocational education has changed

overtime with respect to the level of economic development and the objectives of the

development initiatives. Below are some of the highlights of the same6:

Support Provided Features

Promoting Initial Training

and Upgrading Training

The Vocational Training Promotion Act provides for the mandates

that need to be complied with the off-the-job training, on-the-job

training and distance learning as provided by the enterprises.

Financial support is provided by the government to promote all

three forms of training and in all cases the financial

reimbursement for teh training provided is done in the same

quarter as the one in which training is provided.

Paid Training Leave for

Employed Workers

To encorage development of skills, paid training leaves have been

promoted to bring in commitment from the side of the employees

towards training.

Overseas Vocational

Training

To increase the job competency of the employee, the government

also introduced support for overseas training. Certain conditions

like the minimum time period of 3 months have been set for such

services to be availed.

Training of Construction

Workers

Training is provided to construction workers who are not

employed on a stable and regular basis by the construction

company.

Public Loan for Vocational

Education

The government has provisioned for organisations to obtain a long

term, low interest rate for setting up facilities for vocational

education.

Assisting Job Transfers

Through Vocational Training

With the changing economic needs, the government also provided

for vocational training of the people above 50 years of age and

covered by employment insurance so as to ease threir transition

into new job environments.

Encouraging Individual's

Voluntary Participation in

Vocational Training

Financial support is provided for the further training of a registered

worker with employment insurance.

6 RM 01-9, Vocational Training in Korea, KRIVET

20

Vocational Training for the

Re-employment of the

Unemployed

The workers who were previously employed but now find

themselves out of a job are trained to develop skills useful in

occupations with good future prospects or are trained in skills as

listed in national technical qualification framework.

Government Commissioned

Training

The Korean Chambers of Commerce and Industry and other

private training institutions are funded by the government to train

individuals between 15 to 65 years of age for hi-tech industry jobs.

Other Training

This includes Employment Promotion Training for the unemployed

low-income class, Employment Training for the highly educated

and yet unemployed, Priority Occupation Training, Business Start

Up Training and Initial Technicians Training.

Certification and Assessment:

The National Technical Qualifications Act, 1973 stipulates the broad guidelines that need to

be followed for accreditation. This act was aimed at achieving a standardised version of

certification across the board of skills. A skills certification clause of the Act established

standards by which the government could certify the level of a worker’s skills. Furthermore,

the Act separated testing into two categories: the Minister of Labour oversaw the written

test, and a commissioned organization carried out the practical test. The private sector has

been increasingly asked to assume a larger part of the management of the national

qualifications system. The number of private qualifications is currently over 800, as compared

to the 586 government technical qualifications.

The assessments were initially designed to enhance the competitiveness of the private

training institutes, whereby outstanding organizations and courses (ranging from 10 to 100)

are selected every year, and a certain percentage (approximately 10 percent) of poor-

performing organizations are closed down. The number of evaluations has ranged between

600 and 1,500 since the start of the program in 1999.

The evaluation methods include paper evaluation (HRD-net evaluation data input), field

evaluation by an evaluation committee member, a satisfaction survey by trainees, and an

evaluation by the branch office of the Ministry of Labour. At the initial stage, training

evaluations were conducted to monitor performance of the training institutes. However,

21

evaluations gradually focused on trained workers in order to ascertain the impact of training

programs, in particular those financed by the employment insurance fund since it is also a

public fund. Only a few econometric evaluations have been carried out to determine re-

employment degrees, wage levels, and productivity improvements as a result of skills

development programs.

Some of the parameters used for studying the effects are

1. The impact of in-service training on enterprise productivity and investment

2. Vocational training for the unemployed, using the employment insurance database.

3. Employment and wage effects of training

4. The impact of enterprise education and training on productivity

Efforts are being made to improve the evaluation scheme further to include comparison

groups and ascertain whether skills development programs are an effective tool to create

employment opportunities for the vulnerable and alleviate unemployment.

International Collaboration:

As an important part of Korea’s financial strategy for training programs, the Korean

government sought foreign financial assistance to invest in training provision at the early

stage of economic development and obtain technical knowledge on advanced skills

development systems. In this respect, the government of Korea coordinated foreign

assistance effectively to gain maximum benefit with the least cost. While the foreign

credits/loans were used to purchase foreign equipment and technical expertise, the

government matched the loans by providing local facilities (land and buildings) and

operational expenses. For certain projects, while credits and loans were obtained from the

World Bank (1975, 1977) and the Asian Development Bank (1972), technical assistance was

received from the ILO and UNDP, as well as advanced countries such as Germany and Belgium

as a grant. In the end, foreign financial assistance helped establish 25 training institutes, which

contributed to supplying the skilled workforce for the industrialization of Korea.

22

Brazil:

After a few years of Industrialization and facing the pinch of scarcity of skilled labour, Brazil was faced

with serious questions about vocational training and the models to be adopted to take up the work. A

unique solution (System S) to this was found in that the training and certification was privatized and

carried out by private companies while the funding remained public. This brought into picture SENAI

(Serviço Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial - a network of not-for-profit secondary level professional

schools established and maintained by the Brazilian Confederation of Industry[7]) which was initially

heavily influenced by German and Swiss styles of training.

In 2011 about 2,533,778 enrolments were held in vocational courses. The table below gives

the employability rates of various forms of training:

Employability Rate of Graduates from SENAI

Modality Employability Rate

Learning 48%

Qualification 48%

Technical 74%

Source: Graduates Follow Up Program, 2010

In Brazil, there is almost a 50-50 split between employment in the organised and the

unorganised sector. Interestingly there are mechanisms for skill building in unorganised

sectors. So while 4 to 5 per cent of the GNP is spent on education and training, this figure rises

to 10 per cent of the GNP when the unorganised sector is included.

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

Brazil has a much organised yet highly unregulated network for Skills Development and

Training. Training and skills development falls under the Ministry of Labour while the

Ministry of Education (MEC) has no regulation on this.

7 Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany (2011).Press Release, 15.09.2011, Germany, India deepen cooperation in

skills development.

23

System S: There is a network of several institutions across the country that facilitates the

process of training and skills development. This network is popularly called as ‘System S’. The

bulk of this network is private but it is publicly funded. This system does not fall under the

MEC and the Ministry of Labour which is supposed to regulate has hardly any control over it.

Some striking features of System S are:

A bulk of it is private, yet it is publicly funded.

The joint budget of these institutions is several times larger than that of the Ministry

and the quality, stability and strength of the staff much higher than the government

set-up.

