NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND POVERTY …

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NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND POVERTY

REDUCTION: A CASE STUDY OF DUHAMIC-ADRI IN MUSAMBIRA

SECTOR OF KAMONYI DISTRICT, RWANDA

MUSHIMIYIMANA BEATHA

MDS/0045/13

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of the Degree of

Master of Development Studies of Mount Kenya University

JULY 2017

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DECLARATION

This research thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in anyother

University or for any other award.

Student Name: BeathaMushimiyimana

Sign Date

I confirm that the work reported in this research thesis was carried out by the candidate under

my supervision.

Name: Mr.AnyamaCharles

Sign

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DEDICATION

To my father MunyakayanzaInnocent,your love, care and support can not be measured and

imagined.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, my gratitude is addressed to myAlmighty God and my parents for their

moral and financial support, during the studies and research; their constant prayers so that

this study would be fruitful are sincerely recognized.

I am especially grateful to my supervisor, Mr. Anyama Charles for his moral and technical

support that were and are still of paramount importance to my research undertaking.

I would like to thank my husband Mutagoma Bernard for his love, comfort and

encouragements.

On a similar note, thanks go to Mount Kenya University (MKU) for its technical training

during my studies, Masters of Business Management department of Development Studies.

It would be too ungrateful of me to finish my acknowledgement without expressing my

gratitude to my fellow students with whom I shared my whole student life, for their

cooperation and moral support.

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ABSTRACT

The study focused onNon Governmental Organizations and Poverty Reductiona case study

of DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District, Rwanda. The general

objective of this study was to assess the activities of DUHAMIC-ADRI in poverty reduction

for its members. The specific objectives were: to determine the educational status for

household members before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of

Kamonyi District, to investigate the status of household‟s basic needs in terms of food and

shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi

district,tocompare the category of poverty of DUHAMIC-ADRI members stated by Ubudehe

program before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as well as to establish the constraints

faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries in poverty reduction.It is hoped that the availability

and reliability of information from the case study will enable policy-makers, decision-

makers, the government, donor organizations and other stakeholders to understand the

importance of Non GovernmentalOrganisations in reducing poverty.The methods used were a

combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches. The sample of this study wasselected

by using the sample random sampling and it was 72 households from DUHAMIC-ADRI

household members in Musambira sector by using Mugenda‟s formula and 4 employees of

DUHAMIC-ADRI. The data were collected through questionnaires and interviews, in order

to come up with valid and reliable data the researcher used pre-test questionnaires and

practiced approachability and openness to draw attention to respondents to give their view

without reservation. Quantitative data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics and it was

done in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS18) and Qualitative data were analyzed

by using content analysis. The presentation of data/result has been presented in number to

help us to compare the percentage and quickly read the results. Research found that

DUHAMIC-ADRI constitute a driving force to the job creation and welfare of beneficiaries

and their families since it helped them to increase income and to improve their economic and

social life. From the research of this work, the researcher has drown conclusions and made

some recommendations, the research conclude that there is a positive relationship between

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district and poverty reduction

since joining DUHAMIC-ADRI contributed to the improvement of educational level, access

to basic needs and change a poverty category. The researcherrecommend that the government

of Rwanda should intervene in poverty reduction in the cooperation of DUHAMIC-ADRI

and other civil society, DUHAMIC-ADRI should cooperate at local and international level to

exchange experience for the interests of the membersand the members should have initiative

to be autonomous.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i

DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ iv

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................ xii

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ...................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.0. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 4

1.3. Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................... 5

1.3.1. General Objective of the Study ................................................................................ 5

1.3.2. Specific Objectives ................................................................................................... 5

1.4. Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 6

1.5. Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 6

1.6. Limitation to the Study ....................................................................................................... 7

1.7. Scope of the Study .............................................................................................................. 7

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1.7.1. Content Scope ........................................................................................................... 7

1.7.2. Geographical Scope .................................................................................................. 7

1.7.3. Time Scope ............................................................................................................... 8

1.8. Organization of the study .................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................. 9

2.0. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9

2.1. Theoretical literature ........................................................................................................... 9

2.1.1. The concept of Poverty ............................................................................................. 9

2.1.2. Causes of poverty ..................................................................................................... 9

2.1.3. Origin and Evolution of NGOs ............................................................................... 13

2.1. 4.The main fields of action of NGOs ........................................................................ 16

2.1.5. Role of NGOs ......................................................................................................... 17

2.1.6. Role of NGOs in Poverty Reduction ...................................................................... 17

2.1.7. NGOs relationship with Governments ................................................................... 19

2.1.8. Logic of NGO Participation in the PRSPs .............................................................. 20

2.1.9. Role of Education in Poverty Reduction ....................................................................... 22

2.1.10. The poverty reduction in Rwanda ................................................................................ 25

2.1.11. Cross Cutting Issues of Poverty Reduction in Rwanda ............................................... 25

2.2. Empirical review ............................................................................................................... 27

2.2.1. Critics of researchers from a negative point of view .............................................. 27

2.2.2. Critics of researchers from a positive point of view ............................................... 29

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2.3. Critical Review and Research Gap identification ............................................................. 31

2.4. Theoretical framework ...................................................................................................... 33

2.5. ConceptualFramework…..……………………………………………………….……..35

2.6. Summary ........................................................................................................................... 36

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 37

3.0. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 37

3.1. Research Design................................................................................................................ 37

3.2. Target Population of the Study ......................................................................................... 37

3.3. Sample Design .................................................................................................................. 38

3.3.1. Sample Size ............................................................................................................ 38

3.4. Data Collection Method .................................................................................................... 39

3.4.1. Data Collection Instruments…………………………………………………………...39

3.4.2. Administration of Data collection Instruments ...................................................... 39

3.5. Data Analysis Procedure ................................................................................................... 40

3.6. Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................... 42

4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 42

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ................................................................... 43

4.2 Presentation of Findings .................................................................................................... 45

4.2.1 Educational level of Respondents before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ...... 45

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4.2.2 Basic needs in terms of food and shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

.......................................................................................................................................... 49

4.2.3 Poverty category of respondents before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ........ 54

4.2.4. Constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries ........................................... 60

5.0. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 62

5.1. Summary ........................................................................................................................... 62

5.1.1. Findings Related to the First Objectives ................................................................. 62

5.1.2. Findings Related to the Second Objective .............................................................. 63

5.1.3 Findings Related to the Third Objective .................................................................. 64

5.2. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 65

5.3. Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 66

3.3.1. Recommendations to NGO (DUHAMIC-ADRI) ................................................... 66

3.3.2. Recommendations to the Government of Rwanda ................................................. 66

5.4 Suggestions for Further Studies ....................................................................................... 66

APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 71

APPENDIX 1: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 71

APPENDIX 2: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BENEFICIARIES ........................... 72

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR STAFF .............................................................. 80

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LIST OF TABLES

Table3.1: Target population..……………………….………………………………..….......37

Table 3.2: Sample size ............................................................................................................. 38

Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents……………………………………………………………………43

Table 4. 2: Age group of respondents……………………………………………………….………..43

Table 4.3: Marital Status of Respondents……………………………………………………………..44

Table 4.4: Contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in education .................................................... 48

Table 4.5: Activities realized by the members of DUHAMIC-ADRI ..................................... 49

Table 4.6: Number of houses before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................................ 52

Table 4.7: Number of houses after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................................... 52

Table 4.8: Quality of houses before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................................. 53

Table 4.9: Quality of houses after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ................................................ 53

Table 4.10: Poverty category before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................................ 54

Table 4.11: Poverty category after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................................... 55

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1: Conceptual framework of role of NGOs in poverty reduction ............................. 30

Figure 4.2: Educational status of respondents after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ..................... 47

Figure 4.3: Number of meal per day before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ................................. 50

Figure 4.4: Number of meal per day after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI .................................... 51

Figure 4.5: Monthly income before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI.............................................. 56

Figure 4.6: Monthly income after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI ................................................ 57

Figure 4.7: benefit obtained from being a member of DUHAMIC-ADRI ............................. 58

Figure 4.8: Activities members are able to realize themselves after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

................................................................................................................................................. 59

Figure 4.9: constraints faced by beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI ...................................... 60

Figure 10: Proposed solutions to problems faced by beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI ...... 61

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADRI : Action pour le Développement Rural Intégré

DUHAMIC :DuharanireAmajyamberey‟Icyaro

DRC : Democratic Republic of Congo

EDPRS : Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy

GoR :Government of Rwanda

HEST : Higher Education, Science and Technology

ICT :Information, Science and Technology

MPI : Multidimensional Poverty Index

NGOs : Non-Governmental Organizations

NSIR : National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda

PRS : Poverty Reduction Strategies

PRSPs : Poverty Reduction Strategy Program

SAPs : StructuralAdjustment Programmes

SHG : Self Help Group

SMEs :Small Medium Enterprises

SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UNDP : United Nations Development Programme

UNHCR : United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UN : United Nations

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OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Advocacy: Advocacy is a process of supporting and enabling people to express their views

and concerns, access information and services, defend and promote their rights and

responsibilities and explore choices and options.

Non-Governmental Organisation:Means a private voluntary grouping of individuals or

association not operated for profit or other commercial purposes but which have organized

themselves nationally or internationally for the purpose of social welfare, development,

charty or research through mobilization of resources.

Poverty: Poverty means the failure of individual to access sufficient resource to enable that

person enjoy a minimal standard of living.

Poverty reduction: is a term that describes the promotion of economic growth that will

permanently lift as many people as possible over a poverty line

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0. Introduction

The chapter at highlights the following parts: background of the study, statement of the problem,

objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, limitation of the study,

scope of the study and organization of the study.

1.1. Background of the Study

Despite the existence of Poverty Reduction strategy Program (PRSPs), Millennium Development

Goals and the New Partnership for Africa‟s Development, about 896 million people lived on less

than $1.90 a dayin 2012 worldwide, 358 million in 1996 to 415 million in 2011 in Africa still

live bellow poverty line(UNDP 2013:15). The United Nations Food and Agriculture

Organization estimates that about 795 million people of the 7.3 billion people in the world, or

one in nine, were suffering from chronic undernourishment in 2014-2015. Almost all the hungry

people, 780 million, live in developing countries, representing 12.9 percent, or one in eight, of

the population of developing countries. There are 11 million people undernourished in developed

countries. In Sub Saharan Africa where there are more poor people, about 349.9 millions in 2015

live below poverty line is 39.3 of all the population UN (2015).

The most recent survey data available for estimating MPI figures for Senegal were collected in

2010/2011. In Senegal 74.4 percent of the population lived in multidimensional poverty while an

additional 11.7 percent were vulnerable to multiple deprivations. The intensity of deprivation

that is, the average percentage of deprivation experienced by people living in multidimensional

poverty in Senegal was 58.9 percent UNDP (2011).

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The most recent survey data available for estimating MPI figures for Burundi were collected in

2008. In Burundi 84.5 percent of the population lived in multidimensional poverty while an

additional 12.2 percent were vulnerable to multiple deprivations. The intensity of deprivation

that is, the average percentage of deprivation experienced by people living in multidimensional

poverty in Burundi was 62.7 percent UNDP (2008).

