Nota Kuliah Geo

Pensyarah:C.K.Tan

TT3222/TT4223, C.K.Tan

Theory andPractice inTeaching andLearning


Definition of Learning:Development of new knowledge, skills or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and environment(Robert Heinich et. al., 2002)


Definition of Learning:

Learning is a persisting change in human performance or performance potential [brought] about as a result of the learners interaction with the environment

(Driscoll, 1994, p. 8-9 in Newby, T.J., 2000)


Behaviorist perspective of Learning: Concept of operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner in 1950s) use rewards Concept of classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov, J.B. Watson, E.L. Thorndike, in 1930s) use stimuli (reinforcement)


Behaviorist perspective of Learning:- emergence of programmed instruction that is leading a learner through a series of instructional steps to a desired level of performance


Cognitivist perspective of Learning: mental model of short-term and long- term memory


Cognitivist perspective of Learning:- Jean Piaget (1977) mentioned three key concepts: schemata, assimilation and accommodationSchemata mental structures by whichindividuals organize their perceivedenvironment


Assimilation cognitive process bywhich a learner integrates newinformation and experiences intoexisting schemataAccommodation process of modifyingexisting schemata or creating new ones


Constructivist perspective of Learning: considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of learning learners create their own interpretations of the world of information


Social perspective of Learning: known as observational learning (Milller & Dollard, 1941) believe people can also learn without a response observed or reinforced (unlike behaviorist) 4 phases (attention, retention, reproduction and motivation)


Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learningEnvironment place, methods, media and technology


Important features of Learning:Active participationPracticeIndividual differencesFeedbackRealistic contextsSocial interaction


Concrete-Abstract Continuum: concrete experience help students integrate prior experience and thus facilitate learning of abstract concepts(Robert Heinich et. al., 2002)


Cone of experience (Edgar Dale, 1969)


Concreteness:Takes more time but meaningful learning experienceAbstractness:Save time, more info through printed or spoken words but may lost in learning


Teaching-learning processes: well-designed lessons to arouse students interest; present new materials; involve them in practice with feedback; assess their understanding; follow-up activities(Gagne, 1985)


The learning piramid(Source: in Hofstetter, F.T., 2001)


The ASSURE Model:A procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media and technologyIt focuses on planning surrounding the actual classroom use of media and technology rather than to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems


Methods andStrategies inTeaching andLearning


Cooperative learning Discovery Problem solving Games Simulation Discussion Drill and practice Tutorial Demonstration PresentationInstructional Methods


Focusing questions Highlighting Analogies Mnemonics Imagery Concept maps Embedded questions Feedback Case studies Role playingInstructional Techniques


Instructor-directed instruction:Effectiveness depends on the instructor Ex: electronic presentation, video clips presentation


Instructor-independent instruction: objectives are listed, guidance in achieving objectives is given, materials are assembled and self-evaluation. Ex: multimedia, hypermedia, cooperative learning


Media portfolios:.. a collection of student work that illustrates growth over a period of timePortfolios allow students to gather, organize and share info, test hypotheses and demonstrates creativity and personality. Ex: research papers, audio and video recordings and computer multimedia projects


Thematic instruction:Teachers organize their instruction around themes or anchorsIntegrating content and skills from many subjectsA good theme can capture students attention, provide problem-solving experiences, support interdisciplinary activities and include a variety of media and technology


Distance education:It is used to reach a more diverse and geographically dispersed audience who do not have access to traditional classroom instructionIt is delivered by instructional mediaEx: e-learning/online learning, traditional correspondence course


Methods:Presentation (one way communication controlled by the source)Demonstration (view real example of the skill/procedures)Discussion (exchange of ideas and opinions among students or among students and teacher)


Methods:Drill and Practice (a series of practice exercises designed to increased fluency in a new skill)Tutorial (problem + learner responses + feedback)Cooperative learning (develop skills in working and learning together in a team; teacher as the working partner)


Methods:Gaming (a playful environment in which learners follow prescribed rules as they strive to attain a challenging goal)Simulation (learners confront a scaled-down version of a real-life situation)


