Occupation dynamics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselian (MIS5d-3): The Lower Silesia (SW Poland) case study

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Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21

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Occupation dynamics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during theWeichselian (MIS5d-3): The Lower Silesia (SW Poland) case study

Andrzej Wi�sniewskia,*, Grzegorz Adamiecb, Janusz Badurac, Andrzej Bluszczb, Anna Kowalskad,Bernadeta Kufel-Diakowskaa, Anna Miko1ajczyka, Micha1 Murczkiewicze, Rudolf Musilf,Bogus1aw Przybylskic, Grzegorz Skrzypekg, Krzysztof Stefaniakh, Joanna Zycha

a Institute of Archaeology, The University of Wrocław, Szewska 48, 50e139 Wrocław, Polandb Institute of Physics, The Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 2, 44e100 Gliwice, Polandc Lower Silesian Branch, Polish Geological InstituteeNational Research Institute, Jaworowa 19, 50e122 Wrocław, Polandd Institute of Geological Sciences, The University of Wrocław, Maksa Borna 9, 50e205 Wrocław, PolandeBarycka 7/15, 50-325 Wrocław, PolandfDepartment of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlá�rská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republicg John de Laeter Centre of Mass Spectrometry, School of Plant Biology, The University of Western Australia, MO90, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009, Australiah Institute of Zoology, The University of Wrocław, Sienkiewicza 21, 50-335 Wrocław, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

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* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected]

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a b s t r a c t

This study provides new data about the chronological framework, as well as revising the occupationalmodel of the Neanderthals in areas north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during MIS 5 and MIS 3.According to the current numerical dating from key sites in Central Europe, the settlement hiatusbetween MIS 5a and the time of occurrence of transitional industries (w45-40 ka) postulated in earlierpublications should be dismissed. With the exception of MIS 4 (74-59 ka), Neanderthals exploited thisarea, before the appearance of transitional industries. The estimation of mean annual temperatures(MAT) based on the stable oxygen isotope composition of animal bones enabled understanding ofclimatic as well as the environmental factors governing this process. Neanderthals were especially activein this part of Central Europe during the warmer events of the Weichselian. They mainly inhabitedscattered patches rich in food sources and used diverse strategies of blank and tool production (formaland expedient ones). Analysis of technological and functional parameters of flint artefacts showed thatsimilar strategies were used by archaic humans exploiting both Central and Western Europe. In the lightof microscopic studies of flint artefacts, it seems that tools were of multipurpose use, and some of themwere hafted. Central Europe shows evidence of punctuated habitation which resulted from gradual andnatural expanding of the settlement ecumene during the periods of hospitable climatic conditions. Atpresent, there is no evidence that the level of mobility was higher than in other parts of Europe. Theconclusions are based on regional data from the analysis of a series of archaeological and geological sites,combined with comprehensive studies of the Hallera Av. Site, Wroc1aw, Poland. The Hallera Av. site is oneof the best open-air sites in Central Europe, with an exploration area covering >800 m2. The multi-seasonal excavation resulted in the discovery of numerous stone artefacts and faunal remains. Theconclusions are based on dating, geological, sedimentological studies, spatial analysis, and site formationprocesses combined with detailed multidisciplinary studies of artefacts and faunal remains.

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1. Introduction

Understanding of the stages and dynamic of archaic humandispersion on areas north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during

roc.pl (A. Wi�sniewski).

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ski, A., et al., Occupation dynase study, Quaternary Intern

theWeichselian has significantly changed over the last two decadesas new chronological evidence became available. However,knowledge of the recolonization of Central Europe after coldevents, especially during the two warm episodes of MIS 5d-MIS 5a(110e74 ka) andMIS 3 (59e40 ka), still seems to be incomplete andneeds revision. Until recently, it was believed that the MiddlePalaeolithic people occupied the north part of Central Europe untilthe 1st Pleniglacial only (w74 ka, MIS 4). Koz1owski (1989, 2000)

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suggested a settlement hiatus from the 1st cold event (59 ka) untilthe occurrence of the “transitional” industries (45e40 ka).However, the possibility that some groups of East Micoquian orMousterian hunters, well-adapted to the cold climatic conditions,could have survived in some parts of Central Europe during the 1stpleniglacial was also taken into account (Koz1owski, 1992, 2000, p.77, p. 77). Regarding the new data, there is no evidence for sucha long hiatus in the occupation of the area north of the Carpathiansand Sudetes. Firstly, numerical dating from the last two decadesplaced many Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in this time-span(Valladas et al., 2008; Zieba et al., 2008; Nadachowski et al.,2009; Skrzypek et al., 2011). Secondly, DNA studies do notprovide convincing evidence for global population decline thattime (Fabre et al., 2009). Moreover, the influence of the postulatedvolcanic winter w73.5 ka as a result of the Toba supereruption onSumatra, Indonesia (Ambrose, 1998) on population density is notobvious according to recent studies (cf. Gathorne-Hardy andHarcourt-Smith, 2003). Finally, in the light of climatic and ecolog-ical analyses it seems that the conditions were not so harsh tothwart the penetration of these areas (Skrzypek et al., 2011). Anincreasing amount of data suggest that during the warm events,such as that at the beginning of MIS 3, climatic conditions werefavourable enough for the development of patches of land with anoptimal level of biodiversity for securing sufficient food supply forsmall group of hunters (Musil, 2003; Arppe and Karhu, 2010).

New evidence for MIS 5 and MIS 3 suggests that the previousmodels of the archaic humans’ dispersion and the form of theirterritory exploitation require revision. According to recent studies,archaic humans, as in other parts of Northern Eurasia, broadenedtheir ecumene in a natural way (cf. Gamble, 2009) and exploited itadequately to meet their social and technological abilities, as wellas making biological adjustments to the cold climate (Mellars,1996; Aiello and Wheeler, 2003; Rolland, 2010). However, thisexploitation in Central Europe was not as intensive and wide as inthe case of Southern Europe, which had refugial areas (cf. Hublin

Fig. 1. Distribution of the Middle Palaeolithic sites mentioned in the text with the exte

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and Roebroeks, 2009). This is the reason why there is a lack oflong sequences of settlement or rich assemblages, such as thoseknown from south-western France. Although these quantitativedifferences exist, data obtained during the last few decades indi-cate clearly that during the early and middle Weichselian, groupsof archaic humans in Central Europe used similar technologicalorganization and subsistence strategies as in other parts ofEurasia.

The high level of mobility of Neanderthals inhabiting CentralEurope, as suggested by Féblot-Augustins (1993, 1999), remains anopen question, especially when the new results of petrographicstudies are taken into account (Neruda, this volume; Nerudová, thisvolume) or when the complex picture of settlement and exploita-tion of the environment is considered. Further premises indicatingrather limited mobility come from behavioural models based onanalysis of hunters and gatherers. The results of isotopic studies ofstrontium (87Sr/86Sr) from Neanderthal bones supports thisassumption (e.g. Gamble, 1999, p. 89; Binford, 2001, pp.118e129;Richards et al., 2008; Grove, 2009; but see; Nowell and Horstwood,2009).

The discussion over the exploitation models of areas north ofthe Carpathians and Sudetes massifs has been triggered by newdata about MIS 5 and MIS 3. This discussion begins by presentationof new facts concerning the climatic conditions and archaeologicalfindings from a regional perspective. Then, based on the discov-eries from the site of Hallera Av. in Wroc1aw (SW Poland), locatedw200 km northwest of the Moravian Gate, attention is focusedon the problem of exploitation of lowland areas (Fig. 1). Thesefindings indicate that lowlands were penetrated several timesduring MIS 5 and again at the beginning of MIS 3. Traces of thisexploitation were recognised in the form of different archaeolog-ical technocomplexes. Supposedly during those two occupationalphases, food sources and raw materials along the middle course ofthe Odra River were sufficiently abundant to allow the exploitationof this area.

nts of Pleistocene glaciations in Central Europe. A. Miko1ajczyk and A. Wi�sniewski.

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2. Regional setting

2.1. Chronology, settlement and behaviour of archaic humanexploiting areas north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during thelast glaciation (MIS 5de3)

The presentation of archaeological evidence from the siteHallera Av. in Wroc1aw is preceded by the examination ofthe chronology, geographical dispersion and subsistence strate-gies of archaic humans in the areas north of the Carpathiansand Sudetes (from MIS 5a to the beginning of MIS 3: see Fig. 1).The chronological assessment of the Middle Palaeolithic settle-ment in Central Europe, as in other regions of Europe, posesa challenge, because most of the archaeological sites from thesurrounding area are dated to the early Weichselian with the useof conventional stratigraphy only (e.g. Kozlowski and Kozlowski,1996).

