Olive oil storage during the fifth and sixth millennia BC at Ein Zippori, Northern Israel

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Olive oil storage during the fifth and sixth millennia BCat Ein Zippori, Northern IsraelDvory Namdara, Alon Amrania, Nimrod Getzovb & Ianir Milevskiba Institute of Earth Science, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Giv'at Ram, Jerusalem 91904,Israelb Department of Excavations, Surveys and Research, Israel Antiquities Authority, POB 586,Jerusalem 91004, IsraelPublished online: 24 Nov 2014.

To cite this article: Dvory Namdar, Alon Amrani, Nimrod Getzov & Ianir Milevski (2014): Olive oil storage during the fifth andsixth millennia BC at Ein Zippori, Northern Israel, Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/07929978.2014.960733

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Olive oil storage during the fifth and sixth millennia BC at Ein Zippori, Northern Israel

Dvory Namdara*, Alon Amrania, Nimrod Getzovb and Ianir Milevskib

aInstitute of Earth Science, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Giv’at Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel; bDepartment of Excavations,Surveys and Research, Israel Antiquities Authority, POB 586, Jerusalem 91004, Israel

(Received 3 August 2014; accepted 22 August 2014)

Several occupation levels dating to the sixth to fifth millennia BC (the Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian Late Neolithic andChalcolithic cultures as well as the Early Bronze Age IB�II) were found in a salvage excavation conducted at Ein Zipporiin the lower Galilee. Pottery vessels from the different periods were sampled for organic residue analysis study and wereanalyzed using gas chromatography (GC) coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Olive oil was one of the mostcommon organic residues detected in the vessels, from the levels of the Wadi Rabah occupation and onwards (sixth to fifthmillennia BC). This find throws new light on the exploitation of olives in the southern Levant as well as on the large-scaleproduction and consumption of olive oil in the Late Pottery Neolithic and pre-Ghassulian Chalcolithic times.

Keywords: olive; domestication; oil production; jars; amphoriskos; Ein Zippori; Pottery Neolithic; Wadi Rabah;pre-Ghassulian; Chalcolithic

Introduction

The importance of olive manipulation has been well

defined previously by Colin Renfrew (1972), suggesting

that the rise of civilizations may have been made possible

by the development of a polycultural triad of wheat, vine

and olive in the Aegean Early Bronze Age. Although the

palynological evidence from Greece still seems debatable

(Runnels & Hansen 1986; Renfrew & Margaritis 2011),

this far-reaching statement demonstrates the importance

ascribed to olive exploitation.

As for the southern Levant, the period in which the

manipulation of olives began is reviewed. Liphschitz

et al. (1991) argued that the ample remnants of olive

found in archaeological contexts, together with other finds

such as pottery vessels, oil lamps, and olive oil installa-

tions, indicate that the earliest widespread use of olives in

Israel was noticed in the Early Bronze Age. However, the

archaeological data indicate that widespread use of olives

in ancient Israel and adjacent regions should be dated not

later than the Chalcolithic. It is evident that some type of

olive oil production existed in many sites belonging to the

Ghassulian Chalcolithic period (Epstein 1993; Meadows

2001; Lovell et al. 2010; Milevski 2012). According to

finds from several submerged sites along the Mediterra-

nean coast, it seems that the use of olives for their oil

started as early as the sixth millennium BC (Galili et al.

1989, 1997; Galili & Sharvit 1995).

As for the domestication of olives, to date, it is still

questioned whether the olives used in this very unripe

industry were previously domesticated in earlier periods,

such as what some authors called the Late Neolithic and

others the Early Chalcolithic (sixth to fifth millennia BC)

(and see Table 2). It was suggested by Zohary and Spie-

gel-Roy (1975) that the domestication of olives occurred

previously in the Chalcolithic. The palynological evi-

dence indicates that the utilization of olives most probably

began in the Chalcolithic period, when much higher olive

pollen values are documented in several southern Levan-

tine pollen spectra (Baruch 1990; van Zeist et al. 2009;

Litt et al. 2012). Some of these studies considered that the

dramatic rise in Olea pollen reflected the spread of olive

cultivation in the region, i.e. domestication of olives.

