Democracy and Governance Programme Middle East Project May 2009 Cape Town, South Africa Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid? A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid? A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
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Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid - Full StudyMay 2009 Cape Town, South Africa
Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid? A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid?
A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
A study coordinated by the Middle East Project of the
Democracy and Governance Programme, Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa
The Human Sciences Research Council was established in 1968 by an Act of the South African Parliament to conduct applied social science research in the public interest. It serves as the national social science council for South Africa. Website: www.hsrc.ac.za Inquiries should be addressed to: The Middle East Project Democracy and Governance Programme Human Sciences Research Council Private Bag X9182 Cape Town South Africa 8000 Email: [email protected] Tel: +27-21-466-8070 Street Address: 10th floor Plein Park Building 69-83 Plein Street Cape Town South Africa 8001
Editor’s Note:
This report and its Executive Summary represent the first full draft of this study, on which comments are invited.
The HSRC editorial team regrets any typographical errors resulting from desktop printing.
© All rights reserved to the Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town, May 2009. Duplication of this publication for commercial purposes is prohibited.
v. 1.2
Acronyms ................................................................................................. 10 Preface ................................................................................................. 11 List of Contributors ................................................................................................. 12 Executive Summary
A. Introduction ................................................................................................. 13 B. Legal Framework for this Study ................................................................................ 14 C. Legal Framework in the Occupied Palestinian Territories ........................................... 15 D. Findings on Colonialism ............................................................................................ 15 E. Findings on Apartheid ................................................................................................ 17 F. Implications and Recommendations ........................................................................... 22
Chapter I: Sources of Law, Key Concepts, and Method of the Study A. Framing the Question under International Law .................................................................. 25 B. Method and Scope of the Study ......................................................................................... 26
1. State v. individual responsibility ............................................................................. 26 2. Scope of Empirical Evidence ................................................................................. 28
C. International Law in Occupied Territory ........................................................................... 29 1. International Humanitarian Law ................................................................................. 29
a. Defining ‘Belligerent Occupation’ ................................................................. 30 b. General provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention ................................... 31
2. Human Rights Law ................................................................................................... 33 3. Prohibition of Colonialism in International Law ....................................................... 40 4. Prohibition of Apartheid in International Law .......................................................... 48 5. The Legal Authority of an ICJ Advisory Opinion ...................................................... 52
D. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 53 Chapter II: The Legal Context in the Occupied Palestinian Territories A. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 55 B. The Palestinian People’s Right to Self-Determination
1. The Question of Palestinian Statehood ...................................................................... 55 2. The Right to Self-Determination in International Law .............................................. 57 3. The Right of the Palestinian People to Self-Determination ........................................ 60
C. Legal Status of the Occupied Palestinian Territories ........................................................ 67 1. The ‘Missing Reversioner’ Argument ....................................................................... 67 2. East Jerusalem: status as occupied territory ............................................................... 69 3. Legal Implications of the Oslo Accords .................................................................... 71
a. The Oslo Accords: basic provisions .............................................................. 71 b. Status of the Palestine Liberation Organisation as Signatory ......................... 73 c. Inviolability of Rights under the Fourth Geneva Convention ......................... 75
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d. The Oslo Accords as Special Agreements ..................................................... 76 e. Implications for Protections of the Geneva Convention ................................. 79
4. Continuing Occupation of the Gaza Strip ................................................................. 81 5. Israeli Settlements in the OPT ................................................................................. 87
a. Status of settlements under International humanitarian law ............................ 88 b. Legal status of the settlers ............................................................................ 89 c. Jurisprudence of Israel’s High Court regarding settlements ........................... 91
6. Prolonged occupation ...................................................................................................... 96 a. Article 6 of the Fourth Geneva Convention .................................................. 97 b. Legislative competence of the occupant ....................................................... 98 c. Limitations upon the legislative competence of the occupant ....................... 100
D. Application of Israeli Law in the OPT .......................................................................... 105 1. Israeli Laws governing settlements and settlers
a. Application of Israeli civil legislation to settlement areas ............................ 106 b. Extraterritorial application of legislation to Israeli settlers .......................... 107 c. Discrimination in the Adjudication of Rights .............................................. 110
2. Application of military legislation to Palestinians ................................................... 113 a. Military Legislation applying to Palestinians .............................................. 113 b. Enforcement of military courts ................................................................... 115
E. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 118 Chapter III: Review of Israeli Policies relative to the Prohibition of Colonialism A. Introduction .................................................................................................... 119 B. Review of Israeli Practices in the OPT relative to Colonialism
1. Violation of Territorial Integrity ............................................................................. 120 2. Supplanting Institutions of Governance .................................................................. 122