Fig. 2. Selected radiometric dates of Middle Palaeolithic

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The discussion over the settlement hiatus during MIS 4 and 3was already raised by Richter (2002, p. 18), who pointed out thestrong similarities of technological and typological features ofMicoquian arterfacts between German and Polish assemblages. Theage of German sites was determined as MIS 3 with the use ofnumerical dating (see Fig. 2). The Micoquian layer G from Sessel-felsgrotte (Richter, 1997) in the light of measurements of burnt silexis placed between 51.1 � 10.3 ka and 61.9 � 10.9 ka with the meanage of 56.0 � 4.7 ka (Richter et al., 2000; Richter, 2002, p. 14, p. 14).Similar dates were obtained for Schulerloch, Abri I: 51.4 � 4.5 ka(Richter et al., 2000) and for Lichtenberg, with the mean of TL dates- 57 � 6 ka (Veil et al., 1994). Some other sites including KönigsaueA (43.8� 2.1 BP, OxA-7124), Königsaue B (48.4� 3.7 BP, OxA-7125),and Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (36 � 0.55 BP, GrN-9372, 54.9 � 0.9 BPGrN-2083), had similar radiometric dates indicating MIS 3 (Maniaand Toepfer, 1973; Tode, 1982; Hedges et al., 1998; Pastoors, 1999,2001). However, based on the stratigraphical data and typo-

assemblages from Central Europe. A. Wi�sniewski.

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technological records, some authors suggest an older age forKönigsaue and Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (e.g. Jöris, 2004, 2006). Somechronological discrepancy can be also observed between the resultsof dating of Polish sites and those from Czech Republic and Slovakia(Fig. 2). The radiocarbon age of Micoquian layer 7a from K�ulna Cavewas estimated, based on two burnt fragments of human bones, as38e46 ka (Mook,1988). However, these results must be regarded asminimum ages only, as methods of elimination of contaminationsin the 1980s were not very efficient (e.g. Higham et al., 2006). Theresults of ESR-dating (Electron Spin Resonance) based on animalenamel (10 samples) from this layer vary between 50.0 � 5.0 ka(average LU age-linear uptake) and 53.0 � 6.0 ka (average RU age-recent uptake) (Rink et al., 1996), and recent OSL estimations (2samples) suggest older age than MIS 3: 71.09 � 4 ka and63.36� 3.83 ka (Nejman et al., 2011). Two dates fromyounger layer6a are very similar, but the one from entrance to the cave suggestsan age ca. 30 ka, which does not discredit the value of earlierestimations. The radiocarbon age of bones from �Sipka cave(Moravia, Czech Republic) should be also mentioned, although onlyone date of 39.94 ka (uncalibrated), from a bone with the lowcollagen content is available (Neruda, 2006). Also, data fromDzeravá skala cave, Slovakia (Kaminská et al., 2005) show relativelyyoung ages for settlements starting during MIS 3, i.e. 57�4.9 ka forMicoquian layer 11 (Nejman et al., 2011), and 49.7 � 3.0 ka and47.0 � 2.3 ka (Davies and Hedges, 2005).

The latest examples of redating of cultural layers from somePolish sites, e.g., from Piekary IIa to the MIS 3 (Fig. 2) suggest thatold models of settlement discontinuity could be misleading(Mercier et al., 2003; Valladas et al., 2008). Moreover, the newdiscovery of the Kraków e Ksiecia Józefa Street site (see also Fig. 2:Zieba et al., 2008; Sitlivy et al., 2009), Komarowa Cave, Wroc1awOporów and Stajnia Cave (Wi�sniewski, 2006a; Nadachowski et al.,2009; M. Urbanowski, personal communication, 2010) confirmedsettlement during MIS 3.

The geographical distribution of Middle Palaeolithic sites withinthe Carpathians and Sudetes foreland is known from a vast areacharacterized by diverse geographical features. For example, theZwole�n site, which is the most northern site known from CentralEurope (51�21’N), is located at w150 m a.s.l. Sites around Ojcównear Kraków in the southern part of the analyzed territory aresituated atw600m a.s.l., and sites in the Odra Valley nearWroc1aware located at w120 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). This diversity in distributionreflects the great bio-cultural ability of archaic human to exploitvarious areas (cf. Schild, 2005b, p. 238, p. 238). Moreover, there issome evidence that similar thresholds had been already reached byarchaic humans between MIS 8 and MIS 6 (Wi�sniewski, 2008;Cyrek et al., 2010). Apart from Zwole�n, other localities situatedeven farther to the north (Susiluola Cave, Finland, 62�N; Schultz,2002, 2010) are known from Eurasia. Their presence suggests thatthe choice of a particular area for settlement was influenced notonly by the climate but also by the availability of food linked withbiodiversity as well as the ecotonal character of a particularmicroregion. This explains why the remains are concentrated onlyin some areas within patches (Soffer, 2000). North of the Carpa-thians and Sudetes are several clusters of open-air sites, located atsome distance from natural shelters (the middle and upper courseof Odra River, the foreland of Holy Cross Mountains) and severalclusters where sites located within or in the closest area of naturalshelters prevail (Czestochowa Upland, Pradnik Valley and Wis1aValley near Kraków) (Kozlowski and Kozlowski, 1996; Wi�sniewski,2006a; Foltyn et al., 2007).

Presumably, these sites can be chronologically correlated withsites from the Carpathians or the Bohemian Massif which are datedto MIS 5ae5d and MIS 3 (Valoch, 1988; Valde-Nowak et al., 2003;Kaminská et al., 2005; see also; Svoboda, 2005). However, whether

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these localities, spread on both sides of the massifs, representa demographic continuum is another problem. In the light of thestudies of raw material circulation, from south to north and viceversa, it seems that some displacementmust have happened at thattime (e.g., Sólyomkùt, Hungary: Vértes, 1960). Probably the natureof thesemovements between particular patcheswas not very rapid.The lack of any great amount of raw materials imported fromparticular regions supports this notion. Taking all these data intoaccount supports the hypothesis that the remains of materialculture from that period are the result of seasonal but small-scalemovements of groups maintaining close internal relationships(Gamble et al., 2004, p. 251, p. 251).

The recognition of subsistence strategies of archaic humansexploring the studied area is based on a few faunal collectionsdiscovered from caves and open-air sites (Wojtal, 2007). In thecontext of cave sites, evident traces of scavenging or huntingactivities were confirmed from Raj Cave (layer 4 and 6) (Koz1owski,1972; Patou-Mathis, 2004). However, it can be expected that othersites which are being excavated, such as Bi�snik Cave (Cyrek et al.,2010), Stajnia Cave (Urbanowski et al., 2010) or Ciemna Cave (P.Wojtal, personal communication, 2010), will provide furtherinformation on subsistence strategies of their inhabitants. Recog-nized open-air sites, for the analysed period, with faunal remainsare also rare. Within them, the largest assemblage is known fromZwole�n near Radom (Gautier, 2005). In the case of open-air sites,the relation between human activity and megafauna is difficult todetect (e.g. Wroc1aw Oporów, A1 and A2: Wi�sniewski et al., 2009)due to the partial decay of faunal remains and fluvial processes.Nevertheless, from the available data it seems that the sites locatedto the north of the Carpathians and Sudetes are represented by twotypes of faunal remains: a) collections typical for cave sites withdiverse taxa of megafauna, mainly steppe-tundra species; b)collections, known from both cave and open-air sites, dominated byone species of steppe-tundra fauna. The first group of sites is con-nected mostly with ephemeral but repeatable occupation of thecave sites during the different seasons, whereas the second can belinked with seasonal hunting as in the case of reindeer (Patou-Mathis, 2000, p. 389, p. 389).

Taking into account all the evidence, data from the early andmiddle Weichselian derived from the studied area reflects variousstrategies of the residential habits of archaic humans. From cavesites, short-term camps are known, but also there is some evidenceof longer occupation, represented by abundant stone artefacts,post-consumption waste, hearths and stone constructions (e.g.Bi�snik Cave, layer 6e5, Cyrek et al., 2010). Open-air sites mainlyshow evidence for short-term occupation (Piekary IIa, Sitlivy et al.,2008) and hunting practice (Zwole�n: Schild, 2005a). However,single sites also confirm the existence of base camps (Kraków,Ksiecia Józefa Str., Layer III: Sitlivy et al., 2009; Zieba et al., 2008).The range of tasks and the chronological span of findings discussedabove do not differ from those known from the BohemianMassif orMittelgebirge in Germany.