However, Zohary and Spiegel-Roy’s (1975) suggestion

was rejected by others (Gilead 1988; Liphschitz et al.

1991; Liphschitz & Bonani 2000).

The current article adds new information to the debate

regarding the manufacture of olive oil at these early

stages, based on the excavations conducted at the site of

Ein Zippori in the lower Galilee. Here we discuss the early

period in which the manipulation of olives had already

been practiced, in the light of our archaeological and ana-

lytical finds.

The archaeological remains from Ein Zippori

In 2011�2013, three seasons of salvage excavations were

conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority at Ein Zip-

pori about 2 km west of Nazareth in the lower Galilee

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] paper has been contributed in honor of Professor Daniel Zohary

� 2014 Taylor & Francis

Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07929978.2014.960733

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(Figure 1). The site is located between the lower slopes of

the hill named Giv’at Rabi (Jebel el-Ayin) and the wadi

stream and springs of Nahal Zippori.

The excavations were conducted for almost 1 km

alongside a modern road that had to be enlarged. Eleven

excavation areas were opened on a total of approximately

5000 m2 excavated area (Figure 2). The area was exca-

vated down to natural bedrock, which consists of Eocene

chalks (Picard & Golani 1992). The bedrock surface was

covered with a layer of alluvial sediments (thickness

about 0.25�0.50 m).

Based on the finds from the excavations, the site was

occupied during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B-C (ninth mil-

lennium BC), the Late Pottery Neolithic/Early Chalco-

lithic (Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian cultures of the

sixth to fifth millennia BC), and the Early Bronze Age

(EB hereafter) IB and II (end of the fourth millennium to

the end of third millennium BC). Other remains and finds

were dated to the Roman, Byzantine and Crusader periods

(Tables 1 and 2). The remains of the EB have been pub-

lished recently (Milevski et al. 2013).

For the first time in the southern Levant, a huge accu-

mulation of remains dated from the middle of the sixth

millennium BC to the first half of the fifth millennium BC

was found, representing the Wadi Rabah (probably an

early stage of it) and those cultures which were found

prior to the Ghassulian (Late) Chalcolithic. Three or four

stratigraphical units, chronologically different, were

detected in most areas of the excavation. The walls found

at this site were built on the basis of one or two courses of

fieldstone, over which one may assume mud brick walls

existed, although in most parts of the excavation these

mud brick walls were not preserved. However, in areas C

and K, concentrations of plano-convex mud bricks were

found. In these areas signs of burning were attested. Most

of the building remains were fragmented and at this stage

of the research the plans for only a few buildings can be

drawn.

In Area C (Figure 2), there is a building with thick

walls approached by long walls that probably point to a

spacious courtyard. In Area B, two buildings, one on top

of the other, were found; the lower (hence earlier)

Figure 1. Map of the main sites and regions mentioned in the text.

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structure had a plaster floor and plastered walls. Although

it was not possible to locate the remains of the bricks, it is

probable that mud bricks were used for their construction.

The building’s foundations were made of stone and proba-

bly part of the floor was plastered. In Area E, remains of

another building whose foundations were built of stone

were excavated. Attached to the southern wall of the

building, three flat standing stones were found, a feature

that possibly bears an enigmatic cultic meaning.

Finds include pottery vessels, large amounts of flint

tools and flint industry waste (mainly blades and bifa-

cials), grinding stones and iconographic items such as

palettes and seals. The pottery of the Wadi Rabah and

pre-Ghassulian layers consists of decorated medium jars,

Figure 2. Plan of the site of Ein Zippori showing the excavated areas. Sample numbers mark the find location of the analyzed vessels(see Table 3).

