Non-Experimental methods: Qualitative research
Why used?• Growing concern about artificiality and lack of ecological
validity in research
• Non experimental research is now seen as valuable to
psychology
• Examples:
– Surveys
– Interviews
– Observations
– Case Studies
• Triangulation – combination of different research
methods in a study in order to collect richer data.
Depends on the topic.
• Deductive approach – the quantitative approach -
with a hypothesis that is tested against empirical
evidence.
• Inductive approach – qualitative approach –
researchers study how people experience
situations. They gather data and then see what
these could mean.
Subjectivity vs objectivity
• The role of the qualitative researcher involves an
active engagement in the research process –
a subjective element is placed in to the
research process.
• Experimental method is based on the assumption
of objectivity in the research process.
Interviews
• One of the most common ways of gathering qualitative dataCan be short or in-depthNeed interview schedule – plan to follow with structured or open ended questions
Interviewers need training!
Considerations of Interview
• Interviewer effect – researcher needs to act professionally
and be aware of responses to age, sex, ethnicity of the
interviewer.
• Participant bias – people often adjust their responses to
what they THINK is appropriate for the interviewer.
• Social Desirability Bias – most people want to present a
positive picture of themselves so they don’t always tell the
truth.
Types of Interviews• Structured
– procedure is highly controlled
– Specific questions
– Easy to analyze and compare data
• Unstructured
– Open ended: only topic and time are specified
– Difficult to analyze, but more info are revealed
• Semi-structured
– Look like informal conversation but follow the schedule
– Closed and open-ended questions (respondent can answer morefreely)
Ethics in interviews
• Informed consent and confidentiality
• May be distressing and sensitive
• Researcher must be professional!
• If respondents decide to withdraw their
information, you must follow wishes.
Your turn to be a researcher
You have been commissioned to carry out research using interviews on
one of the following issues:
1. positive and negative experiences in CAS projects
2. what it is like to live in a foreign country
3. teenagers and drug use and abuse
4. prejudice in classroom
Consider the following questions
1. How would you carry out your research?
2. How would you obtain your sample?
3. What potential difficulties do you anticipate in carrying out the
interview?
Observation
• A data collection method which aims to describe
behavior without trying to establish cause and effect
relationships.
• Most take place in a natural setting - Naturalistic
Observations
• Originally used with animal studies – but now some are
used in labs (one way mirrors)
• Raw data may be visual, audio or written
Observation
• Impossible to record EVERYTHING
• Researcher Bias – often the researcher sees what
s/he WANTS to see (to counteract - several
researchers and comparing notes – to ensure inter-
observer reliability)
• Try to get people and animals to act naturally -
typically they change their behavior when know
being watched.
Observation
• Participant observation
• Non-participant observation
• Reactivity – people and animals change their
behaviour when they are observed
• Covert observation (secret)
• Overt observation (participants know)
Example
• What happens when an administrator comes in to
observe students or the teacher? (overt observation)
– How valid is the data?
• What happens when an administrator asks student to
observe or report on activities in a classroom?
(covert)
– How valid is the data?
Your Turn
• During the break you will conduct an
observation.
• Where are you going to carry out your
observation? (cafeteria, media center,
front office, classroom)
• Each member of the group should take
notes.(!!!)
Your Turn
1. Compare your notes. To what
extent are your observations
similar? Discuss this.
2. Are there any ethical
considerations in what you did?
3. Discuss how you could make
sense of this data.
Ethics of Observational Research
1. Need to obtain informed consent of those being
observed.
2. If using covert research, must make proposal to
ethics committees.
3. It could be argued that observation in public places
does not violate rights because they are in
a PUBLIC place!
Famous Covert Participant Observation: Rosenhan, 1973
• Read the story in a frame – p. 34
1. Discuss ethical issues in
Rosenhan’s participant
observation
2. Was the use of covert
observation justified?
Case Studies
• Originated in clinical medicine – patient’s
personal history
• Grounded in real life, produces rich data that
provides insight into unique phenomenon or
individual’s behavior
Case Studies
• Individual or group observed
• Describes people’s experiences, feelings, thoughts
(qualitative data)
• Can include quantitative data – test scores, IQ
scores, blood tests
• Allows for in-depth investigations of human
experience not available in other research methods
Case Studies
• Not really a research method itself, but an approach to
the study of something unique (the case)
• Methods used for gathering data
– Interviews, observations
– Letters, diaries, pictures, TRIANGULATION
– Clinical notes,
– Blood samples
Ethical Aspects of Case Study
• It is deeply personal in nature, so researcher must be very
protective of identities
• Researcher needs professional competence (understand
anorexia, child abuse, drug dependence, etc.)
• Include
– Informed consent, no deception
– Right to withdraw, debriefing
– confidentiality
Famous Case Study: Money 1974
• Dr. Money and the Boy With No Penis• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUTcwqR4Q4Y&hd=1#t=12
• Another case study: Genie – wild child• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA&hd=1• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2112gchild.html• http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/genie.html