a. Altering the laws in place in the occupied territory ...................................... 123 b. Extraterritorial application of Israeli civil law to Jews in the OPT ................ 123 c. Subjecting the local population to foreign administration ............................ 126 d. Preventing the local population from exercising political authority .............. 127
3. Economic Integration ............................................................................................. 129 a. Israeli practices breaching the prohibition on economic integration ............. 131 b. Example of economic integration: value added tax ...................................... 134
4. Violation of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources ................................... 136 a. The Right to Water ...................................................................................... 137 b. Water Rights and Allocations in the OPT .................................................... 139 c. Impact of the Oslo Accords on Water Allocation and Control ..................... 141 d. Impact of the Wall on Palestinian access to water ........................................ 144
5. Suppression of Palestinian Culture ........................................................................ 145 C. The Principle of Good Faith and the Duty Not to Frustrate ............................................. 147 D. Conclusion ...................................................................................... 149
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Chapter IV: Review of Israeli Practices relative to the Prohibition of Apartheid PART I: INTERPRETATION AND THE CHAPEAU OF ARTICLE 2 A. Prohibitions on Apartheid in International Law .............................................................. 152 B. Race and Racial Discrimination in International Law .................................................... 153
1. The Politics of Racial Terminology in South Africa .............................................. 154 2. Interpreting Identity: The International Criminal Tribunals ................................... 155 3. Race and Identity in the Occupied Palestinian Territories ...................................... 157
a. Jewish Identity under the Terms of ICERD ............................................ 156 b. Jewish National Identity: Israel as a Jewish State .................................... 159 c. Palestinian Identity under the Terms of ICERD ...................................... 162
4. Inadmissibility of Discrimination based on Citizenship ......................................... 163 5. Domination as the Purpose of Policy ..................................................................... 166
C. Application of the Apartheid Convention outside southern Africa .................................. 167 D. Apartheid in South Africa: Legislative Foundations ....................................................... 168 PART II: REVIEW OF ISRAELI PRACTICES WITH REGARD TO ARTICLE II OF THE APARTHEID CONVENTION A. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 172 B. Article 2(a)(i) – Denial of Right to Life by Murder of Members of a Racial Group
1. Interpretation ........................................................................................................ 172 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ....................................................................... 173 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 174
C. Article 2(a)(ii) – Denial of Right to Life and Liberty of Person by Subjection to Torture or to Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of Punishment
1. Interpretation ......................................................................................................... 177 2. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ...................................................................... 178 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 179
D. Article 2(a)(iii) – Denial of Right to Liberty of Person by Arbitrary Arrest and Illegal of Imprisonment of Members of a Racial Group
1. Interpretation ......................................................................................................... 183 2. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ...................................................................... 185 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 186
a. Administrative Detention in the OPT ..................................................... 186 b. Incompatibility of Israel’s Practice with International Law ..................... 188
i. The arbitrary nature of Israeli administrative detention .................... 189 ii. Failure to give reasons for administrative detention orders .............. 190
iii. Lack of Adequate Judicial Review .................................................. 190 c. Israel’s Discriminatory Use of Administrative Detention ......................... 191
E. Article 2(b) – Imposition on a Racial Group of Living Conditions Calculated to Cause its Physical Destruction in Whole or in Part ........................................................... 192
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F. Article 2(c) – Measures Preventing Participation in Political, Social, Economic and Cultural Life, and Preventing Full Development, by Denial of Basic Human Rights and Freedoms ........................................................................................... 193
1. Denial of the Right to Freedom of Movement a. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 193 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ............................................................... 194 c. Israeli practices in the OPT ........................................................................... 196
i. Visible Infrastructure ........................................................................... 196 ii. The Permit Regime ............................................................................... 199
iii. Case Study: The ‘Seam Zone’ ................................................................ 200 iv. Access to Jerusalem and Closure of the Gaza Strip ................................ 203 v. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 203
2. Denial of the Right to Freedom of Residence a. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 204 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ............................................................... 204 c. Israeli practices in the OPT
i. Palestinian Residency Rights in Occupied East Jerusalem ..................... 205 ii. Family Unification
(a) Family Reunification in International Law ............................... 208 (b) Family Unification for Palestinians in the OPT,
excluding East Jerusalem ......................................................... 209 (c) Family Unification between Palestinian citizens of Israel
and Palestinians from the OPT ................................................. 210 iii. Conclusion ............................................................................................212
3. Right to Leave and Return to their Country a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 212 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 213 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 213
4. Denial of the Right to a Nationality a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 215 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 216 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 217
5. Denial of the Right to Work a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 219 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 219 c. Israeli practices in the OPT
i. Labour and the Economy in the OPT .................................................. 220 ii. Impact of Movement Restrictions on Palestinian Labour ................... 221
iii. Restrictions on Access to Jobs in East Jerusalem and Israel ............... 223 iv. Restriction of Imports and Exports .................................................... 224
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6. Denial of the Right to Form Recognised Trade Unions a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 225 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 226 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 227
