1 Correlates of Single Motherhood in sub-Saharan Africa Region Nyasha Chadoka-Mutanda, Chidimma M Mbanefo Demography and Population Studies Programme, Schools of Public Health and Social Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa For correspondence: Email: [email protected]; Phone: +27 73 302 4360; Address; Witwatersrand University Corner Building 6 th floor, room 620, corner Bertha and Jorissen street, Braamfontein Johannesburg Abstract Despite the increase in the number of single mother families in sub-Saharan Africa as a result of family breakdown and increasing premarital child bearing little is known about the correlates of single motherhood in this region. Using the latest Demographic and Health Surveys data of four sub-Saharan Africa countries; Congo Brazzaville (2011), Gabon (2012), Namibia (2013) and Swaziland (2006-7) this study examines the correlates of single motherhood in the selected countries. The population of interest was women aged between 15 and 49 years who were either married or single and had at least one dependent child (<18 years) at the time of the survey. Multivariate binary logistic regression model was used for the identification of correlates of single motherhood in the selected countries. The results showed that the proportion of single mothers ranged between 27% in Congo Brazzaville and 53% in Namibia. Premarital child bearing was found to be the major cause of single motherhood in Gabon, Namibia and Swaziland whilst in Congo Brazzaville separation was the main reported cause of single motherhood. Age at first birth and number of living children emerged as the correlates of single motherhood across the four countries. Also factors such as religion, level of education, wealth index and place of residence were found to be significantly associated with single motherhood in some countries. This shows that single motherhood is prevalent and correlates vary across the region though some similarities can be observed in this region. Policies, programs and interventions should therefore focus on empowering single mothers and their children as a way of alleviating poverty and other negative health outcomes associated with this family structure. Also there is need for promoting protective behavior especially among adolescents to prevent unwanted pregnancies which often occur outside marriage.
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Correlates of Single Motherhood in sub-Saharan Africa Region
Nyasha Chadoka-Mutanda, Chidimma M Mbanefo
Demography and Population Studies Programme, Schools of Public Health and Social Sciences,
University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
For correspondence: Email: [email protected]; Phone: +27 73 302 4360; Address; Witwatersrand University Corner
Building 6th floor, room 620, corner Bertha and Jorissen street, Braamfontein Johannesburg
Abstract
Despite the increase in the number of single mother families in sub-Saharan Africa as a result of
family breakdown and increasing premarital child bearing little is known about the correlates of
single motherhood in this region. Using the latest Demographic and Health Surveys data of four
sub-Saharan Africa countries; Congo Brazzaville (2011), Gabon (2012), Namibia (2013) and
Swaziland (2006-7) this study examines the correlates of single motherhood in the selected
countries. The population of interest was women aged between 15 and 49 years who were either
married or single and had at least one dependent child (<18 years) at the time of the survey.
Multivariate binary logistic regression model was used for the identification of correlates of
single motherhood in the selected countries. The results showed that the proportion of single
mothers ranged between 27% in Congo Brazzaville and 53% in Namibia. Premarital child
bearing was found to be the major cause of single motherhood in Gabon, Namibia and Swaziland
whilst in Congo Brazzaville separation was the main reported cause of single motherhood. Age
at first birth and number of living children emerged as the correlates of single motherhood across
the four countries. Also factors such as religion, level of education, wealth index and place of
residence were found to be significantly associated with single motherhood in some countries.
This shows that single motherhood is prevalent and correlates vary across the region though
some similarities can be observed in this region. Policies, programs and interventions should
therefore focus on empowering single mothers and their children as a way of alleviating poverty
and other negative health outcomes associated with this family structure. Also there is need for
promoting protective behavior especially among adolescents to prevent unwanted pregnancies
which often occur outside marriage.
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Introduction
Globally, there has been an increase in the number of single parent families and approximately
three quarters of these families are single mother families compared to single father families
(González 2005). In Western countries the proportion of children who live in single mother
families ranges between 1.5% in Belgium and 16.2% in America while in Sub-Saharan Africa
the proportion of children who live in mother only families ranges between 10% in Nigeria and
34% in South Africa (Dlamini 2006). These families have emerged as result of the increase in
two parent family breakdown due to divorce/separation or death of a spouse and other factors
like non-marital childbearing, migration and personal choice(Allan, Hawker et al. 2001,
Bigombe and Khadiagala 2003, Cherlin 2005, Moyo and Kawewe 2009, Dintwat 2010, Clark
and Hamplová 2013). Clark and Hamplová (2013), pointed out that childbearing before marriage
and marriage dissolution as a result of death/separation/death are the two major pathways which
result in the formation of single mother families. Other studies have however shown that single
motherhood is also emerging as result of individual choice where women choose to adopt or
have children without marrying through insemination (Mannis 1999, Golombok and Badger 2010).
