Norbert K. Semmer Universität Bern · 2/15/2007 · Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer Stressors, social support by the supervisor, and psychosomatic complaints

Recognition and Respect

(or lack thereof)

as predictors of

occupational health and well-being"

Norbert K. Semmer

Universität Bern

WHOGeneva

February 14, 2007

Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer

A positive self-evaluationand

a positive evaluation by others

� Constitute basic needs (e.g. Epstein, 1998)

� Self-esteem can be regarded as an indicator of well-being - people with low self-esteem tend to be depressive;

� Social isolation and lack of social support areassociated with

• higher morbidity (Visweswaran et al., 1999)

and

• lower life expectancy (e.g. House, 2001)

Epstein, S. (1998). Cognitive-experiential self-theory. In D.F. Barone, M. Hersen, & V. B. van Hasselt (Eds.), Advanced personality (pp. 211-238). New York: Plenum Press.

Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 314-334.

House, J.S. (2001). Social isolation kills, but how and why? Psychosomatic Medicine 63,273–274.


�E.g., a benevolent evaluation of ourselves

We go to great pains to defend theirpersonal esteem and social self-esteem


20%20%20%20%20%

BestMiddleRange

Poorest

I am among the

Question: How good is your performance?(in comparison to other people doing similar work)

Self-evaluation


Selbsteinschätzung

20%20%20%20%20%

BestMiddleRange

Poorest

about 80% say:

I am among the

Question: How good is your performance?


„How important was your contribution to the group‘s performance?“

7.73

6

Positive

feedback

Staw, B.E. (1975). Attribution of the ‚causes‘ of performance: A general alternative interpretation of cross-sectional research in organizations. Orgaizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 414-432.

Negativefeedback


�e.g. Distancing ourselves from others

We go to great pains to defend our personal and social self-esteem...


Differences in earnings between groups

+10-1Difference

£66£68£70Production

(„the others “)

£67£68£69Toolroom(„we“)

Which system does the Toolroom groupchose?

After Brown, R. (2000). Group processes. Dynamics within and between groups (2nd ed.). Oxford. Blackwell Publishers (Table 8.2, p. 316, simplified


�People who get good scores in intelligencetests regard such tests as more valid thanpeople with lower values

�People who assume their performance was not very good tend to seek less feedback(although feedback would be especially valuable forpoor performers...)

We go to great pains to defend our personal and

social self-esteem...

e.g., dealing with negative feedback


Justice / Fairness


Justice

�Distributive Justice• Do I get what I deserve?

�Procedural Justice• Are the rules / procedures fair?

• Are they applied in impartial way?

� Interactional Justice• Can I present my views?

• Am I listened to?

• Are my concerns taken serious?


Fairness in Organisations

Two plants of of the same company

� Similar conditions

� Wages cut by 15% for 10 weeks

Two conditions:

a) Simple announcement

b) Extended, sensitive explanation


Fairness in Organisations:

Quitting during pay cut period

2%

23%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Extended explanation Simple announcement

Greenberg, J. (1993). The social side of fairness: Interpersonal and informational classes of organiza-tional justice. In R. Cropanzano(Ed.), Justice in the workplace. Approaching fairness in human resource management (pp. 79-103. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.


2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

vor Lohnkürzung während Lohnkürzung nach Lohnkürzung

Simple announcement

Extended explanation

Fairness in Organisations:

Cutting wages and petty theft

before during after

Greenberg, J. (1990) Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden costs of pay cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 5, 561-568


Human Ressources Policy


Human Ressources-Policy and performance

4.88

5.22

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

5

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

Under-

Investment

Mutual

Investment

Tsui, A.S., Pearce, J.L., Porter, L.W., & Tripoli, A.M. (1997) Alternative approaches to the employee-organizationrelationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1089-1121.


Human Resources-Policy and absenteeism

2.05

1.07

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Under-

Investment

Mutual

Investment

Tsui, A.S., Pearce, J.L., Porter, L.W., & Tripoli, A.M. (1997) Alternative approaches to the employee-organizationrelationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1089-1121.


Satisfaction with leadership-climateand voluntary quitting

Turnover

after one year

50

40

30

20

10

- --

10.0 %

17.7 %

26.2 %

46.2 %

Semmer, N., Baillod, J., Stadler, R. & Gail, K. (1996). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten:

Eine follow-up Studie Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 40, 190-199

++ +Satisfaction with leadership climate


Incentives for performance


Pay by performance vs. Supervisors’ behavior:

Effects on performance (Meta-analysis)

Production

� Pay by performance:

39%

� Performance feedback

41%

Service

� Pay by performance:

14%

� Praise, Recognition:

15%

Nach Stajkovic, A.D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behaviormodification on task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 1122-1149.