2.2. Uncertainty over palaeoclimate reconstructions for theNeanderthal migrations

Most of the area of Central Europe was probably only settledby Neanderthals during the relatively short, warm phases of thePleistocene epoch. Therefore linking local climate conditions withthe Neanderthals’ ecological habitat is crucial for understandingtheir distribution as well as for uncovering the reasons for theNeanderthals’ extinction (e.g. Finlayson et al., 2006; Jiménez-Espejo et al., 2007; Banks et al., 2008). The Neanderthals areconsidered to have been robust hominids, but what was the meanannual temperature permitting settlement in colder regions? An

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attempt to answer this question could be made, based on generalcomplex paleoclimate models or local but more fragmentedrecords.

Several high-resolution, global scale paleoclimate models havebeen proposed during recent decades. However, precise recon-struction of the global climate variation over the last 150,000 yearsreally became possible by utilizing the stable oxygen isotopecomposition (d18O) of ice-cores collected from Greenland (e.g.Dansgaard et al., 1993; Grootes et al., 1993). Because the d18O valueof precipitation highly depends on the air temperature duringprecipitation, more negative d18O values reflect lower temperatures(w0.6e0.7&/C�) (Johnsen et al., 1992). Consequently, taking intoaccount analytical uncertainty, the air surface temperature can becalculated with a precision greater than 0.5 C�. However, theserelative variations in temperature were recorded in ice-corescollected in places where it has “always” been cold. For instance,the current mean air temperature for the GISP core sampling siteis �31 �C, and similarly the mean annual paleotemperatures overthe last 150,000 years ranged from �30 �C to �45 �C d18Oice �43to �33&) (Grootes et al., 1993). For that reason, the resolution andsensitivity of this method likely decrease with increasing distancefrom the ice-core sampling sites, and the precise reconstruction ofclimate for places which were inhabited by humans is even morecomplex and consequently less precise.

The other alternative for temperature reconstruction is theapplication of more local records acquired directly from Europe, e.g.pollen and insect analyses. These reconstructions are not as preciseas the stable isotope ice-core palaeothermometry and records aremore fragmented, but the advantage is that they are linked directlywith places of potential human presence. The resolution is lowerbecause of several limitations of these methods; for instance, thefossilized insects (family Chironomidae) can be used for estimationof summer (July) temperatures only (Engels et al., 2008). On theother hand, the relative ratio between plant species (estimatedbased on fossilized pollen) depends not only on temperature butalso on precipitation and mutual interactions and competitionbetween coexisting species (Faegri et al., 1989). Moreover, thechanges in the ecosystem structures are significantly delayed byslow species adaptation (ecosystem inertia) and the delayed arrivalof new species after warming (pace of successional changes), aswell as by different ranges in temperature tolerance for differentspecies (Delcourt and Delcourt, 1987; Overpeck et al., 1990;Skrzypek et al., 2009). This lag is not very large in the case ofecosystems with a complex mosaic of species, where most of thetaxa are present all the time, and only the relative ratio changesover time (Skrzypek et al., 2009), but it could be very significant forprimary succession, e.g. during rapid warming.

Hence, the uncertainty over a precise reconstruction of paleo-temperatures exists, and the estimated temperatures for warmevents of theWeichselian in Europe vary. According to the ice-coresrecords, the temperatures on Greenland during the warm events ofthe Weichselian glaciations were 3.5 C� lower than the Holoceneaverage temperature (Grootes et al., 1993). Recently, application ofd18O of ice as a direct proxy has been questioned, and the trappedgases were used for recalibration of previously calculated values(e.g. Huber et al., 2006; EPICA community members, 2006). Hence,the methane-corrected data from EPICA Dome C (Dronning MaudLand/Antarctica), in contrast to the previously reported values,shows annual temperatures up to 4e5 C� (for MIS 5e) higher thanthose of the Holocene. The most complex model for the whole ofcontinental Europe has been developed prior to these calibrationsbased on d18O ice-core data (van Andel et al., 2003) The estimatedby van Andel et al. (2003) mean temperatures for the MIS 3 warmevent and for the latitude and longitude closest to the Hallera Av.site (51�N, 17�E) were w15 �C in July, w3 �C in October, w�2 �C in

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April and w�6 �C in January, (mean annual temperature w3 �C).These temperatures are close to those expected for generaldescriptions of vegetation patterns e cold tundra during MIS 3(Huntley and Allen, 2003) and tundra with tree patches during MIS5 (Komar et al., 2009). However, taking into account geographiclocation, they are significantly lower in comparison to thoserecently estimated by Väliranta et al. (2009) for July, 16 �C duringthe Early Weichselian interstadial (MIS 5c) for Fennoscandia, andby Engels et al. (2008) for July, 10.5e14 �C (MIS 3) for northeastFinland. These paleotemperatures for Scandinavia are higher (forMIS 5c) or equal (for MIS 3) to present temperatures at thesesampling sites, which may require revision of the view of Weich-selian interstadials, placing the Neanderthals in a significantlydifferent climatic context.

Nevertheless, the most important limitation for the accurateassessment of the climate conditions during the Neanderthals’migration to Central Europe is not the uncertainty of the developedclimatic models themselves, but actually the uncertainty over thedating of Palaeolithic sites (frequently by a few thousand years forOSL dates). The problem with the direct chronological linking ofa climatic model with a particular archaeological site can be over-come by using a new approach proposed by Skrzypek et al. (2011)based on analyses of the stable oxygen isotope composition (d18O)of animal remains from archaeological sites with confirmedNeanderthal presence. The d18O of phosphates extracted from teethis a reliable paleotemperature proxy for Neanderthal presence, ifthe analysed animal remains are dining scraps of Palaeolithichunters. The principle of this technique is essentially the same asthe method utilizing ice-cores. The main difference is that theisotope composition of precipitation is recorded in the stableoxygen isotope composition of bones and teeth phosphates (e.g.Longinelli, 1984; D’Angela and Longinelli, 1990), not in ice. There-fore, the calculated temperature directly reflects the mean airtemperature during the animal lifetime prior to its being killed byPalaeolithic hunters, regardless of the uncertainty over dating.According to Skrzypek et al. (2011), the mean annual air tempera-tures for the Hallera Av. site during the warm Pleistocene phaseswere close to those currently observed for southern Scandinavia,approximately w6.8 � 1.5 �C for the warm phase MIS 5a andw6.3 � 1.6 �C during the early MIS 3 warm phase.

3. Methods and material

3.1. Methods

To explore and challenge the land use system behaviouralpattern of archaic humans, the results of analyses of the so calledarchaeological and systemic context sensu Schiffer (1972) wereintegrated. New chronometric, geological and sedimentologicaldata obtained from the Hallera Av. site supplemented by calculationof MAT (Skrzypek et al., 2011), pelaeozoological records(Wi�sniewski et al., 2009), spatial analysis of stone artefacts andfaunal remains allowingmore comprehensive reconstruction of thelife conditions of archaic humans. Typo-technological studiestogetherwithmicro analysis of stone tools allowed characterisationof the types of human activity within the discerned horizons.

3.2. Materials e Hallera Av. site, Wrocław, SW Poland

The interest of archaic humans in the exploitation of CentralEurope lowlands duringMIS 5eMIS 3 is confirmed by the data fromthe open-air site Hallera Av. in Wroc1aw. The excavations carriedout between 1991 and the beginning of 2008 covered a significantarea within the northern (w114 m2), middle (w700 m2) andsouthern sector (25.5m2) of the site (Fig. 3). The data obtained from

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Fig. 3. Location of the Hallera Av. site. A e Satellite image taken in 2007 (� TECHMEX S.A., All Rights Reserved) during excavation (area marked with red). B - Excavated sectors at theMiddle Palaeolithic site. E A. Miko1ajczyk and A. Wi�sniewski. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of thisarticle.)

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these surfaces have allowed the construction of a topographicalmodel correlated with the distribution of stone artefacts and richassemblages of faunal remains. Stone artefacts represent twodifferent cultural entities expressing various mental templates oftheir users and producers: older Mousterian with the Levalloistradition (according to Kozlowski and Kozlowski, 1996), and theyounger Micoquian or Keilmessergruppe (Jöris, 2006). The possi-bility of exploring such a considerable territory in the middle of anurban agglomeration was connected with the planned building ofa housing development in an area which up to the 1930s was usedas a sports centre.