Table 1. Periods and strata excavated at Ein Zippori. For subchronology of the Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian cultures discussed inthis paper (Strata IX), see Table 2.

Strata Period Years Areas

I Modern Twentieth century AD All

II Crusader Twelfth-thirteenth centuries AD All

III Byzantine Fifth to seventh centuries AD F

IV Roman First to fourth centuries AD D, N

V Middle Bronze Age II 1750�1550 BC D

VI Early Bronze Age* IV (Intermediate Bronze Age) 2300�2000 BC N

VII Early Bronze Age II 3000�2800 BC A, B, C, E, F, K

VIII Early Bronze Age IB 3300�3000 BCy A, B, C, D,F, G, K, L, N

IX Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic (Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian) 5800�4500 BC All

X Pre-Pottery Neolithic C 7500�7000 BC A, C

XI Pre-Pottery Neolithic B 8200�7500 BC N

�For a different chronology of the Early Bronze Age, see Regev et al. (2012).

Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 3

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jugs, and bowls. The fauna is relatively rich, containing

ovicaprines, pigs and cattle.

Architectural remains of the EB IB (3300�3000 BC)

and a few remains of the EB II (ca. 3000�2800 BC) were

found, mainly in areas B, C and K. A smaller area that

was occupied during the EB IV (ca. 2300�2000 BC) was

noticeable in Area N. All the houses of the EB IB layers

were constructed of natural field stones laid in successive

courses as foundations with mud bricks on them and prob-

ably a coat of mud plastering the walls from the inside as

revealed in Area G. Clusters of buildings were created,

forming a dense built area. A wall, dated to the EB IB,

was found, surrounding the site from the east. A house

was attached to the inner side of the wall in Area D, with

a narrow passage between the two structures. The base of

the wall (approximately 2 m wide) was built of stones

while the superstructure was probably built of mud bricks;

the excavators assume that the wall had turned west, pro-

tecting the settlement from the north as well. Within the

house near the wall a burnt layer containing some olive

pits (Olea europea) was found. The olive pits were dated

using 14C and their dates fit with the known dates of the

period about 3300�3100 years calibrated BC (J. Regev,

Weizmann Institute of Science, personal communication).

In all these structures pottery vessels were found, a

great number of which are interpreted typologically as

storage or cooking vessels. Most of the pottery assemb-

lages were associated with fills and floors and can be

related to the last phase of EB IB. Among the pottery

assemblage several complete pithoi and jars were found,

as well as pithoi with thickened incised rims

(“rail rims”). Other storage jars include the bow rim jars,

also characteristic to this region. Holemouth jars were

also found.

The excavators anticipated that a careful study of the

storage-related finds from the site would provide a deeper

understanding of the agricultural practices. Ein Zippori is

one of the main sites of the sixth to fifth millennia BC at

the northern part of Israel, a time about which relatively

little is known regarding consumption habits in daily life.

Therefore, studying the commodities stored in contempo-

raneous vessels was desired. In this article we will focus

on the finds of the Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian layers,

i.e. about 5800�4500 BC. Here we report the results of

the analyses of samples from these contexts.

Materials

Samples from three locally made vessels � one amphoris-

kos and two jars � found in different contexts of the Wadi

Rabah and pre-Ghassulian levels of the site have been

sampled for organic residue analysis, to assess their origi-

nal contents.

Amphoriskos (sample EZ020) is a small jar having a

flat base and a narrow neck, averted rims and two loop

handles attached to the center of the body (Figure 3A and

Table 3). The body shape resembles that of the Pottery

Neolithic period jars from what is known as the Lodian

culture (Braun 1997, figure 15.3: 14-1; Getzov et al. 2009,

figure 29: 1�8), but the centric location of the handles

dates this vessel to the Early Chalcolithic (Wadi Rabah

culture) around the middle of the sixth millennium BC

(e.g. Getzov 2009, figure 2.32: 15).