Stress, Well-being, and Health


Stress as Offense to Self(SOS)

Stress throughINsufficiency (SIN)

Failure / wrongdoing

Stress As Disrespect (SAD)

„Ilegitimate“behavior: unfair,

disrespectful

Semmer, N.K., McGrath, J.E., & Beehr, T.A. (2005). Conceptual issues in research on stress and health. In C.L. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Health (2nd ed., pp. 1-43). New York: CRC Press.Semmer, N.K., & Jacobshagen, N. (2006). Illegitimate tasks assignments as a source of stress. Manuscript under revision, University of Bern, Switzerland.


Stress-Symptoms Indicators of health / well-being

� Blood pressure

� Cardiovascular disease

� Irritation

� Resentments

� Job satisfaction

� Exhaustion


If recognition and respect are importantfor health and well-being, then...

... social stressors should be especially important

because they typically involve (the perception of)

• a lack of fairness,

• a lack of respect

• open or indirect attacks, ridicule, derogation

This is supported by research:• Social stressors have consistent effects on well-being and

health

• Bullying / mobbing as an extreme form of social stressorshas dramatic consequences

• Social stressors have a special potential to carry overfrom work to private life and to preoccupy people („rumination“)


119.1

118.2

119.6

113.6

110

112

114

116

118

120

122

Social stressors and SBP-RecoveryMultilevel-analysis; 240 BP-readings, evening, 40 men

Stress As Disrespect (SAD)SBP mmHg

high

Work Day

low

Day Off Day OffWork Day

Social Stressors

controlled for

task-related stressors (observer rating), job control, age, bmi, nicotine, alcohol, caffeine, number of critical life events, stressful events at work and at home, and wave

Interaction social stressors

x day: p < .05Grebner, S., Elfering, A., & Semmer, N. K. (2006, March). Social stressors at work predict well-being and health beyond negative affectivity, social support, and job content. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Occupational Stress and Health, Miami, Florida.



... the well-established positive effects of socialsupport

� should be due to the communication of esteem, appreciation, and care („emotional support“)

� even if the type of support provided isinstrumental (i.e. tangible help / information)


„What was helpful“

„W

ha

tw

as

do

ne“

581840Total

411724Inform. /Instrum.

17116Esteem/

Emotional

TotalInform. / Instrum.

Esteem / Emotional

Social Support: Behavior vs. Effect

Semmer, N.K., Elfering, A., Jacobshagen, N., Perrot, T., Beehr, T.A., & Boos, N. (2006). The emotional meaning of instrumental social support. Manuscript under review.


Stressors, social support by the supervisor, and psychosomatic complaints

Str-

Str+

Str-

Str+

Support low Support high

Frese, M. & Semmer, N. (1991). Streßfolgen in Abhängigkeit von Modera-torvariablen: Der Einfluß von Kontrolle und sozialer Unterstützung (Stress-symptoms as depending on

moderator variables: The influence of control and social support). In S. Greif, E. Bamberg & N. Semmer (Hrsg.), Psychischer Streß am Ar-eitplatz (S. 135-153). Göttingen:

Hogrefe.

Percentage

of employees

with high

psychoso-

matic

complaints*

*upper third



... Unfair transactions in the sense of not beingproperly rewarded for one‘s input should beespecially important


Effort Rewards

Recognition, Support,

Salary, Job prospects,

Job security

Fair Balance

http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri/theorie.htm#keypublications1

Effort-Reward Balance

Demands

ObligationsMotivation

„(Over-) Engagement“

Siegrist, J. (2002). Effort-reward imbalance at work and health. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being, vol. 2 (pp. 261-291). Amsterdam: JAI.


Effort

Rewards

Effort-Reward Imbalance

Imbalance

Demands

ObligationsMotivation

„(Over-) Engagement“

Recognition, Support,

Salary, Job prospects,

Job security

Imbalance: Higher risk for impaired health and well-being

e.g., Cardiovascular disease: 2 to 6 times higher riskSiegrist, J. (2002). Effort-reward imbalance at work and health. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being, vol. 2 (pp. 261-291). Amsterdam: JAI. http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri/theorie.htm#keypublications1



... task assignments that are perceived as illegitimatebecause the are perceived as

� unnecessary

� unreasonable

should be especially important


Unnecessary Tasks

Do you have to carry out tasks where you keep wondering if

... they make sense?

... they would not have to be done (or could be done with

less effort), if things were organized differently?

Unreasonable Tasks

Do you have to carry out tasks of which you believe …

... they should be done by someone else?

... they put you into an awkward position?

9 Items, α = .79 - .90 in several studies

Bern Illegitimate Task Scale (BITS)

„Illegitimate Tasks “

Sample Itemsnever (1) to frequently (5)


7%

31%

62%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Illegitimate tasksand

Ressentments towards the organization

Illegitimate tasks*

Illegitimate tasks:

Task appraised as

• unreasonable

• unnecessary

146 Senior Manager Swiss Company r = .48***

Percentage of managers with relatively high ressentiments(upper third)

Low Intermediate HigH

Ressentiments:

IndignationAnger

UnfairnessDisappointment

Hurtetc.



