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EN VI RON MEN TAL RA DON, ITS EX HA LA TION RATES AND AC TIV ITY CON CEN TRA TION OF 226Ra, 232Th, AND 40K

IN NORTH ERN IN DIA

by

Rupinderjeet KAUR 1, Deep SHIKHA 2*, Supreet Pal SINGH 1, and Vimal MEHTA 2

1 De part ment of Phys ics, Punjabi Uni ver sity, Patiala, In dia2 De part ment of Phys ics, Sri Guru Teg Ba ha dur Khalsa Col lege, Sri Anandpur Sa hib, In dia

Review pa perhttps://doi.org/10.2298/NTRP2003268K

Hu man be ings are con stantly ex posed to ra dio ac tiv ity in the en vi ron ment. As they are ma jorsources of harm ful ra di a tion, radionuclides found in the at mo sphere might re sult in a sub -stan tial po ten tial risk to liv ing be ings. On the Earth's sur face, the ra dio ac tive el e ments ura -nium and ra dium are nat u rally pres ent, con trib ut ing to ra don and thoron gases in the in dooras well as out door cli mate, soil and wa ter. Ra don is one of the most im por tant tox ins that, af -ter cig a rette smok ing, is the sec ond most com mon cause of gen er at ing lung can cer. Due tothese health-re lated con cerns, a lot of work has been un der taken by nu mer ous re search or ga -ni za tions to de ter mine their lev els at dif fer ent lo ca tions through out the world. This pa per isan at tempt to com pre hen sively re port with dif fer ent tech niques all those stud ies be ing car ried out in this part of In dia so that a cur rent as sess ment of the in door ra don lev els should be avail -able for fur ther work in this field. Six north ern In dian states, viz. Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand are con sid ered for this ex am i na tion.This study also pro vides data on ex ha la tion rates and ac tiv ity con cen tra tion of nat u ralradionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) pres ent in these states.

Key words: in door ra don, thoron, ex ha la tion rate, an nual dose, ac tiv ity con cen tra tion

IN TRO DUC TION

In 1899, Rob ert Bowie Owens and Er nestRutherford first dis cov ered ra don (222Rn). Ra don is agas eous ra dio ac tive gas that is colour less, monatomic,odour less, taste less and sin gle. How ever, it is par tic u -larly car ci no genic and radiotoxic when in haled [1].Af ter the dis cov ery of ura nium, tho rium, ra dium andpo lo nium [2], Friedrich Ernst Dorn dis cov ered ra donas the fifth ra dio ac tive el e ment on Earth. The pri marycause of lung can cer, sec ond only to smok ing cig a -rettes, is 222Rn [3]. Ra don par ent radionuclide ra diumis re spon si ble for na sal and cra nial tu mors [4]. Ac -cord ing to the In ter na tional Com mis sion on Ra dio log -i cal Pro tec tion, ra don con sti tutes about 53 % of hu man health ex po sure to nat u ral ra di a tion [5]. Fur ther, ra donhas no sta ble iso topes. Out of 36 known iso topes (allra dio ac tive), only three 222Rn, 220Rn, 219Rn, are sup -ported by de cay of primordial radionuclides.

Both ra don and thoron are it self de cay by emis -sion of al pha par ti cles and pro duces ra don or thoronprog e nies (daugh ter prod ucts), tabs. 1 and 2.

These de cay iso topes are heavy met als. In ha la -tion of 222Rn and its prog eny is as so ci ated with a sub -

stan tial risk of pul mo nary can cer as it causes bron chial ep i the lial dam age [7]. The 218Po and 214Po are the keysources of health risk for all de cay ma te ri als, as they

R. Kaur, et al.: En vi ron men tal Ra don, Its Ex ha la tion Rates and Ac tiv ity ...268 Nu clear Tech nol ogy & Ra di a tion Pro tec tion: Year 2020, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 268-282

* Cor re spond ing au thor; e-mail: deep_shikha79@ya hoo.co.in

Ta ble 1. Ra don de cay prod ucts [6]

Radionuclide Half life En ergy[MeV] Prod uct

222Rn 3.8235 d 5.4895 218Po218Po 3.10 min 6.0024 214Pb214Pb 27 min – 214Bi214Bi 19.9 min – 214Po214Po 164.3 µs 7.6869 210Pb210Pb 22.3 years – 210Bi210Bi 5.01 d – 210Po210Po 138.38 d 5.3044 206Pb

Ta ble 2. Thoron de cay prod ucts [6]

Radionuclide Half life En ergy [MeV] Prod uct222Rn 55.6 s 6.2882 216Po216Po 0.145 s 6.7785 212Pb212Pb 10.64 h – 212Bi212Bi 1.009 h 6.34, 6.30 212Po212Po 45 s 11.65 208Pb208Tl 3.053 min – –208Pb Sta ble – –

con tain very en er getic al pha par ti cles [8-10]. TheDNA dam age is caused by the in ter ac tion of theseprog e nies with bi o log i cal tis sue in the lungs [11]. Theprog e nies can at tach to aero sols or not at tach to them.Both at tached and un at tached ra don prog e nies, if in -haled, can cause lung tis sue ir ra di a tion by dam ag ingthem as they emit a small burst of en ergy called al phapar ti cles. The risk of ra dio ac tive ma te rial in an un at -tached state is much higher than that of ra dio ac tivema te rial in the at tached state [12].

Lung can cer is pri mar ily caused by bron chialstem cells and by se cre tion cells [13]. Re search stud ies have shown that ex po sure to in door 222Rn could leadto an in creased risk of lung can cer [14-22]. Sci en tistsat the Na tional Acad emy of Sci ence es ti mate that ex -po sure to an el e vated level of 222Rn gas may cause15000-22000 lung can cer deaths per year. Some stud -ies have also in di cated that ex po sure to in door 222Rncan lead to other types of can cer [23-26]. The ICRPmea sured the risk of can cer to var i ous or gans of thebody at about 2 % of the risk of lung can cer [27].