Methods:Discovery (inductive or inquiry approach to learning; presents problem to be solved through trial and error)Problem solving (develop, explain and defend a solution or position on the problem)


Cooperative learning:Small heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common academic goal or task while working together to learn collaboration and social skillsGroup members are interdependentInvolves active participation by all students


Advantageous of cooperative learning:Active learningSocial skillsInterdependenceIndividual accountabilityYield better acquisition and retention of lesson content and better interpersonal and thinking skills


Examples on cooperative learning:In a science project, one student is assigned to search the internet, another goes the library for background research and others design and conduct experiments; then meet to discussImplementation of cooperative learning can also be computer-based (info sharing via online forums, e-mailing)


Learning Together Model (Johnson and Johnson, 1993):Feedback is a critical factor in successful learning4 basic elements:Positive interdependenceFace-to-face helping interactionIndividual accountabilityTeaching interpersonal and small-group skills


Team-Assisted Individualization (Robert Slavin, 1985):Teaching groupsTeam formationSelf-instructional materialsTeam studyTeam scores and team recognition


Games:Defined as an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life to achieve goalsGoals should have a probability of achievement of at least 50%Games that based on realistic context are called simulation games


Advantageous of games:Common features of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and social psychology Provide opportunity to practise content, vocabulary and problem-solving skillsStudents receive feedback based on the consequences of their actions, answers and decisions


Simulations:A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of some real-life situation or processIt provides realistic practice with feedback in a realistic contextIt also includes social interactionThe device employed to represent a physical system in a scaled-down form is called a simulatorEx: role play, flight simulators (no social interactions), team simulations


Advantageous of simulations:RealisticImplements problem-based learning methodSolutions may be applied to real life


Role plays:It is an open-ended interaction among peopleMotivated and effective method of developing social skillsSimulation games:Combines attributes of a simulation (role-playing, a model of reality) with the attributes of a game (goal, specific rules)


Learning centers:It is a self-contained environment designed to promote individual or small-group learning around a specific taskDesigned for use by individuals, pairs or triadsProvide student practice with feedback through individualized activitiesCommonly found in library


Advantageous of learning center:Self-pacingActive learningCoaching role of the teacher


Programmed instruction:Introduced by B.F.Skinner (1950s)Student spend most of their time performing the skills or displaying the knowledge being taughtknowledge of the correct response is the reinforcerThe programmed instruction is also known as linear programming


Programmed instruction:Now, branching programming is widely used as a mean for bright learners to go more quicklyThis method is popular for the development of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and web-based instruction


Advantageous of programmed instruction:Self-pacingPractice and feedbackReliable form of learningEffective learning


Programmed tutoring:It is one-to-one method of instruction in which the tutors responses are programmed in advance in a form of printed instructionsAlso known as structured tutoringTutors book has the answers but the students does not have


Advantageous of programmed tutoring:Self-pacingPractice and feedbackReliable learningEffective


Programmed teaching:It is also known as direct instruction, is an attempt to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group settingThe class is broken into groups of 5 10 and be taught by a teacher/student peer or paraprofessionalOlder students guide younger studentsDesigned to generate high rates of responding by all students


How to write Teaching and Learning objectives?Four important aspects:Audience focus on what learners are doingBehaviour verb describing the new capability that the audience will have after instruction


Continue .. Conditions on what condition (environment) can learners achieve the objectivesDegree standard or criterion by which acceptable performance will be judged

Example:The learners can classify types of birds by its name according to its colour


Classification of objectives:Cognitive domain intellectual capabilitiesAffective domain feelings and valuesMotor skill domain athletic, manual and physical skillsInterpersonal domain interaction among people


Visual MaterialforTeachingand Learning


Visual-based lesson:Using photographs, OHP, videoStudents performed better with visual treatment(Cohen, Ebeling & Kulik, 1981)


Roles of visuals:Concrete referent for ideasIconic represents things we seeGive motivation to learnersSimplify information