i. Palestinian Trade Unions under the Civil Administration ............... 227 ii. Effects of the Oslo Accords .......................................................... 228
iii. Palestinians Working in Israeli Settlements .................................. 229 7. Denial of the Right to Education
a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 230 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 230 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 231
i. School Closures and Attacks ........................................................ 232 ii. Restrictions on Movement ............................................................ 234
iii. Preventing students from studying abroad .................................... 235 iv. Discrimination in Jerusalem ......................................................... 235
8. Denial of Right to freedom of opinion and expression a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 237 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 238 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 238
i. Censorship ................................................................................... 238 ii. Restrictions on freedom of movement ......................................... 240
iii. Intimidation, harassment and targeting of Media Personnel .......... 241 9. Right to the Right to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 242 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 243 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 243
10. Case Study: Impact of Combined Practices in the Gaza Strip ............................... 244 a. Overview ........................................................................................... 244 b. Initial Phase of the Siege, June 2007–2008 ............................................. 246 c. Aftermath of ‘Operation Cast Lead’ ........................................................ 249
G. Article 2(d) – Measures designed to divide the population along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups or to members thereof
1. Creation of separate reserves and ghettoes a. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 251 b. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ........................................................ 252 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 257
2. Prohibition of mixed marriages a. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 260 b. Israeli practices in the OPT ................................................................... 260
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3. Expropriation of landed property a. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 261 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 261 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 262
H. Article 2(e) – Exploitation of labour of members of a racial group or groups 1. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 267 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ........................................................................ 267 3. Israeli Practices in the OPT ..................................................................................... 268 I. Article 2(f) – Persecution of organizations and persons, by depriving them of fundamental rights and freedoms, because they oppose apartheid 1. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 269 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ........................................................................ 269 3. Israeli Practices in the OPT ..................................................................................... 270 J. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 271 Chapter V: Conclusion: Findings and Legal Implications A. Summary Findings .................................................................................................... 277 B. Legal Implications of the Findings .................................................................................. 278 1. Criminal Responsibility of Individuals and States ................................................... 279 2. Responsibility of States .......................................................................................... 280 a. Responsibility of Israel .................................................................................. 281 b. Responsibility of Other States ....................................................................... 282 i. The Duty of Cooperation to End Violations ......................................... 286 ii. The Duty of Abstention ...................................................................... 289 c. The question of complicity ............................................................................ 290 3. Responsibility of International Organisations ......................................................... 292 C. Recommendations
1. That States Take Urgent Action to Uphold Their Legal Obligations ..................... 294 2. That States Urgently Request an ICJ Advisory Opinion ....................................... 294
Appendices: I: Convention on the Punishment and Suppression of the Crime of Apartheid ....................... 295 II: Declaration on Colonialism ........................................................................................... 301
10 | TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms CAT Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment CERD Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (United Nations) CMWU Coastal Municipalities Water Utility EEC European Economic Community GDP Gross Domestic Product GFU General Federation of [Palestinian] Unions GIS Geographic Information System GPO Government Press Office (Israel) GSS General Security Services (of Israel) ICC International Criminal Court ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICERD International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICJ International Court of Justice ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross ICTR International Criminel Tribunal on Rwanda ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia IDF Israeli Defence Force ILO International Labour Organization JA-WZO Jewish Agency-World Zionist Organisation JWC Joint-Water Committee NIS New Israeli Shekels OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (United Nations) OPT Occupied Palestinian Territories PA Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority PCATI Public Committee Against Torture in Israel PGFTU Palestinian General Federation of Trade Unions PHR-I Physicians for Human Rights-Israel PLC Palestinian Legislative Council PLO Palestine Liberation Organisation TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission (of South Africa) TUCSA South African Trade Union Council UN United Nations UNRWA United Nations Relief Works Agency VAT value-added tax
PREFACE | 11
Preface
This study was commissioned and coordinated by the Middle East Project (MEP) of the Democracy and Governance Programme, a research programme of the Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa.
The genesis of this study was the suggestion made in January 2007 by Professor John Dugard, in his capacity as UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the occupied Palestinian territories, that Israel’s military occupation displays elements of colonialism and apartheid. The Human Sciences Research Council commissioned this study to scrutinise Professor Dugard’s hypothesis from the perspective of international law. Over a period of 15 months, the team of scholars engaged in extensive research, discussion, and rounds of lively debate through seven drafts. The result is the consensus represented in this report, offered here for public discussion. Constructive criticism is welcomed, in order that shortcomings in this document may be addressed in a future edition. Although this study is essentially a legal document, observations from other disciplines are encouraged.
