Notes Introduction: Transmesis and Postcolonial Reason 1. Besides producing the Latin Vulgate Bible, in his letter to Pammachius, Jerome (ca. 345–420 CE) also composed the first deliberate work of transla- tion theory in the West. See Jerome, “Letter.” 2. For a further and more detailed reading of this painting, see Jochen Hörisch, Die Andere Goethezeit 86–88. 3. Marianne Marroum has coined the very similar term transmimesis but means something rather different by it: a “multifarious mimesis coupled with transculturation” (“ Kalila wa dimna” 512). 4. I am using postcolonial in its most basic sense, as referring to the rise of inde- pendent nation-states in the place of modern colonial territories. Postcolonial studies, then, analyzes the “discourse on this condition that is informed by epistemological and psychic orientations that are products of [it]” (Dirlik 54). 5. Emphasis Wittgenstein’s. Readers will note in the German the repetition of “ übersehen,” which literally means to look over something, the “over” cor- responding to the sur- in survey. I have emended Anscombe’s translation to emphasize this point. 6. Wittgenstein’s famous example of the “beetle-in-a-box,” section 293 of the Philosophical Investigations, in which a number of people have boxes with a “beetle” inside, but each person is allowed to see inside only his own box, provides yet another variant of the black-box idea. 7. In “Translation without Original,” Apter also treats at length “classic” liter- ary pseudotranslations such as Pierre Louÿs’s Chansons de Bilitis (1894), which he claimed to be poems by a sixth-century Greek-Turkish poetess, and Kenneth Rexroth’s One Hundred More Poems from the Japanese (1974). 8. I take this to be the position of both Julia Kristeva in Revolution in Poetic Language, and of Niklas Luhmann in “Redescription of Romantic Art” and other writings. Both Kristeva and Luhmann posit a radical shift in the object of mimesis toward language and self-reference that takes place in romanticism. 9. The table is Sternberg’s (224), with some alterations and the addition of examples.
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Notes
Introduction: Transmesis and Postcolonial Reason
1 . Besides producing the Latin Vulgate Bible, in his letter to Pammachius, Jerome (ca. 345–420 CE) also composed the first deliberate work of transla-tion theory in the West. See Jerome, “Letter.”
2 . For a further and more detailed reading of this painting, see Jochen Hörisch, Die Andere Goethezeit 86–88.
3 . Marianne Marroum has coined the very similar term transmimesis but means something rather different by it: a “multifarious mimesis coupled with transculturation” (“ Kalila wa dimna ” 512).
4 . I am using postcolonial in its most basic sense, as referring to the rise of inde-pendent nation-states in the place of modern colonial territories. Postcolonial studies, then, analyzes the “discourse on this condition that is informed by epistemological and psychic orientations that are products of [it]” (Dirlik 54).
5 . Emphasis Wittgenstein’s. Readers will note in the German the repetition of “ übersehen ,” which literally means to look over something, the “over” cor-responding to the sur- in survey. I have emended Anscombe’s translation to emphasize this point.
6 . Wittgenstein’s famous example of the “beetle-in-a-box,” section 293 of the Philosophical Investigations , in which a number of people have boxes with a “beetle” inside, but each person is allowed to see inside only his own box, provides yet another variant of the black-box idea.
7 . In “Translation without Original,” Apter also treats at length “classic” liter-ary pseudotranslations such as Pierre Louÿs’s Chansons de Bilitis (1894), which he claimed to be poems by a sixth-century Greek-Turkish poetess, and Kenneth Rexroth’s One Hundred More Poems from the Japanese (1974).
8 . I take this to be the position of both Julia Kristeva in Revolution in Poetic Language, and of Niklas Luhmann in “Redescription of Romantic Art” and other writings. Both Kristeva and Luhmann posit a radical shift in the object of mimesis toward language and self-reference that takes place in romanticism.
9 . The table is Sternberg’s (224), with some alterations and the addition of examples.
232 Notes
10 . Indeed, Gideon Toury has proposed the idea of a “native translator.” See his “The Notion of ‘Native Translator.’”
1.1 Herizons of Translation: Nicole Brossard
1 . The French title of the second part, “Un livre à traduire,” contains an ambi-guity that does not come over into English, which gives only the active idea of a project to be undertaken. French frequently uses the pronoun à as a sub-stitute for the genitive of quality, hence “a book of translation,” or “a trans-lating book,” as though it were a machine that would help Laures translate.
