Page 1
1
NoiseintheOcean:
AReviewoftheIssues,ScienceandPolicy
RelatingtotheeffectsofNoiseonMarineLife
by
MichelleCovi,DevonEulie,DeannaSwain,
SarahWatkins‐Kenney
CoastalResourceManagementCRM6100
EastCarolinaUniversity
December2008
Page 2
2
NoiseintheOcean:
AReviewoftheIssues,ScienceandPolicy
RelatingtotheeffectsofNoiseonMarineLife
CONTENTSi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….4
ii Prologue………………………………………………………………………….51.0 Summary…………………………………………………………………………62.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………73.0 SoundsintheOcean……………………………………………………….103.1 PhysicsofSoundintheOcean3.2 SourcesofSound4.0 MarineLifeandSoundintheOcean…………………………..…..214.1 AdaptationstoUnderwaterEnvironment4.2 ScopeofIssue4.3 ResearchObstacles4.4 PhysicalHarm4.5 BehavioralEffects4.6 Masking4.7 Stress4.8 WhalesandSonar4.9 Conclusion5.0 OceanNoise–AReviewofExistingPolicy……………………..295.1 TheStakeholders5.2 DevelopingPolicy5.2.1 GlobalPolicy5.2.2 InternationalPolicy5.2.3 UnitedStatesPolicy5.2.4 StatePolicy6.0 NOAAandAcousticPrograms……………………………………….40
7.0 RecommendationsforNOAA………………………………………..41
8.0 References……………………………………………………………………44
Page 3
3
FIGURES
Fig1 Diagramofasoundpressurewaveandits’associated……………………11
particlemotion
Fig.2ADiagramofasoundpressurewave‐definingwavelength………………12
Fig.2BDiagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningthewavecycle
Fig.3AExampleofalowfrequencysoundwave……………………………………..12
Fig.3BExampleofahighfrequencysoundwave
Fig.4 Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningamplitude…………………14
TABLES
Table1.Comparisonofsoundpressurelevelsbetweenairandwater……..15
Table2.Soundtypes……………………….……………………………………………………...17
Table3.Functionalmarinemammalhearinggroups,auditorybandwidth..18
Table4.Sourcelevelsforanthropogenicsoundintheocean…………………...18
Page 4
4
NoiseintheOcean:
Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Theauthorswouldliketothank:
ThomasBigford NOAAAcousticsProgram
MarkSprague EastCarolinaUniversity,PhysicsDept
JoeLuczkowich EastCarolinaUniversity,BiologyDept
Page 5
5
NoiseintheOcean:
Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife
PROLOGUE
ThisreportispresentedaspartofanassignmentfortheCoastalResourcesManagement
PhDprogramcourseCRM6100.Thescenarioforthisreviewisthattheauthorsareateam
ofNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)employees,requestedtobrief
thenew,politicallyappointed,headofNOAA,ontheissueofnoiseintheocean;toreview
possibleactionsforNOAAandtorecommendpoliticallyfeasibleactions.
Page 6
6
NoiseintheOcean:
Areviewoftheissues,scienceandpolicyrelatingtotheeffectsofnoiseonmarinelife
1.0 SUMMARY
Overthelastsixtyyearsourperceptionofsoundintheoceanshasgonefromsilent,to
song,tonoise,tonoisepollution.Thereisincreasinganecdotalandscientificevidencethat
toomuchhumangeneratedsoundisharmingmarinelife.Thispaperdescribesthe
productionofsoundintheoceanandthenreviewsscientificinvestigationsthatare
attemptingtodeterminewhether,andhow,humangeneratednoiseisharmful,andhowits
effectsmightbemitigated.Theactionsoflegislators,policymakers,andgovernment
agencies,inparticulartheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)to
balancetheneedsandviewsofvariousstakeholdersarereviewedandrecommendations
forfutureactionsmade.
Page 7
7
2.0INTRODUCTION
In1953,JacquesCousteaureferredtotheoceansasaSilentWorld(Cousteau1953).
Almostsixtyyearslaterhisson,Jean‐MichelCousteauisoneoftheleadingcampaigners
againstdeafeningnoisepollutionintheocean,harmingentirepopulationsofmarinelife
(Cousteau2008).Whathappened?Notonlydidwestartlisteningbutalsotomakesound
intheocean,totheextentthathumangeneratedsoundisnowfrequentlyreferredtoas
noisepollution.
The1970releaseofthealbumSongsoftheHumpbackWhale,whichhassoldover30
millioncopies,waskeyinraisingpeople’sawarenessthatanimalsintheoceansmake
sound,andthattheoceansarefarfromsilent.Fromthe1950stheUSnavy,whilelistening
forRussiansubmarines,incidentallyrecordedwhalesounds.Recordingsofwhaleswere
releasedin1967tobiologistRogerPayne.Hecollaboratedonproducinganalbum,in
supportofthecampaigntostopwhaling.Thecampaignagainstwhalingwaspartofa
growingmovementofconcernabouttheprotectionanddevelopmentofcoastalareas
generally.TheMarineMammalProtectionActpassedbyCongressin1972,includeda
generalmoratoriumontheimportationofmarinemammalsandtheirproductsintothe
UnitedStates,effectivelyendingwhalingintheUS.TheActalsoestablishedtheMarine
MammalCommission(MMC)chargedwithprotectionandconservationofmarine
mammals(MMC2008).
Sincethe1950s,humanshaveincreasinglygeneratedsoundintheoceans.Someofit
deliberatelyasintheNavy’suseofSONARto`seeunderwater’anddetecteverquieter
enemysubmarines(Oceanus2008),ortheuseofsoundwavesinseismicsurveysforoil
Page 8
8
andgasexploration.Soundisalsogeneratedincidentallyasaresultofotheractivities,for
exampleenginenoiseofcommercialshipping.Onestudyreportsthatnoiselevelsinthe
Pacific,160mileswestofSanDiego,arenow10‐12decibelshigherthan40yearsago
(Hildebrandetal2008).
Anincreaseofmassstrandingsofwhales,particularlyofthedeepdivingotherwiserarely
seenCuvier’sbeakedwhales,sincethe1960sinvariouspartsoftheworld,hasdrawn
attentiontothepossibilitythathumanmadesoundintheoceans,particularlytheNavy’s
useofsonar,couldbeseriouslyinterferingwithitsnaturalinhabitants(Frantzis1998;
Fortescueetal2005).Whalestrandings,arenotanewphenomenon;Podestaetal(2006)
foundreportsofover230BeakedwhalestrandingsintheMediterraneanSeaoverthelast
200years.Althoughanincreaseinthelast20yearswasfoundonly1in12couldbe
`unequivocallyassociatedwithnavalactivity’(Podestaetal2006).In2007RearAdmiral
Rice(Noel2007)statedthatsonarwasimplicatedinanaverage5strandingsperyearto
over3,000fromnaturalcauses.
DespiteattemptsbytheNavyandmanyscientiststokeepthingsinperspective,imagesof
dyingwhalesonbeachesinevitablyprovokeconcern,protestanddemandsforsomething
tobedonefromthepublic,media,andNon‐GovernmentOrganizations(NGOs),in
particulartheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC).Allconcernedforthe
environmentandallcertainofacauseandeffectlinkbetweensonarandstrandings.In
responsetopublicpressurethroughthemediaandthecourts,Naviesaroundtheworld
(includingintheUS)haveconcededandimplementedriskmitigationproceduresduring
Page 9
9
exercises(Fortescue2005).However,thesearemostlybasedonaprecautionaryapproach
–ratherthanonscientificdata.
Althoughwhalestrandingsdrawpublicattentiontotheissueoftoomuchhuman
generatedsoundintheoceanthereisincreasingevidencethatfisharealsoaffectedby
sound(Luczovich2008).Anumberofresearchgroupsareendeavoringtoprovidedataso
thatinformed,realistic,decisionsonpolicyandregulationcanbemadetomitigatethe
effectsofnoiseonmarinelife.ForexampletheNationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administration(NOAA)isactivelyinvolvedinthisresearchthroughitsOceanAcoustics
Program(SouthallandGentry2005)andhasjustcompletedcollectingdatainHawaii,on
deepdivingwhalesandtheirresponsetosonarduringmilitaryexercises(Oceanus2008).
ThisisaprojectinpartnershipwithinternationalscientistsandtheUSNavy.Such
collaborativeeffortsareneededtoarriveatawin‐winsituationforallstakeholders.
Page 10
10
3.0SOUNDINTHEOCEAN
3.1ThePhysicsofSoundintheOcean
Soundwavesareatypeofwavecalleda“longitudinalwave”(Madsen,2004;Sprague,
2008;Southallet.al.,2007).Thesewavesarecharacterizedbyalternatingpressure
sequencesastheypropagatethroughdifferentmedia(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007;
www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRIOMP,2008).Therearetwomaincomponentstothesoundwave;
“…(1)apressurecomponentand(2)aparticlemotioncomponent.”(Southallet.al.,2007).
Pressureisdefinedasaforceperaunitofarea(http://hyperphysics.phy‐
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/press.html).Particlemotionisdefinedas“…theoscillatory
displacement,velocity,oraccelerationoftheactual‘particles’ofthemediumataparticular
location…”(Southallet.al.,2007).Dependingonthetypeofmarineorganism,eitherthe
pressureorparticlemotioncomponent(oracombinationofthetwo)isperceivedand
processed(Sprague,2008;Southallet.al.,2007).Mostfishesareabletoprocessparticle
motionwhilemarineandterrestrialmammalsprimarilyperceivethepressurecomponent
(Southallet.al.,2007).
Soundisactuallyproducedasthesepressurewavescausevibrationswithinthedifferent
typesofmatter,suchasairorwater(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007).Whengraphed,a
soundwavelooksverysimilartoanoceanwave(Fig.1).Howeverinsteadofhighsand
lowsonthegraphrepresentingverticalheightsofwaterlevel,theyrepresenthighsand
lowsofpressure(Fig.1)(UNRIOMP,2008).Asthesehighsandlowsinpressurepass
throughamaterialtheycompressandexpandthemoleculesofthematerial(Fig.1),
creatingthevibrations(Madsen,2004;Southallet.al.,2007).Wecandescribetheresulting
Page 11
11
soundintermsofitsfrequencyandintensity(Madsen,2004;www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRI
OMP,2008).
Thefrequencyisafunctionofspeedofthesoundwaveandits’wavelength.Wavelength
(Fig.2)isthedistancebetweentwomaximumsorminimumsinwavepressure(Madsen,
2004;www.grc.nasa.gov;UNRIOMP,2008).Frequencyisthenthenumberofwavelengths
thatpassapointinonesecond(Madsen,2004;www.grc.nasa.gov).Whenasingle
wavelengthpassesover1seconditiscalled1“cycle”andisreportedasa1Hertz(Hz)
frequency(UNRIOMP,2008).Soundwaveswithlongerwavelengthsarelowfrequency
(fewercyclespersecond,Fig.3A)whileshorterwavelengthsarehigherfrequencywaves
(morecyclespersecond,Fig.3B)(Madsen,2004;UNRIOMP,2008).Thisshowsushow
wavelengthandfrequencyarerelated.
Figure1.Diagramofasoundpressurewaveandits’associatedparticlemotion(UNRIOMP,2008)
Page 12
12
Figure2.A)Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningwavelength.B)Diagramofasoundpressurewave
definingthewavecycle(UNRIOMP,2008).
Figure3.A)Exampleofalowfrequencysoundwave.B)Exampleofahighfrequencysoundwave(UNRI
OMP,2008).
Page 13
13
Theintensityofasoundwaveisameasureofitspower.Thisisseenastheamplitude(Fig.
4)orheightofthesoundwave(UNRIOMP,2008).Greateramplitudesrepresenthigher
intensitysoundwavesthatareperceivedassoundinglouder(UNRIOMP,2008).The
powerismeasuredindecibels(dB)asaratioofthemeasuredsoundpowertoareference
levelofsoundpower(UNRIOMP,2008;www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Theratiois
describedonalogarithmicscaleandthereferencelevelusedisbasedonanagreedupon
intensityadjustedbythedensityofthematerialthesoundistravelingthrough(UNRIOMP,
2008;www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Asadecibelisbasedonalogarithmicscale
weneedtorememberthatthatincreasesindecibellevelsarenotlinear.A10dBincrease
insoundpowerisactuallyatentimesincreaseinpoweranda20dBincreaseisaone
hundredtimesincreaseinpower(UNRIOMP,2008).However,a10dBincreaseinpower
isperceivedasatwotimesincreaseinloudness,notatentimesincrease(UNRIOMP,2008;
www.phys.unsw.edu/au/jw/dB.html).Sowhileameasureofdecibellevelwillrepresent
thepowerofagivensoundwave,itonlyindirectlygivesustheperceivedloudnessofthat
sound.
Page 14
14
Figure4.Diagramofasoundpressurewavedefiningamplitude(UNRIOMP,2008).
Asmentionedabove,thereferencelevelusedtocalculatethedecibellevelforagivesound
waveisdependentonthetypeofmaterialthewaveismovingthrough.Thestandard
referencelevelforsoundsinairisdBre20µPawhilewaterisdBre1µPa(Madsen,2004;
Southallet.al.,2007).Thiscomplicatescomparisonsofsoundlevelsbetweenairandwater
(Madsen,2004).Table1containssomecommonsoundtypes,theirfrequency(Hz)and
intensity(dB)inbothairandwater.Thesamesoundinaircanappeartohaveamuch
lowerintensitythenthesamesoundunderwaterduetothenecessaryconversionby
referencepressure.Therefore,unlessyouconvertthereporteddecibellevelforan
underwatersoundtoitsairequivalent,itishardtodeterminehowloud(inahumanframe
ofreference)thesoundactuallyis.