The Executive Summary was presented for public discussion on 16 May 2009 at the School for Oriental and African Studies (London), at a public seminar co-hosted by the HSRC and the Sir Joseph Hotung Project in Law, Human Rights and Peace Building in the Middle East, based at the Law School of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
The MIDDLE EAST PROJECT is an independent two-year project of the HSRC, conducted from June 2007 through June 2009, to conduct analysis of Middle East politics relevant to South African foreign policy. Its funding was provided by the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Government of South Africa. The analysis in this report is entirely independent of the views or foreign policy of the Government of South Africa and does not represent an official position of the HSRC, nor should it be taken to represent the views of contributors listed here under ‘Consultation’. It is intended purely as a scholarly resource for the Department of Foreign Affairs and the concerned international community.
12 | LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
List of Contributors Editor:
Principal Contributors:
Max du Plessis, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Durban) and Senior Research Associate, Institute for Security Studies
Fatmeh El-Ajou, Lawyer, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab Minority Rights in Israel (Haifa) Victor Kattan, Teaching Fellow, Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, SOAS,
University of London Michael Kearney, Convenor, MA in International Human Rights Law, Politics Department,
University of York (Ulster) John Reynolds, Legal Researcher, Al-Haq (West Bank affiliate of the International
Commission of Jurists) Rina Rosenberg, Esq. International Advocacy Director, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab
Minority Rights in Israel (Haifa) Iain Scobbie, Sir Joseph Hotung Research Professor in Law, Human Rights and Peace
Building in the Middle East, School of Law, SOAS, University of London Virginia Tilley, Chief Research Specialist, Democracy & Governance Programme, Human
Sciences Research Council (Cape Town) Contributing Researchers:
Adalah – The Legal Centre for Arab Minority Rights in Israel: Rana Asali, Legal Fellow; Katie Hesketh, Publications Researcher; Belkis Wille, Research Fellow
Al-Haq (West Bank affiliate of the International Commission of Jurists): Legal Research and Advocacy Department: Michelle Burgis; Gareth Gleed; Lisa Monaghan; Fadi Quran; Mays Warrad
Godfrey Musila, at the time of research at the South African Institute for Advanced Constitutional, Public, Human Rights and International Law (Johannesburg), presently at the International Crime in Africa Programme, Institute for Security Studies (Pretoria)
Consultation: John Dugard, Extraordinary Professor, Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria,
former UN Special Rapporteur on the Occupied Palestinian Territories (The Hague) Hassan Jabareen, Lawyer and General Director, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab Minority
Rights in Israel Daphna Golan, Director, Minerva Centre for Human Rights, Faculty of Law, Hebrew
University (Jerusalem) Stephanie Koury, Research Fellow, Sir Joseph Hotung Programme on Law, Human Rights
and Peace Building in the Middle East, SOAS, University of London Jody Kollapen, CEO, South African Commission on Human Rights (Pretoria)
Gilbert Marcus, Senior Counsel and Constitutional Lawyer (Johannesburg) Michael Sfard, Lawyer (Tel Aviv) Pieter A. Stemmet, Advocate and Senior State Law Advisor, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Government of South Africa (Pretoria)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | 13
Executive Summary A. Introduction
The Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa commissioned this study to test the hypothesis posed by Professor John Dugard in the report he presented to the UN Human Rights Council in January 2007, in his capacity as UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel (namely, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Gaza, hereafter OPT). Professor Dugard posed the question:
Israel is clearly in military occupation of the OPT. At the same time, elements of the occupation constitute forms of colonialism and of apartheid, which are contrary to international law. What are the legal consequences of a regime of prolonged occupation with features of colonialism and apartheid for the occupied people, the Occupying Power and third States?
In order to consider these consequences, this study set out to examine legally the premises of Professor Dugard’s question: is Israel the occupant of the OPT, and, if so, do elements of its occupation of these territories amount to colonialism or apartheid? South Africa has an obvious interest in these questions given its bitter history of apartheid, which entailed the denial of self- determination to its majority population and, during its occupation of Namibia, the extension of apartheid to that territory which South Africa effectively sought to colonise. These unlawful practices must not be replicated elsewhere: other peoples must not suffer in the way the populations of South Africa and Namibia have suffered.
To explore these issues, an international team of scholars was assembled. The aim of this project was to scrutinise the situation from the nonpartisan perspective of international law, rather than engage…
Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid? A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
Occupation, Colonialism, Apartheid?