It has its own logic and whatever certificates are produced have nothing to do with

education or even with official diplomas.

It is a highly organised yet unregulated system.

SENAI: The SENAI system is decentralized with a central SENAI co-ordinating among the

several state-level SENAI centres but with very little power to impose common policies. As

Clastro de Moura puts it:

“The so-called “Methodical Series”, then popular in Europe, was adopted at the

workshops of all trades taught. This consists in organizing the courses as a series of

increasingly complex practical projects. Each project incorporates learning in manual

skills, blueprint, drafting, technology and all else that is required – including reading,

writing and Mathematics. In so many words, SENAI developed in the forties a robust

version of what is called today Problem-Based Learning (PBL). A very detailed package

for each course was developed, allowing new schools to reproduce the method

without unduly serious difficulties. This system was so successful that it was translated

into Spanish and adopted by just about all Latin American countries” [8].

After the instant success of SENAI, several equivalents sprung up such as:

o SENAC – for commercial sector

8 Clastro, de Moura, Claudio(2012). How Brazil develops its technical skills: Strengths and weaknesses,

http://www.saqa.org.za/docs/qcto/conf2012/brazil_tech_skills.pdf, last accessed on Feb. 09, 2013.

24

o SENAR – for rural sector

o SEBRAE – for small firms

o SENAT – for transport sector

SENAI has ranked consistently among the top three institutions in the World Skills

Competition. Overall, skilled workers prepared by SENAI are as good as or better than any in

the developing world and some can rank among the best anywhere.

However, there are many other issues of concern including:

Regional disparities

Separation of training and education

Heterogeneous system which creates difficulty in standardisation of processes

Employers want to match supply and demand – if the quality is not apt or the targets

are not met, there is a fear of ‘firing’ among the Schoolmasters etc.

The issue of low status of some occupations is still unsolved.

There seems to be a tussle between the adult workers and youth (on which the

policies were initially based) as now the system accommodates adult workers as well.

Apprenticeship: Initially, Apprenticeship was an important part of SENAI, but increased need

to protect apprentices from abuse, the growing amount of regulation ended up making it a

bad proposition for employers. As a result, these days, apprenticeship is only a residual mode

of preparing labour. Another reason was the low labour supply rate, which was unwelcome.

MEC: MEC is the Ministry of Education of Brazil. With a constant development of skills the

tertiary education and technical education appears in the hierarchy of skills and this is where

the Ministry of Education comes into play as the academic degrees require a legal oversight

of the Ministry. Also, the System S offers courses which are regulated by the MEC and hence

it needs conform to its legislation and procedures. Despite that, the MEC enjoys very little

control over these courses. As a report notes, “Considering the constant upgrading of skills,

the growth of this formula is an unavoidable tendency in Brazil- and worldwide. However,

MEC does not have any more power over System S than it does over the proprietary private

sector in general.”[9]

9 Rashtriya, Tarun(2008). Vocational Education, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, pg 29.

25

Best Practices from Brazil:

SENAI exhibits a system that is driven by the private sector and fuelled by the public sector.

This ensures proper allocation of resources and better demand-and-supply matching. SENAI

is almost completely managed by the private sector with little say of the government. This

responsibility has inspired the private sector to uphold the system to the best standards.

SENAC differs from SENAI in the sense that it involves an active participation of the students

who pay for (at least a part of) their training and can choose to train themselves as per the

needs. Hence, while SENAI is privately regulated and matches supply and demand, SENAC is

self-regulatory and is market driven.

The “Non-System”: The non-system is a collection of systems that are not the object of survey

and policies in Brazil. It is similar to the unorganised sector of India. It includes proprietary

programs by firms, NGOs, municipalities and other “generic” government bodies. This system

is speculated to be as big as the visible system.

MOE and Technical Education: In the 90s, the government split the two tracks in education –

academic (for those who wanted to go for higher studies) and technical (who wanted to have

a profession to enter the market). However, after a new government in 2002, these two were

joined again. This allowed the students to choose their track after graduating from the

secondary school completely and also reduced the burden to some extent. However, in

practice, this increased the average age of the technical education students. Parallel to this

works a part of System S which also has federal schools but more specialised in terms of the

requirements of the institutions it has partnered with.

Certification and Assessment:

Organised Sector – The organised sector has SENAI and now a few ISO certifications.

Although the Ministry of Labour has tried several times in the past to incorporate a

certification system, but because of the prestige and existence of the certification

system of the SENAI, it has not materialized. However, a few industries have adopted

the ISO standards, such as pipelines welding and adventure tourism.

Unorganised – The certifications in the unorganised sector are either proprietary or

generic.

26

International Collaboration:

US Brazil Connect[10]: The Partnership for Skills is the flagship program of US-Brazil Connect.

The goals of the program were as follows:

To improve the English skills of 700 low-income Brazilian high school students who are

enrolled in technical training programs

To provide a high-quality, low-cost fellowship experience abroad for 50 US community

college students

To expand the program to reach 7 districts in Brazil

To build the foundation for a scalable US-Brazil workforce partnership between U.S.

community colleges and the Brazilian Confederation of Industry (SENAI/SESI

education systems)

Australia:

The Australian labour market has evolved over the last decade and a half with the total workforce

increasing from 383,000 in 1997 to 781,000 in 2009. A big reason for this has been the successful

implementation of Vocational Education policies leading to creation of greater number of jobs. The

percentage of workers employed as Managers or Professionals has increased from 29.5 per cent to

31.5 per cent of the workforce while the percentage of labourers has decreased from 12.4 to 10.7.