Visuals must be:realistic (Ex: photograph)analogic (convey a concept by showing something similar)organizational (Ex: flowcharts, graphs, maps, schematics and classification chart


Visuals must be:verbal (good readable font,lettering style and location)add appeal [(surprise, texture (3-D) and interaction (to answer questions)]


Principles of visual design:Ensure the visual is thereSimplicityCan capture attentionParticipation


Example on simplicity by visual


Designing visuals: Alignment of objects shape (follow rules of 1/3) balance style colour scheme


Rule of one-third


Example on balance


Guidelines on colour by Pett & Wilson (1996): colour for reality colour for discrimination color to focus attention colour for linking elements consistency in using colours saturated colours for children


Visuals arrangement: proximity (distance between objects) directional (arrows, etc) good figure-ground contrast consistency


Which tag going to which picture ?


Example on good proximity and balance


Digital images:Also known as non-linear mediaFrom digital camerasFrom scannersCan create photo CDs with digital images


Manipulatives:Real objects coins, tools, artifacts, plants, animalsIt can be handled and inspectedIt promotes concrete learning experience; builds schemata that have meaning and relevance in their lives


Manipulatives:Modifications can also be made: Cutaways (machines, etc) Specimens (preserved plants) Exhibits (collections of artifacts + printed information)


Models:It is a 3-D representations of real objectsIt can provide learning experiences that real things cannot provideEx: model airplanes, multimedia kits


Models:Assembling a model can stimulate inquiry and discovery; sharpen both cognitive and psychomotor skillsMock-ups simplified representations of complex devices or processes (Ex: mock-ups of PC, simulator)


Field Trips:It is an excursion outside the classroom to study real processes, people and objectsIt is good for students to encounter phenomena that cannot be brought into the classroom for observation and study (firsthand observation / participation)


Examples of Field Trips: A few minutes trip to observe plants/animals several days trip to tour historical places virtual field trips using internet (listen & hear the sound of life in London)


Field Trips:After the field trip, follow-up activities can be done:Discussion of the trip, reports, projects, demonstrations, creative writing, individual research, class experience stories and exhibits of pictures, etc.


Printed materials:It includes textbooks, fiction and non-fiction book, booklets, pamphlets, study guides, manuals, worksheets and documentsAdvantages:Availability, flexibility, portability, user-friendly and economical


Printed materials:Limitations:Reading level, prior knowledge, memorization, vocabulary, one-way presentation, can influence the curriculum, quality appraisal


Free and inexpensive materials:Examples:Poster, games, pamphlets, brochures, reports, charts, maps, books, audiotapes and videotapesSome of these materials are available at resource centres and via the internet


Display surfaces:They are used to display visuals such as photographs, drawings, charts and postersExamples: chalkboard (blackboard) multipurpose board (whiteboard)


Examples of Display surfaces: copy board (electronic whiteboard); can print handouts pegboard (with small holes one inch apart) bulletin board (for announcements, notices)


Display surfaces:Examples: cloth board magnetic board flip chart (a pad of large paper fastened together at the top and mounted to an easel)


Electronic-basedMaterial forTeaching andLearning


Hearing is the foundation of listeningTechniques to improve listening abilities:Guide listeningGive directionsListen for main ideas, details, inferences


Techniques to improve listening abilities:Listen to sentences with word missingAnalyse structure of a presentationDistinguish between relevant and irrelevant information


Audiotape:Advantages:Portable (small and light)Durable Easy to useCan prevent accidental erasing


Audiotape:Disadvantages:Tape can entangleNoise and hiss No hi-fi for cheap playersDifficult to repair broken tapesDifficult to edit


CD:Advantages:Durable Hi-fi No background noiseRandom search


MP3:MPEG Audio Layer 3 Streamed audio (compressed)Will have more T & L material in one CD


Integration:Integration of audio is useful for T & L MP3 musicAudiotapes recorded speechNow audio can be integrated into T & L via computer digital format


Video:Video is electronic storage of moving images in Latin I seeTV transmission of live moving images electronicallyExample: video cassette, videodisc, DVD, interactive video, video game