A re-assessment of Israel’s practices in the occupied Palestinian territories under international law
A study coordinated by the Middle East Project of the
Democracy and Governance Programme, Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa
The Human Sciences Research Council was established in 1968 by an Act of the South African Parliament to conduct applied social science research in the public interest. It serves as the national social science council for South Africa. Website: www.hsrc.ac.za Inquiries should be addressed to: The Middle East Project Democracy and Governance Programme Human Sciences Research Council Private Bag X9182 Cape Town South Africa 8000 Email: [email protected] Tel: +27-21-466-8070 Street Address: 10th floor Plein Park Building 69-83 Plein Street Cape Town South Africa 8001
Editor’s Note:
This report and its Executive Summary represent the first full draft of this study, on which comments are invited.
The HSRC editorial team regrets any typographical errors resulting from desktop printing.
© All rights reserved to the Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town, May 2009. Duplication of this publication for commercial purposes is prohibited.
v. 1.2
Acronyms ................................................................................................. 10 Preface ................................................................................................. 11 List of Contributors ................................................................................................. 12 Executive Summary
A. Introduction ................................................................................................. 13 B. Legal Framework for this Study ................................................................................ 14 C. Legal Framework in the Occupied Palestinian Territories ........................................... 15 D. Findings on Colonialism ............................................................................................ 15 E. Findings on Apartheid ................................................................................................ 17 F. Implications and Recommendations ........................................................................... 22
Chapter I: Sources of Law, Key Concepts, and Method of the Study A. Framing the Question under International Law .................................................................. 25 B. Method and Scope of the Study ......................................................................................... 26
1. State v. individual responsibility ............................................................................. 26 2. Scope of Empirical Evidence ................................................................................. 28
C. International Law in Occupied Territory ........................................................................... 29 1. International Humanitarian Law ................................................................................. 29
a. Defining ‘Belligerent Occupation’ ................................................................. 30 b. General provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention ................................... 31
2. Human Rights Law ................................................................................................... 33 3. Prohibition of Colonialism in International Law ....................................................... 40 4. Prohibition of Apartheid in International Law .......................................................... 48 5. The Legal Authority of an ICJ Advisory Opinion ...................................................... 52
D. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 53 Chapter II: The Legal Context in the Occupied Palestinian Territories A. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 55 B. The Palestinian People’s Right to Self-Determination
1. The Question of Palestinian Statehood ...................................................................... 55 2. The Right to Self-Determination in International Law .............................................. 57 3. The Right of the Palestinian People to Self-Determination ........................................ 60
C. Legal Status of the Occupied Palestinian Territories ........................................................ 67 1. The ‘Missing Reversioner’ Argument ....................................................................... 67 2. East Jerusalem: status as occupied territory ............................................................... 69 3. Legal Implications of the Oslo Accords .................................................................... 71
a. The Oslo Accords: basic provisions .............................................................. 71 b. Status of the Palestine Liberation Organisation as Signatory ......................... 73 c. Inviolability of Rights under the Fourth Geneva Convention ......................... 75
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d. The Oslo Accords as Special Agreements ..................................................... 76 e. Implications for Protections of the Geneva Convention ................................. 79
4. Continuing Occupation of the Gaza Strip ................................................................. 81 5. Israeli Settlements in the OPT ................................................................................. 87
a. Status of settlements under International humanitarian law ............................ 88 b. Legal status of the settlers ............................................................................ 89 c. Jurisprudence of Israel’s High Court regarding settlements ........................... 91
6. Prolonged occupation ...................................................................................................... 96 a. Article 6 of the Fourth Geneva Convention .................................................. 97 b. Legislative competence of the occupant ....................................................... 98 c. Limitations upon the legislative competence of the occupant ....................... 100
D. Application of Israeli Law in the OPT .......................................................................... 105 1. Israeli Laws governing settlements and settlers
a. Application of Israeli civil legislation to settlement areas ............................ 106 b. Extraterritorial application of legislation to Israeli settlers .......................... 107 c. Discrimination in the Adjudication of Rights .............................................. 110
2. Application of military legislation to Palestinians ................................................... 113 a. Military Legislation applying to Palestinians .............................................. 113 b. Enforcement of military courts ................................................................... 115
E. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 118 Chapter III: Review of Israeli Policies relative to the Prohibition of Colonialism A. Introduction .................................................................................................... 119 B. Review of Israeli Practices in the OPT relative to Colonialism
1. Violation of Territorial Integrity ............................................................................. 120 2. Supplanting Institutions of Governance .................................................................. 122
a. Altering the laws in place in the occupied territory ...................................... 123 b. Extraterritorial application of Israeli civil law to Jews in the OPT ................ 123 c. Subjecting the local population to foreign administration ............................ 126 d. Preventing the local population from exercising political authority .............. 127