The most recent survey data available for estimating MPI figures for Congo (Democratic

Republic of the Congo) were collected in 2010. In Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo )

74 percent of the population lived in multidimensional poverty while an additional 15.1 percent

were vulnerable to multiple deprivations. The intensity of deprivation that is, the average

percentage of deprivation experienced by people living in multidimensional poverty in Congo

(Democratic Republic of the Congo) was 53 percent UNDP (2010).

In Rwanda in 1985 about 40% of the total population was poor, with their average per capita

income below the poverty line. During the early 1990s, diminishing agricultural productivity and

the decline in the international coffee price caused a significant reduction of per capita incomes.

By 1993, 53% of the population had income per capita below the poverty line. The genocide,

which caused destruction of assets, contributed to a dramatic increase in poverty, the proportion

of households below the poverty line rose from 53% to 70% between 1993 and 19972 (World

Bank 2001). Since then, the country has been recovering. The latest estimate of the proportion

below the poverty line is 65% (1999). Recent surveys indicated that the percentage of people

living under poverty has dropped by 5.8% from 44.9% in 2011 to 39.1% in 2014 (UNDP 2015).

Poverty in Rwanda is caused by lack of employment, high rate of illiteracy among the citizen,

poor infrastructure, inadequate access to micro credit facilities, mismanagement of public funds,

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bad governance, instability of the governments and its policies. (Ministry of Commerce and

Industry ( MINICOM,2006)

There is acute vulnerability among classes of poor people like children and women and

considerable inequality between rich and poor, across and within countries (UN 2005:1).

Uncertainty abounds as to the causes and processes of the current poverty situation amidst

doubled foreign aid (Riddell 2007), global strategies and consorted efforts between governments,

donors and NGOs to deal with poverty. Some scholars use economic determinants such as

limited access to income, market and employment (Ravallion 2003, Agenor 2007), while others

use structural factors such as ethnicity, gender (Kiado 2001) and capability deprivation (Sen

2000) to explain the poverty situation. However as much as insight into such economic and

social explanations provide, poverty can not satisfactory be understood without analyzing the

roles and interests of actors in poverty reduction programmes. This is because poverty reduction

is a socio-political issue whose reduction is negotiated among actors (Piron and Norton 2004).

The role of those actors influence the choice of programmes that affect the lives of the poor.

Thus analyzing these roles is critical in understanding poverty situations. One of the key groups

of actors in poverty reduction is non-governmental organizations (NGOs). They have over time,

purportedly created alternative models of social changes and increased inclusion of the poor and

empowered communities (Fowler 2005).

Although NGOS occupy a central role in the poverty reduction processes of different countries,

the poor can gain power if they experience political justice rather than mere politics of

representation (Hickey and Branking 2005:851). That is, if the poor have the opportunity to drive

their own poverty reduction agenda. This shift in power implies working on the current

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exclusionary socioeconomic, political order towards the desired social change (Hickey and

Branking 2005:851, Mitlin2007:1701). While it is true that a new social order where the poor are

in control is desirable, in reality such transformation involves several actors. Poverty reduction is

a subject to negotiation and is a result on going relations within the broader framework of the

roles of government, international donors, NGOs and the poor, Mitlin (2007). DUHAMIC-ADRI

as NGO in the processof poverty reduction in Rwanda come to help the Rwandan government to

support grassroots initiatives in rural areas. Supporting integrated development through the

initiatives of the rural population in their struggle for self-development.DUHAMIC-ADRI help

the farmers to organize themselves and fight against the constraints related to marginalization of

rural area, supports the community in good nutritional practices, supports income-generating

activities, based on identifying needs, organize trainings, seminars, meetings, exchanges and

study visits to strengthen the capacity for reflection and action for rural population. Therefore,

farther analysis of the activities of DUHAMIC-ADRI as NGO in poverty reduction in Rwanda

would help capture mechanisms of inclusion of the poor in the programmes intended for them.

1.2.Statement of the Problem

Several studies on poverty and poverty reduction point to contradictory roles of NGOs in the

mainstream development agenda (Mitlin 2007). While some show that NGOs participation added

some value to the poverty reduction agenda (Larok 2005). Others criticize NGOs for maintaining

the poor‟s status quo or worsening their situation (Bebbington 2007; Molenears and Renard

2006). Those authors highlight varied challenges of NGOs participation especially the ad hoc

and consensual nature of participation. Others accuse NGOs of trading on the fate of the people

(Amutabi 2006). The government of Rwanda had designed several programmes aimed at

reducing poverty and improving the living conditions of its people which include Ubudehe

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program, Vision 2020 Umurenge program and Girinkaprogram . Unfortunately, the quality of

life of majority of Rwandans had remained low, despite the huge budgetary allocations by the

government to these poverty reduction programmes, 39.1% of Rwandans live below poverty line

in 2015, NISR (2015), There is a need to identify other means of addressing the serious problem

caused by poverty to the Rwandan society, attention should therefore be shifted to the use of

non-governmental organizations. Overall the literature is grim about the contribution of NGOs in

poverty reduction that may benefit the poor. The present study therefore seeks to find out the

Non-governmental Organisation activities and poverty reduction in Rwanda: A case study of

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study was to assess the activities of DUHAMIC-ADRI inpoverty

reduction for its members.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

(i) To determine the educational status for household members before and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District.

(ii) To investigate the status of household‟s basic needs in terms of food and shelter

before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District.

(iii) To compare the category of poverty of DUHAMIC-ADRI members stated by

Ubudehe program before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as well as establish the

constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries in poverty reduction.

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1.4. Research Questions

(i) How was the education status of household members before and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District?

(ii) How was the household status on basic needs in terms of food and shelter before and

after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of kamonyi District?

(iii) How were the poverty categories of household members before and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of KamonyiDistrct as well as the constraints

faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries in poverty reduction?

1.5. Significance of the Study

To the researcher, this research will be beneficial in acquiring knowledge related to the

community development, to the philosophy of NGOs in developing countries. It will also help

the researcher to get the Masters degree of Arts in Development Studies.

It will benefit various scholars, Rwandans especially, the East Africa Community and Africa in

general to gain more knowledge on the NGOs participation in poverty reduction process. The

collected and analyzed information will later be used and added to the existing literature which

will help other researchers and other writers who are interested in the same field.

NGOs and Donors will profit by understanding well the case of Rwanda and avoid the tendency

to lump all African countries together in the same category when discussing development in

Africa, so that they would know where to put their effort to permit full poverty reduction in

Rwanda.

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1.6. Limitation to the Study

This study has met the limitation in some case concerning the negative attitude of some

respondent, the busy schedule of some respondents and the low level of understanding the

questions due to their level of education. Site visits, for more clarification on various questions

that were notclear in the first visit to remove the possibilities of any ambiguities was necessary in

order to increase the validity of the data. The research questionnaire was also translated in

Kinyarwanda in order to help illiterate respondents.

1.7. Scope of the Study

Considering how the topic is complex and wide, considering also the means of its full

exploitation and space it was then necessary to delimit this work.

1.7.1. Content Scope

This studyfocuses on non-governmental activities poverty reduction in Rwanda a case study of

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District locate in Southern Province. It was

based on the DUHAMIC-ADRI members in Musambira sector within which DUHAMIC-ADRI

operate. For that reason, all the analyses and comments were considered contribution of

DUHAMIC-ADRI in poverty reduction in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District.

1.7.2. Geographical Scope

Research focused on the contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in poverty reduction for its members

in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district located in Southern Province. The research did not treat

this topic at the national level or at whole District because it was not easy.

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1.7.3. Time Scope

The researcherlimited this work between 2013-2015 periods. This period corresponds to the time

that this NGO was started to work in that district and it is obviously that the main changes within

DUHAMIC-ADRI members took place. Then, this study was conducted from January 2016 to

July 2016.

1.8. Organization of the study

This study is organized into five chapters.Chapter one provides background of the study,

statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study,

limitation of the study and scope of the study. Chapter two is about the theoretical literature,

empirical review, critical review and research gap identification, theoretical framework and

conceptual framework. Chapter three provides the methodology used to select sample, to collect

and analyze data. Chapter four presents the findings related to each objective and discussions. Chapter

five provides a summary to findings, answers of the questions, conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0. Introduction

In the chapter the researcher provided an overview of the chapter content, theoretical literature,

empirical literature, critical review and research gap identification, theoretical framework,

conceptual framework and summary.

2.1. Theoretical literature

2.1.1. The concept of Poverty

Poverty in its most general sense is the lack of necessities. Basic food, shelter, medical care, and

safety are generally thought necessary based on shared values of human dignity. However, what

is a necessity to one person is not uniformly a necessity to others. Needs may be relative to what

is possible and are based on social definition and past experience, Sen(1999). Valentine (1968)

says that “the essence of poverty is inequality. In slightly different words, the basic meaning of

poverty is relative deprivation.” A social relative definition of poverty allows community

flexibility in addressing pressing local concerns, while objective definitions allow tracking

progress and comparing one area to another.

2.1.2. Causes of poverty

Poverty Caused by Individual Deficiencies

This first cause of poverty is a large and multifaceted set of explanations that focus on the

individual as responsible for their poverty situation. Typically, politically conservative

theoreticians blame individuals in poverty for creating their own problems, and argue that with

harder work and better choices the poor could have avoided and now can remedy their problems.

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Other variations of the individual theory of poverty ascribe poverty to lack of genetic qualities

such as intelligence that are not so easily reversed, Weber (2001).The belief that poverty stems

from individual deficiencies is old. Religious doctrine that equated wealth with the favor of God

was central to the Protestant reformation, Weber (2001) and blind, crippled, or deformed people

were believed to be punished by God for either their or their parents‟ sins. With the emergence of

the concept of inherited intelligence in the 19th

century, the eugenics movement went so far as to

rationalize poverty and even sterilization for those who appeared to have limited abilities.

Books like Hurrnstein and Murray‟s The Bell Curve(1994) are modern uses of this explanation.

Rainwater (1970:16) critically discusses individualistic theories of poverty as a “moralizing

perspective” and notes that the poor are “afflicted with the mark of Cain. They are meant to

suffer, indeed must suffer, because of their moral failings. They live in a deserved hell on earth.”

Poverty Caused by Cultural Belief Systems that Support Sub-Cultures of Poverty

The second cause of poverty roots its cause in the “Culture of Poverty”. This cause is sometimes

linked with the individual cause of poverty, but it recently has become so widely discussed that

its special features should not be minimized. This cause suggests that poverty is created by the

transmission over generations of a set of beliefs, values, and skills that are socially generated but

individually held. Individuals are not necessarily to blame because they are victims of their

dysfunctional subculture or culture,Jencks (1996:72).

American Sociology has long been fascinated by subcultures of immigrants and ghetto residents

as well as the wealthy and powerful. Culture is socially generated and perpetuated, reflecting the

interaction of individual and community. This makes the “culture of poverty” cause different

from the “individual” theories that link poverty explicitly to individual abilities and motivation.

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Technically, the culture of poverty is a subculture of poor people in ghettos, poor regions, or

social contexts where they develop a shared set of beliefs, values and norms for behavior that are

separate from but embedded in the culture of the main society.( Scientific American, October

1966 quoted in Ryan, 1976: 120).

