Noll Heimann ancient old world pottery CS5

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AncientOld World

PotteryMaterials, Technology,

and Decoration

Schweizerbart Science Publishers

Walter Noll Robert B. Heimann

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Ancient Old World Pottery

Materials, Technology, and Decoration

Walter Noll and Robert B. Heimann

With 93 fi gures, 16 plates and 36 tables

Schweizerbart Science Publishers Stuttgart 2016

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Walter Noll and R.B. Heimann:Ancient Old World Pottery. Materials, Technology, and Decoration

Author:Prof. Dr. Robert B. Heimann, Am Stadtpark 2A, 02826 Görlitz, Germany.E-mail: [email protected]

We would be pleased to receive your comments on the content of this book:[email protected]

Front cover: Two-handled spherical vase from Dimini. Late Neolithic era (5300–4800 BCE). Courtesy National Museum Athens, Greece. Inv. no. 5922. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism/Archaeological Receipts Fund. (R. B. Heimann and M. Maggetti: Ancient and Historical Ceramics: Materials, Technology, Art and Culinary Traditions; Schweizerbart Science Publishers, 2014; Stuttgart, Figure 9.3., p. 160)

Original title: Walter Noll: Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente. Studien zu Material und Tech nolo gie; E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart 1991

ISBN 978-3-510-65336-2Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510653362

© 2016 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart,Germany

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlags buch hand lung, Stuttgart

Publisher: E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller) Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany [email protected] www.schweizerbart.de

∞ Printed on permanent paper conforming to ISO 9706-1994Typesetting: Satzpunkt Ursula Ewert GmbH, BayreuthPrinted in Germany by Gulde Druck GmbH & Co. KG, Tübingen

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Preface I

Twenty-five years have passed since the German edition of this treatise appeared in print under the title “Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente. Studien zu Material und Technologie”. Since then, much archaeological and archaeometric research has been carried out on an-cient pottery of the Old World, in particular the Near East, and even more specifically, the countries of the ancient Fertile Crescent.

Sadly, the original author of the book, Professor Walter Noll, had not lived to see his work in print, but fortunately for us, he had almost completed the manuscript before he passed away in November 1987. However, that the product of his labour of love spanning close to two decades has seen the light at all is to the credit of one of his former doctoral students, Dr Jürgen Letsch, Rösrath, Germany. Dr Letsch undertook the task to edit Noll’s typewritten manuscript with its many added hand-written corrections, comments and references, and made it ready for publication in 1991.

Walter Noll was singularly qualified to research ancient ceramics and their pigments, as he was conversant with both their mineralogical and chemical secrets, a happy result of his training in both disciplines (see About the authors). Today, many new instrumental analyti-cal techniques are applied to the study of ancient ceramics that allow peering ever more deeply into the frequently unsolved mysteries of their origin, manufacture, and lifecycle. Even though these sophisticated modern techniques were not available to Noll, he applied with great success ‘classic’ analytical tools including elemental chemical analysis and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to determine the chemical make-up of ceramics, X-ray diffrac-tion to obtain their phase composition, and scanning electron microscopy to get informa-tion on texture, microstructure and topography of ceramic bodies and paint layers. Occa-sionally, infrared and Raman spectroscopy were also brought to bear.

The first four major chapters of this book describe in a comprehensive, but very readable way the general principles of ancient ceramic technology largely based on Walter Noll’s own work, demonstrating his wide experience with the chemical, mineralogical and ma-terials science background of this subject matter. However, there is an obvious problem with Chapter 5. In this chapter, Noll described the results of his own analytical work on an admittedly limited number of ancient ceramic objects from Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Iran, Sistan, the Indus Valley, and Egypt. This pars pro toto approach complements nicely the scientific foundation laid down in the first chapters. Yet, in these Old World realms, much research has been carried out since then and many new features on the science and technology of ancient ceramics were uncovered by an ever-growing phalanx of research-ers.

This clearly provided a serious conundrum as I was forced to decide whether to skip Chap-ter 5 altogether in the present English version, to revise it thoroughly to bring it up to date, or to leave it in its original form, as conceived by its author. The first choice would not have done justice to the effort expended by Noll over the period of almost twenty years. The second choice would have enlarged the volume beyond any reasonable number of pages,

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even though an encyclopaedic treatment of the subject could never have been attained. Alas, in the end I settled for the third choice, that is, essentially to leave the chapter as is, as incomplete from today’s point of view it may appear. However, I feel that it still reflects the wide-reaching, insightful, and very interdisciplinary approach Walter Noll devoted to his work. The chapter, as well as the entire treatise, is vivid testimony to Professor Noll’s ability to describe and explain in an intuitive and plausible way the sometimes very complex and erudite physico-chemical relationships among minerals during processing of clays and fir-ing of ceramics. This also includes unravelling the intricate interplay of the mineralogy of clays, and their processing, shaping, firing and painting to arrive at ceramic masterpieces handed down to us from the distant past. He was also able to explain, in a logical manner, many procedural details of manufacturing ancient ceramics by addressing geographical, local geological, stratigraphic, and socio-economic facts the ancient potters faced. Walter Noll was very much aware that knowledge of anything, including ancient ceramics, is the sum total of information and understanding. Whereas he and his co-workers provided a vast amount of information by diligently researching the properties and functions of ancient ceramic objects, understanding the technology of their production required a much deeper level of insight, beyond the mere acquisition of data. The author was able to reach this level through addressing the surrounding geographical, historical, and socio-economic fac-tors that helped to appreciate all human, collective and collaborative processes needed to create and transmit the light of understanding.

It is to b e hoped that the book will appeal not only to the ceramics specialist but also to everybody interested in the material witnesses of the technological achievements of ancient artisans. A recently published tome on ancient and historical ceramics, their materials, technology and art (Heimann & Maggetti 2014) may be a useful companion to be consulted along with the present book.

I am grateful to Hans D. Lehmann, Görlitz, Germany for diligently collecting relevant new information and references to update the original version of the book. These updates are now mostly provided in the form of copious footnotes, but were occasionally also worked into the text where appropriate. This pertains, in particular, to Chapter 2 (Methods of inves-tigation) into which recent results of modern instrumental analytical methods applied to ancient ceramics were integrated such as XANES, PIXE, TXRF, ToF neutron diffraction, AFM, and other mysteriously acronymed novel techniques.

Whereas I largely kept the structure of the book as the author originally conceived it, updat-ing required some readjusting of chapter headings. This, however, is not to mean that the present book is a one-to-one translation from the German text that frequently abound with linguistic idiosyncrasies characteristic of the German language on the one hand, and with the peculiarities and mannerisms of Walter Noll’s own writing style on the other hand. Re-dundancies had to be removed whenever possible and appropriate, and some factual errors were corrected. In addition, deviating from the German original, the consecutively num-bered figures and tables now have been allocated to individual chapters and occasionally rearranged.

I acknowledge Monika Noll, Berlin and Dr Klaus Noll, Köln for relinquishing the intellec-tual property rights to republishing as well as translating and updating their father’s seminal work. Thanks are due to Schweizerbart Science Publishers, represented by Dr Andreas

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Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer, for advice and support, in particular for providing high-resolution scans of SEM images taken from the original book.

As an afterthought, I am indebted to Nicoletta-Sophie, my Maine Coon cat who frequently put herself in front of my computer screen, demanding that I should stop working and get up to smell the roses.

Univ.-Prof. em. Dr. Robert B. HeimannGörlitz, Germany

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Preface to the German edition (1991)

During the last two decades of his life, Walter Noll addressed himself to the elucidation of archaeological issues, in particular the development of production technologies of ancient ceramics. He based his work on modern non-destructive chemical and mineralogical ana-lyses, aided by X-ray fluorescence analysis and scanning electron microscopy, and excelled in combining his rich lifelong research experience and his affection to cultural and art historical studies in a deeply satisfying way. His activities focused on ceramic objects of the ancient cultural centres of Egypt, Greece, the Mediterranean islands, as well as present day Turkey and Iran. The consequent application of novel analytical methods created a wealth of new significant data, thus allowing insight into the historical development of production methods, origin of raw materials and, in particular, colour design of ceramic objects, as well as their physico-chemical interpretation.

Walter Noll vigorously pursued the task of collecting the results on the decoration of an-cient ceramics in a manuscript that he had almost completed at the time of his passing away in November 1987. The present book is an edited version of the draft he left behind. Friends of the author and the publisher are indebted, in particular, to Dr J. Letsch for his labour intensive collaboration to edit the manuscript and ready it for publication. Special thanks goes to Marion Möllering for her engaged participation in processing the text for printing.

Editor and Publisher

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Preface II

Ancient ceramics are the mainstay of archaeological assemblages, second to nothing in the sheer number of finds in almost all sites and cultures pertaining to the last ten thousand years, and unsurpassed in their information potential. Despite this, ceramics have remained something of a poor relations to the more iconic metals, which got the naming rights for two out of the three stages conventionally structuring archaeological eons, and feature highly in the public imagination of archaeology as treasure hunt. However, for anybody taking more than just a cursory look at ancient cultures, ceramics soon reveal themselves as the true working horses and unending font of knowledge in archaeology. Ceramics were fundamental to move archaeology from its antiquarian roots into a proper science, offering on a broad basis firm information about cultural contacts, periodisation, and development. The likes of Oscar Montelius and Sir Flinders Petrie, but also many lesser-known but equal-ly important scholars such as Heinrich Dressel (of amphorae fame) or Karel Škorpil (devel-oping Iron Age and medieval archaeology in the Balkans) laid the foundations of modern archaeology in the late 19th and early 20th century. This transformation relied heavily on studying ceramic sequences and contexts, identifying, documenting and interpreting changes in shape, form and association of pottery over time in pursuit of a better under-standing of the past.

Ceramics maintained their leading role also throughout the next revolution in archaeology’s toolbox, nearly a century later, when the rapid development of instrumental analytical methods led to the emergence of science-based archaeology, or archaeometry, in the sec-ond half of the 20th century. Whereas lay people, inspired by history and often indepen-dently wealthy and self-educated, heavily influenced the early professionalisation of ar-chaeology, we now see the contribution of highly trained professionals from other disciplines such as chemistry, earth sciences, and physics pushing archaeology forward. In this new phase, Ceramics 2.0 moves from the outward characterisation of vessel shapes and forms to regard pottery as a material in its own right. Unsurprisingly, mineralogists are the main driv-ers and trailblazers here, recognising ceramics as high-temperature/low pressure metamor-phic rocks based on fine-grained sediments, and applying their tried and tested tool kits of microscopy, X-ray methods, and geochemistry to their study.

This new look at the intrinsic parameters of pottery opened a completely new dimension to ceramic studies. Inevitably, it picked up where the traditional approach had made its strong-est contribution – studying cultural contact and the flow of ideas and goods over time and space. By linking the composition of ceramic fragments back to the deposits of clay from which the vessels were originally made, and by identifying differences in composition be-tween identical-looking objects it became suddenly possible to separate reliably the flow of the idea of a shape, from the physical movement of the artefact. Identifying inspiration and imitation as separate from trade and transport proved invaluable in the discussion of the nature of interactions between cultures. Transport vessels such as amphorae, used as con-tainers for bulk commodities, and traded vessels such as terra sigillata and other tableware, could now be provenanced from their archaeological find spot back to their production

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sites, opening up economic archaeology beyond the study of coin distributions and the re-cords of historical sources.

However, Ceramics 2.0 had more to offer than just a refinement of previous approaches to pottery. Looking at the material as such enabled to move the discussion onto entirely new territory. Form and function had been linked before – but determining and understanding performance parameters of ceramic materials laid the foundation to study ceramics in more depth than just for their stylistic qualities or production origin. Why were certain fabrics preferred for cooking vessels, others for amphorae, and others yet for water storage vessels? Functional parameters, such as resistance to thermal shock, resilience to mechanical stress, and open porosity to allow for cooling by evaporation suddenly became as important, if not more, to characterise vessels as their mere shape and decoration.