In sub-Saharan Africa region data on the prevalence of single motherhood is not readily
available. However a recent study by Clark and Hamplová (2013) showed that the probability of
becoming a single mother by the age of 45 as a result of out of wedlock childbearing or marriage
dissolution ranged between 30% in Ethiopia and 60% plus in countries like Kenya, Malawi and
Zimbabwe. About 50% of women in sub-Saharan Africa are a more likely to become single
mothers as a result of marriage dissolution through divorce or death of a spouse (Clark and
Hamplová 2013). The prevalence of HIV/AIDS related deaths among adults could be the
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explanation of the high chances of becoming a single mother as a result of death of a spouse in
sub-Saharan region (Moyo and Kawewe 2009).
Findings from other studies in sub-Saharan Africa have also indicated that single motherhood is
common and an increasing family structure in some sub-Saharan Africa countries (Calvès 1999,
Moyo and Kawewe 2009, Jordal, Wijewardena et al. 2013). Increasing divorce rates in some
countries like Ghana (Takyi 2001, Kpoor 2013) Togo (Locoh and Thiriat 1995) and Malawi
(Reniers 2003) is also evidence that single mother families are increasing in this region since in
many cases women are always given the custodian of children. Studies on marriage patterns have
also shown that marriage rates and the proportion of those in marriage are declining (Kalule-
Sabiti, Palamuleni et al. 2007, Mhongo and Budlender 2013, Pazvakawambwa, Indongo et al.
2013). Premarital fertility is also high in this region though it varies from country to country
(Garenne, Tollman et al. 2000, Garenne and Zwang 2006, Palamuleni and Adebowale 2014) and
this usually results in single motherhood. In countries like South Africa about half of all live
births by women aged between 12 and 26 years were contributed by never married women
(Garenne, Tollman et al. 2000). Increase in age at marriage (Palamuleni 2010), increased
economic opportunities for women, labour migration (Bigombe and Khadiagala 2003) have also
been found to be associated with increased risk of single motherhood.
Despite the evidence from scientific research that single motherhood has become a global
phenomenon very few studies have been done on the correlates of single motherhood in sub-
Saharan Africa. A review by Adams (2004)showed that there has been an imbalance in family
research as many studies have been conducted in Western countries compared to African
countries. The review further revealed that very few comparative studies have been done in
family research (Adams 2004).
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The rise in single mother families in the sub-Saharan region is of concern because existing
literature has documented that single motherhood negatively affects the wellbeing of the mother
and the children as well as the society at large. Single mother families have been found to be
vulnerable families compared to two parent families. Also, promotion of the health and
wellbeing of women and children forms part of the key areas of most population policies that
were developed after the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development.
Studies have shown that single mothers are more likely to be young mothers uneducated,
unemployed or employed in low paying jobs and poor (Lipman, Offord et al. 1997, Dlamini
2006, Esteve, García‐Román et al. 2012, Jordal, Wijewardena et al. 2013). It has however been
noted that single mothers are not a homogenous group but a heterogeneous group as some
studies have shown that this family structure is also common among educated and professional
women and these are usually single mothers by choice (Berg-Cross, Scholz et al. 2004).
Furthermore, single motherhood has been found to be a predictor of morbidity and mortality
among women and children. Single mothers are more likely to suffer from cardiovascular
diseases and diabetes (Young, Cunningham et al. 2005), mental health problems such as
depression and anxiety disorders (Brown and Moran 1997, Lipman, Offord et al. 1997,
Hernández, Aranda et al. 2009) compared to partnered mothers. Children of single mothers are
more likely to die before reaching the age of five (Clark and Hamplová 2013), to be
malnourished/stunted (Gage, Sommerfelt et al. 1997, Gurmu and Etana 2013), have low school
grades/ to drop out of school (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994, Steele, Sigle-Rushton et al. 2009).
At adolescent level, teen pregnancy and delinquency behaviour has been found to be high among
children from single mother families compared to those who are from two parent families
(Ellwood and Jencks 2004). However single mothers who are financially stable an economically
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independent have the capacity to take good care of their children and this result in positive
outcomes (Mannis 1999).
Sub-Saharan Africa is a region where poverty, teen/adolescent pregnancy, non-marital child
bearing, malnutrition/under nutrition and under-five mortality levels are still high. Poverty rates
tend to be high among women compared to men in many societies (Casper, McLanahan et al.
1994). The existence of a relationship between the above factors and single motherhood further
strengthens the need for understanding the correlates of single motherhood in this region as this
will shed light on the characteristics of this family structure.
Sub-Saharan Africa region is also a region where divorce and separation rates are also increasing
(Takyi 2001). Adult mortality is also high as a result of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and studies
have shown that women are more likely to be single as a result of death of a spouse (Moyo and
Kawewe 2009, Clark and Hamplová 2013). Labour migration has also resulted in family
breakdown as men tend to migrate and leave their wives and children behind (Adepoju 2000,
Bigombe and Khadiagala 2003). This is an indication that single motherhood could be high in
this region therefore the need to understand the patterns and correlates.