Fig. 4. Location of the Palaeolithic site in profiles through the Lower Silesia (A) and Odra Rterrace, W2 e Late Weichselian terrace; H e Holocene series; An e anthropogenic deposit

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4. Results and discussion e environmental andarchaeological data

4.1. Geology, stratigraphy and chronology of site

The analysed site is situated in the southern part of the NorthEuropean Plain, about 60 km NE of the edge of Sudetes Mountains(Figs. 4 and 5). The site is located on an elevation (124e125 m a.s.l.),about 15 m above the current Odra river level, near the highestpoint of the separation between the Odra and the �Sleza valleys.According to the first interpretation, Palaeolithic artefacts had

iver valley (B). N e Neogene deposits; G e glacial series; W 1 e Middle Weichselians. B. Przybylski.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Fig. 5. Schematic sedimentological log of complexes distinguished in analysed site. B. Przybylski.

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been covered by glacial deposits (Szynkiewicz, 1993). In this area,this assumptionwould indicate that the age of the artefacts is olderthan the last phase of glacial sediment accumulation preceding MIS6. The OSL and EPR data collected shows that artefacts and bonesare considerably younger (not older than 130 ka).

Geological and geomorphological analyses on the basis ofexcavations carried out between 2004 and 2008 confirmed thatthis elevated place had been formed mainly by fluvial erosion andaccumulation. Petrographic composition of the fluvial sediments issimilar to that in the lower terraces of Odra River valley. The sitewas a remnant of the higher Odra River terrace which was shapedlater than Middle Pleistocene. Sediment, which had been previ-ously considered as a glacial deposit, should be interpreted asa solifluction flows and diamictons formed during the plunging ofthe sandy-gravel fluvial material into muddy lacustrine deposits inperiglacial conditions.

Complexes of the fluvial and lacustrine deposits are maximallyabout 3.5 m thick. The thickness of fluvial deposits in the analysedarea increases to the north. The substratum of this complex iscomposed of glaciotectonically deformed sediments, whichconsists of the glacial Elsterian and/or Saalian, Neogene clays of thePozna�n Formation, and sands with gravels of the Plio-PleistoceneGozdnica Formation.

The most important for archaeological description were sedi-ments in which stone artefacts and bone material occurred. Thedeposits have been divided into seven main complexes. ComplexesA, B, C and E contain sequences of fluvial sediments. Complexes Dand F represent lacustrine infill of relatively small local depressions.Loessic sediments in the upper part of the profile were classified

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separately as complex G. The lower level of the artefacts was foundin deposits of complexes A, and B, and the upper one in the base ofcomplex C (Fig. 5).

4.1.1. Complex AThe erosive lag which consists of pebbles and boulders from

a few centimetres to 1 m in diameter and forms an almostcontinuous layer was determined as complex A (Fig. 5). This levelseparates glaciotectonically deformed deposits from fluvial andlacustrine complexes. Most of the boulders and smaller clasts areweathered. Separate boulders and pebbles were fractured, prob-ably due to frost activity. The characteristic features of this levelindicate that it was created as a result of the erosion during themigration of the bed of a sinuous river which cut the bank of glacialdeposits, the source of pebbles and boulders. Sands and sandy siltswhich infill the spaces between the clasts are connected with thesuperimposed fluvial complex B.

4.1.2. Complex BComplex B consists of sandy gravels and coarse sands with

gravels and lenses of sandy silts. Large-scale through cross-beddedsandy gravels and gravelly sands (GSteSGt) are the dominantlithofacies association in this complex. Deposits from complex Bwere formed in a braided gravel-bed river with a relatively largesinuosity. Sandy silts and clayey silts (SFmeFm) which appearlocally among coarser material as 2e3 cm laminae or layers up to5 cm are the records of flood-plain facies of a braided river. Thedepth of water in the river bed during the sedimentation ofcomplex B usually did not exceed ten cm (maximum 1m). In stages

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e218

with water deficiency in the fluvial system, the river transportedonly suspended material.

The petrographic composition of the gravelly fraction(5e10 mm, Polish standard fraction, Rutkowski, 1995) is typical forsediments on the terraces of the Odra River (Fig. 6A and B) witha distinct dominance of quartz grains (45e50%). The contribution ofsiliceous rocks, whose origin can be linked with the Carpathianflysch as well as with the Lower Carboniferous units in the Sudetes,reaches about 8%. Porphyry characteristic for the Sudetes regionfrom the Intra-Sudetic Depression amounts to 6.5%. The quantity ofother crystalline rocks is typical for the Sudetes and varies between4 and 11%, similar to the content of the Scandinavian crystallinerocks (4e9%). This petrographic composition is typical for thesediments of the Odra River below the Nysa Klodzka tributary.However, it cannot be assumed that the fluvial material was onlydirectly derived from the upper parts of drainage basins (the Car-pathians and the Sudetes). Sudetic material occurs frequently in thegravelly fraction of many glacial deposits in the foreland of theSudetes, and locally its content is even dominant. This situation,which also relates to the sediments from the bottomof the analysedprofile (Fig. 6A and B) can be explained by redeposition of material.The ice sheets advancing towards the south would have trans-ported older fluvial sediments carried north by rivers, on theforeland of the mountains (Badura and Przybylski, 2000).

The study of heavy mineral composition also confirms this idea,because analysis of the transparent heavy minerals from theinvestigated site did not show any distinct differences between the

Fig. 6. Topographic position of the Hallera Av. site and petrographic composition of the anaRiver valley in Wroc1aw and its vicinities. Dashed lines - limits of terraces; serrated line - edgerosive-accumulative level 15e18 m above Odra River; H - site in Hallera Avenue; TS - siteComposition of the transparent heavy minerals (fraction 0.1e0.25 mm). B. Przybylski and A

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river series and the glaciofluvial sediments (Fig. 6AeC). In all ofthe samples, the association of garnet and amphibole dominates.A few percent variation in the content of other minerals does notprovide sufficient evidence to consider that the changes occurred indistant source areas. More likely, these small differences can beexplained by the redeposition of local material, which is diversedue to concentrations derived from weathering of crystallineboulders.

4.1.3. Complex COn the slope of the river bank there are lobes of redeposited

sediments e sandy silts which are typical of solifluction processes(Fig. 5). Soliflucted material contains the relics of the destroyedinitial soil level with higher amounts of organic carbon, and formsin some places a solifluction level originating from materials ofcomplexes B and C. The border between fluvial complexes B and C isdistinct and has an erosive character. Complex C consists of coarseand medium sands and gravelly sands. The petrographic compo-sition is very similar to that of complex B. Only the content of theSudetic porphyry is larger, 11.4% (Fig. 6B). A thin layer (maximum20 cm) of silts and sandy silts occurs in the base of this series. Thesmall-scale deformation structures, which exist locally in this siltylayer, are the result of plunging superjacent sandy deposits. Hori-zontally bedded gravelly sands and sands (SGheSh) are the pre-vailing type of deposits in complex C. Ripple cross-laminated sandsoccur locally only in the top of the series. Structureless homoge-neous coarse sands (SGm) and planar or ripple cross-bedded sands

lysed series of the sediments: A e Shaded relief map of the southern part of the Odrae of the post-glacial upland; Er - erosive level about 10e12 m above Odra River; Ac-Er -near Wroc1aw Town Square; B - Petrographic composition (fraction 0.5e1.0 cm); C -. Wi�sniewski.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21 9

(SpeSr) are less common in complex B. The observed sequence ofthe deposits of complex C supports evidence of the second fluvialepisode in the profile. The sediments of this complex are typical forbraided sandy-bed rivers of lower sinuosity. The flow wasephemeral and much less energetic than in the river which formedcomplex B (maximum particle size smaller than 3 cm). The depth ofthe flow fluctuated between 0.5 and 1 m.

4.1.4. Complexes DeEeGThe deposits of the D complex fill small depressions of probably

periglacial (thermokarst) origin. These local hollows had depthsfrom 0.5 m to 2 m, and diameters from 1m to 10e15 m. In contrast,the sandy sediments which occur over deposits filling the localdepressions (complex D) are the traces of the next stages of fluvialactivity in the area analysed (complex E and F). These deposits werecovered by a relatively thin layer (to 50 cm) of loessic sediments(complex G) which have been almost completely merged into theyoungest soil level.