Poverty Caused by Economic, Political, and Social Distortions or Discrimination

Theorists in this tradition look not to the individual as a source of poverty, but to the economic,

political, and social system which causes people to have limited opportunities and resources with

which to achieve income and well being. Research and theories in this tradition attempt to

redress the problem noted by Rank, Yoon and Hirschl (2003): “Poverty researchers have in

effect focused on who loses out at the economic game, rather than addressing the fact that the

game produces losers in the first place.”

Much of the literature on poverty now suggests that the economic system is structured in such as

way that poor people fall behind regardless of how competent they may be. Partly the problem is

the fact that minimum wages do not allow single mothers or their families to be economically

self sufficient, Jencks (1996:72).

The problem of the working poor is increasingly seen as a wage problem linked to structural

barriers preventing poor families from getting better jobs, complicated by limited numbers of

jobs near workers and lack of growth in sectors supporting lower skilled jobs, Tobin (1994).

Interestingly research is showing that the availability of jobs to low income people is about the

same as it has been, but wages workers can expect from these jobs have fallen. Fringe benefits

including health care and promotions have also become scarce for low skilled workers.

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Poverty Caused by Geographical Disparities

Rural poverty, ghetto poverty, urban disinvestment, Southern poverty, third-world poverty, and

other framings of the problem represent a spatial characterization of poverty that exists separate

from other theories. While these geographically based causes of poverty build on the other

causes, this cause calls attention to the fact that people, institutions, and cultures in certain areas

lack the objective resources needed to generate well being and income, and that they lack the

power to claim redistribution, Jensen (2004) .

As Shaw (1996:29) points out, “Space is not a backdrop for capitalism, but rather is restructured

by it and contributes to the system‟s survival. The geography of poverty is a spatial expression of

the capitalist system.”That poverty is most intense in certain areas is an old observation, and

explanations abound in the development literature about why regions lack the economic base to

compete. Recent explanations include disinvestment, proximity to natural resources, density,

diffusion of innovation, and other factors (see Morrill and Wohlenberg, 1971:57-64).

In a thorough review of the literature on rural poverty, Weber and Jensen (2004) note that most

literature finds a “rural differential” in poverty, but that the spatial effect is not as clearly isolated

from individual effects as needed for confidence. Goldsmith and Blakely offer a comprehensive

perspective on the link between development and poverty in urban contexts. In their book,

Separate Societiesthey argue that the joint processes of movement of households and jobs away

from poor areas in central cities and rural regions creates a “separation of work, residence,

andeconomic, social and political life” (1992: 125). These processes which we already discussed

are multiplied by racism and political indifference of the localities in which they flourish.

13

Poverty Caused by Cumulative and Cyclical Interdependencies

The previous four causes have demonstrated the complexity of the sources of poverty and the

variety of strategies to address it. The final cause of poverty is by far the most complex and to

some degree builds on components of each of the other causes in that it looks at the individual

and their community as caught in a spiral of opportunity and problems, and that once problems

dominate they close other opportunities and create a cumulative set of problems that make any

effective response nearly impossible, Bradshaw (2000).

The cyclical explanation explicitly looks at individual situations and community resources as

mutually dependent, with a faltering economy, for example, creating individuals who lack

resources to participate in the economy, which makes economic survival even harder for the

community since people pay fewer taxes.

This cause has its origins in economics in the work of Myrdal (1957:23) who developed a theory

of “interlocking, circular, interdependence within a process of cumulative causation” that helps

explain economic underdevelopment and development. Myrdal notes that personal and

community well being are closely linked in a cascade of negative consequences, and that closure

of a factory or other crisis can lead to a cascade of personal and community problems including

migration of people from a community. Thus the interdependence of factors creating poverty

actually accelerates once a cycle of decline is started.

2.1.3. Origin and Evolution of NGOs

The democratic ideal of the 19th

century recognized the rights of individuals to general economic

welfare and participation in political processes including the extension of rights to the people in

the colonies, UNHCR(1988:10). Groups of citizens organized themselves representing various

14

interests. Among these the first development NGOs were advocating legislative actions buy the

government to achieve abolition of slavery UNHCR(1988:10). NGO development action is also

rooted in the Christian tradition of providing charitable support to the neighbours in need

UNHCS (1998:11).

In the United State and Canada, activities were influenced by the pioneer (Frontier) situation

they found themselves in. In areas where government and legal structures were still fragile, local

groups and citizens formed associations to deal with the immediate needs of their societies. This

tradition of pluralistic self-determination was an important basis for future international

solidarity actions, UNHCR(1988:47).

Most NGOs in Europe were started by religious organizations such as CARE (Roman Catholic)

LWF (Lutheran) and NOVIB (Church Leaders), in Germany the Christian Democratic parties

influenced government to fund NGOs to carry out development in developing countries, UNHCS

(1988). By 1970, Western governments had started recognizing the effectiveness of NGOs

especially the locally based NGOs. Recently at the international level, there has been a marked

increase in the number of NGOs involved in Africa‟s development.

Since the 1980s, NGOs shifted from being theorized as complementary agents to a rediscovery

of the Tocquevillen civil society theory. Civil society emerged in Europe as an arena for

challenging state power and for reflecting critically on the way economic and political life is

organized, Howell and Pearce (2001:118). Civil society, was a way of challenging government

seen as neither representative of the poor nor implementers of policies that were good for growth

And poverty reduction. In addition government increasingly became bureaucratic, inefficient

oppressive through rent seeking.

15

Therefore, the dominant view of civil society is, as a force of „excellence, symbolizing freedom,

anti-statism and defence of democracy‟, Howell and Pearce (2001:4). In this context, many see

NGOs as substitutes of the government, assumed to take over many of the government roles,

dispite the fact that they are interested in influencing government, limiting government power

and holding them accountable. There is a perspective of NGOs as, „as vehicle for empowerment,

democratization and development‟,Dicklitch(1998:ix). Because of the consensus that they are

less corrupt, there was an overall expectation that they would deliver services more effectively.

The instance on NGOs taking over the government roles coincided with the socioeconomic crisis

including structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), recurrent droughts, for instance on the

African continent and civil war in the country like Uganda, Angola and Sudan, Salih(2002:5).

These event did not only lead to the growth of local NGOs, but also increased the influence of

northern NGOs, but also increased the influence of northern NGOs in developing countries. For

instance in Africa, the political elites including government officials created NGOs for

employment and extra income.

NGO activities in recent years have increased enormously and various reasons are given in

relation to the growth of NGOs. One has been partly the increase in the official funding but also

due to the changing and increasing perception of the public at large who have significantly

increased their contribution to the NGO movement, UNHCS (1988).

A distinction is also commonly made between NGO, which originated in and have their home

base in industrial countries, which are referred to as northern or international NGOs and those,

which originated in, and operate within developing countries, which are referred to as sourthern

NGOs or local NGOs, UNHCS (1988:56).

16

2.1.4.The main fields of action of NGOs

NGOs act in many different ways to fight poverty, from emergency programmes for persons in

distress to long-term support actions to enable persons to rebuild their lives if necessary and find

their place in society as actors and thus recover their fundamental right to a dignified life, Mohan

(2002). NGOs also seek to inform the public, to mobilise society, to make proposals and to

eradicate poverty. They often work in partnership with persons living in poverty and social

exclusion, and with public institutions and local structures to facilitate access by the poor to

different social services.

Groups that suffer most from poverty

Several population groups are particularly affected by poverty. Referring to actions most often

cited by NGO representatives at the Council of Europe, we have identified the following groups:

children and youth, families, migrants and women.

Murray (2002) beyond the concepts of groups, however useful, it is essential to be aware of those

most deprived of rights within each group. By focusing only on groups, we run the risk of

forgetting the necessity of a global approach. For example, insight into poverty among children

requires understanding of their parents‟ poverty; combating long-term unemployment also

requires attention to health and housing issues. An approach based too much on groups carries

the risk of leaving out the most deprived, as the most dynamic persons free themselves from

exclusion and the most excluded remain even more destitute and excluded.

17

2.1.5. Role of NGOs

NGOs have, since the end of the Second World War, become increasingly more important to

global development. They often hold an interesting role in a nation‟s political, economic or

social activities, as well as assessing and addressing problems in both national and international

issues, such as human, political and women‟s rights, economic development, democratisation,

inoculation and immunisation, health care, or the environment, Najam (2006).

Rose (2011) NGOs communicate to the policy-making levels of government, information about

the lives, capabilities, attitudes and cultural characteristics of people at the local level. NGOs

facilitate communication upward from people to the government and downward from the

government to the people. Communication upward involves informing government about what

local people are thinking, doing and feeling while communication downward involves informing

local people about what the government is planning and doing.

Mitlin (2007)In some cases, NGOs become spokespersons or ombudsmen for the poor and

attempt to influence government policies and programmes on their behalf. This may be done

through a variety of means ranging from demonstration and pilot projects to participation in

public forums and the formulation of government policy and plans, to publicizing research

results and case studies of the poor.

2.1.6. Role of NGOs in Poverty Reduction

Service providers or advocates for the poor

Two distinct roles for NGOs are highlighted, both as service providers and advocates for the

poor.In their role as service providers, NGOs offer a broad spectrum of services across multiple

fields, ranging from livelihood interventions and health and education service to more specific

18

areas, such as emergency response, democracy building, conflict resolution, human rights,

finance, environmental management, and policy analysis (Lewis and Kanji 2009). Interests in the

contribution of NGOs to service delivery did not rise only because of the enforced rollback of

state services, but also because of their perceived comparative advantages in service provision,

including their ability to innovate and experiment, their flexibility to adopt new programmes

quickly, and most importantly, their linkages with the grassroots that offer participation in

programme design and implementation, thereby fostering self-reliance and sustainability (Korten

1987; Vivian 1994; Bebbington et al 2008; Lewis and Kanji 2009). These strengths, it was

widely believed, would foster “more empowering, more human, and more sustainable” forms of

development (Foster, in Bebbington 2004).

These grassroots linkages are, after all, the reason NNGOs work through local partners,

recognising that objectives and priorities of international organisations may not reflect those at

the grassroots, and closer proximity at this level is necessary for more effective participatory

designs. In the wake of failed top-down development discourse, NGOs were seen to offer the

sole organizational forms that could implement the global commitment to „bottom-up‟

development (Kamat 2004; Hearn 2007).

The role and contributions of NGOs in advocacy and empowerment is difficult to define, but we

can look at their efforts along a broad spectrum. At one end are those NGOs actively intervening

in democracy-building and transforming state–societal relations. NGOs are vastly constrained in

this sphere, seeking instead to convince governments that they are non-political. Instead, at the

other end of the spectrum, most NGOs seek „empowerment‟ as an indirect outcome of their

wider service delivery activities. People-centred and participatory approaches to service delivery

19

are suggested in this approach to lead to local-level capacity building in the long run, fostering a

stronger democratic culture in which changes are hypothesised to feed into local and national

institutions and processes. Others argue that NGOs pursue advocacy by stealth, by working in

partnership with the government through which they can demonstrate strategies and methods for

more effective service provision (Batley 2011; Rose 2011).

2.1.7. NGOs relationship with Governments

NGOs are often polarised with local and national governments, but such a dichotomy overlooks

the nature of relationships between the two, which can range from overt and hidden tensions and

active hostility to cooperation and collaboration, depending on multiple influences such as

successive government regimes and their dispositions and changing NGO strategies and

interventions( Rosenberg 2008 and Rose (2011).While there is scope for positive relationships

between government and NGOs for those working towards mutual goals in service and welfare

provision, those working openly in advocacy and human rights tend to be viewed with suspicion

or open hostility, especially when explicitly challenging the state.

In Pakistan, for example, Nair (2011) highlights the potential for collaboration when NGOs

remain in predefined roles of service provision, but the generation of conflict when NGOs step

outside these to question government policies. While collaboration and strong linkages with

national governments assistsprogramme sustainability ( Barr 2005 and Rosenberg 2008), where

interests of the state and NGOs increasingly coincide, this runs the risk of pushing out the

interests of those they are both responsible to the poor, White (1999).

Prevailing institutional arrangements underpin the emergence and proliferation of NGOs in

developing countries, ensuring that every country‟s NGO sector is different and

20

distinctive,Lewis (1998). Diverse and complex, relations between governments and NGOs vary

considerably from country to country and region to region.In South Asia, Nair (2011) traces the

evolutionary history of relationships between the state and NGOs in Bangladesh, India and

Pakistan, finding that a mixture of sociopolitical environments, NGO activities, donor presence

and agendas, and global policies and pressures have influenced government and NGO

relationships to varying degrees across the three countries.

2.1.8. Logic of NGO Participation in the PRSPs

Since 1980s, participation of NGOs in poverty reduction has been a significant development

approach and an integral process in project planning, implementation, policymaking and

governance, Salinas Lanao(2007: 10). A major benefit associated with participation of NGOs in

poverty reduction is its alleged ability to challenge the top down model of development. The

objective of participation is to transform existing development practices radically including

social relations, institutional practices and capacity gaps, which cause social exclusion, Hickey

and Mohan (2004:13).

Thus, the common view of participation is as means as well as an end to poverty reduction.

Although participation of NGOs in poverty reduction has been tyrannized the majority regard it

as a central condition in the current poverty reduction policy processes and the new aid

architecture of the poor. Molenaers and Renard (2006) suggested that donors consider civil

society participation critical in poverty reduction because of the expectation that it would lead to

the three results because of broad-based ownership, pro-poor effectiveness and accountability

through the processes of policy formulation. Civil society participation thus means participation

by citizens, its representatives and by NGOs in poverty reduction processes.

21

Broad- based country ownership is taken to mean a process where policies are country driven,

aligned to country priorities and participatory in the sense that a majority of the population and

their representatives participate in development of a strategy, its implementation, monitoring,

and ongoing development, Eberlei(2007:8). The designers of the PRSP mechanism view the

development of national poverty reduction policies as a consensus and cooperation instruments

by government and by a wide range of stakeholders in policy making and priority setting. The

criticisms of the previous models of development, viewed as donor driven and imposing policies

on developing countries informs the emphasis on broad-based ownership,Molenaers and Renard

(2006). Thus, the PRSPs consider these policies as a product of joint participation by government

and civil society actors.

Participation links closely to decision making where people can plan and decide for themselves

what actions to take to change their own situation, Hickey and Mohan (2004). It is through

participation that NGOs would cause broad-based ownership by enabling the poor and others

stakeholders to engage in policy-making and policy debates. The claim that NGO participation

would lead to broad-based ownership may be accurate because NGOs always claim to work for

the poor thus PRSPs can be seen as the extension of their work.

In the case of pro-poor effectiveness, the emphasises is in response to the failure of government

to implement policies that address the poor‟s needs. Rombouts (2006:29) equates pro-poor

effectiveness with achieving poverty reduction. Of course, NGO participation alone may not

reduce poverty but NGOs should contribute by „bringing out the poverty issues and concerns of

local poor‟ and more importantly the multidimensional nature of poverty and voices of the poor

into poverty reduction policies.

22

In this regard, pro-poor effectiveness is about influencing poverty reduction policies through

accumulating valuable knowledge on the local context of poverty and advocacy to push for pro-

poor agendas in policy discussions, Court (2006).However, there is an assumption that the

national government and its international donors are ready to listen to pro-poor voices, which

actors such as NGOs could voice.

Accountability may mean transparency in decision making and efficiency of operations and

working with legal confines in transparent manner, Jordan and Van Tuijl(2006:4). The insistence

on the accountability is a result of the loss of the confidence in the roles of government as they

are often accused of being inefficient and protecting the interests of non-poor. Thus, NGOs are to

protect the interests of the poor through participation in monitoring budget and resources

utilization and exerting pressure on government to ensure responsive policies to the government.

NGO participation in poverty reduction is a both technical and political agendas . Moreover,

Molenaers and Renard (2006) show that there is a linkage between accountability and good

governance, which eventually will lead to poverty reduction. However, as they argue, democracy

is not a direct aim of PRSPs.

2.1.9. Role of Education in Poverty Reduction

Education and Economic development:Education provides a foundation for eradicating

poverty and fostering economic development. It is the groundwork on which much of economic

and social well-being of the citizens is built. Education is the key to increasing economic

efficiency and social consistency, by increasing the value and efficiency of the labour force and

consequently raises the poor from poverty, Bowman (2010). Education increases the overall

productivity and intellectual flexibility of the labour force and ensures that a country is

23

competitive in world market now characterized by changing technologies and production

methods.

According to Roberts (2011), the primary determinants of a country‟s standard of living is how

well it succeeds in developing and utilizing the skills and knowledge, and furthering the health

and educating the majority of its population.No country has achieved constant economic

development without considerable investment in education and human capital, Ozturk( 2011)

many researchers have shown handsome returns to various forms of human capital accumulation

basic education, research, training and aptitude building Denison, (2008). Unequal education

tends to have a negative impact on per capita income and thereby increase poverty in many

countries.

Education and Productivity:According to Lucas 2008, for example, the higher the level of

education of the workforce the higher the overall productivity of capital because the more

educated are morelikely to innovate, and thus affect everyone‟s productivity. This implies that

increasededucation of individuals raises not only their own productivity but also that of others

withwhom they interact, so that total productivity increases as the average level of education

rises, Perotti (2008).

The impact of education on the nature and growth of exports, which, in turn,affect the aggregate

growth rate, is another way in which human development influences acountry‟s

performance.Clearly the educational provisions within any given country represent one of the

main determinants of the composition and growth of that country‟s output and exports and

constitute an important ingredient in a system‟s capacity to borrow foreign technology

effectively. For example: health and nutrition, and primary and secondary education all raise the

24

productivity of workers, rural and urban; secondary education, including vocational, facilitates

the acquisition of skills and managerial capacity; tertiary education supports the development of

basic science, the appropriate selection of technology imports and the domestic adaptation and

development of technologies; secondary and tertiary education also represent critical elements in

the development of key institutions, of government, the law, and the financial system, among

others, all essential for economic growth, Behrman (1999) .

Education and Income: There is also a positive feedback from improved education to greater

income equality, which, in turn, is likely to favour higher rates of growth. As education becomes

more broadly based, low-income people are better able to seek out economic opportunities. For

example, a study of the relation between schooling, income inequality and poverty in 18

countries of Latin America in the 1990s found that one quarter of the variation in workers‟

incomes was accounted for by variations in schooling attainment; it concludes that „clearly

education is the variable with the strongest impact on income equality‟ (Psacharopoulos,1998).

Another study suggested that a one percent increase in the labor force with at least secondary

education would increase the share of income of the bottom 40 and 60% by between 6 and 15%

respectively (Bourguignon and Morrison, 2000). An investigation of the determinants of income

distribution in 36 countries found secondary enrolment rates to be significant, Bourguignon

(2005).

Education and the family: The family is the foundation of a good society and of economic

success. Families have differed over time, but they are still very important in the modern

economy. To understand human capital, one has to go back to the family, because it is families

that are concerned about their children and try, with whatever resources they have, to promote

25

their children‟s education and values. Families are the major promoters of values in any free

society and even in not-so-free societies, Becker (2008).

Education of the poor helps improve their food intake not only by raising their incomes and

spending on food but also by inducing them to make better, healthier, choices, Behrman (1999).

2.1.10. The poverty reduction in Rwanda

According to Rwangombwa (MINECOFIN:2012), Rwanda has had an impressive record in

translating its recent growth into poverty reduction across the country over the past five years;

the results show a reduction in poverty at the National level by 12 percentage points between

2005/06 and 2010/11. This is a significant reduction over a five year period. The findings

contrasts with the limited poverty reduction experienced over the period. 2000/01 to 2005/06 0f

only 2 percentage points.

Poverty is estimated to be 44.9 percent nationally, with 22.1 percent poor in urban areas and 48.7

percent poor in rural areas. Since 2005/06, the poverty headcount has fallen by some 4 percent in

Kigali city and by 10 percent in or more in all other provinces, with the fall highest by far in

Northern province. Poverty is highest in all three surveys in the Southern province and lowest by

far in Kigali city. The Eastern Province is the second least poor province. (NISR, 2012)

2.1.11. Cross Cutting Issues of Poverty Reduction in Rwanda

Youth employment: Inclusion of the youth, who comprise up to 40% of the population, in

economic activities remains a major impediment to eradicate poverty. Over 42% of the youth are

either unemployed or underemployed in subsistence agriculture and urgent measures are required

to holistically redress youth unemployment through skills development, in particular TVET and

Higher Education, Science and Technology (HEST) as well as through job creation. Strong

26

policy frameworks for skills development and job creation are already in place but GoR needs

support to translate these policies into lasting solutions. The Bank‟s on-going programmes in

HEST and ICT offer lessons and potential for scaling-up so as to leverage HEST and innovation

as well as ICT connectivity for local entrepreneurial development and business incubation. The

Bank will also adopt an innovative financing mechanism through general and sector budget

support and other funds to supplement these on-going programmes and GoR‟s efforts to address

youth unemployment and achieving inclusive growth (Development for International

Development, 2013).

Gender: In spite of the notable improvements in gender equality; more needs to be done to

address the long standing inequalities in economic participation. For instance, while 40% of all

registered entrepreneurs are female, female-headed households accounted for 60% of the poor in

2006. Limited access to non-farm employment is a key driver of youth unemployment and the

high poverty levels among female- headed households. Concrete programmes and action plans

targeted towards job creation and local entrepreneurship for instance through incubation of

SMEs in both rural and urban areas and with a focus on women and youth need to be developed

and implemented. The Government has prioritized microfinance through the Umurenge (Village

Development Programme) SACCO as a strategic initial step to increasing economic inclusion for

women and the youth. Support aimed at developing entrepreneurial skills among women,

targeted micro-credit, and research to provide baseline and gender disaggregated data so as to

inform policy interventions will augment these efforts, MINALOC (2008)

Environment and climate change: Rwanda‟s challenging physical terrain and high population

growth rates impose major strains on the country‟s natural resources as evidenced by high levels

27

of land and wetland degradation, deforestation and loss of bio-diversity. Moreover economic

development and the resulting industrialization and urbanization increase demand for energy and

transport investments, especially when not climate resilient, can lead to higher carbon emissions,

among others. Thus environmental protection including sustainable natural resource management

and climate proofing of infrastructure investments is an imperative, MINALOC(2010).

Rwanda integrated environmental targets into the EDPRS and subsequently adopted an

Environment and Natural Resources Sector plan (2009-2013) to guide the sustainable

management of the environment and natural resources. Several environmental assessment tools

have been developed to ensure that infrastructure projects are climate resilient. For its part, the

Bank will continue to ensure that all new infrastructure operations are rigorously screened for

climate risks. In addition to prioritizing green energy options including hydropower and methane

gas, Bank Group support to the Dar-es-Salaam/Isaka/Kigali railway will contribute to the

development of bulk haulage and thereby cut down on vehicular carbon emissions. Moreover,

vertical funds such as the Africa Carbon Support Programme and Global Energy Facility Fund

will be mobilized to support the implementation of Rwanda‟s Environment and Natural

Resources Sector plan.

2.2. Empirical review

2.2.1. Critics of researchers from a negative point of view

There has been a growth of interest during the past decade among researchers on what have been

variously termed „NGOs‟, „non-profit‟ and „voluntary‟ organisations in both the industrialised

and the aid recipient countries (Salamon, 1994; Smillie, 1995). This has reflected the heightened

profiles of these types of organisations amongst policy makers and activists in both domestic and

28

international contexts. The Highlander Education Center in the United States serves as an

excellent example. Established in the 1930s, the Centre moved from working on

labourorganising through civil rights work in the 1950s to Freirean empowerment strategies

during the 1970s and 1980s.

Researchers, who analyze the contribution of NGOs from a negative point of view, consider the

endeavors of NGOs as repetitious and their activities as largely insignificant Islam and Hussain

(1993). Ahmed (1993) considers that NGOs often work against the directions and decisions of

the state and suggests that strong national and international backing encourages some NGOs to

defy the state and to work according to their own whims, countering the intentions of the state

rather than supporting them. This view attracts criticism of the relationship between NGOs with

the state.

Barton and Gabriel (2009) conducted a research in the DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo)

and concluded that, NGO planning has been haphazard and often lacking government input

about equity of coverage, both in focus of activity and geography. There is no adequate policy

framework for co-ordination of NGOs in DRC, including systematic ways to link NGO efforts

with government plans, policies and programs. Government has not yet established a coherent,

comprehensive set of rules and guidelines for the NGO sector or for government in dealing with

the NGOs. Linked with limited controls, NGOs can have negative effects. Among the

difficulties associated with NGOs has been virtualization of programs, isolation and lack of co-

ordination, lack of integration, top-down approaches and alien agendas.

Haque (2006) observed that in most developing nations the power of NGOs has increased in

recent years in relation to the state or government. It is quite conceivable that NGOs have

29

become a formidable force in Bangladesh affecting the political and economic domains

especially the power and legitimacy of the government. They are the counterpart who normally

raise their voices against the power of political society and always speak against the state.

2.2.2. Critics of researchers from a positive point of view

Sarumathi and Mohan (2011) conducted research on the role of microfinance in women‟s

psychological, social and economic empowerment. The study was carried out in the Pondicherry

region of India. The results from the focus groups revealed that women experienced a gradual

improvement in all three of these elements of empowerment following their participation in the

self-help groups associated with the microfinance program.

Another study in Bahawalpur, Pakistan, Nawaz et al. (2012) found out that microcredit drives

women‟s empowerment in a positive direction because women are becoming empowered at

personal, economic and family levels after using microcredit in various income generating

activities. Empowerment of women at an economic level further drives empowerment in other

levels.

Again, Das (2012) conducted a research on self-help groups in India and tried to examine the

influence that membership had on women‟s decision making capacity within the family,

women‟s position within a patriarchal social system and leadership qualities. He found out that

SHG have a positive impact on women members particularly in empowering them.

In Bangladesh NGOs are playing essential role for humanitarian development through joint

analysis and seeking solution through different seminars and workshop, joint social activities,

and application of socio-economic projects Ghosh (2011). Besides, they have introduced certain

essential concepts like developing small groups, credit based cooperatives, mother welfare

30

society and cooperatives for homeless/ landless etc. and thus have strengthened the root of

organizational structure for rural poverty Ghosh (2006).

The contributions of NGOs in various aspects of human lives such as poverty alleviation,

education, family planning, employment, relief operations in natural calamities Ahmad (2000),

health Gauri and Galef (2005) and infrastructure development for the poor, have made this sector

indispensable in the modern society. In many areas, the NGO sector could supersede the public

and private sectors. Stiles (2002) find out that “NGOs, by virtue of their relatively independent

character, their non-profit making status, and their link to the poor communities that they have

generally served well, offers donors a relatively safe and convenient means of avoiding both

public and private sector and all their dangers”.

This sector is addressed as the third sector, while public and private are named as first and

second sectors respectively, Panda (2007) and it (NGO-sector) works as supplementary to the

other two in any country. In any NGO setting there are three important stakeholders. These are:

patrons or donors, clients or beneficiaries, and the NGOs themselves, Rahman (2007). The

NGOs transfer various types of knowledge to their beneficiaries with a view to developing the

socio-economic conditions of the people.

Majority of African governments, including that of Rwanda, appreciate the important impact of

NGOs in the development of rural area. This is the reason why these governments have included

the NGOs in their national plan and programs to ensure their contributions to the sustainable

development (Roemer, 2004).

Rwanda‟s decentralization and community development policy focuses on creating a dynamic

local economy through the ability of communities to drive their own development under a

31

dynamic local government. It is intended to ensure participation of the community and

ownership of their development for more sustainable poverty reduction. This has far reaching

capacity building implications policy seeks to reinforce the capacity of districts to plan and

consult with communities, allowing them to identify their own development priorities, define

strategies and participate in their implementation. (Ministry of Local Government, 2006).

The government of Rwanda considers the NGOs as full partners in their efforts to fight against

poverty; and the government tries with all alternatives of development in order to improve the

standard of living conditions to its population, Heumann (2006).The government has been using

NGOs to organize local communities and to promote development in various areas such as

agriculture, commerce, savings and credit, and handcrafts cooperatives (Taremwa K., 2008).

2.3. Critical Review and Research Gap identification

NGOs are one group of players who are active in the efforts of international development and

increasing the welfare of poor people in poor countries. Barr, Fafchamps, and Owens (2005)

point out that most Uganda NGOs describe their functions in general terms like „raising

awareness‟ and „advocacy‟. The small budgets may be sufficient to achieve this goal, especially

if the NGO leaders believe that ignorance is the major cause of poverty.

NGO leaders in Uganda report that raising awareness is achieved primary via meetings, and

workshops, with the typical NGO claiming to reach 400 individuals per year. HIV/AIDS was the

most cited top. Some 80 percent of Ugandan NGOs have some kind of membership system:

typically 100 or more members constitute the main beneficiaries of the NGO‟s activities.

Membership fees are typically low and in generally commensurate with the wealth level of the

population.

32

Gauri and Galef (2005) established that NGOs in Bangladesh are more involved in the actual

provision of the services, with over 90 percent providing micro loans and more than half

providing health care services. A typically Bangladesh NGO serves about 4,300 households,

Gauri and Galef (2005).

Marcer (2003) noted that in Tanzania despite all the barriers, most NGOs felt that their

organisations were having a large positive impact on policy. The area of impact most frequently

cited was input to the Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) review in 2003-04.

Bodewes (2005) noted that In Kenya (Kibera) 100% of the NGOs claim to be successful in

identifying and addressing the plight of the most vulnerable. While 62.5% are claiming to work

with the rights holders and duty bearers 37.5% claim to be somehow involved. 62.5 % claim to

be involved in demanding accountability of duty bearers while 37.5 are somehow involved. The

62.5 % also said they are involved in ensuring empowerment of rights holders and duty bearers

very well, while 87.5 % engage in monitoring responses very well 100% claim to be evaluating

results.

Bizimana(2008) established that in Uganda (Mubende and Mbale) NGOs are involved in the

provision of general health services, including the provision of drugs and sundries, training

health workers, and health education of communities on domestic hygiene, water and sanitation.

Some NGOs are involved in environmental protection activities, especially tree planting of fast

growing trees such as eucalyptus. The timber is subsequently sold and the proceeds shared or

used by members in the construction of their own homes.They also help in teaching the

community about environmental protection.

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In Rwanda, the studies conducted have not attempted to quantify the contribution of DUHAMIC-

ADRI in poverty reduction to its members focusing on education status, access to basic needs

and poverty categories of their members. This is the gap that this study seeks to fill.

2.4. Theoretical framework

Individual theory:The individual theory that fuel poverty includes individual attitude, human

capital, and welfare Participation (Gans, 1995). The theory of individualism is rooted in

American values and belief in the free market system, a system thought to provide opportunity

for all. The belief in individualism places much emphasis on individual hard work and

responsibility to acquire basicneeds including food, shelter and health care services (Rank,

2004).Generally, the United States is seen as the land of opportunity, where individuals are

provided with vast opportunities to achieve the American dream of material prospect and

success. The premise of the American dream stresses that talent, virtue and hard work can lead to

success and that individual poverty is an individual failing due to lack of motivation (Rank,

2004).

However, some studies found little evidence to support this claim (Merton, 1957). These studies

found that the poor tend to emphasize hard work, dislike for welfare system, and personal

responsibility to refute a societal belief in the negative individual attitudinal cause of poverty

(Schwartz, 2000). The welfare programs have also been thought to cause work and marriage

disincentives and dependence on government. The concept of welfare refers to a range of

services that are provided to protect people in certain conditions that may include child poverty,

sickness, and old age.

Capability theory:Capability theory is the failure of a person to achieve basic capabilities to

adequately fulfill certain crucial functions at minimal level (Saith, 2001; Sen, 1985). The

34

capability theory views monetary resource as means that that can help to enhance people‟s well-

being. The monetary resource is viewed as a necessary, but not sufficient condition to prevent

the casual chain of poverty (Laderchi et al., 2003). Therefore, the capability approach

emphasizes both monetary resources and other resources to develop or achieve capabilities.

Saith‟s (2001) literature review on capability poverty primarily focused on the work of Sen

(1985). Sen argued that the monetary approach emphasizes utility of a commodity and does not

provide a good proxy to assess people‟s well-being.

Sen‟s (1985) capability theory provides a framework that can be use to assess inequality, poverty

and individuals‟ or groups‟ well-being. Sen‟s concept of capability operates at two levels: at the

level of realized well-being or outcome measured by functioning, and at the level of potential

well-being or opportunity measured by capability.

Functioning refers to a person‟s achievement while capability refers to the combination of

various functions a person can achieve. Sen, as cited in Saith (2001), pointed out that a person‟s

achievement or functioning is a better proxy for well-being. What a person successfully

accomplished with a commodity is what matters, taking into consideration the characteristics of

the commodity, the characteristics of the person and external circumstances. Alkire (2007) and

Darling (2002) also highlighted that human capital or capability provides people with the

necessary skill or ability to function well in society. Alkire (2007) and Darling (2002) noted that

lack of human capability places an individual in a more economically vulnerable position when

they face detrimental events such as loss of job, illness or familychanges. Individuals with a high

quality of human capital will do well in the labor market, according to Darling (2002).Many

35

empirical studies consider health, nutrition, education, sanitation, water supply, and housing as

basic functions necessary for a decent life (Darling, 2002).