Sample EZ024 was taken from the base of a jar

(Figure 3B and Table 3). The jar was not restored, but

several of its parts were identified. It has a characteristic

applied rope decoration on the body and the remains of

red paint were found on it. This type of rope decoration

appears in the very late phases of the Early Chalcolithic,

i.e. pre-Ghassulian Chalcolithic cultures (e.g. Getzov

2009, pp. 67�68), dated to the first half of the fifth mil-

lennium BC.

Another jar (EZ026) was not completely restored, and

thus it remains unclear whether it is a necked jar or a hole-

mouth jar (Figure 3C). One knob handle was found; the

other handles of this type were not preserved. Similar

knob handles are known from the Pottery Neolithic period

from what is known as the Lodian culture, dated to the

seventh to sixth millennia BC (Garfinkel 1999, figure 23:

4; Getzov et al. 2009, figure 29: 13) but can also be found

in the Wadi Rabah culture (e.g. Getzov 2009: figure 2.24:

1). Associated with this vessel, numerous sherds, adorned

with typical Wadi Rabah decoration motifs were found

(cf. Garfinkel 1999: figure 90). Hence, we date this vessel

to the middle of the sixth millennium BC.

Table 2. The sixth to fifth millennia BC at Ein Zippori: relative chronology of the subdivisions, according to different researchers.

Years BC Strata Garfinkel (1999) Getzov (forthcoming) Parallel assemblages

Ca. 4800?�4500 I Middle Chalcolithic Early Chalcolithic 3 Besorian

Ca. 5100�4800? II Early Chalcolithic 2 Nahal Zehora IQatifian

Early Chalcolithic Jericho VIII

Ca. 5800�5100 III Early Chalcolithic 1 Nahal Zehora II (stratum II)Wadi Rabah site (building B)

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Samples were taken on site, during the excavation sea-

son. Contact with bare hands was kept to a minimum and

the samples were not washed or handled in any way prior

to analysis in the laboratory (Table 3). In order to assess

the preservation state of the samples in the site in general,

22 other items (EB IB and II vessels) were also sampled,

in the same manner described hereafter. The vessels from

Ein Zippori were analyzed together with samples from

Figure 3. A. Amphoriskos 70181 (EZ020) in situ (left) and after restoration (right). B. Jar 52121 (EZ024) in situ (left) and the plasticdecoration appearing on its body (right). C. Jar 77093 (EZ026) in situ (left) and after restoration (right).

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two other completely unrelated sites in Israel (the City of

David and Ahihud junction), to monitor any fortuitous

introduction of contamination during laboratory work.

Methods

The extraction and analysis procedures of the lipids fol-

lowed well-established methods (Evershed et al. 1990;

Charters et al. 1993). All glassware was washed with HCl

1M and then carefully rinsed with distilled water, following

washes with acetone, dichloromethane and then drying in a

fume hood. Fragments of the sherds were broken off the

ceramic vessels with pliers, fragmented and ground manu-

ally to a powder in a pestle and mortar. Samples (1g each)

were extracted twice with 10 ml of dichloromethane:meth-

anol (2:1, v/v) followed by sonication for 10 min. The

tubes were centrifuged for 5 min at 3500 rpm to separate

the ceramic powder from the solvents. The supernatant

was decanted to a clean glass vial. The accumulated sol-

vents were evaporated under a gentle stream of nitrogen. A

blank sample was run routinely with each batch of extrac-

tion to monitor any possible laboratory contamination.

Prior to analysis, 100 ml of N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluor-

oacetamide containing 1% trimethylchlorosilane was added

to the dry extracts followed by heating at 70�C for 20 min.

One microliter of each sample was injected into the gas

chromatograph (GC) with mass selective detector (MSD)

in a splitless mode.

Table 3. List of pottery vessels sampled on site during the excavation. WR, Wadi Rabah; OO, olive oil; PO, plant oil (other than oliveoil).