4.2. Age of sediments and finds

The direct determination of the age of the complexes based onthe sedimentological features and the correlationwith other sites ischallenging. Hence, the stratigraphical interpretation of the ana-lysed profile relies mainly on numerical dating (OSL). Nine samplesof Pleistocene sediments collected in 2006 from the wall of anexcavation from the middle sector have been successfully dated (7from alluvial complex B and C and 2 from slope sediments ofcomplex D).

For dating, quartz grains (90e180 mm) were extracted andprepared for OSL measurements following the SAR protocol (MurrayandWintle, 2000), using aDaybreak 2200OSL readerwith support ofan EMI 9235QA photomultiplier in the Department of Radioisotopes,Institute of Physics, Silesian University of Technology (Gliwice,Poland). The OSL dating confirmed that three complexes (B, C and D)were formed during the three different periods (Table 1; Fig. 7). Theoldest complexBwasdepositedbetweenw80and50ka (mean65ka,n ¼ 5; n means a number of OSL dated samples from the complex,complexCbetween54and58ka (n¼ 2) and theyoungest layers fromcomplex D between 54 and 30 ka (n ¼ 2) (Skrzypek et al., 2011).Therefore, the oldest complex (B) presumably can be linkedwithMIS5ae4, while two younger complexes (C and D) with the beginning ofMIS 3 (time scales according to Johnsen et al., 2001; Shackleton et al.,2004; Kawamura et al., 2007). The age of accumulation of sedimentsdoes not directly reflect the age of artefacts and bones, and thereforeartefacts are terminus ante quem in relation to the age of fluvialdeposits. For the finds recorded within the top of complex A and thebase of complex B, their relation with the early Weichselian glacia-tions (Odderade interstadial, MIS 5a) seems to be the most probable.Finds from the lower part of the complex C and D can be dated to themiddle Wiechselian (GlindeeOerel interstadials, MIS 3).

Table 1Wroc1aw Hallera Av., site 1. Optically Stimulated Luminescenceages (OSL) of 9 samples (after Skrzypek et al., 2011).

Complex Laboratory code: age ka

B GdTL-854: 60.7 � 2.2GdTL-856: 51.9 � 2.0GdTL-857: 59.1 � 2.3GdTL-858: 68.9 � 2.5GdTL-862: 80.4 � 3.3

C GdTL-855: 53.8 � 3.9GdTL-859: 57.5 � 3.4

D GdTL-860: 53.9 � 1.9GdTL-861: 31.00 � 9.9

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4.3. Spatial distribution of finds from complex AþB (lower horizon)and complex C (upper horizon)

The artefacts were found within three sectors: northern, middleand southern (Fig. 3). The northern sector, disturbed by contem-porary embankment, covered the edge of plateau which had beenformed mostly by fluvial processes. The artefacts found in thissector comprised a mixture of remains from a few episodes. Thissituation excluded the possibility of deeper spatial and techno-typological analysis of this group of artefacts. The middle sectorprovided the most considerable amount of artefacts and bones,found in A and B complex (lower horizon) as well as in complex C(upper horizon). The southern sector contained only a few flintartefacts and bones. Artefacts were buried in alluvial sedimentsmodified by periglacial processes so direct stratigraphical correla-tion with the middle sector due to these disturbances is not easy.For the spatial analysis, a digital terrain model (DTM) was gener-ated from a series of 3D coordinate points recording the topo-graphic position of the bottom of boulder pavement (complex A)(Wheatley and Gillings, 2002, p. 107, p. 107). Next, based on therelative position of artefacts and faunal remains (from the lowerand upper horizon) from the best preserved middle sector, thespatial distribution of archaeological finds, including their density,was analysed. These procedures supplemented by fabric analyses inthe trenches excavated after 2006 allowed better recognition ofdetails of stratigraphy, taphonomy, chronology and spatial relationsof archaeological findings and geological features of the Hallera Av.site.

As seen in Figs. 8 and 9, the artefacts from the lower horizon ofthe middle sector were spread over depressions constituting theremains of channels and over an elevation resembling a smallpeninsula. From spatial analysis, three clusters were discerned: twoconnected with depressions and one with the eastern part of thepeninsula. The spatial arrangement of artefacts within each of theconcentrations is random (Fig. 9). The dispersion of stone artefactsand faunal remains from the lower horizon (complex A/B) reflectsthe surface obtained from the measurements of the bottom ofboulder pavement (complex A). In cross-section, the dispersion ofartefacts in depressions was w0.76 (western depression), w1.04 m(eastern depression), and w1.06 (area of peninsula). The highdensity of artefacts found within depressions suggests that someartefacts could have slipped down from the peninsula, or they mayconstitute the remains of human activity concentrated within thechannel, explaining why there were almost no refitted artefactsbetween those found within peninsula and depressions.

Spatial analysis of damaged flakes and blades which are proneto breakage did not demonstrate any significant differences intheir distribution between clusters from the depressions and thepeninsula. However, the number of cores and tools is higher withinthe elevation (more than 40% of cores and more than 30% of toolswere obtained from the peninsula). Moreover, in this area thehighest number of refitted artefacts was observed (Wi�sniewski,2006b). Microscopic study confirms the good state of preserva-tion of most analysed artefacts from the depressions. This suggeststhat most artefacts had been buried in a relatively short time afterbeing discarded. Taking into account these facts it seems that thedynamics of fluvial processes, which undoubtedly disturbed theprimary distribution of stone artefacts and bone remains, weredifferent between the depressions and the elevation. The easternpart of the peninsula constitutes the remainder of a highlydisturbed cluster connected with a primary place of activity,whereas the area of depressionwas more modified and at the sametime more destroyed.

Artefacts and bone remains from the upper horizon wererecorded only within the middle and eastern part of the middle

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Fig. 7. The set of OSL dates from the site Hallera Avenue in Wroc1aw in comparison with various palaeoenvironmental data. B. Przybylski and A. Wi�sniewski.

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e2110

sector (Fig. 10). Within the surface of about 300 m2 it was possibleto distinguish seven, clear clusters with refitted artefacts andseveral zones with dense occurrence of artefacts. The clustersmeasuring from w1ew4 m2 were oval. In cross-section, thedispersion of artefacts stretched tow0.58m.Within clusters,w277artefacts were refitted into blocs containing from 2 to 78 speci-mens. Unquestionably, those clusters are the remains of the livingfloor. Artefacts are well preserved, showing no signs of patination.

Fig. 8. Terrain model of the bottom of the stone pavement of c

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4.4. Faunal remains

The Hallera Av. site represents a unique open-air site witha significant collection of faunal remains typical of Central Europe(cf. Zwole�n, Schild, 2005a). Although faunal remaions wereobserved in all sectors, the focus was on themiddle sector includingthe most significant assemblage of bone material (Table 2). Withinthe middle sector, faunal remains and stone artefacts were found in

omplex A in the middle sector of the site. A. Miko1ajczyk.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Fig. 9. Distribution of artefacts and bones in the lower excavated horizon (complex A/B) within the middle sector of the site. A. Miko1ajczyk.

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21 11

complex A/B and in complex C. It was not possible to determine thestratigraphical position of all the bones because theywere found onthe border of the distinguished horizons, or because they wereembedded in the upper complex of sediments (D and E), not related

Fig. 10. Distribution of artefacts and bones in the upper excavated horizon (

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to the lower horizons. Most of the faunal remains from complex A/Bwere found within the depressions. Finds obtained from the smallpeninsula were less numerous (Fig. 9). The bone material is markedby fragmentation due to intensive mechanical weathering. The

complex C and D) within the middle sector of the site. A. Miko1ajczyk.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Table 2Number of faunal remains specimens from the site 1 at Hallera Av. in Wroc1aw: NISP and MNI.

Taxon Middle and Southern Sector Northern Sector

Complex A/B Complex A/B/C Complex C Complex D/E Complex A/B

NISP/MNI NISP/MNI NISP/MNI NISP/MNI

Pisces 3Canis lupus (Linnaeus) 1Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach) 9/1Equus sp. 15/1 2/1 25/2Coelodonta antiquitatis (Blumenbach) 4/1 1 1Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis (Jäger) 1/1Rangifer tarandus (Linnaeus) 1 2/2Bison priscus (Bojanus) 243/8 493/2Bovidae/Equidae 158 6Unidentified 308 75 41 9Total NISP 742 84 562 9 1

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e2112

maximal dimensions of bones are: 49 cm (fragment of mammothscapula) and 32 cm (humerus of a bison) in length. According toMusil (2010), this suggests that the remains could have beenexposed on the surface of the sediment and subjected to weath-ering for a prolonged time. Remains found in the complex A/B wererepresented by bones, teeth, horns and antlers. Mammals wererepresented by typical steppe-tundra fauna. Only one tooth (Ste-phanorhinus kirchbergensis) was probably an allochthonous species.The identifiable remains were dominated by teeth and bones ofbovids (w76%) with the predominance of the first group. Otherskeletal elements were represented by fragments of skull, humerus,limb bones and their fragments. The study on age profile of bovidshas not yet been finished. Moreover, the state of preservationhindered the identification of traces of human activity. However,preliminary results have revealed that single specimens bear tracessimilar to cut marks and green fractures.