2 . Susan McGahan (“Cleavages”) surprisingly points to Mélanie herself as the murderer. Certainly there is a deliberate lack of accusative on the part of Laure Angestelle.
3 . The French literally asks her to “have herself screwed,” which is supposedly more in line with anatomical possibilities than the English reflexive.
1.2 Shoot the Transtraitor! The Translator as Homo Sacer
1 . Unfortunately, though Kristeva’s text provides plenty of detail on Gloria’s erotic life, it says nothing specific about her translation activities, not even regarding the genres she translates out of and into.
2 . I wish to gratefully acknowledge the information provided by Işın Bengi Öner, Elif Yilmaz, and Irem Ustunsoz for allowing me to read their work on various additional instances where translators have been placed in parlous situations by “their” cultures. (Most of their examples are drawn from works translated into Turkish.) Their scholarship reveals in a pointed fashion the choice trans-lators face between being ethically invisible and visibly unethical.
3 . For critical and theoretical analysis of this topic, see the special issue of Linguística Antverpiensia , Translation as Creation: The Postcolonial Influence.
4 . On Couto’s unique style in Portuguese and the problems associated with translating it, see Andrés Xosé Salter Iglesias, “Translating Mia Couto.”
2.1 Unknown Language and Radical Translation
1 . Starting with his 1981 Roots of Language, linguist Derek Bickerton has been using the formation of pidgins and creoles as the basis for understand-ing how humans created language.
Notes 233
2 . I owe my discovery of Cros’s text to Haun Saussy, “Interplanetary Literature,” the presidential address at the ACLA Convention in Vancouver, delivered 1 April 2011.
2.3 Translating Ptydepe
1 . For a comparison of Havel’s use of the absurd with that by Western play-wrights such as Eugene Ionesco and Tom Stoppard, see Robert Skloot, “Václav Havel: The Once and Future Playwright.”
2 . One subtlety not reproduced in the English translation is the difference in address between the interlocutors in this dialogue. Gross uses “ Kolego náměstku ” to address Gross, while Gross responds with “ kolego řediteli .” The two terms reflect the relative hierarchy of the two within the company, whereas a common Mr . levels this out, though it does reflect the excessive formality used to mask aggressivity.
3 . In all, the scene shows the influence of Eugene Ionesco’s 1951 play, La leçon , where a supposedly innocent tutoring session ends with the professor mur-dering his pupil.
4 . Gerhard F. Strasser, “From Global Languages to Languages of Concealment: Linguistic Experiments in the Early Modern Period,” unpublished paper.
5 . The English examples are quite far from the Czech ones but will provide the basis for my discussion.
Part Three Conversion
1 . For a more detailed analysis of Akutagawa, see Beebee and Amano, “Pseudotranslation in the Fiction of Akutagawa Ryunosuke.”
3.1 Borges Translating Ibn Rushd Translating Aristotle
1 . I will give Ibn Rushd’s full transliterated Arabic name below, but in the main I will refer to him exclusively by the Latinized “Averroes,” since the majority of writing on the philosopher cited in this chapter makes use of this phonetic translation of his name. Note as well that Spanish uses a diaresis for the sec-ond e in his name (English-language practice varies), which I preserve only in quotations from that language.
2 . My thanks to Dr. Muhammed Al-Atawneh of Ben-Gurion University for making me aware of this.
3 . Elsewhere (iv), however, Butterworth calls the use of the terms madih and hija’ a “basic confusion” on the part of Averroes.
234 Notes
3.3 Transmutation, Transmigration, and Forgetting as Conversion: Milorad Pavic’s Dictionary of the Khazars
1 . Pavić was not the first to publish a speculative historical novel on the Khazars. Selig Schachnowitz’s In the Jewish State of the Khazars ( Im Judenstaat der Chasaren ) appeared in German in 1920, and Samuel Gordon’s The Lost Kingdom in English in 1926. The paucity of historical records leaves plenty of room for fictional explorations of this kind.