Lab # Area Square Locus BasketLocalstratum

Generalstratum Period/Culture Type of vessel Content

EZ020 N1 V230 7027 70181 3b IX WR Amphoriskos OO

EZ026 N5 S224 7727 77093 4 IX WR Jar OO + PO

EZ024 K1 U172 5226 52121 4c IX Pre-Ghassulian Jar OO + PO

EZ 012 B K173, L173 1540 14082 1, 2 I, VII EB IB Jar OO

EZ 014 C J181 1781 16880 3a VIII EB IB Jar OO

EZ 015 C J179 1908 17559 3c VIII EB IB Jar OO

EZ 016 E K164 3064 30390 4 VIII EB IB Jar OO

EZ018 E K169 3098 30521 3b VII EB II Jar OO

EZ025 K1 V172 5213 52131 3a VIII EB IB Jar OO + PO

EZ027 L1 T129 6079 60304-6 3b VIII EB IB Jar OO + PO

EZ029 L1 T128 6085 60296-8 3b VIII EB IB Bow rim jar OO +PO

EZ030 L1 S129 6124 60373-5 3c VIII EB IB Jar n.a.

EZ031-033 L1 T129 6079 60291-5 3b VIII EB IB Jar OO + PO

EZ 017 E K169 3071 30446 3a VII EB II Jug OO + PO

EZ013 B K174 1490 14344 3b VIII EB IB Holemouth jar Heated PO

EZ028 L1 T129 6079 60308-9 3b VIII EB IB Holemouth jar Heated PO

EZ011 A K154 1077 10458 3 VII EB II Holemouth jar Heated PO

EZ 023 B L174 1499 13885 3a VIII EB IB Spouted holemouth jar OO + PO

EZ 019 K3 U194 5147 50598 2a VIII EB IB Pithos n.a.

Table 4. List of the compounds identified in the lipid extracts of the Wadi Rabah and pre-Ghassulian vessels from Ein Zippori. Cx:y, afatty acid with x carbons chain and y degree of unsaturation, all in their trimethylsilyl forms; Cxol, alcohol with x carbons chain. Ratiosbetween peaks are based on area under the peak.

Fatty acids ratios

Lab # Type Total lipid extract C18:1/C16:0 C16:0/C18:0 C18:1/C18:0

EZ026 Jar C8:0, glycerol, C9:0, C16:0, C18ol, C18:2, C18:1, C18:0, C24ol 1:1.4 3:1 2:1

EZ024 Jar C8:0, glycerol, C9:0, n-C16, C16:1, C16:0, C18ol, C18:2, C18:1, C18:0 1:1 3:1 3:1

EZ020 Amphoriskos C16:0, C18ol, C18:2, C18:1, C18:0, stannane, b-sitosterol 3:1 1:1.2 3:1

1-year-oldolive oil

� C16:1, C16:0, C18:2, C18:1, C18:0, C24ol, MAG18, b-sitosterol 2:1 2:1 4:1

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Results

Two Wadi Rabah vessels (one amphoriskos and one jar)

and one pre-Ghassulian jar (Figure 3) were analyzed for

their total lipid contents. The results of the extraction of

these samples are listed in Table 4 and presented in the

chromatograms of Figure 4A�C. In all three samples,

free fatty acids � mainly palmitic, oleic and stearic

acids � were detected. The oleic acid has been detected in

high amounts, in most cases even as the most abundant

component of the extract. The assemblages identified

points to a known organic source. Based on multiple

investigations, it was established that when the amount of

palmitic acid exceeds the relative amount of stearic acid

(C16:0 � C18:0) this can serve as a reliable indicator for

the presence of plant oil (Copley et al. 2005). This phe-

nomenon was demonstrated for all the extracts of the Pot-

tery Neolithic jars; hence, we conclude they all contained

plant oil. Another accepted notion is that very high

amounts of oleic acid (C18:1 > 70%) over the relative

amounts of stearic and palmitic acids, accompanied with

linoleic acid (C18:2) and the complete absence of linolenic

(C18:3) acid, together provide substantial evidence for the

presence of olive oil (Evershed et al. 1997; Boskou 2002).

These criteria are fully accomplished for the extract of jug

EZ020. In the case of the two other jars analyzed (EZ024

and EZ026) it seems to be a mixture of plant oils, i.e. olive

oil mixed with unidentified plant oil that was stored in the

same pottery vessel.

We note that after olive oil has been absorbed to a

ceramic substrate and extracted for analysis, the molecular

composition and the relative amounts of the fatty acids

changes. The cis- and trans- configurations of the oleic

acid become distinguishable, stearyl alcohol (1-octadeca-

nol) is recorded, and the relative amounts of linoleic acid

(C18:2) are augmented. These changes were observed for

the archaeological samples analyzed here as well.

Discussion

As jars and jugs are containers traditionally assumed to

have been used for storage (jars) and serving (jugs) rather

than food preparation, and as no soot marks were recog-

nized on any of them, they were favored for residue analy-

sis study of agriculture in the region of the site of Ein

Zippori. The results agree with this assumption, demon-

strating the presence of plant oil in the three vessels ana-

lyzed. Pure olive oil was detected in the amphoriskos,

meaning that the vessel was used solely to contain olive

oil throughout its use. In the jars, as opposed to the

amphoriskos, the purity of the olive oil was not conserved.

It seems that in the two analyzed jars olive oil was proba-

bly mixed with other vegetable oil. This may suggest that

jars were used as a multi-content vessel, perhaps due to

their longer periods of use.

Figure 4. Chromatograms of (A) jar EZ 026; (B) jar EZ024; (C)amphoriskos EZ020; (D) one-year-old pure olive oil. Cx:y, a fattyacid with x carbons chain and y degree of unsaturation, all in theirtrimethylsilylated form; Cxol, alcohol with x carbons chain.

Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 7

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The importance of the beginning of olive manipula-

tion was noted in the introduction, but when did man start

to use olives for their oil? There is no debate over the

notion that during the EB I olives were already domesti-

cated and olive oil production was an important part of

the economy and the diet of the southern Levant (e.g.

Zohary & Spiegel-Roy 1975; Milevski 2011, pp.

137�141). Amiran (1985, p. 191) suggested that the con-

tainers on the donkey figurines, characteristic of the EB

(Milevski 2011, pp. 177�188) symbolize necked jars con-

taining a costly liquid such as olive oil. In addition, analy-

sis of the contents of Canaanite EB II jars (some of them

from “metallic ware”) from the Tomb of Djer at Abydos

in Egypt, indicated that they contained residues of vegeta-

ble oil (Serpico & White 1996). Furthermore, some

“metallic ware” EB II jars from Giza was found sealed,

indicating that they probably contained some sort of liq-

uid. Two of them contained a fragrant resin of a conifer-

ous tree (Reisner & Smith 1955). This led Esse (1991,

p. 124) to suggest that jars were routinely coated with

pitch or resin during the EB to make them more suitable

for storing liquids.

The main question, hence, is whether the spread of

olive culture in the southern Levant had already occurred

in the late Pottery Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic periods.

According to the finds from Kfar Samir, one of the sub-

merged sites along the Mediterranean coast, it seems that

the first stage of significant production of olive oil was

achieved by crushing the fruits, which were later disposed

of in pits (Galili & Sharvit 1995: figures 2�4; Galili et al.

1997, pp. 1143�1146). The 14C dates of the olive stones

found at Kfar Samir ranges between 5000 and 4500 cal

BC (Galili et al. 1997: table 3) with some pits giving even

later dates. According to that, it seems that the pits of the

site reflect a long duration of activity in the second half of

the Early Chalcolithic and possibly even the beginning of

the Late Chalcolithic period, i.e. the Ghassulian culture.

This primary use of olives may indicate oil production.

It is unclear whether the olives used in this initial

industry were already domesticated in earlier periods. We

can address this question only indirectly, relating to the

results of other scholars. For instance, Neef (1990) pub-

lished data of olive remains including wood in three Chal-

colithic sites located in the eastern bank of the lower

Jordan Valley, where wild olives are not found today (Tel-

eilat Ghassul, several kilometers north of the Dead Sea;

Abu Hamid, about midway between the Dead Sea and the

Sea of Galilee; and Tell esh Shuna, several kilometers

south of the Sea of Galilee). Another set of findings that

have demonstrated the widespread phenomenon of olive

oil production in these Chalcolithic sites are the finds of

large amounts of waste (crushed olive stones, the so-

called “jift”) from olive pressing (Neef 1990). The finding

of jift indicates olive oil production, and the findings of

wood in sites having no wild olives in their vicinity may

indicate the existence of local Chalcolithic orchards. The

notion that the Chalcolithic people produced olive oil is

further supported by the many finds of olive stones, wood

parts and crushing basins found in several Chalcolithic

sites in the Golan Heights (Epstein 1993), and by the paly-

nological evidence from Birkat Ram Crater Lake (north-

ern Golan), which shows high olive pollen percentages in

the Chalcolithic (about 4500 BC), supporting the Chalco-

lithic date for widespread olive culture (Neumann et al.

2007). Other pollen diagrams that also cover the early

Holocene from the Dead Sea and Lake Hula show this

phenomenon as well (e.g. van Zeist et al. 2009; Litt et al.

2012). All these findings strongly indicate a well-estab-

lished olive culture already in the Chalcolithic period.

Under the accumulating impression of common olive

finds in Chalcolithic sites, Liphschitz (2005) also accepted

that propagation of wild olives by farmers could have

already begun during the Chalcolithic period. Lovell

(2002, p. 100; 2008) even suggested that olive oil was

already exported from our region to Egypt during the

Chalcolithic period.

Our finding reported here of the detection of olive oil in

the extracts of three ceramic vessels found in well-defined

archaeological contexts dating to the sixth and fifth millen-

nia BC pulls back the beginning of olive oil production

several centuries back. This finding can certainly deduce

the period in which manipulation of the tree by man began.

Finding olive oil in ceramic containers from Ein Zippori,

together with the finds from Kfar Samir at least, teaches us

that the storage of vegetable oil and especially olive oil

was a routine custom and had a major role in the diet of

the pre-Ghassulian population. It shows that the Kfar Samir

find is not anecdotic but rather reflective of the consump-

tion habits of the time. It cannot, however, echo on the

debate concerning the domestication of the olive tree, as

almost no botanical remains were found at this site. In this

sense, the results shed light on the site landscape as well, a

knowledge that could not have been gained otherwise.

Acknowledgments

The excavations at Ein Zippori were conducted by the IsraelAntiquity Authority and were funded by the National Companyof Roads. The authors wish to thank Fadi Abu Zidan, EnnoBron, Gilad Jaffe, Roy Liran, Maayan Shemer, Alla Yarosevich,Omar Zidan, for their invaluable help in the field. The authorsare also indebted to Heeli Shechter and Lena Brailovsky for theirwork on the flint and obisidan assemblages, and to Rivka Mis-hayev and Mendel Kahan for their work in surveying and draw-ing of dig plans and sections. Thanks are also due to YossiYa’aqobi and Yossi Laban for their administrative skills and tothe field workers from Kfar Manda, Nazareth, Iblin, Shefaramand Tiberius. Pottery restoration of the vessels was done by LeaPorat. Radiocarbon dating was carried out by Joanna Regev andElisabetta Boaretto from the Weizmann Institute of Science. Pic-tures and illustrations were made available courtesy of the IsraelAntiquities Authority. We thank the department of publications

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of the Israel Antiquities Authority for the permission granted topublish this research. We want to thank Simcha Lev-Yadun andDafna Langgut, the editors of this special issue, for the invitationto participate in it and for their invaluable comments on a previ-ous draft of this paper.

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