Faunal remains from complex C were in a worse state of pres-ervation compared to those obtained from the complex A/B. Ingeneral, the bones were smaller and more fragmented than thosefound in other complexes. The largest specimens do not exceed20 cm. Probably, the high level of fragmentation is a result ofphysical and chemical weathering. Within determined bones andteeth, the steppe-tundra taxa were discerned. The most significantnumber of bovid bones was found within the concentration con-taining cranial fragments (Fig. 10; NISP e 478 fragments of bonesand teeth) probably of two individuals.

Table 3Number of rock material clasts � 3 cm from three square meters of I/07 and II/07 trench

Rock M1, Trench I/07 M2, T

3e5 5e10 10e15 15� 3e5

Amphibole 1 1 e e 2Gabbro 10 5 1 e 8Sudetes gneiss 1 1 e e e

Gneiss/Granite-gneiss e e e e 11Scandinavian granite-gneiss 20 1 2 e e

Sudetes granite-gneiss 1 1 e e e

Scandinavian granitoides 84 14 4 e 51Clayey concretion 4 e e e e

Flint 29 10 e e 17Quartz 14 e e e 11Quartzite 2 1 e e e

Lydite 1 e e e 1Quartzite sandstone 45 17 4 1 38Rhyolite 10 5 1 e 12Siliceous rock 2 e e e e

Total 224 56 12 1 151

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The reasons behind the accumulation of faunal material withinthese two horizons, i.e., A/B and C, are complex. The clear domi-nance of bovid remains within the vast area of complex A/Bsuggests their relation with human activity (Farizy, 1994; Jaubertet al., 2005; Gaudzinski, 2006). In this connection, it is importantto emphasise the lack of most skeletal parts. This can be explainedeither by suggesting that the carcasses were disarticulated beforethey were brought to the camp, or their deposition and redeposi-tion was caused by fluvial processes. On bones found withincomplex C, no traces of human activity were recognised. Humanparticipation in faunal remain accumulation cannot be excluded, atleast for bison. The remains were clustered on a relatively smallarea limited to a few square meters, and similarly to artefacts fromthe upper horizon discovered within this sector, were covered byfine-grained sediments of complex D. Moreover, no traces ofpredators were discerned.

4.5. Stone raw material

The studied site is located on the top of the South and Mid-Polish moraines (Ber, 2005, Fig. 2; Wi�sniewski, 2006a, Fig. IV.1).Erratic flints were the main source of raw material for stone toolmanufacturing. The remaining rocks, quartzite, quartz, and meta-morphic, were used only sporadically as hammers, anvils andcores/tools. During the raw material analysis, an assumption wasmade that the archaic humans collected raw material from stonepavement (complex A). During the excavation in 2007e2008, 3 m2

. Trench numbers according to archeological documentation.

rench I/07 M3, Trench II/07 Total

5e10 10e15 15� 3e5 5e10 10e15

e e e 3 e e 73 e e e e e 27e e e e e e 25 2 e 7 2 e 27e e e e e e 23e e e e e e 222 e e 37 6 e 218e e e e e e 45 1 e 48 3 e 113e e e 7 e e 32e e e e e e 3e e e 5 e e 716 1 1 27 5 e 1554 1 e 8 1 e 42e e e 5 2 e 955 5 1 147 19 e 671

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Table 4Categories of stone artefacts from the lower (A/B) and upper horizon (C and D).

Categories Lower A/B Upper C and D

n % n %

Cores and their fragments 92 4.47 39 4.72Chunks 23 1.12 112 13.54Flakes/blades 886 43.01 282 34.10Fragments of flakes/blades 404 19.61 172 20.80Small flakes <20 mm 524 25.44 153 18.50Undetermined 33 1.60 42 5.08Typological tools (retouched implements) 92 4.47 24 2.90Hammers and anvils 6 0.29 2 0.24Manuports 1 0.12Total 2060 100.00 827 100.00

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21 13

were tested to determine the density of flint nodule occurrence(Table 3). This experiment proved that this area was rather poor inerratic flint especially when compared to other Middle Palaeolithicsites such as Zwochau, located in Saxony (Pasda, 1996). Theproportion of erratic flints from the Hallera Av. site did not exceed2.5 kg/m2, whereas at Zwochau it was up to 48 kg/m2. Moreover, inWroc1aw the size of nodules may be divided into two main cate-gories of forms, measuring from 3 to 5 cm and from 5 to 10 cm;larger specimens are rare. This situation forced groups occupyingthis territory to select flints and probably to search for good qualityraw materials outside the site. Based on the average dimension ofdiscards, nodules bigger than 5 cm in dimension were chosen.Smaller pieces (<5 cm) were hard to manipulate and in such cases,as demonstrated by refitting studies, the reduction was adjusted tothe shape of nodule (Wi�sniewski, 2006b).

4.6. Stone artefacts

4.6.1. Artefacts from the lower horizonThe lower horizon included more than 2000 of stone artefacts.

The assemblage was dominated by debris from flakes production,which were then used as blanks for production of tools (Table 4, 5).The debitage rate (number of flakes even or bigger than 2 cm pernumber of cores) equals 14.02. This result suggests that many ofproducts are missing. Nevertheless, the quite significant proportionof microdebitage as well as numerous refitted blocks indicatesa local production of blanks, which is typical for many open-airsites from the Middle Palaeolithic (Conard and Adler, 1997;Roebroeks et al., 1997; Zieba et al., 2008).

Although analysed artefacts probably are connected with a fewvisits, the technology is quite uniform. All technological groups, i.e.cores, flakes, and blades, are dominated by centripetal technologiesincluding uni- and bidirectional (discoidal sensu largo) and Levalloisrecurrent (Table 6). The unidirectional method, represented by

Table 5Typology of stone tools from the lower (A/B) and upper horizon (C and D).

Categories Lower Upper

n % n %

Scrapers 24 26.09 4 16.67Notched and denticulated 15 17.20 5 20.83Endscrapers 1 4.17Burins 2 2.17Retouched flakes, blades and chunks 28 30.11 5 20.83Knifes 2 2.17 4 16.67Choppers 3 3.26 0 0.00Others (fragments) 18 19.57 5 20.83Total 92 100.00 24 100.00

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facial, Levallois recurrent and proto-prismatic reduced cores,was of minor significance. The method of flakes productionfrom flakes (Kombewa), as well as the classical Levallois tech-nique (sensu Van Peer, 1992), were also important. In the lightof metrical estimation, it is clear that discoidal sensu largoand unidirectional cores are larger than Levallois cores. Thissituation can be explained by the fact that the first groupis represented by cores discarded at various states of reduction,whereas Levallois cores consist of highly exhausted examples.By contrast, the largest flakes are represented by Levalloisspecimens which are on average about 1/5 longer (mean50 � 41 � 7.8 mm, n ¼ 24) than other flakes (mean of multidi-rectional fl. 40 � 33.7 � 8.7 mm, n ¼ 204; mean of unidirectionalfl. 41 � 28 � 8.5 mm, n ¼ 57). However, the mean dimension ofall flakes and blades is rather small (41 � 33 � 4.5 mm, n ¼ 285).Most numerous are flakes of elongated shape. Some discoidalcores could have been produced as the effect of the prolongationof the Levallois cores’ life. Examples of such behaviour areknown from many sites (cf. Bietti and Grimaldi, 1995). Levalloiscores are represented by smaller forms than discoidal ones,suggesting that there was no continuity between Levallois anddiscoidal technology. This situation can be explained by the factthat due to the raw material limitations or strategic reasons,different methods of exploitation were used, or some Levalloiscores were brought from the outside.