Below is a table and a graph explaining the shift over the years as per occupations11:

Employment by Occupation Percentage of Total Workforce

Occupation 1997 2003 2009

Managers 11.9 12.1 13.1

Professionals 17.6 19.4 20.5

Technicians and Trades Workers 16 14.9 15.1

Community and Personal Service Workers 7.9 8.4 9.3

Cllinical and Administrative Workers 16.4 16.2 15.6

Sales Workers 10.3 10.7 9.4

10 US-Brazil Connect, http://us-brazil.org/partnership/ 11 Annual National Report of the Australian Vocational Education and Training System 2009

27

Machinery Operators and Drivers 7.4 6.7 6.4

Labourers 12.4 11.5 10.7

This shift is also marked with an increase in enrolment over the years in vocational education

courses. The enrolment from 2004 to 2009 has seen an increase of 5.6 per cent. The year on

year increase has varied with a small dip as well but largely it has been on the rise, as explained

in the table below12:

Increase in Enrolments for VET

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Total VET Students ('000) 1606.4 1650.8 1676 1665 1696.4

Annual Growth (%) 2.76% 1.53% -0.66% 1.89%

Growth since 2004 (%) 2.76% 4.33% 3.65% 5.60%

12 Annual National Report of the Australian Vocational Education and Training System 2008

0

5

10

15

20

25

Per

cen

tage

of

Wo

rkfo

rce

Occupation

Employment by Occupation

1997

2003

2009

28

Largely the vocational education programs have been funded by the government but a

substantial percentage of the total funding also comes from the fees charged from the

students as described in the table below13:

Funding in Vocational Education and Training

Sources of Funding 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Government 70.2 71 71.5 71.9 70.6

Government - Specific Purpose 2.2 2.7 3 2.8 3.2

Fees - Domestic Students 26.3 25 24.1 23.2 23.9

Fees - International Students 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.3 All figures in percentages

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

In Australia, the primary organisation for Skills Development is Department of Industry,

Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (DIISCRTE) which involves work on

Industry, Innovation, Science, Research, Small Business, Higher Education, Skills and

International Education. Under the Skills initiative, the primary programmes are National

Workforce Development Fund, Australian Apprenticeships Access Program

National Workforce Development Fund: Through the National Workforce Development Fund

(NWDF) the Australian Government will provide $700 million over five years to industry to

support training and workforce development in areas of current and future skills need. Under

13 Annual National Report of the Australian Vocational Education and Training System 2008

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Annual Growth 2.76% 1.53% -0.66% 1.89%

Growth since 2004 (%) 2.76% 4.33% 3.65% 5.60%

Pe

rce

nta

ge o

f G

row

th

Years

Increase in Enrollments for VET

29

NWDF, organisations can identify their current and future business and workforce

development needs and apply for funding to support the training of existing workers and new

workers in areas of shortages.

The Fund is part of the Australian Government’s Building Australia’s Future Workforce

package and also forms part of Australian Government Skills Connect, an initiative designed

to link employers and industries to funding for whole of workforce (including language,

literacy and numeracy training and mentoring of Australian Apprenticeships) planning and

development.

Australian Apprenticeships Access Program14: The Australian Apprenticeships Access

Program provides vulnerable job seekers who experience barriers to entering skilled

employment with nationally recognised pre-vocational training, support and assistance. The

Access Program is delivered locally by brokers and providers who work closely with employers

to deliver training that meets industry needs. The program is provided at no cost to

participants and assists them to find and keep an Australian Apprenticeship, or to enter

employment or further education or training.

The Program includes a minimum of 150 hours of nationally recognised, accredited pre-

vocational training linked to an Australian Apprenticeship pathway and delivered by

Registered Training Organisations. Following the training period participants receive

individualised intensive job search assistance for up to 13 weeks. Participants who gain an

apprenticeship or other employment or commence in further education or training, along

with their employers, receive at least 13 weeks of post-placement support.

Best Practices from Australia:

Australia has a federal government and each state in the country follows a different and

independent system. A three tier system is followed:

Primary

Secondary

14http://www.innovation.gov.au/Skills/PreVocational/AustralianApprenticeshipsAccessProgram/Pages/default.aspx

30

Tertiary(Universities and /or TAFE colleges)

TAFE stands for Technical and Further education. Each state’s government funds and

regulates the public and private schools. However, they help in funding the public universities,

but not involved in setting the curriculum. As of 2012, the Australian National Curriculum has

already been adopted by some schools and will become mandatory soon[15].

Australian Apprenticeships: Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and

traineeships. They combine time at work with training and can be full-time, part-time or

school-based.

Recently, there have been several changes in the Australian Apprenticeships Incentives

Program (AAIP) such as:

Diploma and Advanced Diploma eligibility

Part-time eligibility

Changes to the employer component of the Support for Adult Australian Apprentices

initiative

Implementation of the Apprentices Kickstart initiative(Available from 1 December 2012

to 28 February 2013)

Recommencement incentive changes

The National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) was commissioned to

provide a detailed study of the economic costs and benefits of the Australian Apprenticeships

system.

Certification and Assessment:

Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA)16: According the National Vocational Education

and Training Regulator Act 201, which mandates the formation of a national regulator for

vocational education and training, the Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA) regulates

courses and training providers to ensure nationally approved quality standards are met. It’s

15 http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/

16 Australian Government Skills Connect, http://skillsconnect.gov.au/, last accessed on April 21, 2013.

31

framework is based on Legislation and Standards coupled with a stronger regulatory powers

and an increased emphasis on risk as informed by the Risk Assessment Framework (Section

19 of the Act). It also has a very strong requirement of accountability and reporting to ensure

and maintain it credibility which is re-enforced by the Freedom of Information Act, 1982.

Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA): TEQSA works in the higher

education sector that includes undergraduate awards, (bachelor degrees, associate degrees

or advanced diplomas) to postgraduate awards, including graduate diplomas, masters

degrees and doctoral degrees.

TEQSA registers and assesses the performance of higher education providers against the

Higher Education Standards Framework. The Standards Framework comprises five domains:

Provider Standards, Qualification Standards, Teaching and Learning Standards, Information

Standards and Research Standards. The Provider Standards and Qualifications Standards are

collectively the Threshold Standards, which all providers must meet in order to enter and

remain within Australia’s higher education system17.

TEQSA will undertake both compliance assessments and quality assessments. Compliance

assessments involve assessing a particular provider’s compliance against the Threshold

Standards for registration as a higher education provider. TEQSA may conduct quality

assessments across the whole higher education sector, a sample of providers, or a single

provider.

TEQSA was envisioned as a “next generation” regulator with a dual aim of ensuring adherence

to standards and promoting best practices in the education sector. It was formed by the

government after the recommendation of the Bradley Review (Review of Australian Higher

Education) and allocated a budget of $70 million over four years, in 2010-2011. The Tertiary

Education Quality and Standards Agency Act 2011 (TEQSA Act)18 established the agency and

17 Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), http://www.teqsa.gov.au/, last accessed on April 21, 2013.

18 http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2012C00737, last accessed on April 21, 2013.

32

the new national regulatory and quality assurance environment for Australian higher

education.

International Collaboration:

Australia and India19: The 2012 Australia India Skills Conference was held in Perth, Western

Australia on 10-11 July 2012. The Conference aimed to foster innovation and collaboration in

skills development between Australia and India by bringing together key players in the skills

sectors of both countries. The Australia India Skills Conference was an initiative of the

Australia India Education Council, a bilateral advisory body chaired by the Australian

Government Minister for Tertiary Education, Skills, Science and Research and the Indian

Government Minister for Human Resource Development.