3. Economic Integration ............................................................................................. 129 a. Israeli practices breaching the prohibition on economic integration ............. 131 b. Example of economic integration: value added tax ...................................... 134
4. Violation of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources ................................... 136 a. The Right to Water ...................................................................................... 137 b. Water Rights and Allocations in the OPT .................................................... 139 c. Impact of the Oslo Accords on Water Allocation and Control ..................... 141 d. Impact of the Wall on Palestinian access to water ........................................ 144
5. Suppression of Palestinian Culture ........................................................................ 145 C. The Principle of Good Faith and the Duty Not to Frustrate ............................................. 147 D. Conclusion ...................................................................................... 149
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Chapter IV: Review of Israeli Practices relative to the Prohibition of Apartheid PART I: INTERPRETATION AND THE CHAPEAU OF ARTICLE 2 A. Prohibitions on Apartheid in International Law .............................................................. 152 B. Race and Racial Discrimination in International Law .................................................... 153
1. The Politics of Racial Terminology in South Africa .............................................. 154 2. Interpreting Identity: The International Criminal Tribunals ................................... 155 3. Race and Identity in the Occupied Palestinian Territories ...................................... 157
a. Jewish Identity under the Terms of ICERD ............................................ 156 b. Jewish National Identity: Israel as a Jewish State .................................... 159 c. Palestinian Identity under the Terms of ICERD ...................................... 162
4. Inadmissibility of Discrimination based on Citizenship ......................................... 163 5. Domination as the Purpose of Policy ..................................................................... 166
C. Application of the Apartheid Convention outside southern Africa .................................. 167 D. Apartheid in South Africa: Legislative Foundations ....................................................... 168 PART II: REVIEW OF ISRAELI PRACTICES WITH REGARD TO ARTICLE II OF THE APARTHEID CONVENTION A. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 172 B. Article 2(a)(i) – Denial of Right to Life by Murder of Members of a Racial Group
1. Interpretation ........................................................................................................ 172 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ....................................................................... 173 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 174
C. Article 2(a)(ii) – Denial of Right to Life and Liberty of Person by Subjection to Torture or to Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of Punishment
1. Interpretation ......................................................................................................... 177 2. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ...................................................................... 178 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 179
D. Article 2(a)(iii) – Denial of Right to Liberty of Person by Arbitrary Arrest and Illegal of Imprisonment of Members of a Racial Group
1. Interpretation ......................................................................................................... 183 2. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ...................................................................... 185 3. Practices by Israel in the OPT ............................................................................... 186
a. Administrative Detention in the OPT ..................................................... 186 b. Incompatibility of Israel’s Practice with International Law ..................... 188
i. The arbitrary nature of Israeli administrative detention .................... 189 ii. Failure to give reasons for administrative detention orders .............. 190
iii. Lack of Adequate Judicial Review .................................................. 190 c. Israel’s Discriminatory Use of Administrative Detention ......................... 191
E. Article 2(b) – Imposition on a Racial Group of Living Conditions Calculated to Cause its Physical Destruction in Whole or in Part ........................................................... 192
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F. Article 2(c) – Measures Preventing Participation in Political, Social, Economic and Cultural Life, and Preventing Full Development, by Denial of Basic Human Rights and Freedoms ........................................................................................... 193
1. Denial of the Right to Freedom of Movement a. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 193 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ............................................................... 194 c. Israeli practices in the OPT ........................................................................... 196
i. Visible Infrastructure ........................................................................... 196 ii. The Permit Regime ............................................................................... 199
iii. Case Study: The ‘Seam Zone’ ................................................................ 200 iv. Access to Jerusalem and Closure of the Gaza Strip ................................ 203 v. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 203
2. Denial of the Right to Freedom of Residence a. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 204 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ............................................................... 204 c. Israeli practices in the OPT
i. Palestinian Residency Rights in Occupied East Jerusalem ..................... 205 ii. Family Unification
(a) Family Reunification in International Law ............................... 208 (b) Family Unification for Palestinians in the OPT,
excluding East Jerusalem ......................................................... 209 (c) Family Unification between Palestinian citizens of Israel
and Palestinians from the OPT ................................................. 210 iii. Conclusion ............................................................................................212
3. Right to Leave and Return to their Country a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 212 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 213 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 213
4. Denial of the Right to a Nationality a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 215 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 216 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 217
5. Denial of the Right to Work a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 219 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 219 c. Israeli practices in the OPT
i. Labour and the Economy in the OPT .................................................. 220 ii. Impact of Movement Restrictions on Palestinian Labour ................... 221
iii. Restrictions on Access to Jobs in East Jerusalem and Israel ............... 223 iv. Restriction of Imports and Exports .................................................... 224
8 | TABLE OF CONTENTS
6. Denial of the Right to Form Recognised Trade Unions a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 225 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 226 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 227
i. Palestinian Trade Unions under the Civil Administration ............... 227 ii. Effects of the Oslo Accords .......................................................... 228