Thus, keep ing in mind the nu mer ous health haz -ards caused by 222Rn and its de scen dants, the mon i tor -ing of ra don and its de cay prod ucts is im por tant foriden ti fy ing hu man health haz ards. Wide scale 222Rnsur veys have been con ducted in a range of coun tries[28-33]. In In dian homes, one of the sys tem atic sur -veys of in door ra don lev els in 15 dif fer ent cit ies wasper formed us ing Solid State Nu clear Track De tec tors(SSNTD) [34]. This re search was fur ther ex panded bycar ry ing out ad di tional sur veys from 24 cit ies in thenorth-east ern re gion of In dia [35]. This pa per is in -tended to pro vide an over view of the anal y sis car riedout by a va ri ety of re search groups in the Punjab,Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, UttarPradesh, and Uttarakhand states of In dia.

Study Area Cli mate:

The state of Punjab, with an area of 50362 km2,lies be tween 29.30° and 32.32° north lat i tude and73.55° and 76.50° east lat i tude [36]. Punjab has muchfer tile plain land [37]. The cli mate of Punjab is pri mar -ily af fected by the Hi ma la yas (be cause as the dis tancefrom the Hi ma la yas in creases, so the rain fall de -creases) and the Thar Desert in the north and south, re -spec tively. The sum of rain fall in Punjab ranges from240 to 1000 mm [38]. Himachal Pradesh oc cu pies aland area of 55673 km2. It is lo cated in the west ern Hi -ma la yas be tween 30.22° and 33.12° north and 75.45°to 79.04° east [39]. The state touches Punjab in thewest, Jammu and Kash mir in the north, Uttarakhand in the south-east, Haryana in the south, and China in theeast [40]. Al ti tude changes cli mate across the state[41]. The state re ceives an nual rain fall of the or der2909 to 3800 mm [42]. Haryana (16th larg est state),lies be tween 27.47° and 30.30° north lat i tude and

74.29° to 77.22° east lon gi tudes. It is bor dered byPunjab in the north-west, Himachal Pradesh in north,Uttarakhand in north-east, Uttar Pradesh in the east[43]. Tem per a ture in sum mer is very hot up to a high of 47° C and in win ters is very cold up to 5 °C [44].Rajasthan (larg est state of In dia) lies be tween north23.30° and 30.11° lat i tude and east 69.29° and 78.17°lon gi tude. The state is bor dered by Punjab in the north, Pa ki stan in the west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh ointhe north-east and Gujarat in the south-west re spec -tively [45]. The state has a max i mum tem per a ture of50.6 °C [46]. Uttar Pradesh (4th larg est state) cov ers a243290 km2 area which lies 26.85° north and 80.91°east. The state bor ders Haryana in the west, MadhyaPradesh in the south, Bihar in the east, Uttarakhand inthe north, Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh andDelhi to the west [47].

The cli mate var ies ac cord ing to al ti tude [48].The mean an nual rain fall of the state is 946 mm [49]. Uttarakhand (18th big gest state) cov ers a to tal 53566km2 area and lies be tween 28.43° and 31.27° north lat -i tude and 77.34° to 81.02° east lon gi tude. The statebor ders Himachal Pradesh in the west, Ne pal in theeast, Uttar Pradesh in the south and China in the north.An nual tem per a ture ranges from 0 to 40 °C. The cli -mate in the north ern part of Uttarakhand is typ i callyHi ma la yan.

MA TE RI ALS AND METH ODS

In door ra don sur vey

Var i ous in door ra don mea sure ment ex per i mentshave been per formed us ing ac tive and pas sive tech -niques. Ac tive ra don mon i tor ing tech niques in cludeelec tri cal power and an as sess ment of 222Rn leak agethrough the cham ber, whereas pas sive ra don mon i tor -ing tech niques do not in clude elec tri cal power and donot in clude an as sess ment of 222Rn leak age throughthe cham ber. Some of these meth ods are:

The RAD7 is one of the ac tive meth ods used toas sess the con cen tra tion of ra don in air, soil and wa ter.The RAD7 will cal cu late the con cen tra tion of ra donfrom 0.4 to 750000 Bqm–3 [50]. The RAD7 is a con tin -u ous ra don con trol based on the al pha spec trom e trytech nique. It is one of the fast mea sure ments of in doorra don ac tiv ity lev els at sites built to de tect al pha par ti -cles only [51]. The RAD7 is at tached to the drystik ac -ces sory in a closed loop con fig u ra tion that al lows in -door ra don mea sure ment [52]. It uses an in ter nalsam ple cell hemi sphere of 0.7 li ters of RAD7 at thecen tre of which sil i con is po si tioned to help pro duce an elec tri cal sig nal from the con ver sion of al pha ra di a tion [53]. The RAD7 uses 218Po for de ter mi na tion of the ra -don con cen tra tion and 216Po for de ter mi na tion of thethoron con cen tra tion. How ever, ac cord ing to EPA allcon tin u ous ra don mon i tor ing must be cal i brated atleast ev ery six months.

R. Kaur, et al.: En vi ron men tal Ra don, Its Ex ha la tion Rates and Ac tiv ity ...Nu clear Tech nol ogy & Ra di a tion Pro tec tion: Year 2020, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 268-282 269

Nu clear track de tec tors have been com monlyused for the study of the con cen tra tion of ra don in pas -sive tech niques due to their high du ra bil ity. TheLR-115 (SSNTD) is es sen tially a thin cel lu lose ni tratefilm, while CR-39 (SSNTD) is an allyl diglycol car -bon ate poly mer [32]. Pas sive tech niques in clude boththe bare mode and do sim e ter (twin cup do sim e ter andpin hole do sim e ter) tech niques. In the bare mode,SSNTD films fixed to the glass slide are hung in theroom at a height of 2 m from the floor [54]. Af ter theex po sure time, the de tec tors are re moved and etched in a 2.5N NaOH so lu tion at 60 °C for 90 min utes. Thereg is tered tracks are then counted us ing a spark coun -ter or an op ti cal mi cro scope.