From here, it is only logical to move the discussion to include technical ceramics as well as advanced ceramics based not on clay but on other raw, often synthetic materials. For gen-erations, these were barely noted by archaeologists but dismissed as not interesting or ig-nored as un-intelligible. However, ceramics are indispensable across almost all aspects of daily life, be it as bricks and tiles to build houses, palaces and temples, as ovens and pots to store, prepare and serve food, or as furnaces and crucibles to make the other artificial materials, metal, glass and artificial pigments – most of which are themselves ceramics in the broader sense of this term. Quartz-based ceramics such as Egyptian faience and Islamic stonepaste, and high-fired wares such as porcelain all blur the boundaries between cera-mics sensu stricto and glass proper. In addition, pigments such as those of the glossy sur-faces of Athenian black- and red-figured pottery, Egyptian blue and green, Han blue and purple, Naples yellow, cobalt blue and others, all expand the range of ceramic materials in archaeology – and need the earth scientist for their study and material decipherment. A completely new world emerges here before the eyes of those who are willing to see.

This book presents one of the major milestones in this emergence of science-based ceramic studies in archaeology, making it available for the first time in English and charting the con-tribution of Walter Noll during the formative years of Ceramics 2.0. Updated in its coverage of analytical techniques and current research into ancient ceramic pigments, it maintains the structure and content of the German original. As such, it combines the currency of a textbook with the record of the development of the study of archaeological ceramics. Sig-nificantly, and with the benefit of hindsight, it also marks a step in the change of attitude from the old-fashioned perception of the natural sciences as ancillary to archaeology (the German Hilfswissenschaften) towards the then emerging more confident concept of ar-chaeological science as a branch of archaeology in its own right. In this brave new world, it is all right for science-derived data on archaeological materials not to be immediately relevant for the archaeological and anthropological discourse, but to provide a further and often independent dimension of our view of the past. Almost by accident, this also strength-ens the view onto the productive levels of society which for too long stood in the shadows of the more glamorous elites, while none-the-less providing the material foundation for these elites. Ignoring this ‘material’ view, neglecting the contribution of the craftsmen and -women who actually created and shaped the world in which the ‘high culture’ of the past could thrive, would be as if one were to reduce culture to fashion, politics and theology, at the expense of the practical. This would be akin to reducing post-medieval Western culture

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XIPreface II

to people such as Martin Luther, William Shakespeare or Karl Marx, and ignoring the likes of Isambard Brunel, Werner von Siemens and Josiah Wedgwood, and the countless skilled labourers and engineers working for them.

The latter of which brings us nicely back to the topic of this volume, and the cross-fertilisa-tion of ceramic research at the interface of art and science, research done by scientists ca-pable of seeing the intellectual and cultural richness of this interface, oscillating between the beauty of ceramics to please the senses, and their duty to fulfil a function. One has to admire the vision and audacity to cross boundaries between disciplines, to merge seem-ingly disparate approaches, which propel us forward in our thinking and the perception of reality. Walter Noll had this gift of looking beyond his own profession, of seeing the bigger picture, of enriching our understanding of the past through the application of modern tech-niques to ancient materials, helping us discover a whole new world in the process. Robert Heimann has to be thanked – together with Dr Nägele and Verlag Schweizerbart – for mak-ing this book accessible to the English-speaking world.

Thilo Rehren Doha (Qatar) and London (UK)

December 2015

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About the authors

Walter Noll (1907-1987) was a renowned German mineralogist and chemist, known in particular for his work on chemistry and technology of silicones as well as his numerous ground-breaking contributions to archaeoceramics. In 1930, he received his Ph.D. degree in mineralogy from his hometown university in Jena with a thesis on the sorption of potas-sium ions onto argillaceous sediments, followed in 1937 by a Ph.D. in chemistry from Frankfurt University on the structure of heterocyclic ring compounds. He was a life-long employee of Bayer AG in Leverkusen, where he directed research on silicones for two de-cades until his retirement in 1971. This work resulted in a widely disseminated and into several foreign languages translated book on ‘Chemie und Technologie der Silicone’ (Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, 1960; English translation: ‘Chemistry and Technology of Silicones’, Academic Press, 1968).

Besides his industrial involvement, Walter Noll enjoyed teaching in a university setting. For many years, he served as an honorary professor at the Department of Mineralogy and Pe-trography at University of Cologne. Under his tutelage, several Ph.D. dissertations were brought to successful conclusion, all dealing with archaeometric issues related to the tech-nology of ancient ceramics of the Old World. Indeed, after his retirement from Bayer AG in 1971, Walter Noll found the time and opportunity to delve deeply into the science and technology of ancient ceramics and their pigments. He dedicated himself to the study of the ceramic remains of ancient civilisations, travelling widely to Crete, the Cycladic islands, Greece, Egypt, and Near East countries to study the techniques of domestic potters with the aim to discover congruencies between contemporary and ancient ways to manufacture lo-cal pottery. This work culminated in the present book, that under the title ‘Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente. Studien zu Material und Technologie’ appeared posthumously in print in 1991, edited by one of his doctoral students, Dr Jürgen Letsch.

In 1971, Walter Noll’s scientific work was honoured by the prestigious Wolfgang Ostwald-Award of the German Kolloid-Gesellschaft. In 1981, he was elected honorary member of the German Mineralogical Society (DMG) to recognise his lifelong scientific achievements.

Robert B. Heimann (* 1938) is a professor emeritus of applied mineralogy and materials science. He obtained his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in mineralogy from Freie Universität Berlin in 1963 and 1966, respectively, and his habilitation for mineralogy and crystal chem-istry in 1972. In 1971, he was appointed assistant professor at Freie Universität Berlin and in 1977 associate professor at Fridericiana Universität (TH) Karlsruhe. In 1979, he moved to Canada as a research associate at the Institute of Materials Science, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. Subsequently, he was a visiting professor at the Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Toronto (1979-1982) and a senior research scientist with 3M Canada Inc. (1981-1982). From 1982 to 1986, he was a geochemist with Atomic Energy of Canada Limited’s Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment in Pinawa, Mani-toba, and from 1987 to 1993 group leader and later research manager at Alberta Research Council (today: Alberta Innovates Technology Futures) in Edmonton, Alberta.

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XIIIAbout the authors

In 1993, he was appointed full professor at the Department of Mineralogy, Technical Uni-versity Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany. From 1994 to 1997, he served as Associate Dean of the Fakultät für Geowissenschaften und Bergbau, and from 2000-2004 as director of the Department of Mineralogy. He was also an adjunct professor of materials science at Univer-sity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada from 1988 to 2006. From 1996 to 2004, he served as vice president and then president of the International Council for Applied Miner-alogy (ICAM).

Robert Heimann has published over 280 professional research papers and review articles in numerous international scientific journals, including 20 technical reports as well as 5 monographs and several book chapters. His most recent contribution to archaeoceramics is a comprehensive book on ‘Ancient and Historical Ceramics. Materials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions’, published in 2014 with Professor Marino Maggetti by Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany.

He received, in 1992, the Distinguished Service Award of the Canadian University-Industry Council on Advanced Ceramics (CUICAC). In 2001, he was awarded the Georg-Agricola Medal of the German Mineralogical Society for his lifelong achievements in applied miner-alogy.

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Table of Contents

Preface I (Robert Heimann) V Preface to the German edition (1991) VIIIPreface II (Thilo Rehren) IXAbout the authors XIITable of contents XIV

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 The janiform nature of ceramics 11.2 In the beginning, there were ceramics 31.3 Ceramics – the first pyrotechnology? 6

Chapter 2 Methods of investigation 8

2.1 Instrumental analytics 8 2.1.1 Chemical compositions 9 2.1.2 Phase content 12 2.1.3 Micromorphology and texture 152.2 Reconstruction of the manufacturing process based on material analyses 17 2.2.1 Chemical and phase composition 17 2.2.2 Detection of forgeries 20 2.2.3 Antique sources and pictorial documentation 202.3 Contemporary pottery techniques as interpretive tools 21

Chapter 3 Ancient ceramics 23

3.1 Fundamentals of ancient and modern ceramics 233.2 The ancient ceramic material 25 3.2.1 Chemical composition 25 3.2.2 Phase composition 33 3.2.3 Texture 43 3.2.4 Colour 513.3 Contemporary autochthonous ceramics as proxy for ancient materials 553.4 Clays of contemporary autochthonous pottery 61 3.4.1 Crete 62 3.4.2 Mainland Greece 65 3.4.3 Mesopotamia 68 3.4.4 Egypt 69 3.4.5 Roman Rhineland 71

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3.5 Reconstruction of green clay processing methods 71 3.5.1 Preparation of clays 73 3.5.2 Forming 76 3.5.3 Decoration, application of handles, drying 803.6 The ceramic firing process 81 3.6.1 Ceramics as a heterogeneous system out of equilibrium 81 3.6.2 The influence of the gas atmosphere 83 3.6.3 Phase formation in calcareous clays 91 3.6.4 Phase formation in non-calcareous clays 97 3.6.5 Development of ceramic texture during firing 100 3.6.6 Thermometry of the ancient ceramic firing process 103

Chapter 4 Décor, design, and pattern 110

4.1 Fundamentals 1104.2 Ceramic painting 112 4.2.1 Iron oxide black/iron reduction technique 113 4.2.2 Manganese black/manganese black technique 128 4.2.3 Carbon black/C-black technique 141 4.2.4 Iron oxide red/iron oxidation technique 142 4.2.5 Copper red 143 4.2.6 White pigments 145 4.2.7 Mixed pigments 149 4.2.8 Bi- and polychrome colours 1504.3 Smoking 153 4.3.1 Carbon content 153 4.3.2 Nature of carbon 157 4.3.3 Methods of decoration by smoking 159 4.3.4 Distribution of C-black technique 1624.4 Cold painting 163 4.4.1 The pigments 164 4.4.2 Adhesives 1884.5 Metallic appliqués 193 4.5.1 Tin, tin alloys and lead 193 4.5.2 Gold and silver 199

Chapter 5 Regional ceramic developments 201

5.1 Mesopotamia (Neolithic to Chalcolithic) 201 5.1.1 The ceramic body 203 5.1.2 The painting (iron reduction technique) 207 5.1.3 The white ‘slip’ 215 5.1.4 C-black techniques 216

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5.2 Anatolia (Neolithic-Chalcolithic, Phrygian) 217 5.2.1 The ceramic body 218 5.2.2 The painting 2195.3 Iran 222 5.3.1 The ceramic body 223 5.3.2 The painting 2255.4 Sistan, Indus Valley cultures 229 5.4.1 Sistan 229 5.4.2 Indus Valley cultures 2345.5 Egypt 236 5.5.1 Role of pottery in ancient Egypt 236 5.5.2 The ceramic body and its raw materials 240 5.5.3 The coloured decoration 247 5.5.4 Specifics of ancient Egyptian ceramic technology 259

Plates 261References 269Subject Index 294Location Index 298

Appendix I Important mineral phases present in ancient ceramics and detectable by X-ray diffraction 301

Appendix II Compositions of ancient ceramics, plotted in the ternary phase diagram SiO2/Al2O3/(CaO+MgO) 302

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Chapter 1

Introduction

“Potsherds are asked to be heat-resistant or water-proof, matrilocal or patrilocal, relics of traumatic invasion or benign diffusion, insignia of domestic or market econo-mies – in short, sensitive measures of virtually all cul-tural phenomena” (De Boer 1984).