AVTEG: Australian Vocational Training and Employment Group (AVTEG) is an education

consultancy to develop strategic alliances between Australian Vocational Training

organisations, Indian skill development organisations, Government of India, local Indian

industry associations and employers to ensure better career development and skills

enhancement of the Indian workforce.

AVTEG has a pan-India presence owing to its partnership with NSDC based in India. AVTEG

assists these NSDC Skill partners, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), private skills

training institutions and corporates in training the existing Indian workforce for Better Skill

Better Pay Better Life.

TSSC and IBSA20: India's Telecom Sector Skill Council (TSSC), a public-private initiative, and

Australian industry skills councils Innovation and Business Skills Australia (IBSA) and E-Oz

Energy Skills Australia (E-Oz) have signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to expand

cooperation in skills and workforce development in the telecommunications sector.

19 http://www.australiaindiaeducation.com/index.cfm/sd/Page/P/59/M/4, last accessed on April, 2013. 20 The Indian Express (2013). http://www.indianexpress.com/news/indiaaustralia-ink-deal-for-developing-telecom-skills/1103589/, last accessed on April 21, 2013.

33

Germany:

The German Vocational Education is famous for its dual system named as such because it

establishes a close relationship between working and learning. The training is conducted in

two places of learning, namely, the companies and the vocational schools and the whole

program lasts a total of three years. As the Aid for Skill Development case study notes, “The

private sector and schools are closely intertwined in this concept, with on‐the‐job training

and classroom learning taking place in parallel. Businesses not only receive qualified

employees who meet their needs but are also involved in the lifelong learning process. Under

this arrangement, young adults unite theory with hands‐on work experience right from the

start and are more quickly productive after their training. Schools continually negotiate their

learning programmes with businesses and tailor them to the needs of the job market. The link

between learning and working can take various forms – and the interchange between the two

spheres is beneficial to all parties. Since its inception in the 1960s, German development co‐

operation in the field of vocational education has focused on efforts to make Germany’s

unique approach to vocational training beneficial for poor countries. Linking learning and

working in a unique career form has been the gravitational center of the development

strategies for the past few decades.”21

The bifurcation in the mainstream and the vocational education happens after grade 9 when

the students are given the option of choosing from a regular high school (Abitur) or a

vocational education centric high school (Hauptschule). A Hauptschule (German: general

school) is a secondary school in Germany and Austria, starting after 4 years of elementary

schooling, which offers Lower Secondary Education (Level 2) according to the International

Standard Classification of Education. The main aim of Hauptschulen is to offer young students

with average grades or below, most of who will not attend a university, an adequate general

academic education. Once students have obtained their leaving certificate at the age of

15/16, they can go into practical vocational training, start work in the public service at basic

or secretarial level, or attend a Berufsfachschule (full-time vocational school).

21 Aid for Skill Development: German Case Study; Ute Clement 2012

34

Below is a table categorising the job holders as per their qualifications in Germany:

Jobholders holding High School (VE), College Student or High School Degrees in Germany

1970 1982 1991 2000

High School (VE) 87.70% 79.30% 66.50% 54.90%

College 10.90% 17.70% 27% 34.10%

High School 1.40% 3% 6.50% 11%

The German system of education was highly focussed on skill training in the early 70s which

has slowly moved towards more research based and tertiary forms of education. As can be

seen 87.7 per cent of all job holders came from the vocational arm of education in 1970. This

decreased to 54.9 per cent by 2000. In the same time period, the job holders with college

education increased from 10.9 per cent to 34.1 per cent. In Germany, more than 50 percent

of all students who were college-bound in high school but decided against university apply

for vocational training, and many companies participate in vocational training. Companies

provide training voluntarily, and often at their own expense, because they believe that this is

the best way to meet their own need for skilled staff. Private companies bear two-thirds of

the total costs spent every year on (initial) vocational training in Germany – costs which

amount to an average of 15,300 euros per trainee per year. Businesses that take part in the

practice consider training their own new employees the best form of personnel recruitment.

Training companies save on recruitment costs and the cost of new-employee training. They

also avoid the latent risk of hiring the wrong employee for the job. The main benefit for

trainees is receiving market-relevant training that improves their chances in the labor market

while simultaneously improving social skills and developing personality. Finally, the state, too,

benefits from the dual system through easing the burden on public budgets by participation

of the enterprises and by keeping the workforce up to date.

The German dual system has proved its success over a long period, and it still shows its ability

to react quickly and effectively to the many changes currently affecting the economy and

society.

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

In order to increase the training opportunities for young people, the apprenticeship pact was

signed between the Federal Government and the central associations of German industry in

35

June 2004 for a term of three years towards making a major contribution to this. In this pact,

the partners undertook to work closely with the government to effect a substantial increase

in training provision by the end of 2007, and to optimize the training process and to orient it

more strongly towards individual young people.22 In addition, initiatives were launched to

improve the supply of training places. These included the Federal Ministry of Education and

Research’s programme JOBSTARTER - This programme, launched at the beginning of 2006, is

aimed at improving regional training structures and hence the supply of in-company training

places. Overall, the German enterprises have played a big role in skilling the people. Close to

70 per cent of all the enterprises with 50-499 employees and more than 90 per cent of all the

enterprises with more than 500 employees have in-house training facilities.

In 2005 the German federal government formulated the goal of stimulating broad‐based

growth and pro‐poor growth in poor countries by means of vocational training. In early 2011

the Federal Ministry for Economic Co‐operation and Development (BMZ) presented a draft of

its education strategy for 2010‐2013, in which vocational training was identified as a key

component of integrated education systems. Regulation and partnership are the two

principles that make the system so successful. Representatives of the federal state, the

individual states, employers and employees work together by consensus to develop curricula,

provide training, and carry out assessment, certification and quality assurance. Mutual trust

and long-term commitment to human resource development are the key ingredients that

enable the dual system to deliver the skills that meet employers’ requirements while

guaranteeing employees sufficient skills to change jobs and move up the career ladder. They

are also the aspects of the dual system that make it so difficult to replicate elsewhere.23

Best Practices from Germany:

Elementary Vocational Training and Secondary Level Technical Education: Senior

technical schools and senior vocational schools normally build on vocational training

within the dual system. They teach specialized occupational skills and theory and

confer university entrance certifications. Elementary level contains of years of basic

vocational education and supplementary vocational training.