In dosimetric mode, both the twin cup do sim e ter(dou ble in put do sim e ter, con sist ing of bare mode andtwo cham bers, i. e. filter and mem brane mode cham -ber) and the pin hole do sim e ter (sin gle in put do sim e -ter, com pris ing two iden ti cal cy lin dri cal cham bers) are used by SSNTD con nected to each cham ber to de tectthe ra don con cen tra tion [44, 55]. Do sim e ters are sus -pended in the same way as for the bare mode. Thesede tec tors are re cov ered af ter a three month ex po sure.The CR-39 etch ing can be com pleted with 6N NaOHat 70 °C for ap prox i mately 5-6 hours [37]. The de tec -tors are then washed prop erly to re move chem i cal anddry mat ter. Af ter wash ing the tracks pro duced by thealphas they are counted with a spark coun ter or op ti calmi cro scope and are then con verted in the Bqm–3 by us -ing an ap pro pri ate cal i bra tion fac tor [56].

Ra don sur vey in soil gas

Many tech niques are in use for mon i tor ing thera don con cen tra tion and its ex ha la tion rates from soilsam ples. Some of them are:

The RAD7 ra don mon i tor ing ap pa ra tus used bymany groups ap plies an air pump and a de tec tor con -sist ing of a sil i cone ma te rial (semi con duc tor) which

helps to ob tain an elec tri cal sig nal by con vert ing al phara di a tion [57-59]. With the aid of a stain less steelprobe, soil-gas sam ples from each area were ob tained.The probe is im mersed in the soil at some depth and isat tached to the RAD7 de tec tor. In or der to ex am ine thesoil per fectly, it should be uni form and usu ally freefrom rocks. Un til count ing, the hole was ad e quatelysealed to pre vent soil-gas from in ter act ing with airfrom the at mo sphere. The sam pling of soil gas wasachieved with the aid of the grab mode. The soil wassucked through a mea sur ing in stru ment in a 5-min utepump ing pro cess. This loop is re peated four times.The RAD7 will in clude a de scrip tion of the av er agecon cen tra tion of ra don in soil gas af ter half an hour.This method uses a very lim ited amount of soil andgives a fast read ing [59].

The Can is ter Pro ce dure used by sev eral groupshas also been adapted to as sess the con cen tra tion ofsoil ra don gas [60-63]. The soil sam ples to be an a lyzed from dif fer ent re gions were col lected and then dried inan oven at 110 °C for a pe riod of 24 hours to ex tractmois ture and some fine soil pow der was stored in dif -fer ent can is ters. SSNTD was at tached to the bot tom ofthe lid and can fi nally be locked. Af ter three months ofex po sure, SSNTD was re moved from the lid andetched in a 2.5N NaOH so lu tion at 60 °C for 90 min -utes. The en graved de tec tors are care fully cleaned,dried and used for al pha count ing by means of a sparkcoun ter or op ti cal mi cro scope [60].

Ac tiv ity con cen tra tion of ra dium, 226Ra,tho rium, 232Th, and po tas sium, 40K

The soil is col lected at a depth of 0.75 m from theground level to de ter mine the ac tiv ity con cen tra tion ofnat u ral nuclides. This is pro vided for the se lec tion ofnat u ral soils. The sam ples are then trans formed into aknown quan tity of fine pow der and dried in an oven.Ev ery sam ple is packed and sealed in an air tight con -tainer to pre vent mois ture. Af ter the ex po sure time(~30 days) the sam ple ac tiv ity is mea sured us ing theHPGe/NaI(Tl) de tec tor. Sam ples were counted for adu ra tion of 72000 seconds for the HPGe de tec tor and10800 s for the NaI(Tl) de tec tor [64, 65]. The ac tiv itycon cen tra tions of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K were then de -ter mined from the photo peaks of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K re spec tively in the Multi Chan nel An a lyzer.

RE SULTS AND DIS CUS SION

Ta bles 3-8 show the de tails of the dis trict widean nual in door ra don con cen tra tion in six statesPunjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, UttarPradesh, and Uttarakhand, re spec tively. These data in -clude mainly the in door ra don con cen tra tion and an -nual ef fec tive dose to the res i dents ob tained from ac -tive (RAD7) and pas sive (Bare Mode, Twin Cup, and


Fig ure 1. Map of the study are


Pin Hole) tech niques. A su per script added in the in door ra don val ues shows the num ber of dwell ings used in the sur vey.

SOIL SUR VEY

Ta bles 9-14 show a soil sur vey which pres ents the ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la -tion and ra dium con cen tra tion in six states re ported byvar i ous re search ers. The su per script added to the con -cen tra tion shows the num ber of dwell ings. To carry outthe ex ha la tion study var i ous re search ers used dif fer ent

tech niques like the can is ter tech nique, RAD7 mon i -tor, smart ra don mon i tor etc, tabs. 15-17.