1.1 The janiform nature of ceramicsWe are used to look at ancient ceramics as well as other artefacts handed down to us from times immemorial as documents of the state of intellectual and artistic development of those cultures in which they were created. Ceramics are guiding posts of immerse value since they are close to indestructible, found worldwide in almost all areas of human set-tlement, and typologically possess a wide range of variation. The fact that even today ce-ramics are predominately interpreted from an archaeological point of view is grounded in the history of their discovery and investigation. Ceramics are excavated by prehistorians and archaeologists, and scientifically researched within the context of the sum total of the excavation finds. Hence, traditionally, the literature concerned, the display of ceramics in museums and, recently, their presentation during culture-oriented travel were and are ex-clusively in the hands of people trained in the historical disciplines. In this light, ceramics as a phenomenon of cultural history have found their circle of interest among a wide range of the public.

However, a ceramic object can be addressed from a completely different angle. One can inquire about the type of material it was made from, and by which method it was produced. In other words, one can try to get answers in which way the object reflects the technical competence of its creator, and his or her time. From this point of view, ceramics have be-come an additional valuable document of the history of technology.

It is evident that with this new way of questioning a different scientific discipline, natural science, comes into focus. Analytical techniques must be called upon to get insight into the properties of the material, from which information can be obtained on the nature of the raw materials used and their sometimes complex processing routes. Experimental investigation may confirm or disprove the assumed techniques leading to the object at hand. This creates a close to paradox situation: even though the methods of production of a ceramic object in antiquity were unsophisticated, testimony to the great age and worldwide distribution of the craft of the potter, it requires a large (and expensive) instrumental investment and applica-tion of modern physico-chemical methodology, to reconstruct the origins of the pot. Only the development of suitable methods furnishes the scientist with the tools for a fruitful and

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2 Chapter 1 Introduction

rewarding investigation of the antique ceramic material. Since these methods came to frui-tion only during the last decades, the scientific study of ancient ceramics is much more recent compared to archaeological investigation that do not depend on complex apparatus to study the objects but uses the classic tools of form- and style-critical analyses. Hence, the archaeological point of view enjoys a much longer historical record and thus can draw on the combined expertise of generations of archaeologists.

Even though ceramics appear to be janiform with respect to the scientific aspects under which they are being studied, in the end research will arrive at a unified result. This means that the disparate views and research methods of both humanities and science must still be aimed at recording the nature of ceramics in its totality. This task requires a close and sym-pathetic collaboration of archaeologists and scientists. Working in isolation is not fruitful. Consequently, today larger or smaller research groups have formed worldwide within which, on the one hand, the scientific investigation are being supported by the archaeolo-gist who provides the material samples and is cognitive about their origin, but on the other hand, will be rewarded with new insights. It is, however, surprising and somewhat disheart-ening that in some archaeologist circles science is still being treated as a kind of lowly handmaiden to archaeology. This has been seen, at least partly, as the result of the pur-ported inability of archaeologists and scientists to communicate effectively with each other, a deficiency that has recently been addressed by David Killick and linked to C.P. Snow’s two cultures theorem (Killick 2015b).

On a positive side, the interdisciplinary collaboration between science and archaeology is known as archaeometry, the science of ancient materials that involves the investigation of ancient objects by modern analytical methods of the exact sciences. However, the material science aspect that is the focus of our study is only one part within the realm of archaeometry. Other typical examples include the problems of dating and archaeological prospection.

A particular interesting research objective for archaeologists and scientists alike is ancient pottery with coloured decoration. For the archaeologist, decoration sensu lato has been, in addition to the vessel form and style, an important device to classify a ceramic object that enables to arrive at information on origin, provenance and trade pattern in ancient times. Likewise, the painted pattern were shown to be a fertile source to gain information on the state of knowledge of raw materials and the technological capability of the ancient craft-speople. The reason of the high information value of the coloured decoration is twofold. On the one hand, the colours in most cases are well preserved since they have been fired, in contrast to paints used for wall paintings. On the other hand, a coloured decoration re-quired a much-enlarged spectrum of raw materials and processing techniques compared to the ceramic body that consequently appears less variable in a spatial and temporal context. In contrast to this, mechanically generated embellishments of the surface of ceramic vessels such as incisions and engravings possess a less informative content as far as scientific ana-lysis is concerned. Their interpretation by archaeologists has already been developed to such a degree that the scientist is unable to deliver additional essential contributions.

Given the extent and intensity of ceramic finds that are brought to light by excavations, a close to incalculable field of archaeometric investigations has opened up. As a result, today we are still far removed from the point where we can describe and interpret ancient cera-mics and their decorations by scientific means in a similarly all-encompassing way, as ar-


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31.2 In the beginnings, there were ceramics

chaeological research is able to do. This inability is a salient reason to restrict the present book to a spatially and temporally limited geographical sector: we will deal with Old World ceramics, that is, those of countries of the Eastern Mediterranean as well as the high cultures of the Near East and Egypt from the Neolithic to the late Roman Empire. On the one hand, in the first four chapters we will paint a picture of general principles of ancient ceramic technologies, and on the other hand, in the fifth chapter, we will trace the development of ceramic technology throughout several selected high cultures of the Old World. In particu-lar, we will emphasise which information related to the history of culture and technology can be extracted from the wealth of data at hand.

1.2 In the beginnings, there were ceramicsCeramics are the oldest artificially produced materials of humankind. With the inception of ceramics, man has learned to move away from the exclusive dependence on natural mate-rials such as stone, wood, ivory or bone to create objects for daily use or for demonstration of artistic expression and cultic veneration.

If we define ceramic as a material generated by forming of plastic clay and its subsequent consolidation by firing at elevated temperature, we can trace the origin of ceramics to the 7th millennium BCE. This pertains to the present state of archaeological research. However, it is entirely possible that with progressing research the onset of the history of ceramics will be dated further back1.

The singular importance for humanity that ceramics command until today is grounded not only in their antiquity but also in the fact that ceramics are an indispensible part of human culture and civilisation. In the present age of modern technology, ceramic materials have proven to be unusually variable. On the one hand, in electronics and space-faring tech-nologies, metallurgy and metal processing as well as nuclear reactor design and biomedical applications the basic principle of ceramic technology are still the vanguard for a diversified and widespread supply of various products (Heimann 2010). On the other hand, simple pottery wares, produced by primitive means are up to the present time a commodity even of the undeveloped people of our planet to satisfy needs of their daily life. Hence, whereas ceramic materials are high-end products of the most developed civilisations they are simul-taneously indispensible materials serving the people of the third world. Thus, the overriding importance of ceramics for humankind can hardly be expressed more succinctly.

It is suggestive to assume that the experience of forming objects from moist clay according to ones need and desire that maintain their form after drying in air is much older than the conscious knowledge that firing these objects results in higher strength and permanency. Among the presently oldest known attestations for this assumption are small clay figurines from Moravia, dated to the Upper Palaeolithic. They belong to a group of hundreds of fully three-dimensional human and animal figurines made from various materials, found scat-

1 Indeed, since this treatise has been conceived, much older ceramic objects became known in a cave in southern China, dating back to between 18,300 and 15,430 BP (Boaretto et al. 2009).


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4 Chapter 1 Introduction

tered from the coast of the Atlantic Ocean to Siberia, and dated from the Aurignacien to the Upper Magdalenien, that is, between 35,000 and 8000 BCE. They were fashioned pre-dominately from stone (soapstone, limestone, sandstone) or bone, ivory and antler, but also from clay. In depicting the human body, the female forms prevail with strongly exaggerated sexual characteristics. These objects are generally interpreted as fertility idols (Fig. 1.1). While archaeologists do not deny that some Moravian clay figurines may have been inten-tionally fired, final judgement will require still missing scientific analyses2. However, it is also probable that any firing may have been incidental, for example by accidental second-ary heating in a scene of fire that was limited to moderate temperatures.

Already during the Upper Neolithic, clay and loam were utilised for construction of houses, either in the form of air-dried bricks or as ramming mass, and for sealing of supporting structural members, for example daub-and-wattle work. Here also, both early knowledge about strengthening of clayey materials by firing and its practical application are improba-

2 Investigation by Vandiver et al. (1989) suggested that firing temperatures between 500 and 800 °C have been applied, and that the predominant mechanism of consolidation was impurity-initiated, liquid-phase sintering at grain boundaries of clay minerals.

Figure 1.1 The ‘Venus of Dolni Věstonice’, an Upper Palaeolithic fertility idol from Moravia (29,000–25,000 BCE). Height 111 mm, width 43 mm.


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693.4 Clays of contemporary autochthonous pottery

3.4.4 EgyptOwing to the length of the Nile valley and the vastness of the sedimentation regions, larger variations of the chemical and mineralogical compositions of the Nile mud are possible. Several analyses of the Nile silt are shown in Table 3.10. The Qena (Bakr 1956) and El-Ballas (Lucas & Harris 1962) samples comprise marly clays, the Nile mud analysis by Häng-st (1979) pertains to clay used in a brick factory in Sohag, about 40 km south of Asyut. Ac-cording to U. Jux (Cologne), this material still belongs to the time prior to the construction of the Aswan dam and therefore could correspond to the material already used in Pharaon-

Table 3.10. Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of lime-poor Nile mud, and lime-rich marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Hängst 1979, Shortland 2000). * calculated as FeO.

Origin Analyst SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI

Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 n.d. 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5

Nile mud Hängst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0

Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2 –

Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0 –

Qena clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 – 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0

El-Ballas clay Lucas 34.8 20.6 – 6.1 17.7 0.4 1.3 1.0 21.4

Figure 3.12. Compositions of various ancient calcareous and non-calcareous Egyptian pottery, and present-day Nile mud and Qena and El-Ballas marly clays (see Table 3.10).


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70 Chapter 3 Ancient ceramics

ic times. The analyses plot in the ternary diagram SiO2/Al2O3/(CaO+MgO) in the non-cal-careous field beyond the conode quartz/anorthite or close to it (Fig. 3.12). The figure shows also various ancient Egyptian pottery wares from Predynastic to late Egyptian times. In contrast to this, the composition of the calcareous marly clay from Qena is solidly located in the compatibility triangle quartz/diopside/anorthite, together with ancient wares pre-dominately from the New Kingdom period.

The grains size distribution curve of Nile mud (Hängst 1979) shows two maxima, one be-tween 2 and 8 μm in the range of silt, the other between 63 and 125 μm in the range of fine sand (Fig. 3.13). The latter is much more pronounced and is related to quartz. A similar maximum has been observed in a ceramic shard of Malqata, a palace complex built by the 18th dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep III, located at Thebes, to the south of Medinet Habu. In both cases, the quartz grains do not attain the degree of rounding typical for desert sand. Hence, this coarser component of the Nile silt may not be related to sand drift but appears to be an indigenous constituent of the clay (Hängst 1979). The pelitic fraction < 2 μm con-tains kaolinite and montmorillonite.

Whereas it is generally assumed that calcareous ancient Egyptian pottery was produced from marly silt similar to the material mined today at Qena (Lucas & Harris 1962; see Fig. 3.12), the clay of El-Ballas is comparatively rich in aluminium (Table 3.10) and its composi-tion is located on the conode quartz/anorthite, outside the field of calcareous ancient ware.

Figure 3.13. Grain size distribution of Nile mud (Hängst 1979).


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713.5 Reconstruction of green clay processing methods

3.4.5 Roman RhinelandWithin the context of a thorough study of provincial Roman Terra Sigillata (Knoll 1976), several calcareous illitic potter’s clays from Otterbach, Jockgrim, near Rheinzabern (Palati-nate, Germany) were analysed (Schneider 1978, Heimann et al. 1980). Their chemical composition (Table 3.11) correlates well with that of Roman Terra Sigillata produced at the East Gaulish settlement Tabernae rhenanae (today’s Rheinzabern) between the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. The rather high magnesium content points to the presence of dolomitic lime-stone in the pelitic fraction of the raw material. The clay mineral content consists of illite, mixed-layer illite/montmorillonite compositions, and some kaolinite (Heimann et al. 1980). The analytical results strongly suggest that this raw material was used in local potteries since Roman times. Here, a particularly fortuitous case exists that allows experimenting with ex-actly the same clay raw materials used by ancient Roman potters (see Heimann & Maggetti 2014).

Indeed, chemical analyses of the TS ware and moulds excavated at Rheinzabern allowed recalculating the normative mineral contents of the original clay to be 24–30 mass% illite, 6–8 mass% chlorite, 9–19 mass% feldspar, 40–45 mass% quartz, 4–5 mass% lepidocrocite ( -FeOOH) and 4–10 mass% calcite (Heimann 1982b). There are two clay-bearing horizons of Upper Pliocene/Pleistocene age at the Otterbach deposit, a lower lime-rich (~23 mass% CaO) and relatively iron-poor (~3.6 mass% Fe2O3) seam (clay #I) of about 1.6 m thickness (stratigraphic definition tWku) and an upper lime-poor (~2 mass% CaO) and relatively iron-rich (~5.2 mass% Fe2O3) seam (clay #II) of about 1.3 m thickness (stratigraphic definition tHu). It is quite reasonable to assume that the Roman potters mixed these two types of clay at a ratio of 100 parts clay #II to 14 parts clay #I to obtain a workable raw material of a composition shown in Table 3.11 below.

3.5 Reconstruction of green clay processing methodsThis section intends to shed light on the method the ancient potters applied to process clay in its ‘green’ state prior to firing, that is, selection of certain grain size fractions, mixing of different raw materials, conditioning, and finally forming and drying to reach a leather-hard state.

Archaeological and archaeoceramic research have dealt differently with the individual as-pects of this complex question. This is certainly related to the lack of excavation results since with the exception of forming on a potter’s wheel all manipulations listed above could be performed without stationary equipment. At most, to the exceptions may belong the

Table 3.11. Chemical composition of calcareous illitic clay from Otterbach, Jockgrim, Palatinate, Germany (Heimann et al. 1980, Heimann 2016).

Oxide SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5

Mass% 61.7 0.8 19.3 5.5 7.0 2.7 0.8 3.5 0.1


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elutriation process insofar it had been done in fixed installations, for example in brick-built tanks or basins carved in stone (Fig. 3.15). However, no evidence for this has been found in excavations yet.

Numerous information on individual steps of ceramic processing can be extracted from ancient images including Greek painted vases, Corinthian clay tablets (pinakes), and Egyp-tian wall frescos. Today, these images are among the most valuable and direct sources avail-able. Among the images, depiction of the shaping of vessels on a potter’s wheel are promi-nent, apparently being for the artist the most fascinating step of making pottery. In contrast to this, documentations of the preparatory steps of pottery production are rare. Earlier excel-lent evaluations of the canon of images showing the making of Greek and Egyptian pottery can be found in Scheibler (1983) and Arnold (1976), respectively. In particular, Cuomo di Caprio (1984) and Hasaki (2002, 2013) evaluated the compendium of Corinthian pinakes, showing that a Greek ceramics workshop of the 6th century BCE frequently contained two separate units: an internal area where the potter worked and may have displayed his prod-ucts for sale, and an outer zone, where the kiln was placed. This kiln was subdivided into two chambers separated by a holey platform, whereby the upper chamber was connected to a plastered dome with a short chimney. Other details observable on these pinakes in-clude loading doors, stoking channels, ladders to reach the chimney, hooked tools for stok-ing the fire and operating vent holes (Fig. 3.18; see also Heimann & Maggetti 2014). Rieth (1960) has described the development of the potter’s wheel in detail (see Chapter 3.5.2).

Richter (1923) has evaluated the sparse evidence scattered throughout the ancient literary sources with loving attention to details. However, the value of such sources is compara-tively limited as explained in Chapter 1.

Advantages and disadvantages of the two reliable ways, that is, the evaluation of ancient images and the observation of contemporary autochthonous techniques are obvious. Whereas the latter provides insight into the lively action including many details of process-ing steps and their sequential arrangement but neglects the historical context, the former yields only a snapshot of the totality of the working process but gives clues about the mini-mum age of the procedure (terminus ante quem). Hence, both methodologies complement one another very successfully (see for example, Arnold 1976, also Traunmüller 2009). In some cases, the rich graphic material of Egyptian wall paintings can even shed light on the history of individual processing steps as pointed out by Arnold (1976) within the context of the development of the potter’s wheel (see Chapter 3.5.2).

These encouraging results notwithstanding, the results of investigation of ancient materials with scientific methods in the context of green processing is, in contrast to the ceramic firing process, rather limited. The reason for this is, that during ceramic firing the materials suffer dramatic changes that obliterate any traces of the potter’s activity prior to firing. As shown in Chapter 3.2.3, textural analyses can provide indication whether and how the clays were elutriated and tempered, maybe even conditioned. Chemical analyses can provide clues as to mixing clays of differing provenance and properties. However, materials science cannot give answers to the questions of techniques and equipment used in antiquity.

To overcome this conundrum, the study of practices and equipment used by contemporary potters in rural regions of the Old World may be of value. Their means are so basic that an


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ancient origin can be surmised, even though the question remains how old these traditions actually are. Since in several cases close similarities of the appearance and properties of today’s autochthonous rural ceramics and 4,000 years old ancient wares were observed, these traditions appear to be very old.

Hampe & Winter (1965) provided a very detailed study of the practices and apparatus of potters in rural regions of the Old World. Similarly, Noll and co-workers (Noll 1983, Letsch 1982, Hängst 1979) observed how present-day potters on Crete, in Greece, and Egypt con-ducted their trade. Based on these studies, the following summary of the green processing of clays can be given.

3.5.1 Preparation of claysClay dug from the pit contains a variety of impurities including twigs, leaves, sand, pebbles, and sometimes larger pieces of rock, quartz and limestone. Thus, the preparation of the clay is the next mandatory step after having acquired all necessary resources. Clay supplied in lumps or as bale cargo will be used as delivered or freed of coarse impurities prior to further processing. The latter depends on the quality of the raw material, that is, its cleanliness as well as the requirements the ceramic object has to fulfil. To make large vessels (pithoi), the potter usually dispenses with preparation. The finer the shard and the smaller the vessel, the more care must be exercised to remove coarse mineral or plant residues.

It was observed in a pottery in Kentri (Crete) that the clay charged with water was put through a metal sieve as the only preparatory step. In workshops in Hania on Crete and Amaroussi in Attica, wet sieving was combined with levigation (Hampe & Winter 1965). As this requires knowledge of making metallic wires and sieves, this practice is certainly not a very old tradition. In contrast to this, dry sieving executed in workshops of southern Italy could go back in time since sieves made from reeds or rushes would suffice (type Cam-erota, Hampe & Winter 1965). A simple but time-consuming procedure is repeated cutting of plasticised clay, followed by handpicking of coarse impurities. However, the most suc-cessful and economic procedure is elutriation. It allows treating the entire raw materials mass at once, is controllable, and able to separate homogeneous, finest-grained fractions used subsequently for slips.

Investigation of the texture of ceramics confirms that elutriation has been used already in ancient times (Chapter 3.2.3). This pertains to the very fine and homogeneous Halaf ware of Mesopotamia, the ‘eggshell’ Kamares ware of Middle Minoan Crete, and the Minyan ware of Thessaly. In particular, the engobes (slips) applied in the Protosesklo and Sesklo periods of the Thessalian Neolithic substantiate knowledge of the benefits of elutriation. Frequently, the chemical and phase compositions of engobes suggest that they were won from the finest fractions of the same clays that were used for the ceramic body.

The fact that the elutriation technique of ancient potters was not sufficiently appreciated in the archaeological literature may relate to the lack of evidence of appropriate installations. Even in today’s autochthonous potteries, working with a (fixed) elutriation installation is uncommon. However, such installations were observed by Hampe & Winter (1965) in Am-


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aroussi near Athens, and in several potteries on Crete (Nochia, Karoti), Rhodes (Archange-los), Cyprus (Vasilia), Siphnos, Lesbos, and Samos. Noll (1978b) and Hängst (1979) discov-ered elutriation facilities in Margarites on Crete as well as in the Fayum Oasis in Egypt.

Apart from this, it is easy to achieve satisfactory elutriation results by very primitive means. The simplest approach imaginable was found in a pottery in Margarites (Fig. 3.14), where the potter used tin vats to pond clay with water. After stirring to form a suspension and set-tling for a certain time, the supernatant slurry containing the finest grain fractions is ladled into a second vat and there left to thicken. Thinking of fired clay containers such as dis-carded pithoi instead of modern tin vats, there is no reason to assume that this technique could not have been applied in antiquity by the same means.

Perfecting of the elutriation work can be achieved by constructing stationary facilities. Nor-mally, they consist of several successively or side-by-side arranged shallow basins with flat bottoms and partially connected with level drains cut into the separating walls. In Ama-roussi, such basins were made from concrete (Hampe & Winter 1965, Letsch 1982). An-cient potters of the Fayum Oasis in Egypt simply dug the elutriation basins in the ground (Hängst 1979), and similarly simple solutions were found on Rhodes (fortification of the basin walls with boulders and clay) and Cyprus (level drains in basins at Vasilia; Hampe & Winter 1965). Of particular interest, and apparently never observed before, is an elutriation facility at Margarites (Crete) cut into solid rock (Noll 1978b); Fig. 3.15). Whereas its origin is undecided, the construction is so simple and convincing that it may actually go back to very old, maybe even Minoan times.

These elutriation basins could have served several purposes. Initially, the clay will be ponded in one of them with water, treaded, and thus transformed into a more or less homogenous suspension. Then, by decanting, the suspension will be distributed among the other basins, and separated into several grain size fractions, either by draining of the supernatant solution

Figure 3.14. The simplest method of elutriation using tin vats as ‘elutriation basins’, observed in a pottery in Margarites (Crete).


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or by ladling. The finest fraction will be used as engobe or, after adding colouring mineral pigments, to prepare paint slips. Coarser fractions used to form the ceramic bodies will be left in the basin to dry in the sun. During drying, the clay separates naturally by shrinking into pieces. To obtain working pieces of uniform and consistent size, the clay cake will be cut into rectangular plates prior to complete drying, or dissected and rolled up into bales.

The clay suspensions won in an elutriation facility are adequate for mixing different clays, since by this technique much more homogenous mixtures can be obtained compared to kneading and repeated cutting of plasticised clay bales.

Workshops without elutriation installations obtain clay mixtures by mechanical working of moist raw clays, either by treading or, in small amounts, by manual kneading. Sometimes, mules in a round barn or on a threshing floor (Valderice on Sicily, Hampe & Winter 1965) will do this backbreaking work.

In the context of the problem of tempering (Chapter 3.2.3), the question arises, whether and to what extent this process plays a role in the practice of contemporary potters. In our own experience, tempering with quartz sand or stone chips was never observed. However, the potters distinguish between ‘lean’ and ‘fat’ clays. Since the former contains many psam-mitic mineral and rock particles, it introduced temper grains when two or more clays are being mixed. Tempering with chaff, ubiquitously used in ancient Egypt, is still being done today in the Fayum Oasis (Hängst 1979).

The last step in a series of manipulation serving to win a paste suitable for forming is ‘con-ditioning’. Its purpose is to improve the plasticity and thus workability of clay. There are two way to achieve this: aging and churning.

Aging is a long-term process lasting sometimes several months or even years during which the moistened clay mass matures by colloid-chemical mechanisms and by the action of

Figure 3.15. Elutriation facility of an autochthonous pottery in Margarites (Crete) cut into solid rock.


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microorganisms. This leads to an increase of the degree of dispersion, wetting of clay parti-cles with a water film, and intra-crystalline swelling of expandable clay minerals. Decaying and fermenting organic substances including urine and faeces will deliver urea that has been found to contribute to intra-crystalline swelling of kaolinite, normally not observed for this clay mineral (Weiss 1961). The mechanism that causes kaolinite particles to separate and disperse very efficiently is at the heart of the exceptional quality of Chinese porcelain (Weiss 1963). In addition, complex microbiological factors will affect clay minerals such as kaolinite by formation of bio-nanocomposites (Detellier & Schoonheydt 2014) and bacte-rial bio-mineralisation (Oberlies & Pohlmann 1958, Cygan & Tazaki 2014).

Among the Old World potters visited, such maturation treatment was only observed once. The Heraklion potter wrapped the clay mixture in plastic foil to ripen for up to two years. The use of an aging step in ancient times prior to processing of clay cannot be excluded but is not very likely.

In contrast to aging, churning is a simple process and therefore has presumably been ap-plied already by ancient potters. This is suggested by the biblical passage in Isaiah 41:25: “I have stirred up one from the north, and he comes – one from the rising sun who calls on my name. He treads on rulers as if they were mortar, as if he were a potter treading the clay”.

Like mixing, churning is done either by hand, sometimes aided by a bench (Petriades, Mes-senia; Hampe & Winter 1962) or by treading. The process of churning improves both the wetting and dispersion of clay particles as well as helps to remove occluded air bubbles.

3.5.2 FormingToday, the generally applied method of forming ceramic objects is throwing on a potter’s wheel. Prior to its invention (Fig. 3.16), other forming techniques were used, identifiable by lack of an axisymmetric shape, inequality of wall thickness, and lack of throwing traces at the outer wall of a vessel and the bottom.

Among the oldest forming techniques belongs the cutting to shape of a compact clay lump as already postulated for Palaeolithic figurines (see Chapter 1). Possibly, this was a paragon for potters of the Fayum Oasis who were observed to drive an impression into a clay lump with a wooden mallet, and subsequently thin and smooth the walls by hand. (Hängst 1979). Prehistoric Egyptian potters presumably applied free forming by kneading and pulling of clay by hand as deduced by Arnold (1976) from typical features of the vessel’s ceramic body. The disadvantages of this technique are obvious as the vessel walls show varying thickness. Furthermore, this method could hardly be applied to fashion larger objects.

First progress was made by coiling, that is, rolling of clay lumps to obtain long strands, and by using clay slabs to build-up a vessel. The latter appears to have been used by early Egyp-tian potters, likely to form larger vessels with wide openings. This is suggested by the fact that vessels separate by breaking into almost rectangular shards (Arnold 1976). General importance is accorded to the technique of coiling, that is, stepwise build-up of vessel walls by adding, in spiral form, overlapping hand-formed rolled clay strands, and subsequent smoothing the outer and inner surfaces. Heimann & Maggetti (2014) provided details of the


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2235.3 Iran

located in northern Iran (Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hisar, Tepe Giyan, Çaşmahi Ali) and the southern Linear Pottery (LBK) provinces of Tell-i Bakun, Bampur, the workshops around Persepolis as well as the ceramic centre of Susa with its masterpieces of Iranian ceramics. For the com-plete chronology up to 2000 BCE, see Voigt & Dyson (1992).

In the light of the variability of the material, a complete scientific investigation would re-quire a large sample statistics. Lacking this, the results discussed below have only the char-acter of random tests. Hence, many more samples for additional analytical work are neces-sary. The complexity of the relationships among local products can be perceived by the detailed petrographic investigation of ceramics of different Iranian workshops (Reindell & Riederer 1983).

5.3.1 The ceramic bodyFigure A3 of Appendix II gives an overview over the chemical composition of Iranian ce-ramics. The composition varies over a large range, mostly related to variation of the SiO2/(CaO+MgO) ratio. Hence, the compositional scatter is very similar to that of Anatolian ce-ramics (Fig. A2, Appendix II), and both wares contrast sharply with the much more homo-geneous Mesopotamian ceramics (Fig. A1, Appendix II).

The compositional spectrum of Iranian ceramics ranges from lime-poor to very lime-rich, whereby the majority is located in the lime-rich field. Unique is the unusually high alumina content of a shard of Lapui near Persepolis (I 61, Table 5.2).

The erratic composition of the ceramic bodies is a function of the complex geological struc-ture of the area, that, similar to Anatolia, gives rise to the variability of the clay composi-tions. Besides marly clays that were the mainstay of Mesopotamian raw materials, in Iran

Table 5.2. Composition of selected Iranian ceramics.

# Location Date or type Ceramic body; X/Si x 100X = Al, Ca, Fe, K

Al Ca Fe K

I 12 Tepe Sialk Sialk 25 82 29 11

I 59 Tepe Sialk Surface find 21 65 19 13

I 21 Çaşmahi Ali Sialk II 18 65 21 13



I 25 Tell-i Bakun 1st half 5th mil. 26 44 30 17

I 26 Tell-i Bakun 1st half 5th mil. 28 19 22 19

I 61 Lapui/Persepolis Bakun AV, 4th mil. 50 24 45 19

I 62 Bampur Bampur II, 3rd mil. 27 32 28 16

I 60 Kaftari/Persepolis c. 2000 BCE – – – –


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224 Chapter 5 Regional ceramic developments

lime-poor clays were also utilised. However, a tractable relationship between the composi-tion of clays and the geographical location of the production centre cannot be established with confidence by restriction to the triangular diagram (Fig. A3, Appendix II) alone. Unam-biguous are only the ceramic products of the Zagros Mountains (Tepe Guran), located in the very lime-rich conode triangle diopside/wollastonite-gehlenite-anorthite. Relatively close together are also the samples of Tepe Sialk, whereas the wares from Çaşmahi Ali show large scatter. It is possible that at the latter place raw materials of different origin were used. On the one hand, not only the wares of the Zagros Mountains are located in the very lime-rich field but also those of the geographically and temporally far removed Susa. On the other hand, ceramics from Tepe Sialk are located in the lime-poor field next to samples from the neighbourhood of Persepolis. However, a somewhat improved grouping of ceramics from other locations is obtained when particular trace elements, and the concentrations of iron and calcium are considered (Reindell & Riederer 1983).

The oldest Iranian ceramics of Tepe Guran are not only distinguished by their high lime content but also by their extremely low firing temperatures, likely around or even below 600 °C. The ceramic body consists of loosely agglomerated mineral components of the raw material and, in particular, non-sintered clay mineral platelets (Fig. 5.20).

There is no indication that the clay particles have reacted with lime to produce even a weak sintering pattern. Strengthening of the texture has only occurred via mechanical densifica-tion and thus increasing cohesion among mineral particles. To enhance strength, the potters added abundant chaff that is visible in SEM images (Fig. 5.21A). Owing to the low firing temperature, the ostracod valves as original organogenic calcium carbonate component of the marly clay have been retained almost unchanged (Fig. 5.21B). The fact that besides

Figure 5.20. Fracture surface of a very weakly fired and thus non-sintered ceramics (I 38) of Tepe Guran, Zagros Mountains, Iran.


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2255.3 Iran

calcite dolomite is still present in the ceramic body provides another temperature marker as dolomite starts to decompose already at 550 °C and cannot reform by reaction of potential decomposition products with atmospheric carbon dioxide. Consequently, dolomite must have been part of the raw material. Phase composition and texture of the paint layers con-firm the temperature assessment (see Chapter 5.3.2).

Later ceramic products show increased firing temperatures as evident from pottery of Tepe Sialk, Çașmahi Ali, Tell-i Bakun and Tepe Giyan (Table 5.3). In these wares, generally diop-side and gehlenite were found as neoformations of calcareous clays. Together with informa-tion on the partially sintered texture, a firing temperature of 800–850 °C can be assumed. Occasionally found calcite can be interpreted as decomposition product of gehlenite dur-ing burial. An exemption is a ceramic sample of Tell-i Bakun (I 26) that contains only calcite as major calcareous compound. This ceramics was presumably fired at a temperature so low that undissociated calcium carbonate of the raw material was retained unchanged.

In conclusion, the Iranian ceramics resemble those of Anatolia but differ in their materials properties clearly from those of Mesopotamia. An equivalent of well-fired Halaf ware is neither known from Anatolia nor from Iran, proof that the latter did not enjoy a ceramic artisanship comparable to that of Mesopotamia. Even more visible are these differences in the appearance and properties of paint layers as discussed below.

5.3.2 The paintingAs in Anatolia, in Iran the manganese black technique played a dominant role. Only in the Zagros Mountains and at times of the onset of ceramic painting in general, manganese-free, iron oxide-rich raw materials were utilised. As long as they were fired under oxidising con-ditions, red and red brown colours were obtained. It is remarkable that iron ochres were selected for painting instead of the ubiquitously occurring iron-rich clays.

Figure 5.21. Microstructure of ceramics of Tepe Guran. A: SEM image of charred remnants of chaff (I 39). B: Light-optical image of a thin section of sample I 38 (cp. Fig. 5.20) with well-pre-served ostracod valves, pointing at a maximum firing temperatures of 600 °C.


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226 Chapter 5 Regional ceramic developments

The paint layers of the Tepe Guran ware show clearly these ochre particles (Fig. 5.22). The particles are more densified at the surface of the paint layer compared to its interior as the result of the pressure applied during painting. The red brown colour of sample I 39 (Fig. 5.21A) may have been generated by the onset of reductive firing. In this case, the fluxing action of iron (II) ions would have contributed to densification. However, such tentative reduction was presumably not being done intentionally by the potter but may just be a sign of the haphazard way in which early potters had executed their trade. Nevertheless, despite this aberration the earliest decoration process was that of iron oxidation technique.

The black paint layers of the wares of northern (Çaşmahi Ali, Tepe Sialk, Tepe Giyan) and southern (Tell-i Bakun; Plate X) Iran, over a thousand years younger, now contain manga-nese in varying amounts as colour-generating element. The Mn/(Mn+Fe) ratios shown in Table 5.3 demonstrate this variability. Up to the period of Susa I, manganese black was the dominant black pigment, whereby inhomogeneous composition of the raw materials as well as strongly varying Fe/Si and Mn/Si concentrations point to varying amounts of clay added to the paint slurry.

As already previously discussed and justified (Chapter 4.2.2), the colour of manganese black painting produced in the range 7 < Mn/(Mn+Fe) < 100 (%) is a more or less deep black. Only below 7%, the black colour is lightened to brown that turns on further decrease of the manganese content to brown red, and finally the red of pure iron (III) oxide. This change of colour with decreasing manganese content can be compensated for in ancient paint layers by a high iron content (Fe/Si ratio). During weakly reducing firing, iron oxide black then contributes considerably to colour development. Such a combination of manga-

Figure 5.22. Red brown paint layer on a ceramics of Tepe Guran (I 55), consisting of loosely ag-gregated rounded iron ochre particles that are surficially densified (left in oblique view). This pottery is presumably among the oldest known painted ceramics worldwide.


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2275.3 Iran

nese and iron oxide black (‘simultaneous iron oxide/manganese black technique’) was also evident in Phrygian paint layers (see Chapters 5.2.2, 4.2.2). The beautiful black of the col-oured decoration of ceramics of Susa (I 56, I 57) may have been obtained by this combina-tion technique.

After the paragon of the products of ancient Zagros potters, later ceramic wares were still painted with ochres as raw materials precursors for black and red decorations. This can again be demonstrated by looking at the particle morphology. Depending on the relative amount of pigments and silicatic adhesives, collomorphous ochre particles (Fig. 5.23A;

Table 5.3. Variability of composition of black pigments used to decorate Iranian ceramics.

Sample # Location Fe/Si Mn/Si Mn(Mn+Fe)% Pigment phases

I 12 Sialk 61 15 20

I 59 Sialk 230 29 11

I 21 Çașșmahi Ali 23 11 32

I 22 Çașșmahi Ali 20 12 38 spinel, haematite

I 23 Çașșmahi Ali 68 30 31

I 25 Tell-i Bakun 124 9 6.8

I 26 Tell-i Bakun 140 68 33 spinel, haematite

I 58 Tepe Giyan 76 2 2.6

I 61 Lapui 29 9 24

I 62 Bampur 150 45 23

I 60 Kaftari 50 125 71 hausmannite, spinel

I 57 Susa 104 4 3.7

I 56 Susa 148 3 2

Figure 5.23. Black paint layers on Iranian ceramics. A: Loosely aggregated rounded manganese/iron ochre particles on a ceramic of Çaşmahi Ali (I 23, Table 5.3). B: Siliceous paint layer with interspersed rounded to lath-shaped manganese/iron ochre particles on a ceramic of Tepe Sialk (I 59, Table 5.3).


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Plate I. Incompletely reduced paint on a black-figured Late Minoan pithos. The figurative design shows two typical Minoan features, a double-ax and a bull’s head.

Plates

Plate II. Dependence of colour on paint thickness on a shard painted by the iron reduction-reoxidation technique. Note the craquelée of the thicker portions of the paint.


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262 Plates

Plate III. Dependence of colour on thickness of the paint layer produced by the iron reduction-reoxidation technique. Late Minoan hydria.

Plate IV. Polished black-topped redware bowl with interior burnished palm-leaf design. Badari tradition (c. 4400–4000 BCE). Excavated at El-Badari, Egypt. Repaired. Height 7 cm, diameter 17 cm. Reg.no. 1929,1106.10. © The Trustees of the British Museum.


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263Plates

Plate V. Pottery jar from Samarra (6500–6000 BCE; grave C). Whitish yellow body with brown-black and grey-green painted decoration. Warped during firing. Height 10.3 cm, diameter 7–11.3 cm. Reg. no. 1924,0416.7. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Plate VI. Painted pottery bowl. Reddish black paint on buff ceramic body, showing a seven-pet-alled rosette in the centre. Halaf culture (6000–5000 BCE). Excavated at Arpachiyah, Iraq. Height 5 cm, diameter 15.7 cm. Reg.no. 1934,0210.82. © The Trustees of the British Museum.


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Subject index

Accessorial phases 41Adhesives 188 ff.Aging 75Amarna blue 168Andreasen pipette 62Appliqués 111, 193 ff.Archaeothermometry 103,

104Atacamite 167, 176, 178, 248Atomic emission spectro-

metry 9Atomic force microscopy 17Atterberg limit 44Aurignacien 4Autochthonous ceramics

55 ff., 61Azurite 144, 176, 179, 248

Badari period 247, 248Binder clay 116 ff.Birefringence 16, 35, 106,

120Bixbyite 112, 130, 131, 133,

140, 168, 254, 255Black-figured Attic ceramic

19, 23, 24, 86Black-topped ware 123, 161,

247, 248Blunging 48Boudouard equilibrium 22,

85 ff., 122, 123, 132, 133, 142

Bronze Age 25, 90, 107, 196Burnishing 89, 158, 159,

249

Calcination 6Campanian ware 87Capillary force 42Carbon black 112Cathode ray tube 13C-black ceramics 88, 89,

141, 159, 160, 162 ff., 207, 247, 248

Ceramic painting 110, 112 ff.

Ceruse 21Chaff 44, 45, 49, 75, 217,

224, 225, 241Chalcanthite 144Chalcolithic 27Chamotte 44, 60Chrysocolla 165, 177, 248Churning 75Cinnabar 165, 167, 169,

248Clay pebbles 44, 60, 63Closed porosity 45, 48, 51,

101Cobalt aluminate 165, 168,

180, 185 ff., 191, 248, 255 ff.

Coccolithophores 40Coefficient of thermal

expansion 30, 108Coercive force 108Coiling 48, 76, 77Cold painting 21, 23, 110,

162, 163 ff., 191 ff., 259Collomorphous 115, 142,

227Colour standards 51Combustion tube 11Compatibility triangle 26,

37, 105Compressive stress 30Conductometric measure-

ment 11Conode 26, 37, 145Copper hydroxychloride

165, 177, 191, 253Copper red 143Coptic ware 258Corals 40Cotectic triangle 38, 212Cultural drift 139Cuprite 143

Debye-Scherrer technique 12

Differential thermal analysis 42, 98

Dimorphite 175Diopside 19, 22, 26, 37 ff.,

117, 145, 146, 172, 173, 195, 218, 222, 225, 236, 243, 245

Disequilibrium 81, 82, 83

Earthenware 25, 51Egyptian blue 17, 23, 165,

168, 176, 180 ff., 191, 248, 249, 257, 259

Electron density distribution 54

Electron-probe microanalysis 10, 91

Elutriation 24, 31, 43, 49, 51, 72, 73, 117, 120, 125, 126, 166, 205, 211, 213, 215, 233, 235, 241, 250

Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis 10, 12, 16, 26, 31, 55, 147, 149, 212

Engobe 24, 73, 75, 111, 114, 118 ff., 120, 129, 137, 142, 143, 149, 152, 153, 156, 158, 161, 192, 214, 215, 218, 228, 238

Eridu culture 201Euler number 51Eutectic melt 18, 19, 29

Fayalite 53, 85, 122, 123 ff., 141, 150

Fluxing agent 31Fly wheel 78, 79Focused ion beam milling 14Foraminifera 40Forgery 20Forsterite 149Fresco painting 167, 171


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295Subject index

Frescobuono technique 189, 192

Frescosecco technique 189, 192

Gehlenite 14, 22, 26, 37 ff., 117, 145, 146, 195, 204, 218, 222, 225, 229, 235, 242, 243, 245

Gesso 191, 192, 200, 252, 258

Glaucophane 165, 167, 179Glaze 111, 120, 126, 143Glossy carbon 157 ff., 249Glossy slip 119 ff., 124 ff.,

137, 158, 210, 214Goethite 114, 117, 173,

174, 248Grain size distribution 43,

47, 93Green body strength 65, 71Green frit 165, 167, 179,

181, 249Grey Minyan ware 14, 39,

46, 90Guinier method 12

Haematite 26, 30, 34, 35, 36, 52, 53, 54, 87, 112, 113, 114, 115, 130 ff., 233, 235

Halaf culture 201 ff.Halaf ware 24, 46, 73Han blue 180Han purple 180Hassuna culture 201 ff.Hausmannite 112, 130, 131,

133, 134Helladic 46Hercynite 26, 34, 37, 52, 87,

112, 113, 122, 123, 124, 140, 150, 208, 232, 233, 235, 236

Hiatal distribution 46, 47Huntite 165, 166, 171, 248,

249, 253

Incrusted ware 164Index minerals 38, 41Indicatrix 16

Infrared spectroscopy 11, 15Inorganic adhesives 188 ff.Intentional red 152, 209Intercalation 125, 126Intra-crystalline swelling 76Iron Age 197Iron oxidation technique

142 ff., 210, 219, 226Iron oxide black 112, 113 ff.Iron oxide red 142 ff.Iron reduction/re-oxidation

86, 113 ff., 124, 126, 127 ff., 151, 153, 207 ff., 214, 219, 233

Jarosite 163, 165, 175, 248, 249, 253

Kamares ware 23, 30, 47, 60, 73, 111, 119, 147, 148, 149

Kaolinite white 146Kick wheel 78Kiln firing 22, 24, 83Kneading 48Kylix 193

Lapis lazuli 165, 179, 248Laser-induced breakdown

spectroscopy 11Law of mass action 91Lazulite 165, 179Lead stannate 170, 176Lekythos 125, 143 ff., 174,

183, 192, 208Lime blowing 40Lime silicate white 145 ff.,

215, 222, 229, 255Lime-poor ware 28 ff.Lime-rich ware 28 ff.Limestone 6Linear pottery style 201Liquid limit 48Litharge 170

Magdalenien 4Maghemite 26, 34, 37, 52,

112, 113, 124, 143, 150, 208, 232, 233, 235, 236

Magnetic susceptibility 92

Magnetite 37, 50, 52, 68, 85, 87, 90, 112, 113, 122, 125, 208

Malachite 144, 165, 176, 248, 249

Manganese oxide black 112, 119 ff., 225, 228 ff., 229, 250

Manganite 168Megarian bowls 247Merimde culture 249Micromorphology 15Mimetite 176Minium 21, 165, 170, 248Minoan 27, 28, 30, 46, 55,

57, 60, 61Minoan ware 22, 32Modulus of elasticity 107,

108Mössbauer spectroscopy 11,

53, 54, 114, 123, 161Mycenaean ware 32

Naples yellow 176Naqada period 238 ff.Neolithic 3, 4, 5, 23, 25, 27,

39, 46, 51, 65, 88, 101, 107, 116

Neutron activation analysis 11

Neutron diffraction 15, 108

Obsidian 36Ockham’s razor 19, 22Open porosity 41, 45, 48,

51, 89, 101Optical blue 179, 248, 253Optical emission spectros-

copy 11Optical microscopy 13, 14,

40, 41, 43, 60Optical remission spectros-

copy 11Organic adhesives 190 ff.,

194, 197, 200, 258Orpiment 165, 174, 248,

249Ostracods 224, 225Overglaze painting 111Oxidation 84 ff.


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296 Subject index

Oxygen fugacity 84 ff., 123, 131, 134, 142, 152, 182

Oxygen partial pressure 84, 87

Palaeolithic 3, 4, 5, 173Particle distribution 43Pelitic 39 ff.Peptisation 125, 143Phase composition 33 ff., 81Phase content 104, 105Phase diagram 26, 82, 91,

100Phase formation 33 ff., 91, 97Phase transformation 17Pigments 164 ff.Pinax 21, 72, 83Pit firing 22Pithos 77, 78, 79, 80Plasticity 48Pleochroism 35, 106Polarisation microscopy 33,

35, 41, 106Porcelain 34, 35, 76, 111,

180, 250, 257Pore radius 50Pore size 50Pore size distribution 18Porosimetric analysis 50Porosity 16, 23, 43, 48, 49,

50Potter’s wheel 21, 43, 48,

71, 72, 76 ff., 192, 231, 257

Predynastic 7, 28, 70Protective colloid 125Protoenstatite 148, 149Proton-induced X-ray

emission 12Psammitic 39 ff.Psephitic 60Psilomelane 168Pumice 36Pyrolusite 168, 254Pyrolytic carbon 141Pyrotechnology 6

Raman spectroscopy 15, 173Realgar 165, 170, 175, 248,

249

Red ochre 114, 165, 167, 169, 173, 174, 200, 219, 249, 254, 255

Red-figured Attic ceramic 19, 23, 24, 31, 86

Redox conditions 82, 84, 182

Reduction 84, 89, 92Reference group 32, 42, 51Reflection spectrometry 51Remanence 108Remission spectroscopy 108Re-oxidation 86Retort graphite 158Riebeckite 165, 167, 179Rietveld refinement 14Rutherford backscattering 12

Saggar 90, 142Samarra culture 201 ff.Samarra ware 46Sandarach 170Saprophytic fungi 241, 242Saturation magnetisation 108Scanning electron micro-

scopy 10, 16, 42, 43, 100, 114, 118, 120, 135, 142, 147

Sedimentation 43Semi-synthetic pigments 167Serial distribution 46, 47Shear modulus 107, 108Silicification 95, 96Sinter layer 119Sintering 29, 30, 57, 60, 89,

101, 102, 103, 107, 108, 117, 119, 135, 144, 147, 151, 224, 231

Slabbing 48Smoking 88, 89, 110, 116,

141, 153ff., 216Smoking-free reduction 90,

142, 232, 233Soil solution 32Solid solution 39Solid-state oxide buffer 91,

103Solid-state reaction 103,

186, 189Soot 88, 141

Sorting 49, 63Space group 39Stoneware 35, 51Straw 49Surface energy 49, 101Surface tension 101Synchrotron radiation 13, 19Synthetic pigments 167

Talc white 147Temper 43, 45, 49, 50, 56,

101, 205Tempera technique 189,

190, 192Tenorite 144Tensile stress 30Terra Nigra 19, 156Terra Sigillata 19, 21, 31, 32,

42, 51, 71, 91, 100, 101, 107, 108, 109, 121, 142, 143

Texture 15, 16, 33, 43, 47, 48, 60, 81, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 118ff., 126, 135 ff.

Thermal analysis 108Thermal conductivity 48Thermal shock resistance 48Thermodynamics 82Thermogravimetry 97Thermoluminescence 20Thermometry 18, 103, 119Throwing 48Tin foil 193 ff.Trace elements 11Transmission electron

microscopy 14, 120, 173Turbostratic graphite 157

Ubaid culture 201 ff.Ubaid ware 46, 54Udden-Wentworth scale 33,

35Underglaze painting 111Urfirnis 121Urkeramik 24Uruk-Dschemdet-Nasr period

203


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297Subject index

Verdigris 21, 165, 178Very lime-rich ware 28 ff.Vitrification 101 ff., 108Voltammetry 15

Water-gas equilibrium 86Wheel coiling 78, 79Wheel throwing 78White lead 173, 248Whiting 191Wide-angle X-ray scattering

13, 19Workability 48, 65

X-ray absorption fine structure 182

X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy 11, 87

X-ray diffraction 9, 13, 33, 34, 36, 37, 40, 41, 55, 60, 173 ff.

X-ray fluorescence spectro-scopy 9

X-ray mapping 10X-ray radiation 9X-ray spectroscopy 9

Yellow ochre 173, 249, 255, 165, 167, 169, 173, 174, 200, 219, 232, 254, 255


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Location index

Aegean 217Aegina 64, 67, 129, 137,

170, 171, 178, 183Afghanistan 229, 230Africa 23, 78Aghia Marina 64, 67Aghia Paraskevi 148Aghios Onouphrios 59, 60Akrotiri 112, 175, 179, 183Alexandria 176Alishar Hüyük 218Almaden 169Altamira 188Amaroussi 44, 62, 65 ff., 93Amri 234 ff.Anatolia 6, 28, 78, 113, 135,

138, 140, 155, 156, 163, 201, 217 ff.

Arapi 46, 47, 52, 135Archangelos 74Arezzo 31Argolis 90Armenia 222Arpachiyah 265Assyria 187Aswan 69, 176, 259Asyut 69Athens 62, 65, 93, 127, 169,

194Attica 113Australia 171, 188Austria 197

Babylon 111, 175Bad Nauheim 197Baghdad 68Baghouz 207Bahari Oasis 168Bahariya Oasis 254Baleares 169Balkans 138, 163, 217Bampur 223, 227Bisignano 137Black Sea 23

Blombos cave 188Bogazköy 155, 163Bohemia 185Bojan 155Bulgaria 155, 156

Cairo 170, 240Calabria 137Camerota 73Campania 138Can Hasan 217Canosa 80Cappadocia 169Cascano 138Çaşmahi Ali 223 ff.Castor 173Çatal Hüyük 217, 219Central America 78Chersonissos 64China 3, 170Chios 169, 192Cilicia 138, 217Çiradere 217Cologne 171, 190Corinth 170, 196Cornwall 196Crete 22, 28, 33, 44, 48, 55,

60, 61, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 110, 113, 118, 121, 126, 128, 138, 147, 148, 155, 156, 164, 199, 211

Cyclades 171, 199Cyprus 74, 77, 113, 128,

129, 135, 138, 161, 175, 194, 196

Dakhla Oasis 185, 257Danube River 23, 141,

153, 155, 157, 159, 163, 199

Deir el Bahari 5, 178Dikelitasch 163, 141, 153,

217

Dimini 33, 65 ff., 113, 128, 135, 138, 154

Dolni Věstonice 4

Eastern Desert 181, 253, 254Egypt 3, 5, 6, 7, 14, 24, 28,

30, 44, 45, 47, 69, 73, 75, 79, 110, 117, 128, 138, 146, 152, 155, 156, 163, 164, 167, 168, 172, 174, 175, 176, 183, 186, 190, 234, 236 ff.

El Amarna 169, 183, 239, 254

El Badari 160, 263, 273El Ballas 28, 69, 70, 240El Tarif 169 ff., 238, 252 ff.Elam 203, 222Elba 171Elephantine 239, 254Ephesus 167Eridu 213Esna 240Este 197Etruria 140Euphrates River 28, 117,

203, 204, 213

Falerii 198Far East 78Fayum Oasis 44, 74 ff.France 197Frechen 197

Gambatesa 140Gaul 31Germany 197Gizeh 7, 169, 183, 189,

238, 250 ff.Gordion 155, 163Grabak cave 169Greece 28, 30, 44, 61 , 65,

73, 118, 121, 128, 138,


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299Location index

143, 152, 154, 160, 163, 164, 211

Gujarat 234Gumelnitza 155Gurgur 154

Habuba Kabira 213, 217Haçilar 217 ff., 266, 267Haggi Mohammed 214, 215Haghia Triada 113Hallstatt 80, 153, 197Hania 73Harappa 234 ff.Haware 170Heraklion 55 ff.Herculaneum 112Hermopolis 183, 239, 254Heuneburg 155, 157, 159Hissarlik 155Hungary 197 Hvar 163, 169Hypanis 175

Indus River 234Indus Valley 128, 140,

234 ff., 271Iran 28, 78, 110, 113, 115,

129, 135, 138, 152, 202, 207, 222 ff., 269

Iraq 113, 201, 265Istria 169Italy 31, 73, 80, 126, 137,

197, 198

Jarmo 5Jericho 5, 6

Jockgrim 71, 100Kaftari 129, 223, 227Karagyosi 154Karanovo 155Karnak 183, 239, 254, 255Karoti 74Katharon 148Kentri 55 ff., 64, 73Kephalari 154Kerma 141Kharga Oasis 185, 257Khuzistan 215Kirrha 196

Kitsos 154Knossos 146, 155, 171, 173,

179, 183, 189Kommos 148Kot Diji 234 ff.

La Spezia 140La Tène 153, 197Ladenburg 156Lapui 223, 227Larisa 154Latium 138Laurion 144Lemnos 169Lesbos 74Levant 6, 78Luxor 240, 241

Macedonia 90, 172Mahi River 234Malqata 70Manching 163Margarites 55 ff., 64, 74,

126Margulitza 46, 52Marsa Labeit 171Medinet Habu 70Mediterranean 55Mehrgarh 234, 271Melos 171, 200Merimde 155Mersin 217 ff.Mesopotamia 6, 24, 28, 68,

73, 77, 78, 110, 118, 121, 156, 163, 168, 169, 183, 201 ff., 234,

Messenia 75, 77Mezöcsat 126Miamou 148Middle East 24Mohenjo Daro 234Moravia 3Mycenae 183, 188, 189,

196Myrtos 77

Nageswar 234, 235Nahal Mangan 168, 254Nahrawan 68Near East 3, 23, 28, 78

Nile River 69, 70, 240Nippur 186Nochia 74Norşuntepe 163, 216, 217Nubia 155, 163

Olympia 40, 115Orchomenos 160Otzaki 42, 46, 135, 191

Pakistan 270Palaiokastro 148Palmyra 176Paradimi 154Paraetonium 171Paros 62Persepolis 129, 223, 224Persia 175, 187Persian Gulf 172, 230Petriades 76Phaistos 113, 183, 188Philae 79Platia Margoula 33Politiko 129Pompeii 112Pontecorvo 138Pontus 175, 200Portugal 159Psematismenos 161Pyrgos 59, 60, 113

Qena 28, 69, 70, 240Quetta 270

Rachmani 46, 52, 163Ras Shamra 207Ratanpuar 234, 235Rende 137Rethymnon 113Rheinzabern 71, 107,

108Rhineland 71Rhodes 74, 77Rio Tinto 170Romania 155, 156Rome 170Ruţba 213

Sabarmati River 234Salamis 194, 196


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300 Location index

Samarra 68, 113, 118, 123, 142, 264

Samos 74Saqqara 175, 176Saudi Arabia 215Seleucia 68, 203Serbia 154, 156, 169Servia-Beckes 172Sesklo 33, 46, 52Shar-i Sokhta 229 ff., 234,

235, 270Siberia 4Sicily 75Siegburg 15Sinai 168, 188, 178, 181,

253, 254, 257Sindh 234Sinope 169Siphnos 74Sisapo 169Sistan 140, 229 ff., 270Sohag 69Soufli 33South Africa 188Spain 169Sudan 141Sumer 215Susa 203, 215, 223 ff., 269Switzerland 197Syria 155, 156, 163, 201,

207

Tamassos 113, 129, 175Taurus Mountains 213, 217

Tehran 270Tel Yarmuth 78Tell Billa 154, 216Tell Hassuna 213Tell Masaikh 207Tell-i Bakun 113, 223 ff.,

268Tepe Gaura 213Tepe Giyan 223 ff.Tepe Guran 114, 115, 202,

203, 224 ff.Tepe Hisar 223Tepe Rud-i Biyaban 232Tepe Sialk 223 ff.Tepe Sohz 203, 213, 214Tepe Yahya 207Thebes 70, 169, 170, 171,

175, 178, 183, 192, 238, 245, 254, 258

Thera 30, 33, 112, 138, 147, 148, 175, 179

Thessaly 19, 25, 30, 46, 48, 61, 65, 73, 90, 138, 152, 154, 156, 163, 191

Thrakia 138, 141, 153, 154, 156, 217

Thrapsano 55, 58 ff.Tibesti 50Tigris River 28, 68, 117, 203,

204, 213Timna Valley 168, 178, 188,

254Toronto 270Trier 146

Troy 14, 39, 90, 155, 156Tsangli 46, 52, 101, 137,

142Tulul el Thalat 154, 163, 216Turkmenistan 230Tyrins 183, 188, 189Tyrnavos 65 ff.

Ubaid 113, 213Ugarit 155Ur 265Uruk 78, 169, 203, 212 ff.

Vagad 234, 235Valderice 75Vasilia 74Vidra 155Vinča 154, 169Vucedol 154

Wadi Hassainiyat 213Wadi Umm Zariq 254Western Desert 185, 186,

254Westerwald 98

Zagros Mountains 6, 41, 110, 114, 115, 128, 142, 202, 203, 209, 222, 224, 225


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Appendix I

Important mineral phases present in ancient ceramics and detectable by X-ray powder dif-fraction. ( ): rare; * includes illite; # detection difficult; s.s.: solid solution.

Phase Formula Occurrence in ceramics

calcareous non-calcareous

Quartz qz SiO2 + +

Cristobalite cr SiO2 (+)

Mullite mu 3Al2O3·2SiO2/2Al2O3·SiO2 s.s. (+)

Feldspars fs + +

K-feldspar kfs KAlSi3O8

Plagioclase pl NaAlSi3O8/CaAl2Si2O8 s.s.