22 Vocational education and training in Germany: Ute Hippach-Schneider, Martina Krause, Christian Woll 23 Can the ‘German model’ bridge the skills gap elsewhere? : 3 February 2012 by Léna Krichewsky

36

On the Job Training or Apprenticeship: Apprenticeships are open to all students who

have completed lower secondary education (age 15) and last from two to three and a

half years. Apprentices are considered as employees and are paid by the training

company. They can choose from among about 350 occupations, reaching from

hairdressing and car repair to insurance and financial services. Because

apprenticeships are such a good route into skilled jobs, many students who have

completed upper secondary school also start an apprenticeship, even if they have the

credentials to enter university. The key success factor for the German system is the

added focus on apprenticeship. Germany for instance has a million plus Apprentices.

Finding a job without having completed an Apprenticeship is almost impossible. The

private sector and the Government have forged a very strong partnership to achieve

this.

Informal Vocational Training: Needs‐oriented vocational training for the rural sector

and urban poor population made it necessary to reorient TVET-DA towards

appropriate technologies, cultural and social dialogue, and non‐formal training.

Women, who account for the majority of employed persons in the informal sector,

benefited from these training opportunities. In addition, small business people,

demobilized soldiers and unemployed young adults were among the specific target

groups. Employment‐generating education for the informal sector has to take into

account the professionalism of training as well as artisanal and technical, managerial,

organizational and marketing skills, but also basic education and survival skills.24

Continuing Vocational Education and Training: Continuing education or training is

understood to be the continuation or resumption of organized learning following

completion of an initial phase of education of varying scope in addition to continuing

‘vocational’ education/training, this includes continuing general and political

education, which is also subsumed under the heading of ‘adult education’. In

Germany, continuing vocational education/training is characterized by receptiveness,

flexibility and ongoing changes. The state has only a minor regulatory and creative

function in this area. The complexity and heterogeneity of continuing VET is reflected

24 Aid for Skill Development: German Case Study; Ute Clement 2012

37

in the variety of activities in the areas of financial support, research, development and

quality assurance.

In Germany, the apprenticeship system is usually defined as the dual training system,

characterized by work-based training of apprentices complemented by compulsory

vocational schooling. The aim of apprenticeship training is to provide general education

complemented by occupation-specific knowledge and skills that would enable direct access

to the labour market. Apprenticeships are usually based on a contract between the

apprentice and the employer to offer training in the workplace which is, combined with off-

the-job training in schools or specific VET centres. Apprenticeships are one of the available

vocational routes into the labour market offered through the different vocational education

and training (VET) systems in Europe. In countries with apprenticeship based systems (e.g.

Austria, Germany and Denmark), these can help keep youth unemployment low, evident in

Germany, where the rise in youth unemployment during the economic crisis has been low.

It is generally recognised that Germany with strong apprenticeship systems offer fast and

stable transitions for young people from vocational training into the labour market. There are

several reasons for this, as follows:

Very strong connections with the labour markets which mean that there are clear and

identified links between apprenticeship qualifications (and final certificates) and the

organisation of work, career structures and pay.

Apprenticeships provide a direct bridge between school-based vocational training and

the world of work, by bringing vocational training directly into the workplace.

Apprenticeships lead to better direct employment opportunities for participants.

Companies where apprenticeships are taking place become familiar with the

apprentices, have opportunities to ‘trial’ them in real work situations and assess their

suitability for actual employment

Apprenticeships are well regarded among employers and young people. They are not

considered to be ‘a second choice for poor school performers’, but have a well

established reputation as an attractive option for young people to continue their

education and enter the labour market.

38

Apprenticeships lead to recognised certificates of completion that are formally issued

and approved by the state, and provide a certified entry into a profession for a young

person.

Apprenticeships are supported by social partners, evident in their ongoing

involvement in the development of curricula and qualifications, anticipating and

influencing the development of training standards and qualifications, and retaining of

apprenticeship places (even in the economic downturn).

Apprenticeships are underpinned by a process of continuous improvement, evolving

to allow the training to remain up-to-date given changes in the world of work and

work organisation.

The success of apprenticeship in Germany has helped to spread the model to other European

countries. Where apprenticeships do not exist or are not extensively developed, governments

are looking at ways to introduce them, viewing them as an important alternative to school-

based provision for students and employers. Apprenticeships are undergoing resurgence and

now appear to be seen as important alternative track into the labour market even in countries

that previously pursued policies of trying to reduce the differentiation between VET and

general education. It also needs to be acknowledged that many Member States have focused

efforts to increase apprenticeship structures as a policy response to the recent global

economic downturn. This was seen as an important measure to address increasing youth

unemployment and offer viable and attractive vocational training routes to young people.

Certification and Assessments:

Demographic development, the globalization of markets, new technologies and new work

organization models require new educational policy structures in order to respond to the

demand for a qualified workforce. The qualification frameworks set therefore become vital

for providing quality skills. Germany has some of the best certification mechanisms developed

as are mentioned below:

Continuing-Training Innovation Group25: The aim of the continuing-training innovation

group, convened by the BMBF in 2006, is to develop options for action for the future of

25 Vocational education and training in Germany: Ute Hippach-Schneider, Martina Krause, Christian Woll

39

continuing training by summer 2007.Focal topics include the combining of formally and

informally acquired competences via certification and improvement of a second chance for

young adults without a vocational qualification.

Stiftung Warentest Quality Tests26: The quality and transparency of continuing training

courses are constantly improved by means of independent continuing training tests. The

department of continuing training tests of the Stiftung Warentest [goods testing foundation]

is conducting up to 20 tests a year between the middle of 2002 and December 2007 in the

field of continuing vocational training provision. Further training courses, provision of advice

and learning media are currently being tested. The aim of the project is to make the market

structure, with some 35,000 continuing training providers and around 400,000 different

products, more transparent for consumers, and to increase the focus of providers on quality.

Continuing training tests ideally complement other quality assurance instruments, such as

quality circles and certification systems.

Quality in Continuing Vocational Training’ Checklist27: In 2007 the BIBB is updating the

‘Quality in continuing vocational training’ checklist. This was developed as long ago as 1991

and was last updated in 2001. It is a list of questions that can be used by those seeking advice

when deciding whether to take part in a continuing training programme. For example, it

clarifies questions as to what continuing training costs, how the provider assures the quality

of its continuing training, what qualification the continuing training measure leads to, etc.