AC TIV ITY CON CEN TRA TION

Ta bles 18 and 19 show the ac tiv ity con cen tra tion of nat u ral radionuclides in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttarakhand, re spec tively.These data mainly in clude con cen tra tion of nat u ralradionuclides 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K with their re spec -tive doses. It also shows the an nual ef fec tive dose dueto these radionuclides. The su per script added to the

Ta ble 3. The av er age an nual value of in door ra don re corded in dwell ings of Punjab

Sightnumber Dis trict

Bare mode Twin cup Pin hole RAD7

Con cen tra tion[Bqm–3]

Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1 Hoshiarpur (50)108 ± 16 2 [37] – – – – – –

2 Jalandhar-I (10)125 ± 39 2 [37] – – (11)36 ± 5 1.27 [71] (11)43 ± 9 1.28 [67]

Jalandhar-II – – – – (10)35 ± 5 1.38 [72] – –

Jalandhar-III – – – – (130)18 ± 3 0.66 [96] – –

Jalandhar-IV – – – – (45)40 ± 14 – [75] – –

3. Amritsar (70)122 ± 48 – [37] – – (36)52 ± 5 1.5 [102] (19)19 0.11 [68]

4. Bathinda-I (111)154 ± 31 3 [37] – – (60)68 ± 6 1.7 [102] (9)24 0.08 [68]

Bathinda-II – – – – – – (17)32 0.80 [148]

5. Faridkot (25)76 ± 7 1.00 [37] – – (60)63 ± 5 1.7 [102] – –

6. Ferozepur (40)107 ± 23 1.83 [37] – – – – – –

7. Gurdaspur (20)157 3.97 [69] – – – – (25)20 0.11 [68]

8. Ludhiana (25)91 ± 21 1.50 [37] – – (45)28 ± 7 – [70] – –

9. Kapurthala-I – – – – (4)48 ± 6 1.54 [66] (4)29 ± 8 1.04 [66]

Kapurthala-II – – – – (8)42 ± 5 1.69 [67] – –

Kapurthala-III – – – – (45)19 ± 19 – [70] – –

10. Mansa (25)107 ± 38 1.80 [37] – – (18)54 ± 5 –[71] – –

11. Moga (25)82 ± 5 1.20 [37] – – – – – –

12. Mohali – – (10)34 ± 2 – [72] (13)27 1.61[149] –

13. Ropar (40)89 ± 19 1.51 [37] (11)15 0.69 [147] (5)20 1.29[147] – –

14. Sangrur (45)63 ± 8 1.00 [37] – – – – – –

15. Patiala (25)93 ± 9 1.80 [37] – – – – – –

16. Mukatsar (65)102 ± 18 1.74 [37] – – (14)56 ± 5 –[71] – –

17. Patnankot (5)138 3.47 [69] – – – – – –

18. Tarn taran – – – – (40)58 ± 5 1.8 [97] – –

19. Fazilka – – – – (100)119 4.58 [98] – –

20. Chandigarh (5)139 ± 7 2.37 [37] (15)23.2 0.8 [146] (10)40 ± 2 1.9 [102]

Ta ble 4. The av er age an nual value of in door ra don re corded in dwell ings of Himachal Pradesh*


Bare mode Pin hole RAD7

Con cen tra tion [Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion [Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion [Bqm–3] Dose [mSv]

1. Hamirpur (68)464 ± 123 7.92 [37] (80)85 ± 34 2.13 [80] (14)189 4.77 [81]

2. Kangra (70)253 ± 70 4.30 [37] – – (37)17 ± 9 –[57]

3. Kullu (108)296 ± 118 5.07 [37] – – – –

4. Una (90)315 ± 158 5.37 [37] – – (10)99 ± 2 2.48 [58]

5. Mandi (64)94 1.61 [82] – – – –

6. Shimla (5)194 4.88 [69] – – – –

*Twin cup data is not avail able for this dis trict.

con cen tra tion shows the num ber of dwell ings. How -ever, the data for the ac tiv ity con cen tra tion ofradionuclides is not avail able for the Uttar Pradesh dis -trict.

DIS CUS SION

In the state of Punjab, tab. 3, in door ra don val uesare be tween 100-300 Bqm–3 which are well within theref er ence level. How ever, if we com pare the tech -


Ta ble 5. The an nual av er age in door ra don val ues re corded in the dwell ings of Haryana*

Sight number DistricBare mode Twin cup Pin hole

Con cen tra tion[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion

[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv]

1. Ambala-I (15)138 ± 45 2.36 [37] (14)94 ± 8 4.0 [13] (4)29 ± 6 – [88]

Ambala-II – – (15)13 ± 1 0.68 [44] – –

2. Bhiwani-I (6)107 ± 11 1.85 [37] – – (91)50 ± 22 1.11[89]

Bhiwani-II (157)306 ± 194 – [37] – – – –

3. Faridabad (6)134 ± 11 2.31 [37] – – – –

4. Fatehbad (25)147 ± 13 2.50 [37] – – (10)19 – [90]

5. Gurgaon (5)70 ± 7 1.15 [37] – – – –

6. Hisar (25)144 ± 17 2.46 [37] – – (10)46 – [90]

7. Jhajjar (4)51±7 0.87 [37] – – – –

8. Jind (6)61 ± 11 1.05 [37] – – – –

9. Kaithal (7)66 ± 7 1.14 [37] (10)81 ± 12 3.3 [13] – –

10. Karnal (8)71 ± 11 1.21 [37] – – (3)23 ± 6 – [88]

11. Kurukshetra (8)40 ± 7 0.69 [37] (30)79 ± 7 3.1 [13] (5)21 ± 5 – [88]

12. Mahendragar (5)99 ± 11 1.71 [37] – – – –

13. Panchkula (40)108 ± 27 1.84 [37] (8)104 ± 12 4.3 [13] (2)24 ± 5 [88]

14. Panipat (5)134 ± 13 2.30 [37] – – – –

15. Rewari (6)115 ± 11 1.98 [37] – – – –

16. Rohtak (4)70 ± 7 1.20 [37] – – – –

17. Sirsa (50)91 ± 19 1.56 [37] – – (10)13.8 – [101]

18. Sonipat (5)84 ± 11 1.44 [37] – – – –

19. Yamunanagar (7)118 ± 11 2.03 [37] (18)85 ± 8 3.4 [13] (4)36 ± 6 – [88]

*RAD7 data is not avail able for this dis trict.