iii. Palestinians Working in Israeli Settlements .................................. 229 7. Denial of the Right to Education
a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 230 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 230 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 231
i. School Closures and Attacks ........................................................ 232 ii. Restrictions on Movement ............................................................ 234
iii. Preventing students from studying abroad .................................... 235 iv. Discrimination in Jerusalem ......................................................... 235
8. Denial of Right to freedom of opinion and expression a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 237 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 238 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 238
i. Censorship ................................................................................... 238 ii. Restrictions on freedom of movement ......................................... 240
iii. Intimidation, harassment and targeting of Media Personnel .......... 241 9. Right to the Right to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
a. Interpretation ......................................................................................... 242 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 243 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 243
10. Case Study: Impact of Combined Practices in the Gaza Strip ............................... 244 a. Overview ........................................................................................... 244 b. Initial Phase of the Siege, June 2007–2008 ............................................. 246 c. Aftermath of ‘Operation Cast Lead’ ........................................................ 249
G. Article 2(d) – Measures designed to divide the population along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups or to members thereof
1. Creation of separate reserves and ghettoes a. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 251 b. Practices in Apartheid South Africa ........................................................ 252 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 257
2. Prohibition of mixed marriages a. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 260 b. Israeli practices in the OPT ................................................................... 260
TABLE OF CONTENTS | 9
3. Expropriation of landed property a. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 261 b. Practices in apartheid South Africa ......................................................... 261 c. Israeli practices in the OPT .................................................................... 262
H. Article 2(e) – Exploitation of labour of members of a racial group or groups 1. Interpretation ........................................................................................... 267 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ........................................................................ 267 3. Israeli Practices in the OPT ..................................................................................... 268 I. Article 2(f) – Persecution of organizations and persons, by depriving them of fundamental rights and freedoms, because they oppose apartheid 1. Interpretation .......................................................................................... 269 2. Practices in apartheid South Africa ........................................................................ 269 3. Israeli Practices in the OPT ..................................................................................... 270 J. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 271 Chapter V: Conclusion: Findings and Legal Implications A. Summary Findings .................................................................................................... 277 B. Legal Implications of the Findings .................................................................................. 278 1. Criminal Responsibility of Individuals and States ................................................... 279 2. Responsibility of States .......................................................................................... 280 a. Responsibility of Israel .................................................................................. 281 b. Responsibility of Other States ....................................................................... 282 i. The Duty of Cooperation to End Violations ......................................... 286 ii. The Duty of Abstention ...................................................................... 289 c. The question of complicity ............................................................................ 290 3. Responsibility of International Organisations ......................................................... 292 C. Recommendations
1. That States Take Urgent Action to Uphold Their Legal Obligations ..................... 294 2. That States Urgently Request an ICJ Advisory Opinion ....................................... 294
Appendices: I: Convention on the Punishment and Suppression of the Crime of Apartheid ....................... 295 II: Declaration on Colonialism ........................................................................................... 301
10 | TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms CAT Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment CERD Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (United Nations) CMWU Coastal Municipalities Water Utility EEC European Economic Community GDP Gross Domestic Product GFU General Federation of [Palestinian] Unions GIS Geographic Information System GPO Government Press Office (Israel) GSS General Security Services (of Israel) ICC International Criminal Court ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICERD International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICJ International Court of Justice ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross ICTR International Criminel Tribunal on Rwanda ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia IDF Israeli Defence Force ILO International Labour Organization JA-WZO Jewish Agency-World Zionist Organisation JWC Joint-Water Committee NIS New Israeli Shekels OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (United Nations) OPT Occupied Palestinian Territories PA Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority PCATI Public Committee Against Torture in Israel PGFTU Palestinian General Federation of Trade Unions PHR-I Physicians for Human Rights-Israel PLC Palestinian Legislative Council PLO Palestine Liberation Organisation TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission (of South Africa) TUCSA South African Trade Union Council UN United Nations UNRWA United Nations Relief Works Agency VAT value-added tax
PREFACE | 11
Preface
This study was commissioned and coordinated by the Middle East Project (MEP) of the Democracy and Governance Programme, a research programme of the Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa.
The genesis of this study was the suggestion made in January 2007 by Professor John Dugard, in his capacity as UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the occupied Palestinian territories, that Israel’s military occupation displays elements of colonialism and apartheid. The Human Sciences Research Council commissioned this study to scrutinise Professor Dugard’s hypothesis from the perspective of international law. Over a period of 15 months, the team of scholars engaged in extensive research, discussion, and rounds of lively debate through seven drafts. The result is the consensus represented in this report, offered here for public discussion. Constructive criticism is welcomed, in order that shortcomings in this document may be addressed in a future edition. Although this study is essentially a legal document, observations from other disciplines are encouraged.