Mica* mi + +

Muscovite mc KAl2[(OH)2AlSi3O10]

Biotite bio K(Mg,Fe)3[(OH)2AlSi3O10]

Diopside di CaMgSi2O6 +

Wollastonite wo Ca3Si3O9 (+)#

Gehlenite ge Ca2Al2SiO7 +

Åkermanite ak Ca2MgSi2O7 +

Calcite cc CaCO3 +

Dolomite do CaMg(CO3)2 +

Haematite hae -Fe2O3 + +

Spinels sp Various, e.g. CoAl2O4

Maghemite mh -Fe2O3 + +

Hercynite hc FeAl2O4 (+) (+)

Halite hl NaCl + +

Analcite at NaAlSi2O6·H2O +


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Appendix II

Compositions of selected ancient ceramics, plotted in the ternary phase diagram SiO2/Al2O3/(CaO+MgO)

In mineralogy and materials science, it is an established procedure to express the composi-tion of an assembly of different phases through a ‘phase diagram’. Depending on the num-ber of components present, there exist unary, binary, ternary, and multinary phase diagrams. Phase diagrams are chemographical representations of the famous Gibbs‘ phase rule (Gibbs, 1878). This rule relates the number of phases [Ph], the number of components C, and the number of degrees of freedom df of a (closed) system by the deceptively simple equation

[Ph] + df = C + 2. (1)

Components C are defined as those simple oxides that combine to constitute the phases [Ph] present at equilibrium, that is, those portions of a system that are physically homogene-ous and mechanically separable. The number of degrees of freedom df is the number of variables that can be altered without changing the number of phases present. The number ‘2’ in eq. (1) is applicable when both temperature and pressure have to be considered. However, in systems of importance for ceramics, the vapour pressure is very low over a wide range of temperatures. Thus, the pressure variable can be safely neglected. We call such systems with a reduced degree of freedom ‘condensed’ systems, and equation (1) re-duces to

[Ph] + df = C + 1, (2)

also called the ‘mineralogical phase rule’ (Goldschmidt, 1911). Systems with C = 2 are called binary systems, e.g. Al2O3-SiO2, systems with C = 3 are known as ternary systems, e.g. CaO- Al2O3-SiO2.

Despite the frequently complex composition of clays used as raw materials for ancient pot-tery, there are only few major components that participate in critical reactions during firing. These are the oxidic components silica, alumina, calcia (lime), and magnesia, as well as iron oxide. Combining the two basic oxides calcia and magnesia in a single group, and neglecting iron oxide, the discussion of the five-component system can be reduced to the three-component system SiO2-Al2O3-(CaO+MgO). This is advantageous as the system can be displayed in a planar triangular (phase) diagram thus allowing investigating the chemical relations easily and clearly. In practice, all values required to construct the ternary phase diagram are generated by summing the analytically obtained percentages of silica, alumina, and calcia and magnesia, and setting them to 100%. Then, the individual percentages are normalised to this value.

However, the ternary phase diagrams with combined CaO and MgO as shown below are somewhat oversimplified. Strictly speaking, two compositional triangles wollastonite-anor-


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303Appendix II

thite-gehlenite and diopside-anorthite-gehlenite exist of which the former is not stable in the presence of larger amounts of MgO. In this case, the composition can be displayed si-multaneously in the ternary diagrams CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 and CaO-MgO-SiO2 as shown in Fig. 3.2a of the main text. For more detailed information on derivation and interpretation of (ternary) phase diagrams applied to ancient ceramics see Heimann (1989, 2010) and Hei-mann & Maggetti (2016).

The following ternary phase diagrams show typical compositions of types of ancient ce-ramic discussed throughout the main text.

Figure A1. Neolithic-Chalcolithic Mesopotamian ceramics.


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Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology, Art and Culinary TraditionsRobert B. Heimann; Marino Maggetti

2014. XXII, 550 pages, 303 � gures, 47 tables, 17 x 25 cm, ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7, paperback, 79.00 €

Weitere Informationen zu diesem Titel:www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652907

By stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and enginee-ring, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of ceramic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, technological interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship. Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen por-celain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food prepa-rations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook book. This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gures not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and ar-chaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical ceramics, ceramic materials and production techniques of ancient ceramics.

Tel. +49 (0)711 351456-0 Fax +49 (0)711 351456-99www.schweizerbart.de [email protected]

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Walter Noll • Robert B. Heimann

Ancient Old World PotteryMaterials, Technology, and Decoration

��

Ancient ceramics are a mainstay of archaeological assemblages, second to nothing in their sheer number of fi nds at almost all sites and in all cultures pertaining to the last ten thousand years, and as such unsurpassed in their information potential.The authors summarise the development of ceramic technology throughout the Old World during Neolithic/Chalcolithic/Bronze Ages. They base their study on mineralogical and chemical analyses of typical pottery fragments collected by the fi rst author, Walter Noll during the last quarter of the past century. Readers and reviewers of the original German edition often suggested publishing an updated English edition of this important work, fi nally undertaken by Robert B. Heimann. The fi rst four chapters comprehensively describe – in a very readable way – the principles of ancient ceramic technology largely based on Walter Noll’s own work, demonstrating the chemical, mineralogical and materials science background of this subject matter. Chapter 5 discusses the results of Noll´s analytical work on a limited number of ancient ceramic objects from Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Iran, Sistan, the Indus Valley, and Egypt to complement the scientifi c foundation laid down in the fi rst chapters. The authors describe and explain in an intuitive and plausible way the sometimes very complex and erudite physico-chemical relationships among minerals during processing of clays and the fi ring of ceramics. Thus, they unravel the intricate interplay of the mineralogy of clays, and their processing, shaping, fi ring and painting to arrive at ceramic masterpieces handed down to us from the distant past. In a logical manner, the authors present many procedural details on the making of ancient ceramics by addressing geographical, local geological, stratigraphic, and socio-economic constraints the ancient potters faced. By considering these environmental factors, an appreciation is won of all human, collective and collaborative processes needed to create and transmit the light of understanding of past societies. 93 fi gures, 16 colour plates and 36 tables as well as an extensive reference list, and exhaustive subject and location indices round up this book that is of widest interest not only to the ceramics specialist but also to everybody fascinated by the material witnesses of the technological achievements of ancient artisans.

9 783510 653362

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Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany., Tel. +49 (0)711 351456-0, Fax: +49 (0)711 351456-99, [email protected], www.schweizerbart.deE

2016. XVI, 311 pp., 93 figures, 16 color plates and 46 tables, paperback, 24 x 17 cm

ISBN 978-3-510-65336-2 € 44.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510653362

E


The use of non-calcareous clays by contemporary potters may also be an echo of the past, emulating the practices of ancient potters of the Protosesklo culture (Fig. A6, Appendix II). This custom would be similar to the tradition of Cretan potters whose present-day ware re-sembles Early Minoan rather than Late Minoan ceramics (see Chapter 3.4.1).

The similarity of the grain size distributions of Cretan and Thessalian clays suggests that both clays have a comparable history, caused by a comparable geological situation. In both cases, clays were formed as deposits of the immediate vicinity of mountain ranges. Hence, the transport distances were short and consequently the clays were poorly sorted (see foot-note 15). The seasonally irregular distribution of precipitation caused the geologic material to be transported and deposited preferentially during rainy periods. After flooding of the creeks and rivers, the fine-grained weathering products settled in the inundated areas as

Figure 3.10. Grain size distribution curves (top) and histograms (bottom) of clays worked in mainland Greece potteries (A Amaroussi, Attica; T Tyrnovos, Thessaly; D Dimini, Thessaly).


673.4 Clays of contemporary autochthonous pottery

alluvial clays. The widely varying contents of calcite are caused by regionally varying de-posits of marble and limestone within the metamorphic sequences of the country rock.

In the Thessalian basin, the seasonal changes of inundation and dry period caused oscilla-tions of the supply of oxygen in the swamp areas formerly widely spread over the Thessalian territory. Hence, the redox conditions of the clay sediment varied between oxidised and slightly reduced states, forming either precipitates of iron and manganese oxides in their highest valence state in spots and streaks, or bleached, that is, iron-poor clays. Those bleached clays were presumable utilised as raw materials of the so-called porcelain ware of the Protosesklo period, whereas clays interstratified with rusty red streaks were likely used to produce marbled ware. Mobilisation of iron and manganese ions under reducing, that is, anaerobic conditions and their subsequent precipitation from oxidised solutions led to de-

Table 3.8. Chemical analyses of clays worked in mainland Greece potteries.

# Location SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO MnO Na2O K2O LOI Sum

T Tyrnavos 66.5 0.8 15.2 5.0 2.0 1.2 0.1 2.4 3.3 3.0 99.5D Dimini 63.7 0.7 15.2 5.4 4.6 2.5 0.1 2.0 2.6 3.5 100.3A Amaroussi 55.7 0.8 17.7 7.9 3.8 2.3 0.2 1.4 3.4 6.4 99.6A1 Amaroussi 59.4 1.0 18.8 8.4 4.1 2.5 0.2 1.5 3.6 – 99.51

AE Aghia Marina

53.2 0.6 11.0 6.3 21.4 4.8 n.a.2 0.8 2.1 –1 99.91

1 Recalculated for LOI-free substance. LOI: loss on ignition. 2 not analysed

Figure 3.11. Grain size distribution (sum curve) of a potter’s clay from Aghia Marina, Aegina.

Noll_Heimann_ancient_old_world_pottery_CS5.indd 67 . .

sed by regionally varying de-ences of the country rock.

nd dry period caused oscilla-ely spread over the Thessalianvaried between oxidised and

nd manganese oxides in theirat is, iron-poor clays. Those

he so-called porcelain ware of y red streaks were likely usede ions under reducing, that is,

m oxidised solutions led to de-

.2 1.5 3.6 – 99.51

a.2 0.8 2.1 –1 99.91

d

from Aghia Marina, Aegina.

264 Plates

Plate VII. Footed cup made from highly calcareous clay and decorated with iron reduction black paint. Ubaid culture (5900–4000 BCE). Excavated at Ur, Iraq. Height 10.7 cm, diameter 9.5 cm. Reg. no. 1930,1213.189. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Plate VIII. Painted earthenware jar. Red paint on buff ceramic body. Chalcolithic. Haçilar (c. 5500 BCE). Height 21.5, maximum diameter 26.5 cm. Reg. no. 1967,0729.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum.


265Plates

Plate IX. White-slipped bowl painted red in iron oxidation technique with an off-centre sun symbol in the interior. Chalcolithic. Haçilar (c. 5000 BCE). Height 7 cm, diameter 19.5 cm. Reg. no. 1966,0616.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Plate X. Thin-walled painted pottery bowl made from cream-coloured clay and painted with dull manganese black decoration. Bakun culture (5000–4000 BCE). Excavated at Tell-i Bakun, Mound A, Iran. The typical Sialk III design consists of three standing or dancing figures with stylised heads and raised hands, each separated by a bold geometric design. Height 16 cm, diameters 27 cm (rim), 5.5 cm (base). Reg.no. 1936,0613.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum.


1991. VI, 334 Seiten, 88 Abbildungen, 26 Tabellen, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0 € 39.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510651450

2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables, bound, 17 x 24 cm.ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7 € 49.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652327

____ Cop. W. Noll & R.B. Heimann, Old World Pottery ISBN 978-3-510-65336-2 € 44.80____ Cop. W. Noll, Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0 € 39.80____ Cop. R.B. Heimann & M. Maggetti, Ancient and Historical Ceramics ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79.00____ Cop. A. Hauptmann, Archäometrie ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7 € 49.80

Noll Heimann ancient old world pottery CS5

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