Ta ble 6. The an nual av er age in door ra don val ues re corded in the dwell ings of Rajasthan*

Sight number Dis trictBare mode Twin cup RAD7

Con cen tra tion[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion

[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion[Bqm–3] Dose [mSv]

1. Jaipur-I – – (18) 59 ± 6 1.70 [104] – –

Jaipur-II 40 0.64 [107]

2. Jodh pur – – 75 0.96 [107] (10)30 0.75 [53]

3. Nagaur – – – – (10)34 0.85 [53]

4. Hanumangarh-I – – – – (9)25 – [51]

Hanumangarh-II – – – – (50)124 ± 11 2.12 [109]

5. Sri Ganganagar (50)143 ± 21 2.45 [105] – – (9)35 – [51]

6. Churu (10)135 ± 18 2.31 [106] – – (3)26 – [51]

7. Sikar (10)153 ± 28 2.62 [106] – – (9)39 – [51]

8. Pali – – 37 0.60 [107] – –

9. Sirohi – – 110 1.75 [107] – –

10. Jalore – – 66 1.54 [107] – –

11. Jaiselmer – – 88 1.36 [107] – –

12. Udaipur – – 94 1.06 [107] – –

13. Barmer – – 60 1.54 [107] – –

14. Bikaner – – 59 0.94 [107] – –

*Pin Hole data is not avail able for this dis trict.


niques, then the val ues us ing the bare mode tech niqueare greater as com pared to the pin hole twin cup, andRAD7 tech nique. In the state of Himachal Pradeshtab. 4, the Hamirpur Dis trict has higher val ues of in -door ra don us ing the bare mode which ex ceed the ac -

tion level. These high val ues of in door ra don may bedue to the pres ence of min er al iza tion of ura nium in thearea. None the less by us ing the pin hole tech nique thiscon cen tra tion is far less than the ear lier re ported con -cen tra tion. These stud ies were done in the min er al ized

Ta ble 7. The an nual av er age in door ra don val ues re corded in the dwell ings of Uttar Pradesh*

Sight number Dis trictBare mode Twin cup

Con cen tra tion [Bqm–3] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion [Bqm–3] Dose [mSv]

1. Bareilly – – (20)87 ± 48 1.56 [113]

2. Faizabad – – (19)61 ± 28 2.21 [114]

3. Shahjahanpur – – (23)28 – [115]

4. Farrukhabad – – (19)67 ± 15 – [116]

5. Etah (51)256 ± 7 4.8 [117] – –

6. Firozabad (14)90 ± 32 1.08 [118] – –

7. Kanshiram nagar – – (13)29 ± 19 – [119]

8. Moradabad – – (22)19 – [120]

*Pin Hole and RAD7 data is not avail able for this dis trict.

Ta ble 8. The an nual av er age in door ra don val ues re corded in the dwell ings of Uttarakhand


Bare mode Twin cup Pin hole Rad7


Dose[mSv]


Dose [mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1. Almora – – – – (52)100 –[127] – –

2. Tehri Garhwal-I (82)110 ± 42 – [128] – – – – – –

Tehri Garhwal-II (99)114 – [54]

3. Dehradoon (11)393 – [129] (32)44 [130] (25)89 ± 13 [125] (15)85 ± 36 [126]

4. Bhilangna val ley (7)147 [131] – – – – – –

5. Uttarkashi (8)101 [56] – – (78)38 ± 40 – [132] – –

6. Pauri Garhwal (8)76 [56] – – (35)84 – [133] – –

7. Garhwal Himalaya – – (100)64 – [142] (122)41 ± 44 – [134] – –

GarhwalHimalaya-II – – 71 – [144] – – – –

8. Kumaun – – 36 [144] – – – –

Ta ble 9. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion from soil sam ples in Punjab

Sightnumber Dis trict Ra don con cen tra tion

[Bqm–3]Sur face ex ha la tion

[mBqm–2h–1]Mass ex ha la tion

[mBqkg–1h–1]Ra dium con cen tra tion

[Bqkg–1] Ref er ence

1. Mohali-I (10)35 ± 7 (10) 28 ± 5 (10)1 ± 6 – [72]

Mohali-II – – (4)3 ± 1 – [149]

2. Ropar-I (5)33 ± 11 (5)27 ± 9 (5)1 ± 1 – [60]

Ropar-II (10)30 ± 2 (10)24 ± 2(10)1 – [147]

3. Sangrur – (45)725 (45)21 (45)14 [73]

4. Faridkot – (25)702 (25)20 (25)15 [73]

5. Mansa – (25)652 (25)19 (25)14 [73]

6. Patiala – (25)520 (25)15 (25)11 [73]

7. Ludhiana – (25)452 (25)13 (25)10 [73]

8. Moga – (25)386 (25)11 (25)9 [73]

9. Gurdaspur (9)9 ± 0.09 – – – [74]

10. Hoshiarpur (6)12 ± 0.26 – – – [74]

11. Amritsar (11)13 ± 0.11 – – – [74]

12. Kapurthala (6)4 ± 0.10 – – – [74]

13. Tarn taran (7)9 ± 0.07 – – – [74]

14. Fazilka – (20)32 ± 2 – – [98]

15. Chandigarh – – (8)5 ± 1 – [102]


Ta ble 10. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion from soil sam ples inHimachal Pradesh

Sight number Dis trict Ra don con cen tra tion[Bqm–3]

Sur face ex ha la tion[mBqm–2h–1]

Mass ex ha la tion[mBqkg–1h–1]

Ra dium con cen tra tion[Bqkg–1] Ref er ence

1. Hamirpur 463 – – – [81]

2. Una-I (10)117 – – – [58]

Una-II – 507 15 – [83]

3. Dharamshala (37) 44 ± 1 – – (37)40 ± 2 [84]

4. Chamba (35)15 ± 1 – – (35)39 ± 2 [84]

5. Kangra-I – (18)806 (18)24 (18)19 [85]

Kangra-II (71)12 – – – [86]

Ta ble 11. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion from soilsam ples in Hareyana*

Sight number Dis trictRa don con cen tra tion



[mBqkg–1h–1] Ref er ence

1. Kurukshetra – – (5)55 ± 3 [88]

2. Yamunanagar – – (5)52 ± 6 [88]

3. Ambala-I – – (4)46 ± 6 [88]

Ambala-II (5)49 ± 9 (5)40 ± 8(5)2 [145]

4. Panchkula – – (4)56 ± 7 [88]

5. Karnal – – (4)63 ± 6 [88]

6. Sirsa – (20)499 (20)27 [101]

7. Bhiwani-I – (9)256 (9)8 [91]

Bhiwani-II – (22)465 (22)25 [101]

Bhiwani-III – – (14)12 ± 1 [103]

8. Fatehbad – – (23)32 [90]

9. Hisar –

*The radium equiv a lent con cen tra tion is not avail able for this dis trict.

Ta ble 12. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion from soilsam ples in Rajasthan

Sight number Dis trict Ra don con cen tra tion[Bqm–3]

Sur face ex ha la tion[mBqm–2h–1]


Ra dium con cen tra tion[Bqkg–1]

1. Bikaner (10)4870 ± 146 [108] – – –

2. Jhunjhunu (10)4248 ± 184 [108] – – –

3. Hanumangarh-I (52)4308 ± 447 [109] – – –

Hanumangarh-II – (10)508 [110] (10)15 [110] (10)13 [110]

4. Sri Ganganagar-I (10)2881 ± 299 [59] – – –

Sri Ganganagar-II – (10)433 [110] (10)13 [110] (10)11 [110]

5. Churu – (10)407 [110] (10)12 [110] (10)10 [110]

6. Sikar – (10)632 [110] (10)19 [110] (10)16 [110]

Ta ble 13. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion from soil sam ples in UttarPradesh*

Sight number Dis trict Sur face ex ha la tion[mBqm–2h–1]


Ra dium con cen tra tion[Bqkg–1] Ref er ence

1. Bulandshahr (22)601 ± 110 (22)23 ± 4 (22)14 ± 3 [121]

2. Etah (12)700 ± 1(12)3 (12)35 ± 6 [122]

3. Farrukhabad – (25)1 ± 1 (25)17 ± 7 [123]

4. Aligarh – (4)8 (4)56 [124]

5. Mathura – (2)4 (2)31 [124]

*The ra don con cen tra tion in soil is not avail able for this dis trict.

zone of the Hamirpur area. In the rest of the ar eas inHimachal Pradesh the con cen tra tion us ing the barmode tech nique is more sim i lar to the one in the othertech niques. In the state of Haryana, tab. 5 the Bhiwanidis trict has higher val ues of ra don con cen tra tion be -cause the study was com pleted in the Tusham Ring

Com plex, where a higher con tent of nat u ralradionuclides ex ists. This study was com pleted us ingthe bare mode. The rest of the ar eas have a ra don con -cen tra tion well within the lim its. The stud ied ar eas ofRajasthan, tab. 6, and Uttar Pradesh, tab. 7, also havera don val ues well within the rec om mended lim its. In


Ta ble 14. Ra don con cen tra tion, sur face ex ha la tion, mass ex ha la tion and ra dium con cen tra tion fromsoil sam ples in Uttarakhand*

Sightnumber Dis trict Ra don con cen tra tion



[mBqkg–1h–1] Ref er ence

1. Almora – – (24)30 ± 10 [135]

2. Bhilangna val ley 29 ± 1 – – [136]

3. Doon val ley 7 – – [129]

4. Garhwal himalaya 6 – – [137]

5. Tehri – (25)279 (25)187 [138]

6. Rajpur (15)6 ± 3 – – [126]

*The ra dium equiv a lent con cen tra tion is not avail able for this dis trict.

Ta ble 15. Val ues of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K con cen tra tion and dose in Punjab


Ra dium (226Ra) Tho rium (232Th) Po tas sium (40K) An nualef fec tive

dose [mSv]Ref er enceCon cen tra tion

[Bqkg–1] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion [Bqkg–1] Dose [mSv] Con cen tra tion

[Bqkg–1] Dose [mSv]

1. Bathinda-I (6)56 25.7 (6)93 56.0 (6)377 15.7 0.12 [64]

Bathinda-II 21 – 39.0 – 75 – – [68]

Bathinda-III – – 52 ± 7 418 ± 20 0.3 [99]

2. Amritsar-I (6)55 25.2 (6)78 47.3 (6)302 12.6 0.10 [64]

Amritsar-II 69 – 89 – 157 – – [68]

Amritsar-III 61 ± 7 535 ± 19 0.3 [99]

Amritsar-IV 65 ± 2 29.88 95 ± 2 59.37 155 ± 1 6.44 11.7 [77]

3. Pathankot-I (6)43 19.7 (6)10 41.9 (6)331 13.8 0.09 [64]

Pathankot-II 64 ± 2 29.50 93 ± 2 57.73 124 ± 1 5.15 11.3 [77]

4. Sangrur-I (9)25 ± 1 11.6 (9)69 ± 5 42.8 (9)249 ± 9 10.2 0.29 [75]

Sangrur-II (15)37 17.2 (15)39 ± 7 24.2 (15)471 ± 46 19.53 0.29 [100]

5. Mukatsar (13)37 ± 1 17.1 (13)74 ± 5 46.3 (13)359 ± 7 12.8 0.38 [75]

6. Ferojpur (8)43 ± 1 19.7 (8)102 ± 5 63.6 (8)325 ± 7 13.5 0.47 [75]

7. Hoshiarpur-I – – (10)221 137.3 (10)920 38.02 0.90 [76]

Hoshiarpur-II 47 ± 6 339 ± 16 0.2 [99]