2.5. Conceptual Framework

Based on the literature reviewed above, this study used the NGO as the independent variable and

poverty reduction as dependant variable.

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of role of NGOs in poverty reduction

Source: Researcher

Independent variable Dependent variable

(Poverty reduction)

i. Level of education of

DUHAMIC-ADRI

beneficiaries

ii. Access to basic needs

(food, shelter, education

etc)

iii. Employment Creation

(Contribution of NGO)

i. Training of DUHAMIC-

ADRI beneficiaries

ii. Capacity building

iii. Start up capital and follow

up

Interveningvariables

i. Advocacy

ii. Government policy

iii. Attitudes of members

36

To reduce poverty requires people‟s participation. NGO will be a tool for people‟s participation

in the sense that ownership of the NGO is exclusively of the beneficiaries in the process of

development. DUHAMIC-ADRI was born to Encourage the creation and consolidation of

associations or groups contributing to the implementation of programmes initiated by rural

populations. Support these initiatives through various services such as education level of

beneficiaries, access to basic needs and employment creation depend ontraining of

beneficiaries,capacity building andstart up capital and follow up, This will be influenced by

Advocacy, Government policy, government programmes and attitudes of members.

2.6. Summary

Poverty has become a growing concern to both government and non governmental agencies over

the world, because of the daily increase in the number of people affected, despite measures

undertaken to reduce or even alleviate it. Various programmes put in place have not adequately

addressed poverty concerns as they failed or were abandoned by successive governments. One

important avenue believed to be effective is the use of NGOs in poverty reduction in societies.

In Rwanda, the studies conducted have not attempted to assess the activities of NGOs in poverty

reduction especially for their members focusing on empowerment, advocacy and job obtainment

support provided to its members for their economic and social reintegration. This is the gap that

this study has sought to fill.

37

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0Introduction

The chapter describes the methods and techniques used by the researcher. It shows the area of

study, the population of the study, method of sampling, how the research was carried out and

how the data were gathered and processed. Franklin (2012) asserts that, research methodology is

away to systematically solve the research problem.

3.1. Research Design

The study is a comparative research and it adopt a case study, research design involve more than

one unit of observation. Units of observation were selected from the beneficiaries of

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district in which DUHAMIC-ADRI has its

main activities.

3.2. Target Population of the Study

The population of this study was 720 persons composed by the persons who were helping by

DUHAMIC-ADRI inMusambira sector of Kamonyi district. The population of the study was

also composed by 39 persons who were the authority and the employee of DUHAMIC-ADRI.

Table 3.1 :Target population

Target population Population

Beneficiaries 720

Staff 39

Source: DUHAMI-ADRI (2016)

38

3.3. Sample Design

3.3.1. Sample Size

This concerns the number of objects or individuals that were selected for the study. It was not

easy for the researcher to investigate the whole population. According to Mugenda (2003),

when the population is approximately or more than 1,000, a sample of l0% is advisable

to be used. Ten percent of the population shall constitute the sample 72 beneficiaries and 4 staff

0f DUHAMIC-ADRI. The sample was designed in such a way that will capture most of

the characteristics of DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries and staff and thus representative of

the total population.

Table 3.2. Simple size

Target population PopulationMultiplier factor sample size percentage

10/100

Beneficiaries 720 0.1 72 94.73

Staff 39 0.1 4 5.27

Source: Researcher

3.3.2. Sampling Techniques

Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used in this research. This is the purest

form of probability sampling as recommended by Mugenda (2003). Each number of the

population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large

populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the

pool of available subjects becomes biased.

39

3.4. Data Collection Method

The researcher used both primary and secondary data. Primary data were used to assess current

status of DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries, secondary data were used to view situation before

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as NGO, so that a comparison was established. Primary data

werecollected from the field, while secondary data were collected from existing information

available in reports and documents to supplement field data.

3.4. 1.Data Collection Instruments

Interview

During this study the checklist questions was designed in such a way that both qualitative and

quantitative information were collected; the quantitative data were used to support the

qualitative. The interview was given to four staff of DUHAMIC-ADRI.

Questionnaire

The researcher used questionnaire to collect information related to the research topic. It consists

of a series of questions which might be written about the problems on which the person

addressing to is expecting to provide information. For that technique the questionnaire was

designed in English while the discussion was hold in Kinyarwanda.

3.4.2. Administration of Data collection Instruments

The forms of questionnaires that were used were opened, closed and likert scale form, this

helped the researcher to find various information from the respondents where everyone could

find suitable way of responding the questions asked and the questionnaires wasself administered

where the researcher will take them by herself and give to DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries.

40

Furthermore, interview was used to find deep information from the leaders and field officers of

DUHAMIC-ADRI.

3.4.3. Reliability and Validity

In order to come up with valid and reliable data, the researcher, took some measures aimed at

enhancing validity and reliability of the research results. The researcher used pre-test

questionnaires with scaled and open-ended questions to allow respondents discussions. The

questionnaires were made simpler and easy to understand and administer. Pre-testing of the

questionnaire was done in order to ensure the questionnaires test what was supposed to test. The

missing , omitted irrelevant and ambiguous questions were corrected. In addition, the researcher

practiced approachability and openness to draw attention of respondents to give their views

without reservation.

3.5. Data Analysis Procedure

Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative data and were reported using tables

and graphs. Descriptive statistics were used so as to simplify large amount of data inferential

statistics, specific factors analysis were used to detect contribution of each determinant on the

dependent variable in poverty reduction by NGOs activities. All these analysis were done in

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18. In addition, qualitative technique

specifically content analysis was used to analyze the open ended questions. The results of data

analysis were presented inform of tables and graphs for easy understanding and interpretation.

3.6. Ethical Considerations

During this study the researcher were contact people from their workplace; researcher was also

prefer to collect real, free and exhaustive answers. Both men and women educated and no

41

educated filled questionnaire individually and freely but the researcher interviewed the illiterate

respondents to fill it. The participants were informed on the purpose of the research. The

researcher preserved the ambiguity of the respondents by not writing the names of all those who

were involved in the research. Respondents were given the assurance that all information

obtained and used during this study, will be for academic purposes only.

42

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the results and discussions of the findings collected in the study area about

non governmental organizations and poverty reduction in Rwanda a case study of DUHAMIC-

ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district. Three issues were assed in details:

To determine the educational status for household members before and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi District, to investigate the status of

household‟s basic needs in terms of food and shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district and to establish the category of poverty of DUHAMIC-

ADRI members stated by Ubudehe program before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as well

as to establish the constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries in poverty reduction.

In order to examine properly the issues this chapter presents the results in two main parts, the

situation before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI and the situation after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI.

43

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Gender of respondents

During the study, it have been revealed to interview both men and women members in order to

have an idea on how both gender have been benefited from DUHAMIC-ADRI.

Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 28 38.9

Female 44 61.1

Total 72 100

Source : Research data

Table 4. 1 shows the gender of respondents in the study area, it is clearly seen that the majority

of respondents are female making up 61.1% while male are 38.9%. These shows that female are

poorer than their counterparts.

Age of Respondents

Table 4.2 indicates the age of respondents as they classified in different groups

Table 4. 2: Age group of respondents

Age Frequency Percent

Percent

18-35 17 23.6

36-50 21 29.2

>50 34 47.2

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

44

Table 4. 2, the researcher found that about 29.2% and 47.2% were in age groups 36-50 and

above 50 years respectively. It means that the majority of beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI are

the people who have a focus in their lives, concrete plans and are willing or must implement

them and because they were very poor DUHAMIC-ADRI intervened to help them to increase

income which help them to realize their life projects.

Marital status of Respondents

The table 4.3 indicates the marital status of respondents

Table 4.3: Marital Status of Respondents

StatusFrequency Percent

Married 6 9.4

Single 28 37.5

Widow 38 54.1

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

The researcher found that the majority of beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI are widows and

single people who are respectively making up 54.1% and 37.5%. The widows are many than

others because they are heads of their family and they must feed them with their very low

income, they must invest and plan projects which will help them in the future , is way

DUHAMIC-ADRI come to support them for enabling them to help their family and also to

reduce the burden to the government. The persons who are single are also many because they are

active to work but they don‟t have enough skills on how to invest and they are victims of their

poor family, to found capital to start a project is difficult and DUHAMIC-ADRI come to support

and to teach them to work in groups and to use properly the very low income they have.

45

4.2 Presentation of Findings

4.2.1 Educational level of Respondents before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

During this study it was necessary to have information on educational level of respondents since

it can have an impact in poverty reduction.

Educational status of respondents before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

In order to determine the educational status of respondents in the study area, it has revealed

important to analyze statistically the educational level of respondents before joining DUHAMIC-

ADRI as follow.

Figure 4.1: Educational status of respondents before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

45.8%

36.1%

16.7%

1.4 %

46

Figure 4.1 tests the educational level of beneficiaries before joining DUHAMIC-ADI and the

statistics show that the majority of them completed primary 45.8% and are illiterates 36.1%, few

are trained 16.7% and 1.4% completed secondary. According to those statistics, the beneficiaries

were poor because their levels of education were very low and many persons were illiterates,

they had a lack of basic knowledge for planning the projects which will generate more income

andthey didn‟t have ability to transform the very low income they had into actions which will

generate more income and DUHAMIC-ADRI come to support and train them on how to increase

income and to shift them in category of the persons who are unhealthy.

Educational status of respondents after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

In order to confirm the improvement of the educational status of respondents in the study area, it

has revealed important to analyze statistically the educational level of respondents after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI as followed.

47

Figure 4.2: Educational status of respondents after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

Table 4.2 comparatively to figure 4.1 confirms the improvement on the educational level of

respondents because the statistical analysis show that university level was born after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI. It has been also found that illiterate has been illuminated after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI and there is a big improvement on training 41.7% and less improvement on

Primary level 47.2%. The statistics presented in figure 4.2 show improvement in education and

that improvement reduced poverty because many of the beneficiaries are trained and they have

now skills or knowledge which help them to plan or implement projects which helping them to

47.2%

41.7%

9.7 %

1.4 %

48

increase income or to plan for their future life and also they have a capacity to endure all shouts

of stress.

Table 4.4: Contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in education

Contribution Frequency Percent

Employment in formal sector 14 19.4

Improve in agriculture participation 19 26.4

Providing training 25 34.8

Improvement on livestock production 14 19.4

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

According to the statistical analysis in table 4.4, the main contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI is

respectively providing training 34.8 % and improvement in agriculture participation 26.4%, but

also there is a significant contribution in employment in formal sector 19.4% and in

improvement on livestock production19.4%. According to those analysis in table 4.4 and the

responses of the interview of staff, the training is the main contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI

and it brought a significance contribution in reducing poverty of DUHAMIC-ADRI members

because beneficiaries were trained and they have skills on how to increase income

fromagriculture and livestock, improvement on agriculture increased harvest and increasing

harvest permitted them to sale some for finding a variety of food. Improvement on

livestockincreased production of milk, meat, sales and contributed in food security and good

health of beneficiaries. Those who finished secondary and university are employed in formal

sector where they gain the salary which helped them to support their family to survive.

49

4.2.2 Basic needs in terms of food and shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

One of the key aspects of poverty reduction is to provide the minimum needs required by the

people for their survive. During this study the access to basic needs in terms of food and shelter

of beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district were investigated

as it is captured in below tables and figures.