... Stressful situation should have a stronger impactwhen they are perceived as illegitimate

i.e. one blames others for having been exposed to this situation


Illegitimate stressors andfeelings of resentment

2.6

4.1

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Low illegitimacy High illegitimacy

N = 384 Stress-situations (daily hassles)

Low/high illegitimacy: +/- 1 SD

Resentmentsfelt in thesituation

Multilevel-analysis. Controlled for„stressfulness“ of the situation, age, sex, and a number of work-relatedstressors and resources

Jacobshagen, N., Semmer, N.K. & Elfering, A. (2006). Legitimacy of stressors and well-being at work: A situationalanalysis. Paper given at the 45. Congress of the German Psychological Society, Nuremberg, Sept. 17.-21.09.2006



... Social support that is not given in a way thatsignals appreciation, understanding, and care

� should be stressful rather than helpful


„Dysfunctional Social Support“

• ... combine this with reproaches

• ... support you reluctantly

• ... expect infinite thankfulness

• ... do not support in a way that is matter-of-factly

• ... do so with a reproachful tone or gaze

• ... indicate that you should have dealt with the problemyourself

How many people are in your work environment who do help you in a difficult situation, but...

Response from (1) very few to (7) very manyScale values: AM = 1.78; SD = .94; α = .93

Items

Predicts various stress-symptoms


Undermining of social support

by dysfunctional supportDependent Variable: „Irritation“

Social support

I rri

tati

on

BetaInt = 0.98*

3.34

2.94

High dysfunctionalsupport

2.14

2.89

Lowdysfunctionalsupport

-1 SD +1 SD

Task-related and social stressors are controlled for



... Experiencing appreciation should increase job satisfaction


Appreciation and Job Satisfaction:Cumulative Effects

4 measurements between 1997 and 2002

3.71

4.04

4.17

4.53

4.64

3.5

4.0

4.5

0 of 4 1 of 4 2 of 4 3 of 4 4 of 4

No. of measurements with high appreciation (Median split)

1.0

Job Job SatisfactionSatisfaction

last last yearyear

((MeanMean))

Controlling for

Job satisfaction t1,

Region, sex, occupation

cf. Semmer, N.K., Tschan, F., Elfering, A.,

Kälin, W., & Grebner, S. (2005). Young

adults entering the workforce in Switzerland:

Working Conditions and Well-Being. In H.

Kriesi, P. Farago, M. Kohli, & M. Zarin-

Nejadan (Eds.), Contemporary Switzerland:

Revisiting the special case (pp. 163-189).

Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Stress As Disrespect (SAD)

7.0

423 young people enteringthe work force


Conclusion

Respect and Recognition

are important

� for the employee

� for the organisation


Consequences

Communicate appreciation and respect

� through job design

� through organizational policy

� in daily interactions


Appreciation and job design

� Interesting and challenging tasks

�Decision authority

�Good ergonomic design, good tools and machinery


Appreciation and organizational policy

� Fairness: • Decisions, • Procedures, • Treatment

� Information

� Involvement of employees in decisions thataffect them• «Voice» as element of interactional justice

� Climate• Support and trust

• Open communication


Problems and Dilemmata


Appreciation: Problems and dilemmata

It is not always useful to avoid a threat to soneone‘s self-esteem

� Protecting self-esteem sometimes has to be balanced againstother values

• e.g., Self-esteem protection vs. Learning and development

• using unambiguously negative feedback / exerting pressure in order to stimulate learning

• e.g. stopping people who cultivate their own self-esteem at thecosts of others

� In such cases, a (temporary) threat to someone‘s self-esteemmay be necessary

• Fine line

• Has to be done as a result of careful deliberation

• Not in order to protect one‘s own Ego

• Not out of momentary emotional reactions


� Some people are extremely touchy

� Some people clearly overestimate their owncompetences

� Some measures are a threat to Self for (almost) everybody(e.g. being laid off)


It is not always possible to avoid a threatto someone‘s self-esteem

� Fine line

� Danger I: Avoiding necessary action (such as negative feedback) in order not to hurt somebodyor to provoke conflict

� Danger II: Attribute defensive Reactionsprematurely to the person (too touchy, toograndiose self-image)



It is not always possible nor useful to avoid a threat to someone‘s self-esteem

� Protecting people‘s self esteem is notsimply being nice and avoiding any conflictor confrontation

� Being tough is likely to be accepted if itgoes along with fairness and a basicattitude of respect


Appreciating people pays off

� for the employees

� for the organization

Overall Conclusion

Informing managers and leaders about theimportance of appreciation

and

Training them in ways of communicating it

is an important aspect

of preventing stress and burnout


Stress is to a considerable degree

a matterof Human Dignity

After all..

Thank you!

Norbert K. Semmer Universität Bern · 2/15/2007 · Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer Stressors, social support by the supervisor, and psychosomatic complaints

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