In Namibia a study by Palamuleni and Adebowale (2014) revealed that premarital child bearing
is still high and common among uneducated women in this country. The prevalence of premarital
child bearing among female youths was estimated to be 25.5% which was the highest out of all
the six countries that were selected for that study (Palamuleni and Adebowale 2014). A study by
Garenne and Zwang (2006) showed a 42.7% prevalence of premarital fertility among women in
Namibia.Pazvakawambwa, Indongo et al. (2013) study revealed a decline in the proportion of
those women getting married whilst the proportion of those never married women is increasing
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and dominant in this country. In Swaziland the percentage single mothers is estimated to have
increased by 14% between 1986 and 2006 (SWAMSO, 2006). A study by Dlamini (2006)
showed that Swaziland was one of the countries that had the highest percentage of children who
lived with their mother only of about 27%. Premarital child bearing is said to be very common
in this country (Russell 1993) and high levels of adolescent pregnancy and adolescent fertility
have been documented in this country (Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MOHSW)
Government of Swaziland 2001). Furthermore Swaziland is one of the countries with the highest
HIV/AIDS prevalence rates and it estimated that the prevalence of HIV within the reproductive
age population (15-49) is about 26% (Swaziland Central Statistical Office and Macro
International Inc 2008). Death of a spouse results in single motherhood.
In Gabon premarital fertility is also high estimated at about 26.4% (Garenne and Zwang 2009)
Over the years the proportion of never married women has been increasing in Gabon and studies
have shown that never married women tend to have children. In Congo Brazzaville teenage
pregnancy and teen motherhood is very high, about 31% of women age between 15-19 years
reported ever being pregnant (Congo Brazzaville, Demographic and Health Survey youth
factsheet, 2005). Early sexual initiation is also high in Congo Brazzaville, 81% of women aged
between 18-24 years initiate sexual intercourse before the age of 18 (CBDHS, 2005) and this is a
predictor of single motherhood. Cohabiting rates among youths are also high (44%). This type
union has been found to be unstable and usually results in single motherhood. A study by
Antoine and Nanitelamio (1991) showed that Brazzaville had the largest percentage of single
women compared to the other cities that were selected. Antoine and Nanitelamio (1991) pointed
out that being single was acceptable in that city. The study further revealed that Brazzaville city
had the largest percentage of single mothers compared to Pikine and Abidjan cities, unmarried
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women contributed about half of the births that were recorded in that period. It is against this
background that these countries were selected for this study.
The aim of this study is therefore to examine the correlates of single motherhood in four sub-
Saharan Africa countries: Congo Brazzaville, Gabon, Namibia and Swaziland using
Demographic and Health Surveys data which is nationally representative and comparable data.
This study will add to the body of literature in family research in sub-Saharan Africa.
Data source and Methods
Data for this study was drawn from the latest Demographic and Heath Surveys that were
conducted as part of the worldwide Measure DHS program in the selected countries; Congo
Brazzaville, Gabon, Namibia and Swaziland. Each survey collected data from a nationally
representative sample of women aged between 15 and 49 years on background characteristics
(age, education, wealth, place of residence), birth history, fertility, marriage and sexual activity
among other things. This study focused on women/mothers who were either married or single
and had at least one dependent child at the time of the survey. The study therefore included all
women who were never married, married and formerly married (divorced/separated/widowed)
who had a child less than 18 years. The index child that was used in the selection of the study
population was the first child. A sample of 7 611 (Congo Brazzaville), 5 403 (Gabon), 5 740
(Namibia) and 3 081 (Swaziland) women/mothers was selected. These are all weighted values.
The dependent variable for this study is single motherhood which was derived from the current
marital status of the mother with a child below 18 years. It is a binary outcome categorized as
“Yes (1)” if one is a single mother and “No (0)” if one is married mother.
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The independent variables that were selected were age, age at first birth, age at first sex and
number of living children which are continuous variables; place of residence (urban/rural), level
of education (no education/primary/secondary plus), wealth index (poor/middle/rich), occupation
(not working/professionals and clerical/ sales and services/agriculture, manual and others) and
religion (Catholics/other Christians/other religions). The religion variable for Swaziland was
categorized into two categories because they were very few observations within the Catholics
category so for Swaziland Catholics are included in the other Christians category.
Data Analysis
Data analysis for this study was done at three levels; univariate, bivariate and multivariate.
Descriptive statistics were used and the results for the respondent’s profile were presented using
percentage distribution. The person chi-square test was used to examine the association between
single motherhood and each selected independent categorical variable. The multivariate binary
logistic regression was then employed to examine the linear relationship between the predictor
variables and single motherhood. All the analysis was conducted using Stata version 13
(StataCorp 2013). The women sample weight provided in the DHS individual dataset was used
during tabulations. Application of the sample weight is essential during tabulation because it
adjusts for non-response and oversampling of some population segments in the survey data. To
account for the survey sampling design the Stata survey command (svy) was used in the analysis
of the other three countries except for Swaziland where only the sample weight (iw=weight)
because the selected sample data could not permit the use of (svy).
The logistic regression model equation used for the multivariate analyses is: