-
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NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF WARM-SEASON PUTTING GREEN CULTIVARS
DURING GROW-IN AND THEIR DROUGHT RESISTANCE ONCE ESTABLISHED
By
JOHN HUDSON ROWLAND
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2010
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© 2010 John H. Rowland
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To my family
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. John Cisar for providing me the
opportunity to obtain my
doctorate, and my additional advisors for their expertise, time,
and devotion to the process. I
would like to thank Pamela Michels and my family for their
never-ending support, as well as
everyone at the Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center
who helped with my research
project, particularly Brian Steinberg. Donations of sod from
Wayne Hanna and Environmental
Turf, fertilizer from Raymond Snyder of Harrell’s, chemicals
from Bayardo Herrera of UAP,
sand from John Swaner of Golf Agronomics, soil sensors from
Charlie of Toro, and laser-
grading by Kevin Hardy of Ballpark Maintenance were greatly
appreciated. Funding from the
Calvin L. Korf Turfgrass Research Endowment helped make this
research possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
...............................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES
...........................................................................................................................7
LIST OF FIGURES
.........................................................................................................................9
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
........................................................................................................17
ABSTRACT
...................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
..................................................................................................................20
Rationale
.................................................................................................................................20
Turfgrass Nutrition
.................................................................................................................20
Fate of Nutrients
.....................................................................................................................21
Water Requirements
...............................................................................................................22
Water Sources
.........................................................................................................................22
Watering Practices
..................................................................................................................23
Water Quality
..........................................................................................................................25
2 ESTABLISHMENT OF WARM-SEASON PUTTING GREEN CULTIVARS AS
AFFECTED BY NITROGEN/POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION
..........................................27
Introduction
.............................................................................................................................27
Materials and Methods
...........................................................................................................29
Experimental Site
............................................................................................................29
Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis
.................................................................30
Fertilizer Treatments
.......................................................................................................30
Measurements
..................................................................................................................30
Results and Discussion
...........................................................................................................31
Turfgrass Cover
...............................................................................................................31
Chlorophyll
......................................................................................................................32
Thatch Development
.......................................................................................................32
Root Development
...........................................................................................................33
Surface Compressibility and Ball Roll
............................................................................34
Mower Scalping
...............................................................................................................34
Quality and Recovery
......................................................................................................35
Algae
................................................................................................................................36
3 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF NEWLY-ESTABLISHED WARM-SEASON PUTTING
GREEN CULTIVARS AS AFFECTED BY NITROGEN/POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION
...................................................................................................................63
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Introduction
.............................................................................................................................63
Materials and Methods
...........................................................................................................65
Experimental Site
............................................................................................................65
Measurements
..................................................................................................................66
Statistical Analysis
..........................................................................................................68
Results and Discussion
...........................................................................................................68
Turfgrass Wilting
.............................................................................................................68
Soil Moisture
...................................................................................................................69
Turfgrass Quality
.............................................................................................................70
Chlorophyll Levels
..........................................................................................................71
Normalized Difference Vegetative Index
........................................................................71
Drought Resistance Characteristics
.................................................................................72
4 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF WARM-SEASON PUTTING GREEN CULTIVARS
SODDED ON SANDY NATIVE SOIL
...............................................................................104
Introduction
...........................................................................................................................104
Materials and Methods
.........................................................................................................106
Experimental Site
..........................................................................................................106
Measurements
................................................................................................................107
Statistical Analysis
........................................................................................................108
Results and Discussion
.........................................................................................................108
Turfgrass Wilting
...........................................................................................................108
Soil Moisture
.................................................................................................................109
Evapotranspiration
.........................................................................................................111
Turfgrass Quality
...........................................................................................................111
Chlorophyll Levels
........................................................................................................112
Normalized Difference Vegetative Index
......................................................................113
5 CONCLUSIONS
..................................................................................................................149
APPENDIX
CHAPTER 2 DATA
....................................................................................................................153
CHAPTER 3 DATA
....................................................................................................................166
CHAPTER 4 DATA
....................................................................................................................180
LIST OF REFERENCES
.............................................................................................................182
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
.......................................................................................................188
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LIST OF TABLES
Table page 2-1 Anova table for turfgrass cover of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment 1
at week 13 on 1 January 2009.
...........................................................................................39
2-2 Anova table for turfgrass cover of a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 2 at week 9 on 23 September 2009.
......................................................................................43
2-3 Anova table for chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 17 on 29 January 2009.
......................................................................................45
2-4 Anova table for chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 6 on 3 September 2009.
.....................................................................................46
2-5 Anova table for thatch depth of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of experiment
1.......................................................................................................................47
2-6 Anova table for thatch depth of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of experiment
2.......................................................................................................................48
2-7 Anova table for root length of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of experiment
1.......................................................................................................................49
2-8 Anova table for root length of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of experiment
2.......................................................................................................................50
2-9 Anova table for surface compressibility of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 15 on 13 January 2009.
...................................................................51
2-10 Anova table for surface compressibility of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 10 on 3 October 2009.
....................................................................52
2-11 Anova table for ball roll distance of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 24 on 20 March 2009.
........................................................................................53
2-12 Anova table for ball roll distance of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 11 on 9 October 2009.
.......................................................................................54
2-13 Anova table for mower scalping of a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 1 at week 20 on 19 February 2009.
.......................................................................................55
2-14 Anova table for mower scalping of a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 2 at week 10 on 1 October 2009.
..........................................................................................56
2-15 Anova table for quality of a USGA-specified research green
at the end of experiment
1..........................................................................................................................................57
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2-16 Anova table for quality of a USGA-specified research green
at the end of experiment
2..........................................................................................................................................58
2-17 Anova table for recovery of a USGA-specified research green
at the end of experiment
1.......................................................................................................................59
2-18 Anova table for recovery of a USGA-specified research green
at the end of experiment
2.......................................................................................................................60
2-19 Anova table for algae on a USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 at week 7 on 24 November 2008.
.......................................................................................................61
2-20 Anova table for algae on a USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 4 on 22 August 2009.
............................................................................................................62
3-1 Physical properties of USGA-specified soil.
.....................................................................73
3-2 Canopy characteristics of warm-season putting green
cultivars. .......................................73
3-3 Thatch depth and root length of warm-season putting green
cultivars. .............................73
4-1 Physical properties of Hallandale fine sand.
....................................................................114
A-1 Effect of potassium on turfgrass cover.
...........................................................................155
A-2 Effect of potassium on chlorophyll index.
.......................................................................156
A-3 Effect of potassium on thatch depth.
................................................................................157
A-4 Effect of potassium on root length.
..................................................................................158
A-5 Effect of potassium on surface compressibility.
..............................................................159
A-6 Effect of potassium on ball roll.
.......................................................................................160
A-7 Converted modified stimpmeter ball roll distances.
........................................................161
A-8 Effect of potassium on mower scalping.
..........................................................................162
A-9 Effect of potassium on turfgrass quality.
.........................................................................163
A-10 Effect of potassium on turfgrass recovery.
......................................................................164
A-11 Effect of potassium on algal cover.
..................................................................................165
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page 2-1 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover
during grow-in of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 from 2 October 2008 – 16 April
2009. ............................37
2-2 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as affected by N
fertilization during grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 from 2 October 2008 – 16 April 2009.
....................................................................................................................38
2-3 Effect of grass*Nitrogen (N) on turfgrass cover of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment 1 at week 13 on 1
January 2009.
.................................................................39
2-4 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover, as affected by
N/K fertilization ratio during grow-in of a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 1 from 2 October 2008 – 16 April 2009.
........................................................................................................40
2-5 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover during grow-in of
a USGA-specified research green in experiment 2 from 30 July – 4
November, 2009. ..................................41
2-6 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as affected by N
fertilization during grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 from 30 July – 4 November, 2009.
................................................................................................................42
2-7 Effect of grass*N on turfgrass coverage of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 9 on 23 September 2009.
................................................................43
2-8 Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as affected by
N/K fertilization ratio during grow-in of a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 2 from 30 July – 4 November, 2009.
................................................................................................................44
2-9 Effect of grass*N on chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 17 on 29 January 2009.
...................................................................45
2-10 Effect of grass*N on chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 6 on 3 September 2009.
..................................................................46
2-11 Effect of grass*N on thatch depth of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of experiment
1.......................................................................................................................47
2-12 Effect of grass*N on thatch depth of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of experiment
2.......................................................................................................................48
2-13 Effect of grass*N on root length of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of experiment
1.......................................................................................................................49
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2-14 Effect of grass*N on root length of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of experiment
2.......................................................................................................................50
2-15 Effect of grass*N on surface compressibility, as measured
with a Volkmeter, of a USGA-specified research green in experiment
1 at week 15 on 13 January 2009. ...........51
2-16 Effect of grass*N on surface compressibility, as measured
with a Volkmeter, of a USGA-specified research green in experiment
2 at week 10 on 3 October 2009. ............52
2-17 Effect of grass*N on ball roll distance of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 24 on 20 March 2009.
.....................................................................53
2-18 Effect of grass*N on ball roll distance of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 11 on 9 October 2009.
....................................................................54
2-19 Effect of grass*N on mower scalping of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at week 20 on 19 February 2009.
.................................................................55
2-20 Effect of grass*N on mower scalping of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at week 10 on 1 October 2009.
....................................................................56
2-21 Effect of grass*N on quality of a USGA-specified research
green two weeks after verticutting at the end of experiment 1.
.............................................................................57
2-22 Effect of grass*N on quality of a USGA-specified research
green two weeks after verticutting at the end of experiment 2.
.............................................................................58
2-23 Effect of grass*N on recovery of a USGA-specified research
green two weeks after verticutting at the end of experiment 1.
.............................................................................59
2-24 Effect of grass*N on recovery of a USGA-specified research
green two weeks after verticutting at the end of experiment 2.
.............................................................................60
2-25 Effect of grass*N for algae on a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 1 at week 7 on 24 November 2008.
..........................................................................................61
2-26 Effect of grass*N for algae on a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 2 at week 4 on 22 August
2009.................................................................................................62
3-1 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 25% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 16 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................74
3-2 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 50% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 5 May – 16 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................75
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3-3 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 100% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 5 May – 16 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................76
3-4 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 25% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 18 October – 30 October 2009.
...............................................................................................77
3-5 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 50% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 18 October – 28 October 2009.
...............................................................................................78
3-6 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 100% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 18 October – 28 October 2009.
...............................................................................................79
3-7 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 25%
ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 30 April – 12 May 2009.
.....................................................................80
3-8 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 50%
ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 30 April – 12 May 2009.
.....................................................................81
3-9 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 100%
ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 30 April – 12 May 2009.
.....................................................................82
3-10 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 25%
ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 24 October 2009.
...........................................................83
3-11 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 50%
ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 24 October 2009.
...........................................................84
3-12 Soil moisture of a USGA-specified research green under 100%
ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 24 October 2009.
...........................................................85
3-13 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 25% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 16 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................................86
3-14 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 50% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 16 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................................87
3-15 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 100% ETo
irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 16 May 2009.
.....................................................................................................................88
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3-16 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 25% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 29 October 2009.
...........................................................................................................889
3-17 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 50% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 29 October 2009.
.............................................................................................................90
3-18 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under 100% ETo
irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 29 October 2009.
.............................................................................................................91
3-19 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
25% irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 12 May 2009.
.....................................................................................................................92
3-20 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 12 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................93
3-21 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May – 12 May 2009.
..........................................................................................................94
3-22 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 25 October
2009.
...............................................................................................95
3-23 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 25 October
2009.
...............................................................................................96
3-24 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green under
100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19 October – 25 October
2009.
...............................................................................................97
3-25 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May
– 12 May 2009.
....................................................98
3-26 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May
– 12 May 2009.
....................................................99
3-27 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 2 May
– 12 May 2009.
..................................................100
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3-28 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19
October – 25 October 2009.
.....................................101
3-29 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19
October – 25 October 2009.
.....................................102
3-30 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 19
October – 25 October 2009.
.....................................103
4-1 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 25
September to 31 October 2009.
................................115
4-2 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 26
September to 1 November 2009. ..............................116
4-3 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 31
September to 31 October 2009.
................................117
4-4 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 14 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................118
4-5 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 14 November
to 9 December 2009. ..............................119
4-6 Wilting ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 14
November to 10 December 2009. ............................120
4-7 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green cultivars
under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20 September to 30
October 2009. ................................121
4-8 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green cultivars
under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20 September to 30
October 2009. ................................122
4-9 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green cultivars
under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20 September to 30
October 2009. ................................123
4-10 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................124
4-11 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................125
4-12 Soil moisture for sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12
November to 10 December 2009. ............................126
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4-13 Evapotranspiration of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars in experiment 1 from 29 September to 30 October 2009.
..........................................................................127
4-14 Evapotranspiration of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars in experiment 2 from 12 November to 9 December 2009.
........................................................................128
4-15 Comparison of evapotranspiration (ET) calculation methods
in experiment 1 from 29 September to 30 October 2009.
.......................................................................................129
4-16 Comparison of evapotranspiration (ET) calculation methods
in experiment 2 from 12 November to 9 December 2009.
......................................................................................130
4-17 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 31 October 2009.
................................131
4-18 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 31 October 2009.
................................132
4-19 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 31 October 2009.
................................133
4-20 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................134
4-21 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................135
4-22 Quality ratings of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12
November to 10 December 2009. ............................136
4-23 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 30 October 2009.
................................137
4-24 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 30 October 2009.
................................138
4-25 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 1 from 20
September to 30 October 2009.
................................139
4-26 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................140
4-27 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12 November
to 10 December 2009. ............................141
4-28 Chlorophyll index of sodded warm-season putting green
cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in experiment 2 from 12
November to 10 December 2009. ............................142
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4-29 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in
experiment 1 from 20 September to 30 October 2009.
...................................................................................................................143
4-30 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in
experiment 1 from 20 September to 30 October 2009.
...................................................................................................................144
4-31 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in
experiment 1 from 20 September to 30 October 2009.
...................................................................................................................145
4-32 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 25% ETo irrigation in
experiment 2 from 12 November to 10 December 2009.
...............................................................................................................146
4-33 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 50% ETo irrigation in
experiment 2 from 12 November to 10 December 2009.
...............................................................................................................147
4-34 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of sodded
warm-season putting green cultivars under 100% ETo irrigation in
experiment 2 from 12 November to 10 December 2009.
...............................................................................................................148
A-1 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 1 from 20 October 2008 – 16 April 2009.
......................................................................................................153
A-2 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 2 from 23 July to 4 November 2009.
...............................................................................................................154
B-1 Comparison of theta meter with grass in place, and removed
for direct reading of volumetric water content.
.................................................................................................166
B-2 Comparison of theta meter with grass in place and the
gravimetric method of determining volumetric water content.
............................................................................167
B-3 Comparison of theta meter with grass removed and the
gravimetric method of determining volumetric water content.
............................................................................168
B-4 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 1 from 23 April to 16 May 2009.
........................................................................................................................169
B-5 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 2 from 9 October to 31 October 2009.
..............................................................................................................170
B-6 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green as affected by
nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in experiment 1 from 2 May to 16 May
2009.
.....................................................................171
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B-7 Wilting ratings of recently established warm-season putting
green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green as affected by
nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in experiment 2 from 18 October to
30 October 2009.
........................................................172
B-8 Volumetric water content of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green as
affected by nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in experiment 1 from 30
April to 12 May 2009.
...................................................173
B-9 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green in experiment 1 from 2
May to 16 May 2009. .........................174
B-10 Quality of recently established warm-season putting green
cultivars on a USGA-specified research green in experiment 2 from
19 October to 29 October 2009. ............175
B-11 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green as
affected by nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in experiment 1 from 2
May to 12 May 2009.
.....................................................................176
B-12 Chlorophyll index of recently established warm-season
putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified research green as
affected by nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in experiment 2 from 19
October to 25 October 2009.
........................................................177
B-13 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green as affected by nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in
experiment 1 from 2 May to 12 May 2009. ..............178
B-14 Normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) of recently
established warm-season putting green cultivars on a USGA-specified
research green as affected by nitrogen/potassium ratio (N:K) in
experiment 2 from 19 October to 25 October 2009. .179
C-1 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 1 from 20 September to 30 October 2009.
..........................................................................................................180
C-2 Actual and historical mean air temperatures (°C) in
experiment 2 from 11 November to 12 December 2009.
......................................................................................................181
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BMP Best management practices
CV Cultivar
ET Evapotranspiration
ETo Potential evapotranspiration
KSAT Saturated hydraulic conductivity
OM Organic matter
PCU Polymer-coated urea
PF PristineFlora
PVC Poly vinyl chloride
SD SeaDwarf
TD TifDwarf
TE TifEagle
USGA United States Golf Association
VWC Volumetric water content
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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the
University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF WARM-SEASON PUTTING GREEN CULTIVARS
DURING GROW-IN AND THEIR DROUGHT RESISTANCE ONCE ESTABLISHED
By
John Hudson Rowland
May 2010
Chair: John L. Cisar Major: Soil and Water Science
Bermudagrasses [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x C. transvaalensis
Burt Davy] were the
primary warm-season species used on golf greens until improved
varieties of seashore paspalum
(Paspalum vaginatum Swartz) and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.), with
claims of reduced fertilizer
and water requirements, became available. Nitrogen is normally
applied at 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
during warm-season putting green establishment to ensure rapid
turfgrass cover. Potassium,
which reduces turfgrass growth, quality, and tolerance to
environmental stresses when deficient,
is often applied at rates equal to or greater than N in an
attempt to increase its benefits.
‘TifDwarf’ (TD) and ‘TifEagle’ (TE) bermudagrasses, ‘SeaDwarf’
(SD) seashore paspalum, and
‘PristineFlora’ (PF) zoysiagrass [Zoysia japonica Stued. by
Zoysia tenuifolia (L.) Merr.] had
varied levels of N, K, and irrigation applied to compare
nutrient and water use requirements.
Cultivars were sprigged at 36.6 m³ haֿ¹ on a USGA-specified sand
research green in Sept. 2008
and July 2009. Fertilizer treatments included 1.2, 2.4, 3.7, or
4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹, and a one-time
application of polymer-coated urea (PCU) at 39.1 g N m⁻². Each N
treatment coincided with
four N to K fertilization ratios (N:K): 1N:1K, 1N:2K, 1N:3K, or
1N:4K. Within cultivar grow-in
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19
rate was similar for SD,TD, and TE in both years, and PF in year
2 with 2.4, 3.7, or 4.9 g N m⁻²
wk⁻¹; 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ was similar for SD in year 2. There were
no significant effects among
N:K. The 2.4 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ rate was generally considered best for
rapid establishment of all
cultivars. Although 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ was usually slower to
grow-in, it often provided a more
desirable putting surface than 3.7, or 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹. One
application of PCU provided
sufficient cover for all cultivars in 2009. The USGA green was
then fertilized with N at 4.9 g
mֿ² 30dֿ¹, and K at 1N:1K, 1N:2K, 1N:3K, or 1N:4K and irrigated
at 25, 50 or 100% of potential
evapotranspiration (ETo), as determined by the Blaney-Criddle
equation. Treatments were
initiated in April (experiment 1) and Oct. (experiment 2) 2009.
All cultivars had objectionable
wilting at 25% ETo, although PF and SD generally had less in
exp. 2. TifDwarf and TE had
objectionable wilting at 50% ETo in both exp.’s, while PF was
objectionable in exp. 2. Wilting
did not become objectionable at 100% ETo. There were no
beneficial effects for increasing N:K.
SeaDwarf appeared to tolerate deficit irrigation the best. A
second water use study, which used
identical irrigation treatments and lysimeters to measure
evapotranspiration (ET), was conducted
with PF, SD, and TD sodded on Hallandale fine sand (Siliceous,
hyperthermic Lithic
Psammaquent). All cultivars had objectionable wilting at 25, 50,
and 100% ETo. SeaDwarf had
less wilting than PF in both exp., and TD in exp. 2 at 25% ETo.
TifDwarf wilted most at 50%
ETo in exp. 2. PristineFlora had the highest ET, and SD the
lowest. Irrigation at 100% ETo was
insufficient for all cultivars on the native soil. PristineFlora
and SD provided high quality
putting surfaces and had better drought resistance than TD and
TE bermudagrass. SeaDwarf
required the least N during establishment.
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20
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Ample amounts of nutrients and water are required to maintain
warm-season golf course
greens. When deficient, supplemental applications of fertilizer
and irrigation become necessary.
Best management practices, based on sound research results,
should be followed by turfgrass
managers to avoid unnecessary applications of nutrients and
irrigation, which can pollute and
deplete ground and surface waters.
Turfgrass Nutrition
In addition to providing desirable color and playing conditions,
a properly fertilized
sward of turfgrass uses water more efficiently (Christians,
1998), reduces weed populations
(Lowe et al., 2000; Rajaniemi, 2002), and promotes recovery from
foot traffic (McCarty and
Miller, 2002), and biotic stresses (Vargas, 1994). The nutrients
required in the greatest amounts
and applied most frequently to turfgrass are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Of
these primary nutrients (i.e., macronutrients), N has the
largest influence on turfgrass color, shoot
density and growth (Rodriguez et al., 2001; Snyder et al.,
1984). Warm-season golf course
greens require up to 118 g N mֿ² yrֿ¹, depending upon the
cultivar, amount of traffic, length of
growing season, soil type, and demands of golfers (Cisar and
Snyder, 2003; McCarty and Miller,
2002; Sartain et al., 1999). Lightning, rainwater, and soil
organic matter provide only small
amounts of N in comparison to what is required by most
warm-season putting green cultivars
(Brady and Weil, 1999; Erickson et al., 2001; FDEP, 2007; Wolf
and Snyder, 2003). To
improve putting surfaces, golf course superintendents apply
additional N at regular intervals.
Since applications of soluble N >2.4 g N mֿ² can increase
leaching and runoff potential, smaller,
more frequent applications are usually recommended (FDEP 2007;
Sartain et al., 1999). If
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21
slow-release N sources are used, applications up to 15 g N mֿ²
90 dֿ¹ can be made without
undesired flushes of growth or increased environmental impacts
(Sartain et al., 1999).
Phosphorus enables plants to store and transfer energy during
metabolic processes
(Havlin et al., 1999). Since P is not as mobile as N, and occurs
naturally in rock, soil and
rainwater, soil solution P is often sufficient for warm-season
turfgrass growth. Fertilization with
P is considered unnecessary, and discouraged unless soil and
tissue tests determine there is a
deficiency, particularly since excess P can cause a decline in
bermudagrass growth due to
reduced tissue N (Sartain et al., 1999), negative environmental
effects such as algal blooms, and
increase populations of noxious aquatic plants in surface water
bodies (FDEP, 2007).
Potassium is often called the “health element”, as it is thought
to improve resistance to
stresses from drought, disease and temperature extremes (Sartain
et al., 1999). Since K is highly
soluble and leaches readily in high-sand content greens, it is
often considered deficient in soil
tests. Although research has not shown increased benefits with
N/K fertilization ratios higher
than 1N:0.5K (Sartain, 1998; Snyder and Cisar, 2000a), K is
often applied at rates equal to or
higher than N due to soil test recommendations, and a presumed
increase in plant health and
stress resistance. Though K is not yet tagged as an
environmentally damaging nutrient, large
applications should be avoided unless deficiency is confirmed by
tissue tests or visual symptoms,
such as chlorosis of the older leaves.
Fate of Nutrients
Applied nutrients that go unused by turfgrass or other plants
can remain in the soil for
future use, leach into ground water, or enter surface waters as
runoff. Nutrient retention in soils
is highly dependent on soil type and organic matter (OM)
concentration. Sandy soil generally
has very low cation exchange capacity due to its small surface
area and low OM content (Sartain
and Snyder, 1999). Soils that include moderate amounts of clay
or organic matter can hold
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22
appreciable amounts of nutrients on electrostatic exchange sites
until the plant needs them due to
larger surface areas. These soils can reduce leaching of
nutrients into groundwater, although
runoff into surface waters may increase due to slower
infiltration rates. Maintaining a stand of
aquatic plants in retention ponds or along lake banks in areas
prone to runoff reduces pollution of
surface waters due to their filtering effect (Figure 1; FDEP,
2007).
Water Requirements
Water is the primary requirement for turfgrass function and
survival. Turfgrass water
levels are normally between 75-85 percent by weight, and death
occurs when water content is
less than 60 percent (Cisar and Miller, 1999). Without adequate
plant moisture, the ability to
transport nutrients and water throughout the transpiration
stream is compromised. As soil water
potential decreases below field capacity and nears the permanent
wilting point, stomata on
turfgrass leaves close in an attempt to protect against
dehydration. The lack of a cooling effect
from the release of water vapor through transpiration leads to a
reduction of photosynthesis, and
increased canopy temperature. If stomata remain closed, plant
cell metabolism will be
compromised and turfgrass density will decline. If drought
conditions persist, turfgrasses can
become permanently wilted and die.
Water Sources
Since water is not always available in sufficient quantities to
provide acceptable stands of
turf, supplemental irrigation is often used. Potential water
sources include ground water, surface
water, non-potable, reclaimed, and effluent wastewater. Ground
water, which is the main source
for public supply, can be acquired by drilling into aquifers
found between layers of rock, or the
surficial water table (Barnett, 2007). Surface water bodies,
such as stormwater runoff detention
ponds, lakes, rivers, and canals are most often used by golf
courses due to the large amounts of
water required and ease of pumping. Reclaimed water from
treatment plants has become popular
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23
due to its reduced cost and recent fresh water restrictions.
Golf courses are well suited for
reclaimed water use, as the dense root systems of turfgrasses
filter out nutrients and
contaminants, reducing the likelihood of groundwater
contamination.
Watering Practices
Irrigation applications are based on visual drought symptoms,
soil moisture levels,
evapotranspiration (ET) rates, predictive models, and turfgrass
species. When turfgrass is under
drought stress, leaves lose turgor, margins roll inward, and
turn blue-green in color (Cisar and
Miller, 1999). A commonly accepted practice is to apply
irrigation when one-half of the leaves
have begun to roll. Another method used to determine the onset
of drought is the footprint test.