The share of retouched tools (w4.5%) is typical for open-air sites(Table 5). This group is dominated by forms made from flakes,although some tools from chunks or exhausted cores were alsofound. Only single specimens were produces from predeterminedflakes. Based on the fact that the mean size of flake tools(w49 � 39 � 13.3 mm) is greater than the mean size of flakes,blanks for tools were selected. Within tools, side-scrapers (w26%),denticulated and notched tools (17.39%) as well as retouched flakes,blades and chunks (29.35%) are most numerous. With the excep-tion of the first group, the other groups represent so-called expe-dient tools. Side scrapers consist of expedient as well as formaltools, reflecting different stages of edge reduction. The geometricindex of scraper reduction according to Kuhn (1990), Hiscock andClarkson (2005) varies from 0.15 to 0.82 (mean 0.57, std dev. 0.18,n ¼ 18). Some of those tools were intensively used, while otherswere discarded after use as expedient tools. It is interesting that theedge curvature (according to Clarkson, 2002) of most scrapers waslow (mean 0.13, std dev. 0.06, n ¼ 18). This also suggests notintensive reduction, probably caused by a selection of appropriateblank edges for processing and working as well as the lack ofdramatic limitation of raw material and time for flint knapping.

Concluding, the size of products obtained during the coreexploitation and the size of tools correlate with the size of raw

Table 6Categories of cores from the lower (A/B) and upper horizon (C and D).

Categories of cores Lower Upper

n % n %

Tested blocks 17 18.48 7 17.95Unidirectional (facial and proto-prismatic) 9 9.78 7 17.95Uni-bidirectional with whole preparation 4 4.35 3 7.69Centripetal unifacial cores 15 16.30 2 5.13Centripetal bifacial cores 4 4.35 0 0.00Levallois lineal 5 5.43 1 2.56Levallois centripetal recurrent 4 4.35 0 0.00Multiplatform 2 2.17 1 2.56From flakes 8 8.70 1 2.56Others 12 13.04 7 17.95Fragments 12 13.04 10 25.64Total 92 100.00 39 100.00

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e2114

material found within the moraine deposits. In this context, itseems that archaic humans selected specimens in respect of theirmetrical features, shape and homogeneity. This is confirmed bytraces of raw-material testing. The technical activity was focused onproduction and use of tools, particularly unifacial ones with oval,straight or some irregular edges. Although most of the tools weremanufactured in situ, some were brought from outside.

4.6.2. Artefacts from the upper horizonThe upper horizon is represented by 827 stone artefacts (Table 4,

5), mainly made from erratic flint. In comparison to the olderhorizon, the structure of the assemblage was less deformed byformation processes. In relation to the knapping activity within the

Fig. 11. Microtraces on tools. Straight lines mean possible haft limit: a1, a2 - natural surface awood or bone; b2, b3 - polishes on a scar’s ridge probably from transport of hafting; c1,c3 -Drawing by T. Chmielewski.

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site, it was possible to discern two groups of artefacts. The firstgroup is represented by cores and other debris connectedwith theirexploitation. The second comprises forms from manufacturingtools by shaping (Wi�sniewski, 2003). In relation to the first group,a small number of complete cores limit the possibility of detailedcharacteristic of reduction strategy (Table 6). However, it wasobserved that unidirectional cores were of great significance, whilecentripetal unifacial methods were less popular. Only single tracesin the form of cores can be considered as predetermined forms.Generally, the structure of debitage remains is different from thoseobserved in the lower horizon. In the case of at least three refittedblocks, cores are missing. Some differences in comparison tothe lower horizon were also observed in regard to the metrical

lteration; b1, b3 - streaks of polish on the surface of an axe/adze resulted from choppingtraces of scraping hide; c2,c3 - hafting traces. Lower horizon e a, c; upper horizon e b.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Table 7Functional interpretation of tools e activities. (..) e used as a tool, but type of activity is uncertain.

Horizon Artefacts Function Total

Unused Uncertain/possiblyused

Scraper Knife/butcherknife

Axe/adze Other (borer, whittlingknife, projectile)

Lower Side-scraper 7 4(1) 1(4) 2 19Denticulates 3 1 4Burin 1 1Retouched flake 1 5 (1) 1 8Undetermined tool 3 1 (1) 5Blade 2 (1) 3Levallois flake/point 1 1 1 3Flake 1 (1) 1 3Core 1 1Total 11 16 5(4) 2(5) 1 3 47

Upper Side-scraper 1 1Knife 1 (1) 1 3End-scraper 1 1Denticulates 1 1Total 3 1(1) 1 6

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21 15

features of cores and flakes. The mean size of cores is larger(42 � 40 � 31 mm, n ¼ 14). The maximal length of cores does notexceeded 75 mm. The mean size of flakes is only 26 mm (formssmaller than 20 mm and flakes from shaping are not considered,n¼ 96) and the largest ones do not exceed 60mm. Flakes were usedto manufacture rather small, unifacially retouched tools. Thesecond direction of tool production by shaping included remains ofunfinished or broken forms of tools, discarded due to their smalldimensions.

Tools do not constitute an abundant group (n ¼ 24) (Table 5).They are represented by rather small forms (on average the lengthis 46 mm, the largest ones do not exceed 60 mm) includingside-scrapers, irregular retouched flakes and uni- or bifaciallyretouched small knives. The last group can be regarded as formaltools. At present, the data would seem to suggest that the upperhorizon contains the remains of blank and cores productionwhich were transported off site, and with attempts to preparemore complex tools. In places where exploitation took place,bifacial tools were brought along and discarded. Finally, in oneconcentration a lump of quartz crystal, deprived of processingtraces, was discovered. Probably it was found within the fluvialsediments.

Table 8Functional interpretation of tools e worked material. (..) e used as a tool, but type of wo

Horizon Artefacts Worked material

None Uncertain/possiblyused

Animaltissue/hide

Loweraa Side-scraper 7 5Denticulates 3Burin 1Retouched flake 1 5 (1)Undetermined tool 3 1Blade 2 1Levallois flake/point 1 1Flake 1Core 1Total 11 16 6(1)

Upper Side-scraper 1Knife 1End-scraper 1Denticulates 1Total 3

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4.6.3. Use-wear analysis of stone artefactsAccording to the macroscopic observations, flint artefacts are

well preserved, but more detailed microscopic studies of 220specimens revealed some alterations of edges and surfaces typicalfor formation processes. Although these traces are of natural originand their interpretation is difficult, they have some diagnosticfeatures, such as random distribution on the flint surface whichmakes them recognizable (Fig. 11a, 13c). Nevertheless, the state ofpreservation of most artefacts was good enough to carry out micro-wear analysis. Artefacts were selected (n ¼ 53) on the basis ofmorphological criteria: shape, intentional retouch and presence ofscars caused by use (Table 7, 8).

High magnification analysis (up to 500�) showed that polishes,crucial for proper functional interpretation, are slightly visible. Onthe one hand, this can be explained by the tool resharpening, asshown in technological studies. On the other hand, it could beconnected with butchering, which leaves little detectable traces onartefacts. Finally, in some cases natural modifications cannot berejected as the possible explanation. Therefore, the analyticalprocedure has been changed and, as a secondary characteristic forfunctional determination, use microscars have been considered.

Sixteen tools from the lower horizon have ambiguous traces,and it is not possible to determine with any certainty the type ofactivity and worked material. Only two artefacts from the younger

rked material is uncertain.

Total

Carcass Bone/antler Wood Medium or hardorganic (bone or wood)

2(1) 1 2(1) 191 4

11 81 5

31 3

1 1 31

3(1) 1 1 6(1) 471

1(1) 311

2 6

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e2116

level have been identified, a hide scraper and an axe/adze used tochop bone or wood (Fig. 11b1, 11b3). Tools from the lower horizonwere used for workingwood or bone (as scraping or whittling tools,and also as knives) (Fig. 12b1 and 2; 12c1e3; 13a1 and 2; 13b1 and2), cutting animal tissue, animal carcass processing and scrapinghides (Fig. 11c1e2). Three of them and a further 7 tools show tracesrelated to hafting (Fig. 11c3; 12a1 and 2) (according to modelscreated by Rots, 2010). Neither tools used for working mineral rawmaterial, nor projectiles (except a very ambiguous implement withlittle diagnostic impact), were discerned. Due to poor preservationof polishes on tools used for working bone and wood, these two

Fig. 12. Microtraces on tools. Straight lines mean possible haft limit: a1, a2 - traces of prehwood (200�); d e tool with traces of use. Lower horizon e a e d. Drawing by T. Chmielew

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categories are difficult to distinguish. However, it is possible thattools were rather multifunctional ones (see also Moncel at al.,2009).

4.7. Behavioural patterns

To understand the way in which archaic humans explored theregion requires answering the fundamental question concerningthe humans’ behaviour. To tackle the problemwhich kind of activityis reflected by the finds, four parameters were discerned. The firstconcerns the strategy of flint core reduction. It was assumed that if

ension or hafting; b1, b2 - traces of scraping bone or wood; c1-c3 - traces of whittlingski.

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

Fig. 13. Microtraces on tools. Straight lines mean possible haft limit: a1, a2 - traces of working bone or wood; b1, b2 - traces of scraping wood; c-e � tools with traces of use. Lowerhorizon e a e e. Drawing by B. Kufel.

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e21 17

the technology was of formal character, the residential modelshould be expected. If the technology represents an expedientstrategy, then a more stable settlement system should be consid-ered (Parry and Kelly, 1987; Wallace and Shea, 2006). The secondparameter is connected with retouched tools: their share, intensityof use in proportion to the number and quality of all stone findings.It assumes that the predominance of formal tools and low artefactsdensity is connected with sites used as short-term camps, con-nected for example with special purpose ones. If the number offormal tools is low in contrast to the high density of the other finds,more stable occupation is suggested. The third parameter concernsthe functional analysis of stone artefacts. The last parameter takesspatial settlement structures into consideration. Here, it should bementioned that the results of behaviour analyses of lower level areless accurate (low resolution level) than those concerning theupper horizon (high-resolution level).

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Considering the first parameter in the context of the lowerhorizon (complex A/B), it was possible to confirm the presence offormal as well as expedient technology. The distinction betweenthese two kinds of technologies is based on patterns of transportedcores and blanks as well as on the results of technological analysisof reduction methods (Wi�sniewski, 2006b). It seems that theunidirectional cores (proto-prismatic and facial ones) and somecentripetal forms (discoidal ones) represent the expedient tech-nology. The formal technology can be connected with Levalloisiantechnology, particularly with the classical, centripetal recurrent aswell as unidirectional ones. Finally it cannot be excluded that someof discoids were transformed from Levallois cores, or that coreswere brought from outside. So, this parameter does not supplyunambiguous results. However, it can be assumed that the lowerhorizon connected with the implementation of various activitiesshows evidence of expedient as well as formal technology at

amics north of the Carpathians and Sudetes during the Weichselianational (2011), doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.016

A. Wi�sniewski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2011) 1e2118

a balanced level. Due to the impossibility of estimating the numberof stays which generated this inventory, it is infeasible now todetermine which activities took place concurrently.

The second parameter connected with the proportion of toolsand its diversity does not indicate a short-term occupation linkedwith special purposes (see Veil et al., 1994). The density of artefactsseems to be low, but considering the reductive taphonomicprocesses reflected by over-representation of cores, the primarynumber of artefacts is several thousands. Formal (highly trans-formed side-scrapers, knives and probably a fragment of point) aswell as expedient tools (notched, denticulated tools and flakes withuse-retouch) were recognised. The assemblages of tools comprisea mixture of specimens probably brought to the camp as well asthose produced on the spot and then used on or outside the camp.From the functional point of view (third parameter), tools wereused for different purposes, like butchering, wood and boneworking, and sometimes as multifunctional tools. Although manywere discarded not fully exhausted, some were resharpened. Thefourth parameter in the context of an older horizon can be onlyroughly discussed due to the poor state of preservation of spatialstructures. Remains of concentrationwere localized only within theeastern part of the elevation (peninsula). Nevertheless, the occur-rence of numerous artefacts within the river channels suggests thatthe human activity took place also in local depressions. During theexcavation, burned artefacts were recorded. Due to the fact thatthey were spread over almost the whole area of the site, whetherhearths were present or not cannot be stated unequivocally.

The upper horizon consists of the well preserved fragments ofliving floors, favouring the recognition of human activity. Consid-ering core reduction, the debris indicates the production of blanksand cores which were then transported outside the site. These dataare based on analyses of assemblages from clusters within whichrefitting were made (Wi�sniewski, 2006a). Transported coresprobably were initially prepared. The second parameter, taking intoconsideration the share of retouched tools in proportion to the allartefacts, reflects the minor meaning of retouched implements.Within this scant group of retouched tools, forms hardly usedwhich were brought from outside and afterwards discarded withinthe camp or fragments of tools which were produced on the sitewere recognised. Expedient tools which could be used within thesite are also present, but they do not constitute a numerous group.This suggests a short-term stay connected with a narrow range ofactivities. According to microscopic observations, flint tools showtraces of resharpening and transport in leather bags. In relation tothe upper horizon, in which clusters of artefacts preserved, the lastparameter is much more useful. The analyses of these concentra-tions indicate that the activity was connected with two strategies:core reduction and tool production. Except for one concentration,the rest accumulated traces of use of only one strategy, mainlyconnected with core or blank production.

The recorded evidence can be linked with various activitiesconnected with the exploitation of the Odra Ice Marginal Valley.Considering all four parameters, it appears that the older remains(lower horizon) are probably connected with a few settlementepisodes within which a wide range of tasks took place. Althougha considerable amount of remains was redeposited, originally theycovered a vast area. Probably the activity was realized within theelevation and adjacent depressions resulted from fluvial erosion.Younger traces can be correlated with a narrow range of tasksperformed at the site.

5. Conclusion

The new evidence from the Hallera site in Lower Silesia hasshown that the model of exploitation of areas north of the

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Carpathians and Sudetes was more complicated than was previ-ously thought. Regional data comprising facts about newlydiscovered sites and the revision of already known sites allowedmodification of the chronological framework of archaic humanoccupation during the first part of MIS 3. Rather, during the olderand middle Weichselian, groups of archaic humans with frequencytypical for Central Europe penetrated uplands and lowlands, somelocated several hundred kilometres away from the border of theCarpathians and Sudetes. Likely, the only breakdown of the CentralEurope occupation occurred during the cold event of MIS 4, and theexploitation took part up to the occurrence of transitionalindustries.

The inhabitation of this territory by archaic humans wasa consequence of the widening of a range of settled areas duringfavourable climatic conditions. As in other regions, the colonizationcovered the patches convenient for food supply and with hospi-table environmental conditions. The type of vegetation (steppe-tundra) probably does not fully reflect the climatic conditions, asthe alterations in the ecosystem structures during the rapidclimatic changes were significantly delayed by the pace of primarysuccession. It is very likely that the MAT were significantly higherthan those currently observed for steppe-tundra biomes.

The mobility system was not as dynamic as it was thoughtpreviously. This conclusion is supported by the data obtained fromrecently discovered sites, including the open-air site Hallera Av. inWroc1aw. Older remains (mean 65 ka) are linked with recurrentstays, presumably separated by breaks. Due to the fact that in somecases the traces of human activities overlap, the overall picture iscomplex. However, it was possible to distinguish finds relating tothe wide range of tasks connected with production, use andreconstruction of tool kits. The younger assemblage (54 and 58 ka)reflects the transport off-site of tools, cores and eventually blanks.Both levels are rich in faunal remains of the steppe-tundra biomes,of which some are the result of typical activities for food acquisi-tion. The micro-wear analyses of stone artefacts from the olderhorizon indicate that the tools were used for various tasks con-nected with carcass disarticulation, maintenance and reparation oftool kits. Artefacts from the upper horizon bear only traces of softmaterial processing. Taking into consideration all those facts, itseems that the sites around Wroc1aw and other regions are con-nected with efficient widening of exploited areas by archaichumans rather than only with casual and ephemeral visits.However, at the macro-scale, the occurrence of hiatuses betweensuccessive phases of dispersal of archaic humans in this part ofEurope is highly probable. Nevertheless, the duration of thesebreaks did not exceed more than only a few percent of theWeichselian glaciations. The territories located north of the Car-pathians and Sudetes from the beginning of MIS 3 were, like otherregions of northern Eurasia, areas of subsistence of late groups ofNeanderthals. Available evidence of their exploitation betweenMIS3 and 5 allowed better understanding of the development of sometransitional industries north of the massifs after 50 ka.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to the organizers of theMIS3 conference, Lenka Li�sa, Zdenka Nerudová, Petr Neruda andMiriam Nývltová Fi�sáková for their invitation. Special thanks toDavid Smith for linguistic improvements of the paper. Helpfulcomments from an anonymous reviewer are also acknowledged.

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