2 . On the narrative complexity of the Dictionary , see Tomislav Z. Longinovic, “Chaos, Knowledge, and Desire”; on its self-reflexivity, see N. Katherine Hayles, “Corporeal Anxiety in Dictionary of the Khazars .”
3 . A modern Khazar controversy concerns the degree to which Ashkenazi Jews might trace their origins to the Judaized Khazars. For a review of the evi-dence on the Jewish question, see Paul Wexler 534–41.
4 . Wallachian is another term for Romanian. 5 . Fredric Jameson, “Third World Literature in the Era of Multinational
Capitalism”; for a major contestation of Jameson’s thesis, cf. Aijaz Ahmad, “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the ‘National Allegory.’”
6 . Pavić, Istorija srpske knjizevnosti 334; cited in Ramadanovic, “Language and Crime in Yugoslavia” 191.
7 . For a fuller account of these differential terms, see Peter Mentzel, “Remembering and Inventing: A Short History of the Balkans.”
8 . I have not been able to find another example of a triply hybridized language name for a natural language. In the 1950s, students at the University of Singapore created an artificial language, Engmalchin, by incorporating English with Malayan and Chinese in their literary writings. The experiment was short-lived (see Holden, “Engmalchin”).
9 . I have not obtained “independent confirmation” of Croatian writer Dubravka Ugresic’s account of Pavić’s excessive code switching, especially in its details (did he really speak with Basques?), though in its perception of the twin ideologies of linguistic fragmentation and nationalism embodied in the Dictionary, hers does agree with Andrew Wachtel’s assessment.
Part Four Postcolonial Dérivations
1 . Eric Cheyfitz’s Poetics of Imperialism argues that “translation was, and still is, the central act of European colonization and imperialism in the Americas” (104). However, Cheyfitz uses a much broader notion of translation than I do in this study.
2 . Takallouf has been honored by inclusion in the lexicon of untranslatable words at the website betterthanenglish.com, which is dedicated to conveying
Notes 235
non-English words and expressions that are better left in the original. The rough English equivalent given there is “formality.”
3 . The German verb Aufheben means both “to keep” and “to cancel.” In the philosophy of G. F. W. Hegel, it represents the action of the dialectic, and its standard English translation is “to sublimate.”
4.1 Abdelkébir Khatibi’s Love in Two Languages
1 . In explaining an illustration of his book on Islamic calligraphy (coauthored with Mohammed Sizelmassi), Khatibi notes that kalima “simply means ‘word’” ( L’art calligraphique 127).
2 . “ Hay un falso utopismo . . . consistente en creer que lo que el hombre desea, proyecta y se propone es, sin más, posible ” (438; “There is a false utopia-nism . . . which consists of the belief that what man wants, projects, and plans is also immediately possible”).
4.2 Faking Translation: Derivative Aboriginality in the Fiction
of B. Wongar
1 . As shown for example in Graham Huggan, “Ethnic Autobiography and the Cult of Authenticity,” and Margaret Nolan, “The Demidenko Affair and Australian Hoaxes.” As the title of Nolan’s piece indicates, Australian literary hoaxes are not limited to whites masquerading as Aborigines; nor, of course, are authorial masquerade and ventriloquism unique to Australia.
2 . I have not been able to locate any information about a place called “Galwan” in Australia. The closest I could come was a plant name. Plonk , interestingly, is an Australian slang term for booze.
3 . Specifically, in 1994 Leon Carmen published My Own Sweet Time under the name “Wanda Koolmatrie.”
4 . The African American lineage appears to be true, as documented by Cassandra Pybus (“From ‘Black’ Caesar to Mudrooroo”; see esp. 36–37), and the reaction to it and to the question of belonging ranges across a wide spectrum. Colin Johnson was given by his impoverished parents to a boys’ home where he grew up with Aborigines.
5 . That Wongar is not the only Australian writer to face this critique can be seen from Lars Jensen’s study of Les Murray and David Malouf in “Territorial Pains or Gains.”
6 . RW stands for Ray Willbanks, BW for B. Wongar. 7 . According to J. M. Arthur, him is often used in aboriginal English for the
subject of a sentence ( Aboriginal English 206).
236 Notes
Conclusion: Ten Reasons Why Translators Should Read Fiction
1 . “Concretization” was developed by Roman Ingarden, the notion of gaps by Wolfgang Iser.
2 . José María Rodríguez García’s “Literary into Cultural Translation,” for example, never pauses to distinguish between what the title implies are two different approaches to translation.
Bibliography
“Primary Texts” are transmeses and other works of literature, as opposed to “Theory and Criticism.” However, works by a single author that fall under both categories have been entered under “Primary Texts.” The primary texts list also contains transmeses not treated in the chapters of this book.
I. Primary Texts Bachmann, Ingeborg. “Simultan.” Simultan: Neue Erzählungen. München:
Piper, 1972. 7–44. Balagta, Francisco. Florante at Laura (1838). Project Gutenberg, 2005. <http://
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cionadas por el autor. Buenos Aires: Editorial Celtia, 1982. 189–93. ———. “La busca de Averroës.” Obras Completas. Buenos Aires: Emece, 2009.
1031–36. Trans. James E. Irby. “Averroës’s Search.” Labyrinths. New York: New Directions, 1964. 148–55.
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———. “Las versiones homéricas.” Obras Completas. Buenos Aires: Emece, 2009. 239–43. Trans. Suzanne Jill Levine. “Some Versions of Homer.” PMLA 107.5 (Oct. 1992): 1134–38.
———. Obras Completas I 1923–1949. Buenos Aires: Emece, 2009. ———. “Pierre Menard, autor del Quixote.” Obras Completas. Buenos Aires:
Emece, 2009. 444–50. Trans. James E. Irby. “Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote.” Labyrinths. New York: New Directions, 1964. 36–44.
———. “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius.” Obras Completas. Buenos Aires: Emece, 2009. Trans. James E. Irby. “Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius.” Labyrinths. New York: New Directions, 1964. 3–18.
Brossard, Nicole. Le Désert mauve. Quebec: Hexagone, 1987. Trans. Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood. Mauve Desert. Toronto: Coach House Press, 1990.
Brossard, Nicole. “Nicole Brossard.” Trans. Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood. Contemporary Authors Autobiography Series. Ed. Hal May and Susan M. Trotsky. Vol. 16. Detroit, MI: Gail Research Company, 1993. 39–57.
———. Picture Theory: Théorie/Fiction. Montréal: Nouvelle Optique, 1982. Trans. Barbara Godard. Picture Theory. New York: Roof Books, 1990.
———. Escritos autobiográficos y epistolario. Ed. Nigel Glendinning and Nicole Harrison. London: Tamesis, 1979.
Calvino, Italo. Se una notte d’inverno un viaggiatore . . . Turin: Einaudi, 1979. Trans. William Weaver. If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler. New York: Knopf, 1981.
Carey, Peter. My Life as a Fake. New York: Knopf, 2003. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. Don Quixote. 1605. Ed. Martín de Riquer.
Barcelona: Juventud, 1967. Trans. J. M. Cohen. Don Quixote. London & New York: Penguin, 1950.
Couto, Mia. O ultimo vôo do flamingo. Lisbon: Editorial Caminho, 2000. Trans. David Brookshaw. The Last Flight of the Flamingo. London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005.
Cros, Charles. “ Etude sur les moyens de communication avec les planètes. ” 1869. Oeuvres complètes. Paris: Gallimard, 1976. 510–27.
Crowley, John. The Translator. New York: Morrow, 2002. Desai, Anita. “Translator Translated.” The Artist of Disappearance. New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 2011. Duranti, Francesca. La casa sul lago della luna. Milan: Rizzoli, 1987. Trans.
Stephen Sartarelli. The House on Moon Lake. Harrison, NY, and Encino, CA: Delphinium, 2000.
Foer, Jonathan Safran. Everything Is Illuminated. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. “Translations.” Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida. Ed. Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1992. 60–63.
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Goldsmith, Oliver. The Citizen of the World. Ed. Arthur Friedman. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
Gordon, Samuel. The Lost Kingdom; or, The Passing of the Khazars. London: Shapiro, Vallentine, 1926.
Hari, Daoud. The Translator: A Tribesman’s Memoir of Darfur. New York: Random House, 2008.
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Keneally, Thomas. The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1972.
Khatibi, Abdelkebir. Amour bilingue. [Montpellier]: Fata Morgana, 1983. Trans. Richard Howard. Love in Two Languages. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990.
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