Advantages of VCD/DVD:Flexible storage capacityFast random access to specific framesDurable, less wear and tearCheap when mass-producedDisadvantages:Expensive to produce


Advantages of video cassette:Cheap Easily availableDisadvantages:Difficult to locate required learning sequenceTapes entangle easily


Internet video:Streaming video Starts playing before complete downloadingExample: .rm, .ra, .swf


Advantages of video:Portraying concepts in motionShow processesRisk-free observation (Example: nuclear plant operation)DramatizationView repeatedly for skill learning


Advantages of video:Affective learningMotivation for problem solvingCultural understandingEstablishing commonality on issues


Type of video applications:Develop cognitive skills (read books in conjunction with viewing videotapes)Demonstrations (show how things work)Virtual field trip (clips on places of interest)


Type of video applications:Documentary (show facts)Dramatization (drama by people)Discussion basis (watch video and discuss including socialising)Attitude development (affective learning with video)


Type of video applications:Reports and portfolios (part of video is used for reports)Training (watch processes)


When you use visuals, audio or video for T & L:Use ASSURE model as a guideline for preparing themAll audio/video must be previewed first before actually implementing it (utilizing materials)


Advantages of computer:Instantaneous responseBig storageCan manipulate informationServe multiple users simultaneously


Types:Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI) computer materials in a controlled sequence such as drill and practice exercisesComputer-managed Instruction (CMI) stores students profiles and materials; diagnostic test


Roles of computers:Object of instruction learn to use software (programming, etc)


Roles of computers as a tool: Calculator, word processor, multimedia composer, communication device Learn from databases; learn to manage info such as retrieving, sorting and organizing


Roles of computers:Computer as a tool: Branching based on students responses engaging students in learning; develop owns schemata


Roles of computers:Instructional device Provide complex tasks to engage students in real-world problemsTeaching logical thinking Develop powerful ideas from certain games


Some T & L methods using computer:Concept mapping:Map ideas in boxes, connecting ideas, Drill and practice:Provide a variety of questions with varied formats


Some T & L methods using computer:Tutorial:Computers acts as the teacherCheck students responses with appropriate feedbackGames:Recreational games for building computer literacy


Some T & L methods using computer:Discovery:Learners employ an information retrieval strategy to get info from databaseProblem solving:Analyze presented data/info, define problem, state hypotheses, perform experiments, create solutions


Integrated Learning System (ILS):Networked computers equipped with software to present materials(e-learning LMS such as Blackboard, WebCT etc)Tracks individual student progress


Facilities:One-computer classroom Demonstrations for large group Design group activities for small group Learning centre Personal secretary for the teacher


Facilities:Multiple-computer classroom Computer lab (more students being taught simultaneously) Networked computers bring a lot of benefits; sharing info


Multimedia kits:A collection of teaching/learning materials involving more than one type of medium and organized around a single topicKits CD-ROMs, filmstrips, slides, audiotapes, videotapes, still pictures, OHP, maps, worksheets, charts, graphs, etc


Advantages of multimedia kits:Arouse multisensory interestPromote cooperative learning (small group project work)Logistic advantage (easily packaged and transported)


Disadvantages of multimedia kits:ExpensiveTime consuming to produce various materialsLost components can make the kit frustrating to use


Virtual reality:Computer-generated 3-D environment where the user can operate as an active participantAdvantages of virtual reality: Safety (flight training) Visit real places not possible to go Opportunities to explore


How to teach effectively?Effective teachers always: begin each new lesson with a review state the goal of the lesson present new material in small steps give clear instructions and explanations give students much time to practice ask numerous questions Rosenshine & Stevens (1986)


Continue ..

Effective teachers always: guide initial practice provide explicit instructions for work given hold weekly and monthly reviews Rosenshine & Stevens (1986)


Nota Kuliah Geo

Documents

tandefinition of learning

tanthe learning piramidsource

essence of learning

tanteachinglearning

concrete experience

meaningful experiences

prior experience

actual classroom use