International Collaboration:

iMOVE is an initiative of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. An

extensive offer on information about conditions and the structure of international education

markets makes it easier for German education providers to tap these markets. At the same

time, iMOVE is using the slogan “Training ‐ Made in Germany” to promote German education

and continuing professional development.

26 Vocational education and training in Germany: Ute Hippach-Schneider, Martina Krause, Christian Woll 27 Vocational education and training in Germany: Ute Hippach-Schneider, Martina Krause, Christian Woll

40

The individual German states (e.g. Lower Saxony and Baden‐Württemberg) offer TVET‐DA in

the form of collaboration with partner countries on school projects wherein Don Bosco is one

of the most experienced providers of vocational training in poor countries.

The following selection of projects is meant to illustrate the activities of TVET‐DA on the

macro as well as the meso and micro levels. Examples from the formal sector as well as the

informal and non‐formal sectors are included. The majority of funding in development

cooperation work is channelled through the BMZ, with the various implementing

organizations focusing on specific areas

Angola, Vocational Training and Labour Market Integration in Mexico, 2008‐2010

Egypt, Technical Education, Training and Employment Programme (Mubarak‐Kohl‐

Initiative), 2007‐2014 (planification)

China, Chinese German Training Centre for Printing Technology, 1998‐2007

Brazil, Support of the Modernisation of SENAI, 2001‐2004

Ghana, Opportunities Industrialisation Centres (OIC), 2001‐2010

India, Economic Empowerment through Strengthening Functional Vocational

Training on Viable Trades and Skills for Marginalised Communities in Eight States of

India,

Philippines, Dual Training System, 1996/2000‐2007

Sierra Leone, Reconstruction Agricultural Infrastructure, 2000‐2001

Uganda, Association of Private Vocational Institutions UGAPRIVI, 2000‐2012

China:

In China, young people are among the groups most affected by the economic crisis. The lack

of and the need for good vocational training have been felt for long. In addition, young people,

especially graduates, are facing difficulties finding jobs as demand is at a low level and the

thresholds are higher for young people entering the labour market. The current economic

downturn has so far left tens of millions of workers jobless or laid-off in China, including 25

41

million migrant workers from rural areas. To help the unemployed find a job is important not

only to people’s livelihood but also to social stability.

Vocational Education and Training (VET) refers to technical education and skills training

provided by pre-employment programs, job transfer programs, apprentice programs, on-the-

job programs and various certificate programs. According to China’s 1996 Vocational

Education Law, VET is a key component of China’s educational system, an important means

to promote employment, economic growth and social advancement. The Chinese

government has attached great importance to VET since the founding of the People’s Republic

in 1949. The 1996 Vocational Education Law and the State Council’s 2002 Decision on

Vigorously Promoting the Reform and Development of VET represents the government’s

renewed effort at supporting VET after the Cultural Revolution.28

VTE is divided to junior, senior, and higher levels. Government emphasizes to establish and

perfect the vocational system which owns both vocational school education and vocational

training, coordinates and strengthens the links between VTE and VTE, and VTE and other

education.

Quality of education is vital to the growth of the VET sector and the employability of VET

graduates and trainees. VET programs and courses are practice-oriented and labour market-

oriented and VET training combine school learning with hands-on practices. China has

witnessed a fast growth of commercial VET institutions in recent years. In 2008, for example,

the number of commercial VET providers reached 21,811 nationally. A rapidly increasing

number of young people now stay on in upper secondary education – now around three

quarters of the cohort, and fast increasing numbers of young people in tertiary education. At

upper secondary level about half the cohort (as a matter of policy) enters upper secondary

vocational schools – with more than 20 million students now in vocational schools.

28 China’s Vocational Education and Training: The Next Key Target Of Education Promotion: by YAN Hao

42

The number of junior and senior secondary schools for vocational education has slowly gone

down with an increase in the higher vocational education schools. This has been due to the

greater contribution of vocational education in China towards job creation wherein a growing

1996 1998 2000 2001 2004 2006 2008

Junior Secondary VocationalSchools

1534 1472 1194 1065 672 335 0

Senior Secondary VocationalSchools

22151 22174 20252 17770 14454 14693 14847

Higher Vocational Colleges andUniversities

81 101 184 384 872 981 1184

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Nu

mb

er o

f Sc

ho

ols

Years

Number of all Categories of TVET Schools

13.214.31

12.8411.64

14.09

18.1

20.87

0

5

10

15

20

25

1996 1998 2000 2001 2004 2006 2008

Stu

de

nt

Enro

llme

nt

Years

Enrollments in Secondary Vocational Schools (Millions)

43

percentage of students have shown transition from secondary to higher education. As a result

there has been a growing number of secondary school enrolments as depicted in the graph

above. The average time period for a Chinese receiving education is more than 8 years. The

senior secondary education popularized quickly, the gross enrolment rate of senior secondary

education reached 66% in 2007. Since 1999, the number of students enrolled in higher

education institutions has kept expanding.

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

In the case of China the vocational education law enforced in 1996 provided the general

regulatory framework. The sources for investments in vocational education come from local

governments, the budgets for the running costs are provided by the provincial

administrations. Various government and administration levels are assigning earmarked

financial resources and guarantee the gradual increase of the resources, while the provincial

governments do assign additional funds for the educational budget and do secure a

percentage for vocational education.

The main resources of finance of VTE come from:

Government finance: pay in full the average expenses for the students

Enterprise finances: enterprise shall bear the expenses for the vocational education of

its own employees and of the persons it plans to employ.

Local Education Additional Funds

Students’ tuition: VTE students should pay tuition fee which subjects to major.

Social donations: the donations from enterprises, institutions, non-governmental

organizations, other public organization, and individual citizens.

The earnings that are derived by vocational schools from running enterprises or

providing social services.

China uses the term ‘vocational and technical education’ (VTE) as a general term for different

types and modes of vocational and technical education and training. This also includes initial

preliminary and continuing training at various education levels. Furthermore, it indicates that

Chinese current VTE system does not maintain a clear distinction between initial VTE (IVTE)

and continuing VTE (CVTE). Both, IVTE and CVTE eventually do belong to the same uniform

system, which is enforced by the VTE Law of the PR China in 1996.

44

IVTE consists of two components, school-based vocational education and training. School-

based vocational education is provided by Junior and Senior Vocational Schools (SVS）,

Skilled Workers Schools (SWS) and Secondary Technical Schools (STS). The tertiary sector

provides vocational education at Higher Vocational Colleges (HVC) and Senior Skilled Workers

Schools (SSWS).29

Vocational training comprises apprenticeships, on-the-job training, re-training and short

training courses that might take place before or during employment. These forms of

continuing vocational education are partly organized in accordance with vocational

standards. Country-wide networks of certification centers are currently being build up.

Vocational training is supplied by a huge variety of organizations such as department training

centers, companies, employment agencies, the unions, public and private organizations and

vocational schools.

Best Practices from China:

China has strong arrangements to ensure that teachers in vocational schools remain abreast

of the requirements of modern industry. Teachers in vocational schools are required to spend

one month in industry each year, or two months every two years. In addition, many schools

employ a significant number of part-time teachers who also work in industry.

Apart from government promotion and media awareness programs to boost skilled workers’

social status, recent development of the labor market has also played a role in making VET

programs and courses more attractive. Compared with graduates from general schools, as

mentioned previously, graduates of VET programs usually have a better chance of finding a

job or face lesser problem with wage cut.30

Vocational institutes and schools have cooperated with society, enterprises and villages and

become market oriented. Via various ways such as combining learning and practice,

cooperation between school and enterprise, learning while working, education reform,

developing career morality and emphasizing on practical and vocational competency skill,

over 95% of the students have become employed. In recent years, “National Skilled Workers

Training project”, “National Rural Labor Force Transferring Training project”, “Rural applied

29 Key Highlights of China’s Approach to TVET/Skills Development: by Wenjin Wang, 2010 30 China’s Vocational Education and Training: The Next Key Target Of Education Promotion: by YAN Hao

45

technician training project”, and “Continuous education and Re-employment Training

project” has remarkably increased the consciousness and capacity of vocational education’s

serving economic society and enhanced its vitality, which was widely recognized and

supported by people on general.31

Certification and Assessments:

Skill Certificate System: There are 5 levels in national occupational qualification certificate

system described as Level 5 (primary), level 4 (middle), level 3 (higher), level 2 (technician),

and level 1 (higher technician).

Four types of non-university institutes provide VET courses at the tertiary level:

(a) Vocational-technical colleges or polytechnic colleges provide 2- to 3-year diploma courses

of occupational and technical training. Polytechnic colleges now play a key role in China’s

tertiary level VET. (b) Specialized junior colleges provide 2 to 3-year diploma courses mainly

for capacity building rather than technical training. Currently, only a small number of normal

colleges belong to this category. (c)Technician colleges provide 2 to 3-year certificate courses

specially designed for the state occupational license qualification of technicians; and (d) Adult

higher educational institutes provide full time and part-time certificate courses to people who

want to pursue higher education for capacity building, knowledge enrichment, or self-

improvement.32

Four types of VET schools provide VET courses at higher secondary level:

(a) Specialized high schools provide 3-year certificate courses. This is the most popular form

of VET in China. After graduation, students are more likely to enter the labor market directly.

(b)Vocational high schools are VET schools transformed only lately from general senior high

schools. After graduation, students either enter the labor market or progress further to

polytechnic colleges. (c) Skilled worker schools provide 3-year certificate courses specially

designed for the state occupational license qualification of skilled workers; and (d) Adult

specialized high schools provide full-time and part-time courses for those who want to pursue

senior high school education. Most short-term courses of occupational and technical training

31 Key Highlights of China’s Approach to TVET/Skills Development: by Wenjin Wang, 2010 32 China’s Vocational Education and Training: The Next Key Target Of Education Promotion: by YAN Hao

46

can be grouped into this category as well, since prospective applicants must complete junior

high schools.33

France:

Vocational training has been a major issue in France since the Middle Ages and the right to

education and vocational training was included in its Constitution. Since 2000, major reforms

to the vocational training system have been undertaken, including the introduction of a

Certification Register in 2002 and the transferring of all responsibility for vocational training

to the regions in 2004.34

In regard to equity, France focuses on lifelong guidance and career security, which are an

essential aspect of effective lifelong education and training. In the field of education, the State

has retained responsibility for curricular content, examinations and teaching staff, while the

départements and regions have been placed in charge of facilities and the running of schools

as well as the recruitment and remuneration of non-teaching personnel. With regard to

vocational training, regional councils are responsible for apprenticeships and vocational

training for unemployed young people and adults. The State provides co-funding, with the

regions, for certain forms of training provision for the unemployed and people in work and it

has retained responsibility for the vocational training of specific groups: prisoners, illiterate

people, people with disabilities and foreign workers.

European cooperation in the field of vocational training has produced a number of major tools

providing greater mobility and transparency of qualifications. As they are based on a ‘learning

outcomes’ approach and presuppose quality assurance mechanisms to provide mutual

confidence, they have a major impact on national vocational training systems. The French

vocational training program highlights the importance of implementing the European

Qualifications Framework (EQF) through appropriate methods and of ensuring coherence

between the various instruments: EQF, ECVET (European Credit system for Vocational

Education and Training) and Euro pass. France emphasizes the role of universities in

vocational training.

33 China’s Vocational Education and Training: The Next Key Target Of Education Promotion: by YAN Hao 34Vocational Education and training in France; European Centre for development of vocational training

47

The number of senior citizens in France, which increased by three million between 1970 and

2000, will grow by more than seven million over the period to 2030. At the same time, the

rate of employment among over-50s in France is one of the lowest in any EU country.

Population ageing has also been taken into account in the ongoing reform of the continuing

vocational training system, which was launched by the social partners in September 2003:

measures have been introduced to develop access to vocational training for people aged at

least 45, who have worked for 20 years. Those eligible are entitled to an official assessment

of their skills, provided they have worked for at least a year in the company where they are

currently employed.35

Policy and Regulatory Framework:

European cooperation in the field of vocational training has produced a number of major tools

providing greater mobility and transparency of qualifications. As they are based on a ‘learning

outcomes’ approach and presuppose quality assurance mechanisms to provide mutual

confidence, they have a major impact on national vocational training systems. The French

presidency highlights the importance of implementing the European Qualifications

Framework (EQF) through appropriate methods and of ensuring coherence between the

various instruments: EQF, ECVET (European Credit system for Vocational Education and

Training) and Euro pass. Finally, France will emphasize the role of universities in vocational

training.