Activities realized by respondents of DUHAMIC-ADRI

During this study it has been necessary to have information on activities realized by respondents

since they can have an impact to access basic needs.

Table 4.5: Activities realized by the members of DUHAMIC-ADRI

ActivitiesFrequency Percent

Farmer 50 69.4

Trader 4 5.6

Trainer of others 17 23.6

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

According to the information indicated in table 4.5, the majority of respondents are farmers

69.7%, 23.6% are trainer of others and 5.6% are traders. This is to indicate that the main activity

of DUHAMIC-ADRI is to help farmers to improve their yield which shifted many of

DUHAMIC-ARI members in povertyand to train the trainers of others as it confirmed by the

question number 5 of interview. The farmers after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI they increased their

harvest because DUHAMIC-ADRI skilled them on how and the role of using fertilizersand

support them to find those fertilizers. DUHAMIC-ADRI also trained them to work in groups for

increasing their harvest.

50

Number of meal per day before joining DUHAMI

During this research statistical analysis show the number of meal taken per day before and after

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI and the results are in the following tables.

Figure 4.3: Number of meal per day before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

The figure 4.3 shows the number of meal taken per day before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI and the

majority of respondents took one meal per day 77.8% and few of them took two meals per day

22.2%.Those statistics which show the number of meals taken by respondents per day show that

Number of meal taken per day

77.8 %

22.2 %

51

the beneficiaries were unable to found enough food before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI because

they didn‟t have the capacity to feed their family. They had a lack of knowledge and support for

increasing income which can help them to feed themselves.

Figure 4.4: Number of meal per day after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: research data

Figure 4.4 compare to the figure 4.3, the statistical analysis show that the number of meals have

been increased after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as it is confirmed by the fact that the majority of

respondents took two meals per day 88.9%, few of them took three meals per day 11.1% and

none took one meal per day. The beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI after joining it improved

Number of meal taken per day

88.9 %

11.1 %

52

their life and the poverty had reduced because the income was increased and they know how to

prepare a balanced meal which strengthen them and help them to protect their body from

diseases.

Table 4.6: Number of houses before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Number of houses Frequency Percent

One 65 93.3

I don‟t have 7 9.7

Total 72 100.0

Source: research data

Table 4.6 shows the number of houses before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI, majority of

respondents had one house 93.3% and 9.7 had any house. Even if some had the houses, those

houses were the bad quality and they could not protect them from the heavy rain and those

houses they didn‟t have enough place for the family living in.

Table 4.7: Number of houses after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Number of houses Frequency Percent

One 60 83.3

Two 12 16.7

Total 72 100.0

Source: Research data

Table 4.7 shows the increase in number of houses compare to the table 6, it is confirmed by the

fact that the respondents who have one house have decreased 83.3%, the respondents who have

two houses have increased 16.7% and no respondent who doesn‟t have a house. The

beneficiaries who had one housebecause of increase in income did an amelioration of their

53

houses and some of them build another house and also those who didn‟t have the house helping

buy DUHAMIC-ADRI they build their houses.

Table 4.8: Quality of houses before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Quality of house Frequency Percent

Iron sheet with cement 3 4.2

Iron sheet without cement 36 50

Tiled roof with cement 2 2.8

Tiled roof without cement 2433.3

I don‟t have 7 9.7

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

Table 4.8 indicates that before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI among 72 DUHAMIC-ADRI members

4.3% had the houses with iron sheet and cement, 50% had houses with iron sheet without

cement, 2.8% had houses with tiled roof with cement and 33.3% had houses with tiled roof

without cement. The beneficiaries before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI few of them had the houses

which built with durable materials and many had the houses which will not resist long time

because of the materials used to build those houses, the beneficiaries were poor as they were not

able to build a permanent house.

Table 4.9: Quality of houses after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Quality of house Frequency Percent

Iron sheet with cement 41 56.9

Iron sheet without cement 2 2.8

Tiled roof house with cement 22 30.6

Tiled roof without cement 7 9.7

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

54

Table 4.9 compare to the table 8 indicates that after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI there is

improvement in the quality of houses as it confirmed by the fact that there is increased in number

of houses with iron sheet with cement 56.9% and the increased in number of houses with tiled

roof with cement 30.6%. Also there is a decreased in number of houses with iron sheet without

cement 2.8% and a decreased of houses with tiled roof without cement. It means that

beneficiaries after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI are able to satisfy their basic needs in terms of food

and shelter as confirmed by the question number four of interview. The beneficiaries after

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI had gain more knowledge which permitted them to be able to

transform the support given into actions as shown with the houses they built and repaired.

4.2.3 Poverty category of respondents before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Poverty category stated by Ubudehe Program is a major aspect which indicating the level of

poverty of Rwanda. During this study the poverty categories before and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI were determined. This consisted of determining the poverty category of each

respondent before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district.

Table 4.10: Poverty category before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

PovertycategoryFrequency Percent

First category 71 98.6

Second category 1 1.4

Total 72 100

Source: Research data

Table 4.10 shows the categories of respondents before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI, among 72

respondents 98.6% were in the first category it means that DUHAMIC-ADRI helps the persons

who are in the first category as it confirmed by interview question number six. The persons who

55

are in this category the government of Rwanda has a heavy burden to support them and

DUHAMIC-ADRI come to support them in rural areas where it taught them to work hard, to use

the support and the low income they have for moving in the category of the very poor.

Table 4.11: Poverty category after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Poverty category Frequency Percent

First category 2 2.8

Second category 70 97.2

Total 72 100.0

Source: Research data

Table 4.11 compare to table 4.10 indicates that after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI unless 2

members, all respondents were move in the first category to the second category 97.2%. As the

beneficiaries were taught by DUHAMIC-ADRI, they increased income and they made

improvement in living condition after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as shown by the table 4.11.

Monthly income before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

During this research it has been necessary to have information on monthly income before and

after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI since it can cause a change on poverty categories of respondents.

An increase of monthly income is the major factor which can cause a change in poverty

category.

56

Figure 4.5: Monthly income before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

According to the information given in the figure 4.5, the majority of respondents had income per

month below 10.00rwfs (86.1%) and few of respondents had income per month between 10.001-

20.000rwfs (13.9%). It means that DUHAMIC-ADRI help people who have a very low income

for helping them to transform that low income they have in actions which will generate more

income, DUHAMIC-ADRI help them to work in groups and in those groups they create small

projects and DUHAMIC-ADRI help them to find the capital to start those small projects.

86.1 %

13.9 %

57

Figure 4.6: Monthly income after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

Figure 4.6 compare to the figure 4.5 indicates that there is increase in monthly income after

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI;it is confirmed by the fact that income below 10.000rwfs is 1.4%. The

increase in monthly income is the results of training and using agricultural inputs (improved

seeds, fertilizes, pesticides and manure), access to credits and some others advantages of working

together in agriculture.

47.2 %

38.9 %

9.7 %

2.8 %

1.4 %

58

Figure 4.7: benefit obtained from being a member of DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

The data from the figure 4.7 show that the main benefit from being a member of DUHAMIC-

ADRI is access to health insurance with the percentage of 27.8 followed by finding enough food

with the percentage of 22.2 and paying school fees with the percentage of 20.8. The other

benefits are buying livestock, buying land, access to water and electricity and bought transport

means with the percentage of 12.5, 11.1, 4.2, and 1.4 respectively, those statistics in figure 4.7

explain that there is a significance benefit to be a member of DUHAMIC-ADRI and that benefit

27.8 %

22.2 %

20.8 %

12.5 %

11.1%

4.2 %

1.4 %

59

is the results of trainings, support, small projects did by the Beneficiaries helping by

DUHAMIC-ADRI.

Figure 4.8: Activities members are able to realize themselves after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

The data from the figure 4.8 shows that the major activities the respondents are able to realize

after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI is to find enough food with the percentage of 61.1 followed by

paying the school fees with the percentage of 23.6 and few respondents are able to build a house

with the percentage of 15.3.Those statistics in the figure 4.8 show that DUHAMIC-ADRI

enabled beneficiaries to realize activities which were unable to do before.

61.1 %

23.6 %

15.3 %

60

4.2.4. Constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries

Figure 4.9: constraints faced by beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

The data from the figure 4.9 shows that the major constraint is the long dry season with the

percentage of 27.8 followed by lack of government intervention with the percentage of 23.6 and

the low price with the percentage of 20.8. Other constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI

members are insufficient training and poor DUHAMIC-ADRI management with the percentage

of 13.9 every constraint. Contradictory to the question of interview of the staff said that the

problem they met in reducing poverty is the dry long season. Low price is a problem the

beneficiaries meet when they are harvesting, because of increase of the harvest the pricedecease,

27.8 %

23.6 %

20.8 %

13.9 % 13.9 %

61

long dry season is a big problem they meet because in dry season they don‟t have materials to

use for irrigation,intervention of the government for supporting them in increase theirproduction

is very poor and some beneficiaries they don‟t have enough training.

Figure 10: Proposed solutions to problems faced by beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI

Source: Research data

According to the information given in the figure 10, the main solution proposed by respondents

is the installation of irrigation channels with the percentage of 33.7 followed by decent price with

the percentage of 31.6. The other proposed solutions are advocacy and increase training with the

percentageof 18 and 16.7 respectively. The beneficiaries have a big problem of installation of

irrigation but with the support and advocacy of DUHAMIC-ADRI it can be resolved and the

government should help them to harmonise price on the market after harvesting their yield.

34.7 %

30.6 %

18 %

16.7 %

62

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0. Introduction

After interpretation and analysis of findings, this chapter intends to make summary of the major

findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations in relation to the problem statement and

the objectives of the study. Suggestions for further researches are on so considered towards the

end of this chapter.

5.1. Summary

The general objectives of this study was to assess the contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in

poverty reduction for its members.

To realize this objective, the researcher selected a simple of 76 beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-

ADRI selected in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district. Questionnaire and interview were used

to correct data. The results from the research permitted the researcher to confirm that

DUHAMIC-ADRI contribute in poverty reduction of their members. Therefore, the major

findings of the study are summarized according to the specific objectives of the studies.

5.1.1. Findings Related to the First Objectives

In relation to the first objectives, the findings indicate that educational status of DUHAMIC-

ADRI members has been changed positively in some levels after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in

Musambira sector of Kamonyi district.

Educational status of members of DUHAMIC-ADRI had been significantly improved in

secondary and training after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as shown by the statistical analysis where

the percentage before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI were 1.4 for secondary and 16.7 for training but

after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI it was 9.7% for secondary and 41.7% for training. Providing

63

training is the main contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in education of their members as shown

by the percentage of 34.8% in comparison to others. Training brought a significance contribution

in reducing poverty of DUHAMIC-ADRI members because beneficiaries were trained and they

have now skills or knowledge which help them to plan or implement projects which helping

them to increase income or to plan for their future life and also they have a capacity to endure all

shouts of stress.

5.1.2. Findings Related to the Second Objective

The second objective was to investigate the status of household‟s basic needs in terms of food

and shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI. Research found that they were an

improvement in basic needs after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI as supported as the following: the

figure 4.4 confirm by analysis that the number of meal per days have been significantly increased

after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI where 88.9% of beneficiaries took two meals per day and 11.1%

took three meals per day, The beneficiaries of DUHAMIC-ADRI after joining it improved their

life and the poverty had reduced because the income was increased and they know how to

prepare a balanced meal which strengthen them and help them to protect their body from

diseases. Thetable 4.7 confirm by analysis that the number of houses have been significantly

improved after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI where 16.7% of beneficiaries had two houses and

83.3% had one house, it is also confirmed by the fact that the quality of houses after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI have been improved where the table 4.8& 4.9show that among

72beneficiaries before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI, 4.2% had the houses with iron sheet with

cement, 55.5% had the houses with iron sheet without cement, 2.8% had the houses with tiled

roof with cement, 37.5 had the houses with tired roof without cement and after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI among 72 beneficiaries, 56.9% had the houses with iron sheet with cement,

64

2.8% had the houses with iron sheet without cement, 30.6% had the houses with tired roof with

cement, 9.7% had the houses with tired roof without cement. The beneficiaries after joining

DUHAMIC-ADRI had gain more knowledge which permitted them to be able to transform the

support given into actions as shown with the houses they built and repaired.

5.1.3 Findings Related to the Third Objective

The third objective was to establish the category of poverty of DUHAMIC-ADRI members

stated by Ubudehe program before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRIas well as establish the

constraints faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI beneficiaries in poverty reduction. Research found that there is

a significance improvement of living because before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI 98.6% of

beneficiaries were in the first poverty category, 1.4% of beneficiaries were in the second poverty

category but after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI 97.2% of beneficiaries were in the second poverty

category, 2.8 were in the first poverty category. The improvement is also confirmed by the

monthly income where only 1.4% of beneficiaries had income below 10.000rwfs per month after

joining DUHAMIC-ADRI but 86.1% of beneficiaries had income below 10.000 rwfs per month

before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI. The figure 4.7 agree that the main benefit from being a

member of DUHAMIC-ADRI is access to health insurance with the percentage of 27.8 followed

by finding enough food with the percentage of 22.2 and paying school fees with the percentage

of 20.8, those statisticsexplain that there is a significance benefit to be a member of DUHAMIC-

ADRI and that benefit is the results of trainings, support, small projects did by the Beneficiaries

helping by DUHAMIC-ADRI. The figure 4.8 shows that the major activities the respondents are

able to realize after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI is to find enough food with the percentage of 61.1

followed by paying the school fees with the percentage of 23.6. The figure 4.9 confirms by

analysis that the main constraint faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI members are the long dry season

65

with the percentage of 27.8 followed by lack of government intervention with the percentage of

23.6 and the low price with the percentage of 20.8, Low price is a problem the beneficiaries meet

when they are harvesting, because of increase of the harvest the price decease, long dry season

is a big problem they meet because in dry season they don‟t have materials to use for irrigation,

intervention of the government for supporting them in increase their production is very poor and

some beneficiaries they don‟t have enough training.

5.2. Conclusions

On the basis of the interpretation of the collected and analyzed data during the course of this

research study, the researcher come up with the fact that, the study objectives were attained and

the questions to the study were answered. The results indicates that there is a positive

relationship between joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district and

poverty reduction since joining DUHAMIC-ADRI contributed to the improvement of

educational level, access to basic needs and change a poverty category. The study findings of this

research reveals that DUHAMIC-ADRI constitute a driving force to the job creation and welfare

of beneficiaries and their families since it helped them to increase income and improve their

economic and social life.

Concerning research questions which concerning the education status of household members

before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI research found that secondary and training levels of

education were significantly improved after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI while the improvement at

university level is not significance. The second questions was about the household status on

basic needs in terms of food and shelter before and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI. The

respondents answered that after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI the number of meal per day were

increased, the number of houses were increased and the quality of their houses were improved.

66

Regarding the third questions which was the poverty categories of household members before

and after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI , on basis of the findings, there is a significance change and

that change was the shifted from the first poverty category to the second category and the income

per month was significantly improved.

5.3. Recommendations

Considering the results of the study on non governmentalorganisations and poverty reduction a

case study of DUHAMIC-ADRI in musambira sector of Kamonyi district the

followingrecommendations must be taken into consideration:

3.3.1.Recommendations to NGO (DUHAMIC-ADRI)

For the interests of their members, DUHAMIC-ADRI should cooperate at local and international

level to exchange experience, DUHAMIC-ADRI should help the beneficiariesto get water pump

in June, July, August and September andDUHAMIC-ADRI should Organize regular training of

members.

3.3.2. Recommendations to the Government of Rwanda

DUHAMIC-ADRI members should request credit or loan in order to solve themselves the

problem related to access to water, electricity, home construction and transport andDUHAMIC-

ADRI members should have initiative to be autonomous.

5.4 Suggestions for Further Studies

As the area of further study, I recommend a study of analysis of the extent to which DUHAMIC-

ADRI had the activities of poverty reduction in Kamonyi district or other districts in Rwanda

with which DUHAMIC-ADRI operate.

67

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71

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

72

APPENDIX 2: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BENEFICIARIES

My names are MUSHIMIYIMANA Beatha. I am a student at Mount Kenya University. I am

doing my final research project as apart and partial fulfillment of the award of the Masters

Degree in development studies.

The topic of my research is “Non Governmentalorganisation and poverty reduction:A case

study of Musambira sector of Kamonyi district, Rwanda

If you allow it, we ask you to respond to the following questionnaire to provide us with

necessary information that can help us to complete my research study.

I will be grateful if you answer the questions asked and I assure you that all the information

given will be confidential and will be used for the academic purposes only.

I. Instruction on the questionnaire

1. Answer all the questions

2. Some questions have the short answers and others have the long answers, then your answer

must be given according to the type of questions.

3. For short answer question tick in a rectangle corresponding to your right answer.

73

II. Socio-demographic identification of respondents

Tick one option only

1. Sex:

a. Male:

b. b.Female:

2.Age:

a.18-35:

b. 36-50:

c. >50:

3. marital status

a. married:

b. single:

c. widow:

III. Education status of DUHAMIC-ADRI members

4. What is your education level before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI? (Tick one option only)

a. Primary:

b. Secondary:

c. University:

d. Training:

74

e. Illiterate:

5. what is your education level after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI? (Tick one option only)

a. Primary:

b. Secondary:

c. University:

d. Training:

e. illiterate:

6. What are the contributions of DUHAMIC-ADRI in your education? (Tick one option only)

a. Employment in formal sector:

b. Improvement in agricultural participation:

c. Provide training:

e. Improvement of livestock production:

f. Others, please mention:………………………………………………………………………..

IV. Basic needs in terms of food and shelter

7. What is your activity as a member of DUHAMIC-ADRI? (Tick one option only)

a. Farmer:

b. trainer of others:

c. Trader:

c. other specify:……………………………………………………………………………………

75

3.1 Before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

8. How many meals did you take per day before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI? (Tick one option )

a. One:

b. Two:

c. Three:

3.2. After joining DUHAMIC-ADRI

9. How many meals did you take per day after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI?(Tick one option )

a. One:

b. Two:

c. Three:

10. How many houses did you have before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI?(Tick one option only)

a. One:

b. Two:

c. Three:

d. above three:

11. after joining DUHAMIC-ADRI how houses many do you have?(Tick one option only)

a. One:

b. Two:

c. Three:

d. above three:

76

e. I don‟t have:

12. Before joining do you have a house with (quality of the house)?(Tick one option only)

a. Iron sheet with cements:

b. Iron sheet without cements:

c. Tiles with cement:

d. Tiles without cements:

13. After joining DUHAMIC-ADRI what is the quality of your house?(Tick one option only)

a. Iron sheet with cements:

b. Iron sheet without cements:

c. Tiles with cement:

d. Tilles without cements:

e. other, specify:…………………………………………………………………………..

14. What are the contribution of DUHAMIC-ADRI in providing foods and housing to their

members?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

V. Poverty category stated by ubudehe program

15. What are the categories of poverty persons helped by DUHAMIC-ADRI belong in?(Tick one

option only)

a. First category:

b. Second category:

c. Third category:

d. Fourth category:

77

16.Before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI in which poverty category do you belong ?(Tick one option

only)

a. First category:

b. Second category:

c. Third category:

d. Fourth category:

17. After joining DUHAMIC-ADRI, what is your category?(Tick one option only)

a. First category:

b. Second category:

c. Third category:

d. Fourth category:

18. What is your monthly income before joining DUHAMIC-ADRI?(Tick one option only)

a. below 10,000 rwfs:

b. 10,001rwfs - 20,000 rwfs:

c. 20,001rwfs -30,000 rwfs:

d. 30,001 rwfs – 50,000 rwfs:

e. Above 50,000rwfs:

19. After joining DUHAMIC-ADRI what is your monthly income?(Tick one option only)

1. below 10,000 rwfs:

2. 10,001 rwfs - 20,000 rwfs:

3. 20,001 rwfs -30,000 rwfs:

4. 30,001 rwfs – 50,000 rwfs:

5. Above 50,000rwfs:

78

20. What are the benefits did you obtain from being a member of DUHAMIC-ADRI(Tick one

option only)

a. Paying school fees:

b. access to enough food:

c. Access to health insurance :

d. Rearing livestocks:

e. Access to water and electricity:

f. Acquired own transport:

g. Buy land:

h. Others, specify:……………………………………………………………………

21. What activities are you able to realize yourself after being a member of DUHAMIC-

ADRI?(Tick one option only)

a. Pay the school fees:

b. To get a enough food:

c. To build a house:

d. Others, please specify:…………………………………………………………………………

VI. Challenges faced by DUHAMIC-ADRI members

22. what constraints did you meet as a member of DYHAMIC-ASRI in poverty reduction (tick

one option only)

a. low price:

b. Insufficient training:

c. Long dry season:

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d. Lack of government intervention:

e. Poor DUHAMIC-ADRI management:

23. Fill the proposed solutions on problems on question above

a. advocacy:

b. Installation of irrigation channels:

c. Increase Training:

d. Decent price:

Thank you

80

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR STAFF

My names are MUSHIMIYIMANA Beatha. I am a student at Mount Kenya University. I am

doing my final research project as apart and partial fulfillment of the award of the Masters

Degree in development studies.

The topic of my research is “Non Governmental activities and poverty reduction in

Rwanda”: A case study of DUHAMIC-ADRI in Musambira sector of Kamonyi district.

If you allow it, we ask you to respond to the following questionnaire to provide us with

necessary information that can help us to complete my research study.

I will be grateful if you answer the questions asked and I assure you that all the information

given will be confidential and will be used for academic purposes only.

This questionnaire will be also addressed to the staff of DUHAMIC-ADRI

A. Identification of DUHAMIC-ADRI staff

1 . Name of respondent………………………………………………………………………...

Contact of respondent (if available)……………………………………………………….....

2. Position of respondents………………………………………………………………………

3. Date of interview………………………………………………………………………...

4. What are the key areas DUHAMIC-ADRI emphasizes in its poverty reduction?

5. What is the mechanism you use to fight against poverty

6. How do you identify the target group?

7. Did you have some projects that have failed in your way of fighting against poverty?

8. What are the constraints do you meet while fighting against poverty?

9. How do you find the solution to the problems