After walking across an area of turf, if the footprints do not
spring back within a few minutes,
irrigation should be scheduled for the next morning unless
rainfall is imminent.
Soil moisture levels are evaluated more precisely with devices
that measure electrical
resistance and water tension. Theta probes, which measure
electrical resistance in the soil, are
portable, easy to use, and require only a few readings per green
to determine if irrigation will be
necessary. In most cases, irrigation should not be considered
until volumetric water content falls
below 20%. When superintendents encounter ‘hot spots’ on greens,
which often occur on highly
sloped sections, a hand syringing of the dry area is preferable
to an all-inclusive irrigation. This
practice saves water and helps prevent runoff. Tensiometers
measure negative pressure head of
soil water with a vacuum gauge to determine moisture
availability, and are often used in
conjunction with automatic irrigation systems. When soil
moisture reduces to a set tension
threshold, irrigation will run until soil moisture becomes
sufficient. Using this form of irrigation
reduces water use and nitrogen leaching (Snyder et al., 1984).
Rain sensors are also used as
circuits in automatic irrigation systems, and will cancel an
upcoming irrigation if rainfall has
exceeded a predetermined level.
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24
Predictive models use climatological data and empirical
procedures to determine
potential ET and net irrigation requirements. McCloud,
Thornthwaite, Penman and modified
Blaney-Criddle are commonly used ET estimation methods. The
McCloud equation was
developed to reflect turfgrass water use under Florida
conditions, and is considered the most
accurate model when mean temperatures are higher than 70° F
(Augustin, 1983). The
Thornthwaite equation, which emphasizes temperature and day
length, underestimates ET
compared to the McCloud equation. The Penman equation is based
upon net radiation, vapor
pressure, and wind speed, but also is considered to
underestimate ET (Augustin, 1983). The
modified Blaney-Criddle method is used by most Florida water
management districts to allocate
water for golf course irrigation. The Blaney-Criddle method is
based on mean temperature,
percent daylight hours, and climatic and consumptive use
coefficients (Blaney and Criddle,
1950). Provided the proper crop coefficient is used, and light
levels are correct, the model is
considered to accurately estimate ET (Augustin, 1983).
Adjustments can be made when changes
in environmental parameters such as solar radiation, wind, or
rainfall dictate. The need for
irrigation is increased on sunny days when stomata remain open
to increase canopy cooling via
water vapor release. Water requirements also increase when wind
velocity is high, as the
external layer of vapor pressure that protects the leaf from
dehydration is decreased. If excessive
rainfall occurs, irrigation can be delayed until drought stress
becomes evident.
Differences in ET between and within turfgrass species also
influence amount and
frequency of irrigation. Warm-season turfgrasses generally
require less water to maintain plant
growth compared to cool-season turfgrasses due to differences in
their carbon fixation pathways.
Cool-season turfgrasses need to keep their stomata open for
longer periods of time to capture
carbon dioxide, and subsequently lose more water through
transpiration. The higher water-use
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25
efficiency rates and lower carbon dioxide compensation point of
warm-season turfgrasses
generally provide higher water-use efficiency (Cisar and Miller,
1999). Differences in
morphological characteristics can also influence the ability of
turfgrasses to resist drought as
horizontal leaf orientation, slow vertical leaf growth rate, and
high shoot and leaf densities can
impart lower water-use rates (Cisar and Miller, 1999).
Water Quality
The most salt-tolerant warm-season grasses can tolerate
irrigation with seawater for short
periods of time, although saline sources are most often mixed
with fresh water for prolonged
usage (Zinn, 2004). Since fresh water is a limited resource and
high in cost, some golf courses
have turned to saline and reclaimed water for irrigation.
Although these sources are a viable
option, they can have a negative effect on turfgrass quality if
not managed properly. Suspended
solids and high salinity are of utmost concern on golf course
greens, as soil pores can become
clogged with solids, causing reduced infiltration and an
anaerobic environment (Cisar and Miller,
1999). Applications of gypsum can flush sodium off the soil
exchange complex and replace it
with calcium. The soluble sodium sulfate that is left can then
be flushed below the root zone
with fresh water (Cisar et al., 1999).
High bicarbonate levels in irrigation water can affect plant
health even if it is low in
sodium and dissolved salts, as calcium and magnesium carbonate
precipitate to form lime when
soil pH ≥ 8 (Cisar et al., 1999). Soils can then become sodium
dominant, as calcium and
magnesium are no longer exchangeable. Acidifying materials such
as ammonium sulfate can
help reduce soil pH when bicarbonate levels are moderate, but
injections of stronger acids (e.g.,
sulfuric) into the irrigation system may be needed under extreme
conditions (Sartain and Snyder,
1999).
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26
Figure 1-1. Vegetation on golf course lake banks creates a
filter for nutrient runoff.
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27
CHAPTER 2 ESTABLISHMENT OF WARM-SEASON PUTTING GREEN CULTIVARS
AS AFFECTED
BY NITROGEN/POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION
Introduction
Proper fertilization of golf course putting greens during
establishment provides rapid
turfgrass cover, high quality putting surfaces, and limits
environmental impact. Of the primary
nutrients, N is most important for turfgrass culture, and has
the greatest influence on color, shoot
density and growth (Rodriguez et al., 2001; Snyder et al.,
1984). Nitrogen is often applied at
higher rates (e.g., 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹) during putting green
establishment in an attempt to
overcome leaching losses from increased irrigation, hydraulic
conductivity, reduced cation
exchange capacity, turfgrass cover, and root mass (Rodriguez et
al., 2001; White, 2003). Slow-
release N sources can provide quality turfgrass with reduced
leaching in coarse-textured soils
(Brown et al., 1977; Petrovic, 2004; Snyder et al., 1980), and
allow larger applications of N to be
applied less frequently without negative agronomic or
environmental effects (Sartain et al.,
1999). Applying soluble N at a rate greater than 2.4 g mֿ² is
not recommended due to the
potential for decreased ball roll speeds, root growth, increased
flushes of top growth, mower
scalping, mat development, and potential for leaching and
contamination of ground water
(FDEP, 2007; Sartain et al., 1999).
Although P does not impart a large influence on turfgrass growth
under most conditions,
optimum development of young plants during establishment can be
limited if soil and tissue
levels are insufficient (Havlin et al., 1999; Rodriguez et al.,
2001; Sartain, 1998). To ensure
adequate availability, P is often incorporated into the root
zone prior to planting, or surface
applied as a starter fertilizer (Guertal, 2007; White, 2003). A
1N:0.4P fertilization ratio was
considered optimal for establishment of bermudagrass in sandy
soil (Rodriguez et al., 2001).