8. Batala 36 ± 1 16.59 50 ± 1 30.86 80 ± 1 3.33 0.06 [77]

9. Gurdaspur-I 62 ± 2 28.91 78 ± 2 48.82 165 ± 2 6.84 0.10 [77]

Gurdaspur-II 54 – 80 – 145 – – [68]

10. Ludhiana – – (10)51 31.74 (10)570 23.58 0.33 [78]

11. Mansa (5)25 11.56 (5)124 77.34 (5)332 82.66 0.50 [89]

12. Tarn tarn – – 59 ± 7 – 419 ± 18 – 0.3 [99]

13. Faridkot (5)29 13.50 (5)66 41.29 (5)293 12.14 0.33 [79]

14. Barnala (10)36 ± 7 16.6 (10)41 ± 7 25.3 (10)422 ± 40 17.4 0.28 [100]

Ta ble 16. Val ues of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K con cen tra tion and dose in Himachal Pradesh


Ra dium(226Ra) Tho rium(232Th) Po tas sium(40K) An nualef fec tive

dose[mSv]

Ref er enceCon cen tra tion[Bqkg–1]

Dose[mSv]

Con cen tra tion[Bqkg–1]

Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1. Kangra 56.74 26.11 87.42 57.97 143.04 6.245 0.10 [77]

2. Una 45.68 21.10 17.11 10.33 1444.04 63.96 0.3 [87]

3. Chamba 63.8 29.51 91.56 55.31 340.78 14.21 0.12 [64]

4. Hamirpur 44.21 – 93.10 – 174.48 – – [95]

Uttarakhand, tab. 8, the Doon val ley of Dehradoon has a high con cen tra tion of ra don which is due to ad sorbed ura nium in the car bo na ceous shales. The ra don es capeis rapid through weak planes con nected in depthdeepwith the main bound ary thrust and thus this re sults in ahigh con cen tra tion of ra don. The rest of the ar eas hashave a ra don con cen tra tion well within the lim its. Therate of in crease of con cen tra tion of ra don also de pends on the rate of ex change be tween in door and out doorair, which de pends on the con struc tion of the house,ven ti la tion con di tions and the air tight ness of thebuild ings.

Ta bles 9-14 shows a soil sur vey of six stateswhich is done with var i ous tech niques: Can is ter,Smart Ra don Mon i tor, RAD7, Al pha Guard, and soilgas probe. The re corded val ues of ra don con cen tra -tion, ex ha la tion rates in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand are lower than the

world wide av er age val ues. In the Hamirpur area ofHimachal Pradesh the re corded value of ra don in soilis higher which may be due to the pres ence of min er al -iza tion of ura nium in this area. The con cen tra tion ofra don in soil also de pends on the amount of ura nium inthe un der ly ing rocks and soil. Rocks and stones con -tain veins of ra dio ac tive ma te ri als that de cay into ra -don. When ra don re leased from rocks out side dis si -pates in the out door air, the ra don in rocks di rectlygoes through small cracks into the home. Thus, ra donfrom rocks af fects in door air which ul ti mately af fectsthe in hab it ants of the home.

Ta bles 15-19 show the ac tiv ity con cen tra tion ofnat u ral radionuclides in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttarakhand, re spec tively. InPunjab, (tab. 15), the higher con cen tra tion of 232Thwas ob served in Bathinda, Amritsar, Sangrur,Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, and Mansa which might be due


Ta ble 17. Val ues of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K con cen tra tion and dose in Haryana




[Bqkg–1]Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1. Sirsa (10)27.93 11.99 (10)72.55 45.2 (10)286.73 12.03 0.34 [92]

2. Hisar (10) 17.79 8.20 (10)45.45 28.31 (10)359.96 14.90 0.25 [93]

3. Fatehbad (8)19.918 9.18 (8)39.97 31.45 (8)346.04 14.32 0.27 [94]

4. Sirsa (2)105.82 48.78 (2)58.99 36.7 (2)1008.5 41.7 0.625 [94]

5. Kurukshetra (1)76.35 55.9 (1)89.7 31.14 (1)752.2 31.14 0.6 [94]

6. Bhiwani-I (7)54.10 24.94 (7)80.46 50.12 (7)717.78 29.71 0.513 [94]

Bhiwani-II (14)12.00 – (14)46.70 – (14)309.07 – 0.23 [103]

7. Jhajjar (1)92.56 42.67 (1)58.78 36.62 (1)776.83 32.16 0.55 [94]

8. Rohtak (1)16.43 7.57 (1)45.65 28.44 (1)398.23 16.49 0.26 [94]

Ta ble 18. Val ues of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K con cen tra tion and dose in Rajasthan




[Bqkg–1]Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1. Jodh pur (10)24 ± 9 11.1 (10)52 ± 10 32.5 (10)627 ± 146 26 – [111]

2. Nagaur (10)24 ± 9 11.2 (10)57 ± 11 35.7 (10)471 ± 135 19.7 – [111]

3. Sri Ganganagar (10)55 ± 10 25.3 (10)22 ± 8 13.2 (10)1620 ± 224 67.4 0.65 [112]

4. Hanumangarh (10)56 ± 11 26.1 (10)24 ± 8 14.3 (10)1577 ± 23 65.7 0.65 [112]

5. Churu (10)50 ± 10 23.1 (10)15 ± 8 9.1 (10)1683 ± 229 70 0.62 [112]

6. Sikar (10)48 ± 10 22.1 (10)15 ± 8 9.3 (10)1630 ± 225 67.8 0.60 [112]

Ta ble 19. Val ues of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K con cen tra tion and dose in Uttarakhand




[Bqkg–1]Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]


Dose[mSv]

1. KumaunHimalaya 67 ± 7 – 79 ± 6 – 887 ± 73 – 0.6 [139]

2. Uttarkashi (18)31 – (18)30 – (18)583 – 0.26 [140]

3. GarhwalHimalaya

(25)20 – (25)26 – (25)329 – 0.18 [141]