Initial Vocational Training (IVET):

VET in Schools: On leaving junior high school (college), usually at aged 15, students are

steered either towards a general and technical senior high school to spend three years

working for a general or a technical diploma, or else towards a vocational high school to study

over two years for a certificate of professional aptitude or a vocational education certificate,

or over three years for a secondary vocational diploma. These offer a direct access to

employment and always include a work placement.36

Tertiary education provides students with a choice of general, technological and vocational

35 Vocational Education and training in France; European Centre for development of vocational training 36 Spotlight on VET France: European Centre for development of vocational training

48

courses in universities, which are centres of educational excellence. The advanced technical

units, established in senior high schools, prepare students in two years for the advanced

technical diploma designed for entering working life. The tertiary-level colleges of technology,

which are part of the university system, prepare students in two years for the tertiary

technical diploma. Having completed either of these, young people may prepare for a tertiary

level diploma, a diploma which allows them to improve their level of vocational qualification.

The apprenticeship: This prepares trainees for all the secondary-level certificates for tertiary-

level qualifications as well as for vocational qualifications registered with the National

Vocational Certification Register and certificates created by specific vocational sectors. The

apprentice has the status of employee. Training takes place both within the enterprise and in

an apprentice training centre for a duration of one to three years.

The framework for apprenticeship is an employment contract between a young person aged

16-25 (the apprentice) and an employer. Funding for the apprenticeship system comes from

the apprenticeship tax paid by private-sector employers (except those in the professional and

farming sectors), and from contributions from the State and the regions.

Continuing Vocational Training (CVET)

The objectives of CVET are many: to help people find or return to work, to remain in

employment, to develop their skills and acquire different levels of vocational qualification, to

enhance their earning power and to improve their cultural and social circumstances. The

responsibility for training as well as means of access and funding differ according to the status

of those concerned: jobseekers or people in work (private-sector employees, civil servants,

self-employed persons). The training of jobseekers is essentially the responsibility of the

regions, with the State intervening purely for target groups (prisoners, illiterate persons,

foreigners. and people with disabilities). Employers (private or public) and the social

partners are responsible for training employees.37

Best Practices from France:

As part of its drive to achieve the best possible match between the economy and

employment, the Government tries to anticipate economic, social and demographic change.

37 Spotlight on VET France: European Centre for development of vocational training

49

Various measures have been taken to this end in cooperation with the employment service –

the partners involved include the National Employment Agency (ANPE), the National Adult

Vocational Training Association (AFPA), the ASSEDIC unemployment insurance funds and, at

territorial level, regional and department authorities, groups of companies, local labour

market areas, centres of competitiveness and the social partners. Government initiatives to

anticipate qualifications and skills requirements fall under two headings: prospective studies

contracts on the one hand and employment and skills development activities on the other.

Prospective Studies Contracts: The prospective studies contract scheme enables the

Government and the social partners to produce a joint analysis of the state of a given sector

and measures that could be taken there. The cost of the scheme is shared.

Two principles underpin the CEP scheme:

• A contract links the social partners and the Government, which covers on average 50 % of

the expenditure entailed;

• The social partners and the Government jointly select the operators involved.

In 2006, prospective studies contracts were put in place for the following sectors: mutual

associations, caretaking, dispensing chemists, construction, the chemical industry,

entertainment, call centres and wholesale distribution.

Employment and Skills Development Activities: Employment and skills development

activities (actions de développement de l’emploi et des compétences or ADEC) are intended

to help people in jobs (waged or self-employed) to adapt and expand their skills and have

them recognised, and to become more employable within or beyond the company or sector

where they are currently working. The main beneficiaries are workers who have become

vulnerable due to changing employment patterns: blue-collar and white-collar employees

with lower levels of qualification, experienced employees (aged 45 and over) who are in the

latter half of their careers, and employees in companies with fewer than 250 staff, especially

very small companies.

Certification and Assessments:

Validation of Experience: This has the aim of enabling all working people (employees,

jobseekers, volunteers) to access the range of existing qualifications, thus

facilitating the use of training routes, making experience evident and transferable.

50

Certification: The device of the Validation of Acquired Experience allows obtaining all or part

of a qualification (diploma, professional title or certificate of qualification) on the basis of

professional experience employee, self-employed (trader collaborator trader, professional,

farmer or craftsman) and / or volunteer (trade unions, associations) and / or voluntary. This

experience, in conjunction with the certification referred to, is validated by a

jury. Certifications, registered in the National Directory of Professional Certifications

(RNCP) are accessible by VAE.

Validation of Formal Learning: Most qualifications in the French system of vocational

certification are national diplomas issued under the authority of the State, the main issuing

body being the Ministry of Education. Vocational diplomas break down into certification units.

Each level of testing represents one or more units, and students can accumulate units over

time.

Validation and Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning: Recognition of skills and

experience: Recognition of skills and experience is understood to cover all the practices and

procedures that contribute at different times of an individual’s life (specifically when he or

she embarks on training, or enters or changes employment) to building and presenting a

picture of his or her knowledge, expertise and potential, in some cases with a view to their

validation. Unlike validation of skills and experience, recognition is not an official procedure.

There is, however, a specific tool that can facilitate recognition – namely skills assessment.38

Validation of Skills and Experience: The aim of skills and experience validation procedures is

to enable a competent authority (in most cases the Government) to issue an officially

recognized diploma, qualification or certificate. Apart from those cases covered by the Act of

26 January 1984, setting out conditions for the validation of studies, work experience or

personal expertise with a view to accessing various levels of higher education, skills and

experience validation consists chiefly of validating skills with a view to certification.39

38 Vocational Education and training in France; European Centre for development of vocational training 39 Vocational Education and training in France; European Centre for development of vocational training

51

International Collaboration

It established the National Vocational Certification Register, thus making for greater

transparency between French qualifications and those of other European countries and the

European Qualifications Framework. It has set up a national agency to implement the lifelong

education and training programme, thus encouraging mobility for training purposes (by high

school pupils, apprentices, workers, job-seekers and trainers, for example) as well as use of

the Europass system.40

France also receives EU Co-financing from the European Social Fund and the Regional

Development Fund, as its four overseas regions continue to qualify for aid under the

convergence criteria.

40 Vocational Education and training in France; European Centre for development of vocational training

52

TEAM YOUTH FOR POLICY & DIALOGUE

India’s First Think Tank of Young People

www.youthpolicy.in

www.facebook.com/YouthPolicy

[email protected] | +91 9999428096

Youth for Policy & Dialogue is an apolitical, not for profit youth forum

established in 2010. We currently run four initiatives in India and are

a proud affiliate of G8&G20 Youth Networks, a group of 20 Youth

Organisations working in top 20 economies of the world.

***End of Report***