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28
Potassium, which is beneficial for turfgrass quality and growth
(McCarty and Miller, 2002;
Snyder and Cisar, 2000), infers increased tolerance to drought,
disease, wear, heat (Turner and
Hummel, 1992), and cold (Beard, 1973) at adequate fertilization
levels. Although turfgrasses
generally utilize half as much K as N (Turgeon, 1985), and only
marginal increases in tissue K
have been observed (Snyder and Cisar, 2000), K is often applied
at equal or greater amounts than
N in an attempt to increase stress tolerance (Augustin, 1992;
Sartain, 1998).
Hybrid bermudagrasses [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x C.
transvaalensis Burt Davy]
were first used on golf course putting greens when ‘Tiffine’ and
‘Tifgreen’ were released in 1953
and 1956, respectively (Burton, 1991). In 1965, Tifdwarf (TD), a
natural mutation of Tifgreen
with smaller, shorter, leaves, stems and internodes, was
released (Burton, 1991). Due to its
ability to provide a high quality putting surface at mowing
heights below 5 mm, TD was the
standard warm-season greens variety for over thirty years, and
is still a highly used cultivar (Foy,
2006). Advances in greens maintenance technology, and increased
demand for faster green
speeds necessitated cultivars that provided a denser, smoother
surface and tolerated lower
mowing heights (Vermeulen, 1995). TifEagle (TE) bermudagrass,
released in 1998, had lower
vertical growth characteristics, increased shoot density, finer
texture, and could be mown low
enough (< 3 mm) to produce a putting surface comparable to
creeping bentgrass [Agrostis
stolonifera L. var palustris (Huds.) Farw.], the standard
cool-season grass for speed and quality
(Busey and Dudeck, 1999; Foy, 1997; Foy, 2006; Hartwiger and
O’Brien, 2006; McCarty et al.,
2007). Recently released cultivars of seashore paspalum
(Paspalum vaginatum Swartz) and
zoysiagrass [Zoysia japonica Stued. by Zoysia tenuifolia (L.)
Merr.] also provide high quality
putting surfaces, and purportedly require 50% less N and water
than bermudagrass (Foy, 2006).
SeaDwarf (SD), regarded as the first true dwarf seashore
paspalum, was released in 1999, and
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29
can withstand mowing heights below 3 mm. Seashore paspalum can
also be irrigated with
seawater containing 34,000 ppm dissolved salts, if necessary
(Zinn, 2004). The grass subfamily
Chloridoideae, which contains the genera Cynodon and Zoysia, are
also tolerant to saline
irrigation due to their ability to secrete salt through leaf
glands (Cisar et al., 1999; Marcum,
1999). Zoysia spp. are used in areas where salt stress, limited
sunlight, or low temperatures limit
the growth of other warm-season grasses (Foy, 2006; Murray and
Engelke, 1983). PristineFlora
(PF), which is an upright, narrow-leafed, “Emerald-type”
zoysiagrass (Scully, 2005), approved
for release in 2004 (Scully et al., 2009), provides a high
quality putting surface and tolerates
regular mowing at 3 mm.
This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of varied N and
K fertilization rates
during grow-in of three warm-season greens grasses sprigged into
a USGA-specified sand green.
Materials and Methods
Experimental Site
Two grow-in experiments were performed at the University of
Florida Fort Lauderdale
Research and Education Center in Ft. Lauderdale, FL (26º09' N,
80º24' W) on a newly-
renovated, 1440 m² research green, constructed with a United
States Golf Association(USGA)-
specified soil mix containing 10 g kgֿ¹ organic matter by
weight, from 2008 to 2009 (USGA
Green Section Staff, 2004). A pre-plant application of P in the
form of triple superphosphate
was applied at 4.9 g m⁻² in each study. Other nutrients applied
prior to sprigging included the
sulfate forms of Fe, Mn, and Mg at 4.9, 1.6, and 1.6 g m⁻²,
respectively. The green was sprigged
with PF, SD, TD, and TE at 36.6 m³ haֿ¹ in Sept. 2008
(Experiment 1) and July 2009
(Experiment 2). The green was initially mowed at 6.4 mm, with
clippings removed, and
gradually lowered to 3.6 mm in experiment 1, and 3.8 mm in
experiment 2, as the surface
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30
became smoother. Irrigation was applied as needed to maintain
healthy turfgrass. Pesticides
were applied on a curative basis, and included chlorothalonil
and bifenthrin for algae, brown
patch, leaf spot, green aphid, and sod webworm control. Weeds
were removed by hand on a
regular basis due to differing herbicide tolerances among
cultivars.
Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis
Cultivar, N, and K treatment factors were arranged in a
split-plot, completely randomized
design with three replications. Main plots (cultivar and N) were
4 m by 4 m and sub-plots (K
ratio) were 2 m by 2 m. SAS® (version 9.2) PROC MIXED and the
Tukey-Kramer multiple-
comparison procedure were used to determine significant (P
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31
weights were determined at the end of each experiment from 10 cm
diam. and 20 cm deep cup
cutter cores separated into 0–10 and 10–20 cm deep sections.
Thatch was separated from the 0
to 10 cm deep section, oven-dried (60°C), weighed, ashed in a
550°C muffle furnace, and re-
weighed to determine ‘ash-free’ weight (Snyder and Cisar, 2000).
Roots were separated from
soil with a 2 mm diam. sieve and garden hose, oven-dried (60°C),
weighed, ashed in a 550°C
muffle furnace, and re-weighed to determine ‘ash-free’ weight
(Snyder and Cisar, 2000).
Surface compressibility was determined by averaging two readings
per sub-plot from a weight-
based thatch displacement instrument (Volk, 1972). Ball roll
speed was obtained by averaging
the distance of two golf balls rolled in two opposite directions
using a 19-cm modified USGA
stimpmeter (Gaussoin et al., 1995). Visual estimates of mower
scalping were rated on a 1-10
scale (10 = complete loss of leaf blades). Two weeks after a 1
cm deep verticutting (0.6 cm
spacing between blades) was performed, turfgrass quality and
recovery were visually rated from
1-10 (10 = highest/most). Algae was rated visually from 1-10 (10
= most).
Results and Discussion
Turfgrass Cover
In experiment 1, SD, TD, and TE took 13 weeks to obtain ≥90%
cover, while PF required
27 weeks when fertilized with 2.4, 3.7, or 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹.
Cover was reduced for SD, TD, and
TE with 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ and PCU (Figures 2-1, 2-2, 2-3; Table
2-1). The 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
treatment took 1, 2, and 4 weeks longer to obtain ≥90% cover for
SD, TD, and TE, respectively.
There were no significant differences in cover among N/K
fertilization ratios (Figure 2-4). In
experiment 2, only PF and TE fertilized with PCU and 1.2 g N m⁻²
wk⁻¹ had
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32
2.4, 3.7, and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹. Unlike the first study, PF had
similar cover, at some N rates, to
TD and TE, and 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ was similar to the higher weekly
N rates for SD. Because
experiment 1 was initiated in cooler autumn temperatures it took
several more weeks to achieve
≥90% cover than experiment 2, which was initiated at the peak of
summer. Hence, as each
cultivar had similar cover with 2.4, 3.7, and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
in both experiments, the higher
rates were considered excessive and increased potential for
nutrient leaching, runoff, and
subsequent contamination of nearby water bodies.
Chlorophyll
In experiment 1, SD, TD, and TE had less chlorophyll when
fertilized with 1.2 g N m⁻²
wk⁻¹ compared to the higher weekly N rates (Figure 2-9; Table
2-3). In experiment 2, all
cultivars had less chlorophyll when fertilized with 1.2 g N m⁻²
wk⁻¹ compared to the higher
weekly N rates (Figure 2-10, Table 2-4). Though 1N:1K was higher
(P=0.042) than 1N:3K in
2008 there were no within cultivar significant differences in
chlorophyll among N/K ratios in
either experiment (Tables 2-3, 2-4). The chlorophyll index
seemed to be an effective indicator of
N status in relation to turfgrass cover, particularly in
experiment 1 (Figure 2-3). This
relationship suggests that reflectance meters can be used during
grow-in to optimize growth and
reduce N usage. This is supported by previous studies that found
correlations between
reflectance meters and turfgrass clipping yield, leaf hue,
darkness and density (Mangiafico and
Guillard, 2005; Trenholm et al., 1999).
Thatch Development
In experiment 1, SD had a shallower thatch depth when fertilized
with PCU compared to
4.9 g N m⁻² wkֿ¹ (Figure 2-11; Table 2-5). PristineFlora, and
PCU had the shallowest thatch
-
33
depths among cultivars, and N treatments, respectively. There
were no within cultivar
differences among N treatments in experiment 2 (Figure 2-12;
Table 2-6), though PF had the
shallowest thatch among cultivars, and PCU had less thatch than
1.2 and 2.4 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹.
There were no significant differences for thatch depth among N/K
ratios in either experiment
(Tables 2-5, 2-6). Since thatch accumulation is attributed to
accelerated vegetative growth
(Beard, 1973), the slower-growing PCU N treatment likely caused
the reduction in thatch depth
in experiment 1. The lack of pronounced differences in thatch
depth among N rates was not
entirely unexpected, as previous results have been mixed. Carrow
et al. (1987), and Smith
(1979) found no differences in thatch depth, whereas Baldwin
(2009), Duble (2000), Snyder and
Cisar (2000), Unruh et al. (2007), and White et al. (2004)
reported greater thatch depths with
increased N fertilization rates.
Root Development
In experiment 1, SD fertilized at 4.9 g N m⁻² wkֿ¹ had reduced
root development
compared to 1.2, 2.4, and 3.7 g N m⁻² wkֿ¹ (Figure 2-13; Table
2-7). PristineFlora had the
shallowest root system among cultivars. In experiment 2, there
were no within cultivar
differences among N treatments, though PF had the shallowest
roots among cultivars (Figure 2-
14; Table 2-8). There were no significant differences in root
length among N/K ratios in either
experiment (Tables 2-7, 2-8). Excessive N fertilization
reportedly increases aboveground tissue
growth and causes a reduction in root growth (Beard, 1973;
Christians, 1998). Although the
highest weekly N rate decreased root length in SD in this study,
Unruh et al. (2007) reported
both increased and decreased root weights during grow-in of
seashore paspalum putting green
cultivars fertilized at 4.9 g N m⁻² 14 dֿ¹.
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34
Surface Compressibility and Ball Roll
In both experiments, all cultivars fertilized with 3.7 and 4.9 g
N m⁻² wk⁻¹ generally had
increased surface compressibility compared to 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
and PCU (Figures 2-15, 2-16;
Tables 2-9, 2-10), although PF was unaffected by N rate in
experiment 1. There were no
significant differences in surface compressibility among N/K
ratios in either experiment (Tables
2-9, 2-10). The increases in surface compressibility at higher
weekly N rates were likely due to
accelerated aboveground growth, as Volk (1972) reported
significant regressions of
compressibility (P
-
35
heights used in these experiments. The increased height of cut
in experiment 2 was due in large
part to the tendency of TD to become scalped.
Quality and Recovery
In experiment 1, SD quality was higher two weeks after
verticutting when fertilized with
PCU or 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹, compared to 3.7 and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
(Figure 2-21; Table 2-15).
PristineFlora had higher quality than: TD regardless of N
treatment, SD at 2.4, 3.7 and 4.9 g N
m⁻² wk⁻¹, and TE at 2.4 and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹. In experiment 2,
SD quality was higher when
fertilized with PCU compared to 2.4, 3.7, and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹
(Figure 2-22; Table 2-16). All N
treatments for PF had higher quality than TD, and SD fertilized
at 3.7 and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹; PF
had higher quality than TE at 1.2 and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹. There
were no significant differences in
quality among N/K ratios in either experiment (Tables 2-15,
2-16). After verticutting, PF was
relatively unscathed due to its minimal thatch development and
upright growth habit, while TD,
and SD likely had reduced quality due to growth habit, and
thatch density, respectively.
In experiment 1, SD fertilized with PCU and 1.2 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ had
recovered more than
3.7 and 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ two weeks after verticutting (Figure
2-23; Table 2-17). PristineFlora
had recovered more than TD. In experiment 2, TD fertilized with
PCU had recovered more than
3.7 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹ (Figure 2-24; Table 2-18). SeaDwarf and TD
exhibited less recovery than PF.
There were no significant differences in recovery among N/K
ratios in either experiment (Tables
2-17, 2-18). Since PF sustained minimal damage after
verticutting, it was generally the fastest to
recover. Conversely, since SD and TD were severely damaged from
verticutting, more time was
required for recovery.
-
36
Algae
In experiment 1, PF had reduced algae when fertilized with PCU
(Figure 2-25; Table 2-
19). In experiment 2, PF and TD had reduced algae when
fertilized with PCU compared to 4.9 g
N m⁻² wk⁻¹ (Figure 2-26; Table 2-20). In both experiments algae
was generally higher in PF,
particularly when fertilized with 4.9 g N m⁻² wk⁻¹. There were
no significant differences in algae
among N/K ratios in either experiment (Tables 2-19, 2-20).
-
37
Figure 2-1. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover during
grow-in of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 from 2 October 2008 – 16 April
2009.
-
38
Figure 2-2. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as
affected by N fertilization during
grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in experiment 1 from
2 October 2008 – 16 April 2009.
-
39
Figure 2-3. Effect of grass*Nitrogen (N) on turfgrass cover of a
USGA-specified research green
in experiment 1 at week 13 on 1 January 2009. Mean estimates
with same letter are not statistically different at 0.05
significance level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N
mֿ².
Table 2-1. Anova table for turfgrass cover of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1
at week 13 on 1 January 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 671.4
-
40
Figure 2-4. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover, as
affected by N/K fertilization ratio
during grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in experiment
1 from 2 October 2008 – 16 April 2009.
-
41
Figure 2-5. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover during
grow-in of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 from 30 July – 4 November,
2009.
-
42
Figure 2-6. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as
affected by N fertilization during
grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in experiment 2 from
30 July – 4 November, 2009.
-
43
Figure 2-7. Effect of grass*N on turfgrass coverage of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 9 on 23 September 2009. Mean estimates with
same letter are not statistically different at 0.05 significance
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-2. Anova table for turfgrass cover of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2
at week 9 on 23 September 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 58.6
-
44
Figure 2-8. Trends of weekly means for turfgrass cover as
affected by N/K fertilization ratio
during grow-in of a USGA-specified research green in experiment
2 from 30 July – 4 November, 2009.
-
45
Figure 2-9. Effect of grass*N on chlorophyll index of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 at week 17 on 29 January 2009. Means with same
letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-3. Anova table for chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment
1 at week 17 on 29 January 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 334.7
-
46
Figure 2-10. Effect of grass*N on chlorophyll index of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 6 on 3 September 2009. Means with same
letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-4. Anova table for chlorophyll index of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment
2 at week 6 on 3 September 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 81.9
-
47
Figure 2-11. Effect of grass*N on thatch depth of a
USGA-specified research green at the end of
experiment 1. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-5. Anova table for thatch depth of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 1. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 24.0
-
48
Figure 2-12. Effect of grass*N on thatch depth of a
USGA-specified research green at the end of
experiment 2. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-6. Anova table for thatch depth of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 2. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 13.3
-
49
Figure 2-13. Effect of grass*N on root length of a
USGA-specified research green at the end of
experiment 1. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-7. Anova table for root length of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 1. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 264.2
-
50
Figure 2-14. Effect of grass*N on root length of a
USGA-specified research green at the end of
experiment 2. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-8. Anova table for root length of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 2. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 26.8
-
51
Figure 2-15. Effect of grass*N on surface compressibility, as
measured with a Volkmeter, of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment 1 at week 15 on 13
January 2009. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-9. Anova table for surface compressibility of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 at week 15 on 13 January 2009. Effect Degrees
of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 278.8
-
52
Figure 2-16. Effect of grass*N on surface compressibility, as
measured with a Volkmeter, of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment 2 at week 10 on 3
October 2009. Means with same letter are not statistically
different at the 0.05 probability level based on the Tukey-Kramer
method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-10. Anova table for surface compressibility of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 10 on 3 October 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 48.0
-
53
Figure 2-17. Effect of grass*N on ball roll distance of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 at week 24 on 20 March 2009. Means with same letter
are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability level based
on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-11. Anova table for ball roll distance of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment
1 at week 24 on 20 March 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 49.0
-
54
Figure 2-18. Effect of grass*N on ball roll distance of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 11 on 9 October 2009. Means with same
letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-12. Anova table for ball roll distance of a
USGA-specified research green in experiment
2 at week 11 on 9 October 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 154.1
-
55
Figure 2-19. Effect of grass*N on mower scalping of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 1 at week 20 on 19 February 2009. Scalping ratings:
1-10 (1 = none, and 10 = complete loss of leaf blades). Means with
same letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-13. Anova table for mower scalping of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment
1 at week 20 on 19 February 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 86.8
-
56
Figure 2-20. Effect of grass*N on mower scalping of a
USGA-specified research green in
experiment 2 at week 10 on 1 October 2009. Scalping ratings:
1-10 (1 = none, and 10 = complete loss of leaf blades). Means with
same letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-14. Anova table for mower scalping of a USGA-specified
research green in experiment
2 at week 10 on 1 October 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 211.5
-
57
Figure 2-21. Effect of grass*N on quality of a USGA-specified
research green two weeks after
verticutting at the end of experiment 1. Quality ratings: 1-10
(1 = dead, 6 = minimum acceptable, and 10 = best). Means with same
letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-15. Anova table for quality of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of
experiment 1. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 85.1
-
58
Figure 2-22. Effect of grass*N on quality of a USGA-specified
research green two weeks after
verticutting at the end of experiment 2. Quality ratings: 1-10
(1 = dead, 6 = minimum acceptable, and 10 = best). Means with same
letter are not statistically different at the 0.05 probability
level based on the Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-16. Anova table for quality of a USGA-specified research
green at the end of
experiment 2. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 321.7
-
59
Figure 2-23. Effect of grass*N on recovery of a USGA-specified
research green two weeks after
verticutting at the end of experiment 1. Recovery ratings 1-10
(10 = completely recovered). Means with same letter are not
statistically different at the 0.05 probability level based on the
Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-17. Anova table for recovery of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 1. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 92.3
-
60
Figure 2-24. Effect of grass*N on recovery of a USGA-specified
research green two weeks after
verticutting at the end of experiment 2. Recovery ratings 1-10
(10 = completely recovered). Means with same letter are not
statistically different at the 0.05 probability level based on the
Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-18. Anova table for recovery of a USGA-specified
research green at the end of
experiment 2. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 116.2
-
61
Figure 2-25. Effect of grass*N for algae on a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 1 at
week 7 on 24 November 2008. Means with same letter are not
statistically different at the 0.05 probability level based on the
Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-19. Anova table for algae on a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 1 at week
7 on 24 November 2008. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 73.9
-
62
Figure 2-26. Effect of grass*N for algae on a USGA-specified
research green in experiment 2 at
week 4 on 22 August 2009. Means with same letter are not
statistically different at the 0.05 probability level based on the
Tukey-Kramer method. PCU=39.1 g N mֿ².
Table 2-20. Anova table for algae on a USGA-specified research
green in experiment 2 at week
4 on 22 August 2009. Effect Degrees of
freedom F value Probability > F Least significant
difference Grass 3 30.6
-
63
CHAPTER 3 DROUGHT RESISTANCE OF NEWLY-ESTABLISHED WARM-SEASON
PUTTING
GREEN CULTIVARS AS AFFECTED BY NITROGEN/POTASSIUM
FERTILIZATION
Introduction
Water