4. Almora (24)48 ± 9 – (24)45 ± 8 – (24)2059 ± 260 – – [135]

5. Ukhimath(Garhwal)

(18)81 – (18)119 – (18)341 – – [143]

to the min er al iza tion and high con tent of tho rium insoil. In some dis tricts, higher con tent of ra dium andpo tas sium is ob served which might be due to the use of po tas sium rich fer til iz ers for ag ri cul ture. In the Unadis trict of the state of Himachal Pradesh (tab. 16), thepo tas sium con tent is on the higher side which may bedue to the min er al iza tion and use of con struc tion ma te -rial. The Sirsa dis trict of Haryana has a higher value ofradionuclides. In the state of Rajasthan, the con tent ofpo tas sium is on the higher side which may be due tothe use of fer til iz ers in ag ri cul ture. A higher con tent ofradionuclides was also ob served in some of the ar easof Uttarakhand.

CON CLU SIONS

In the pres ent study, the re sults of in door ra doncon cen tra tion, ex ha la tion rates, ac tiv ity con cen tra tionof nat u ral radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) in sixstates of north ern In dia Punjab, Haryana, HimachalPradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhandare shown. From tabs. 3-18 it has been con cluded that:

· In door ra don val ues lie well within the rec om -mended lim its in all states ex cept the Hamirpur dis trictof Himachal Pradesh, Bhiwani dis trict of Haryana andDoon val ley of the state of Uttarakhand. This may bedue to the min er al iza tion of ura nium, higher con tent of ura nium and ab sorbed ura nium in the car bo na ceousshales.

· Ra don lev els in homes can be re duced by:– In creas ing the un der floor ven ti la tion,– Im prov ing the seal ing of floors and walls, and– Avoid ing the pas sage of ra don from base ments

into liv ing roomsIm prov ing the ven ti la tion of a house:· Val ues of ra don con cen tra tion in soil, ex ha la -

tion rates in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, UttarPradesh and Uttarakhand are re corded lower than theworld wide av er age val ues ex cept in the Hamirpur dis -trict of Himachal Pradesh. This may be due to the pres -ence of min er al iza tion of ura nium in this area. Thismay also be due to the in creased amount of ura nium inrocks and soil.

· Re corded val ues of the ac tiv ity con cen tra tionin Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh andUttarakhand are also dis cussed. In some dis tricts ofPunjab, the higher con cen tra tion of 232Th was ob -served which might be due to the min er al iza tion andhigh con tent of tho rium in soil. In some dis tricts ofHaryana, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand, higher con tentof ra dium and po tas sium is ob served which might bedue to the use of po tas sium rich fer til iz ers for ag ri cul -ture, min er al iza tion and use of con struc tion ma te rial.By low er ing fer til izer use and min er al iza tion, thehigher val ues of radionuclides can be re duced.

AC KNOWL EDGE MENT

The au thors, Dr. Deep Shikha and Dr. VimalMehta would like to thank the DBT Star Col legeScheme (No. BT/HRD/11/020/2018) & UGC-CPEScheme (F.No.10-96/2016(NS/PE)) for sup port ingthis work. The au thors also ac knowl edge the Prin ci -pal, SGTB Khalsa Col lege, Sri Anandpur Sa hib, forthe fa cil i ties pro vided for the com ple tion of this work.

AU THORS' CON TRI BU TIONS

The idea for this study was put for ward by V.Mehta and S. P. Singh. Rupinderjeet Kaur and D.Shikha car ried out the scan ning of the whole dataavail able in lit er a ture. V. Mehta and D. Shikha helpedin the writ ing of this pa per. All au thors con trib uted tothe anal y sis and in ter pre ta tion of data and the prep a ra -tion of the manu script.

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Re ceived on April 15, 2020Ac cepted on Oc to ber 13, 2020



Rupinderxit KAUR, Dip [IKA, Suprit Pal SING, Vimal MEHTA

RADON U OKRU@EWU, JAÎNA EKSHALACIJE I KONCENTRACIJA AKTIVNOSTI 236Ra, 232Th, I 40K U SEVERNOJ INDIJI

Qudska bi}a izloèna su stalno radioaktivnosti u okruèwu. Budu}i da su glavniizvori {tetnog zra~ewa radionuklidi koji se nalaze u atmosferi, mogu rezultirati zna~ajnimpotencijalnim rizikom za ìva bi}a. Na zemqinoj povr{ini, radioaktivni elementi uranijum iradijum prirodno su prisutni, doprinose}i gasovima radona i torona u zatvorenom prostoru, kao ispoqa{woj sredini, zemqi i vodi. Ra don je jedan od najva`nijih zaga|iva~a koji je, posle pu{ewacigareta, drugi naj~e{}e uzrok stvarawa raka plu}a. Usled zabrinutosti za zdravqe, mnogobrojneistraìva~ke organizacije preduzele su brojne poslove kako bi otkrile nivoe zaga|iva~a narazli~itim lokacijama u svetu. Ovaj rad je poku{aj da se sveobuhvatno izvesti o svim ovimstudijama sa razli~itim tehnikama koje se sprovode u Severnoj Indiji, tako da bi skorija procenanivoa radona u zatvorenom mogla da bude merodavna za daqi rad na ovom poqu. [est sever-noindijskih dràva, to jest, Panxab, Harjana, Himahal Prade{, Raxastan, Utar Prade{ i Uta-rakand, uzete su na ispit. Ova studija tako|e pruà podatke o ja~inama ekshalacije i koncentracijeaktivnosti prirodnih radionuklida (226Ra, 232Th, i 40K) prisutnih u ovim dràvama.

Kqu~ne re~i: ra don u zatvorenoj sredini, toron, ja~ina ekshalacije, godi{wa doza, ..........................koncentracija aktivnosti

NT-5 KAUR - doiSerbia

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