The Executive Summary was presented for public discussion on 16 May 2009 at the School for Oriental and African Studies (London), at a public seminar co-hosted by the HSRC and the Sir Joseph Hotung Project in Law, Human Rights and Peace Building in the Middle East, based at the Law School of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
The MIDDLE EAST PROJECT is an independent two-year project of the HSRC, conducted from June 2007 through June 2009, to conduct analysis of Middle East politics relevant to South African foreign policy. Its funding was provided by the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Government of South Africa. The analysis in this report is entirely independent of the views or foreign policy of the Government of South Africa and does not represent an official position of the HSRC, nor should it be taken to represent the views of contributors listed here under ‘Consultation’. It is intended purely as a scholarly resource for the Department of Foreign Affairs and the concerned international community.
12 | LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
List of Contributors Editor:
Principal Contributors:
Max du Plessis, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Durban) and Senior Research Associate, Institute for Security Studies
Fatmeh El-Ajou, Lawyer, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab Minority Rights in Israel (Haifa) Victor Kattan, Teaching Fellow, Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, SOAS,
University of London Michael Kearney, Convenor, MA in International Human Rights Law, Politics Department,
University of York (Ulster) John Reynolds, Legal Researcher, Al-Haq (West Bank affiliate of the International
Commission of Jurists) Rina Rosenberg, Esq. International Advocacy Director, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab
Minority Rights in Israel (Haifa) Iain Scobbie, Sir Joseph Hotung Research Professor in Law, Human Rights and Peace
Building in the Middle East, School of Law, SOAS, University of London Virginia Tilley, Chief Research Specialist, Democracy & Governance Programme, Human
Sciences Research Council (Cape Town) Contributing Researchers:
Adalah – The Legal Centre for Arab Minority Rights in Israel: Rana Asali, Legal Fellow; Katie Hesketh, Publications Researcher; Belkis Wille, Research Fellow
Al-Haq (West Bank affiliate of the International Commission of Jurists): Legal Research and Advocacy Department: Michelle Burgis; Gareth Gleed; Lisa Monaghan; Fadi Quran; Mays Warrad
Godfrey Musila, at the time of research at the South African Institute for Advanced Constitutional, Public, Human Rights and International Law (Johannesburg), presently at the International Crime in Africa Programme, Institute for Security Studies (Pretoria)
Consultation: John Dugard, Extraordinary Professor, Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria,
former UN Special Rapporteur on the Occupied Palestinian Territories (The Hague) Hassan Jabareen, Lawyer and General Director, Adalah/Legal Centre for Arab Minority
Rights in Israel Daphna Golan, Director, Minerva Centre for Human Rights, Faculty of Law, Hebrew
University (Jerusalem) Stephanie Koury, Research Fellow, Sir Joseph Hotung Programme on Law, Human Rights
and Peace Building in the Middle East, SOAS, University of London Jody Kollapen, CEO, South African Commission on Human Rights (Pretoria)
Gilbert Marcus, Senior Counsel and Constitutional Lawyer (Johannesburg) Michael Sfard, Lawyer (Tel Aviv) Pieter A. Stemmet, Advocate and Senior State Law Advisor, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Government of South Africa (Pretoria)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | 13
Executive Summary A. Introduction
The Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa commissioned this study to test the hypothesis posed by Professor John Dugard in the report he presented to the UN Human Rights Council in January 2007, in his capacity as UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel (namely, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Gaza, hereafter OPT). Professor Dugard posed the question:
Israel is clearly in military occupation of the OPT. At the same time, elements of the occupation constitute forms of colonialism and of apartheid, which are contrary to international law. What are the legal consequences of a regime of prolonged occupation with features of colonialism and apartheid for the occupied people, the Occupying Power and third States?
In order to consider these consequences, this study set out to examine legally the premises of Professor Dugard’s question: is Israel the occupant of the OPT, and, if so, do elements of its occupation of these territories amount to colonialism or apartheid? South Africa has an obvious interest in these questions given its bitter history of apartheid, which entailed the denial of self- determination to its majority population and, during its occupation of Namibia, the extension of apartheid to that territory which South Africa effectively sought to colonise. These unlawful practices must not be replicated elsewhere: other peoples must not suffer in the way the populations of South Africa and Namibia have suffered.
To explore these issues, an international team of scholars was assembled. The aim of this project was to scrutinise the situation from the nonpartisan perspective of international law, rather than engage…
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