Page 15
15
Typicalsoundinair
Waterstandard
(dBre1μPa)
Airstandard
(dBre20μPaSPL)
Thresholdofhumanhearing(1,000Hz) [26] 0
Veryquietlivingroom [66] 40
Sealthresholdunderwater(1,000Hz) 80 [54]
Normalspeech(1meter) [86] 60
Belugathreshold(1,000Hz) 100 [74]
Lion'sroar(10meters) [116] 90
Jetairliner(10meters) [130] 104
Finwhalecall(100meters) 140 [114]
Humanthresholdofpain(ateardrum) [166] 140
Somemilitaryartillery [186] 160
Belugaecholocationcall(1meter) 220 [194]
Source:AdaptedfromKryter(1985)andRichardsonetal.(1991).
NOTE:Bracketedlevelsarenominallevelsafterconversiontoalternatemedium.
Table1.Comparisonofsoundpressurelevelsbetweenairandwater.
Page 16
16
Anothercharacteristicweareconcernedaboutisthespeedandvelocityofasoundwave.
Thespeedofthewavereflectstheamountofenergyithasandthetypeofmediumitis
movingthrough,whilevelocityisacombinationofspeedanddirectionalityofmovement
(Madsen,2004).Assoundwavesmovethroughdifferenttypesofmatter,thedensityof
thatmaterialwillaffectthewave’sspeed.Higherdensitymaterialssuchasliquidswill
causesoundwavestomovefasterandrequirelessenergytopropagate.Lowerdensity
mediumssuchasaircausesoundwavestomovemoreslowlyandrequiremoreenergyto
travellongdistances(Madsen,2004).Also,assoundwavespropagatethroughdifferent
materialstheirintensitycanchangewithdistance.Sotheintensityofasoundmeasuredat
itssource(usuallymeasured1mfromsource)andthereceivedlevel(intensityofthe
soundwaveatitsreceptionbyanorganismorrecordinginstrument)canbedifferent
(Southallet.al.,2007).Thisisimportantbecausedependingonthepropertiesofthe
mediumandthedistancethesoundtravelsthroughit,theintensityofthesoundwhenitis
heardbysayawhale,isdifferentthanwhenitwasfirstproduced(Southallet.al.,2007).So
measurementsofsourcelevelmaynothelpindeterminingtheendresultofthesound
wavewhenitreachesapointofinterest.
Anotherfactorweneedtolookatisifthesoundisa“(1)pulseor(2)nonpulse”(Table2)
(Southallet.al.,2007).Pulsesofsoundcanhaveverydifferentaffectsonmarineorganisms
thennonpulseormoreconstantsounds(Southallet.al.,2007).Pulsedsoundsinclude
explosions,singleairguns,pilingstrikes,somesonarsanddepthsounders.Multiplepulsed
soundsareprimarilyairgunarrays,someactivesonars,pilingstrikesandexplosions.
Finally,nonpulsesoundsincludevehiclevibrations,drillingandconstruction,andthetwo
Page 17
17
maintypesofNavysonar,lowfrequencyactiveandmid‐frequency,aswellasdepth
sounders(Southall,et.al.,2007).
Table2.Soundtypes(Southall,et.al.,2007)
3.2SourcesofSoundintheOcean
Marinemammalsutilizesoundforsocialinteraction,echolocation,orientation,and
predator‐preyinteractions(Southallet.al.,2007).Soniferousfishesalsocreatesoundfor
matingpurposes(Luzckovich,2008).Table3illustratessomeoftherangesofhearingfor
groupsofmarinemammals.WhenthisiscomparedtoTable4,wecanbegintoseewhere
differentsourcesofanthropogenicallyproducedsoundintheoceancouldaffectmarine
mammals.
Page 18
18
Table3.Functionalmarinemammalhearinggroups,auditorybandwidth(estimatedlowertoupperfrequencyhearingcut‐off),generarepresentedineachgroup,andgroupspecific(M)frequency‐weightings(Southallet.al.,2007).
Table4.Sourcelevelsforanthropogenicsoundintheocean.
Page 19
19
TwolargecontributorstoanthropogenicsoundintheoceanaretheuseofSONARandair
gunarrays.SONARstandsfor“soundnavigationandranging”andisusedforacoustic
locatingintheoceanbybothshipsandmarinemammals.Therearetwomaintypesof
SONAR,activeandpassive(UNRIOMP,2008).WithactiveSONAR,asoundisgenerated
andthenthetimebetweenthatsoundcreationandwhenanecho(orreturn)ofthesound
isreceivedismeasured(UNRIOMP,2008).Thetimetellsusthedistancethesoundtravel
beforeitwasreflectedback,allowustodeterminehowfarobjectsareundertheocean
(UNRIOMP,2008).PassiveSONARconsistsofhydrophonereceiversusedtosimplylisten
tothesoundthatisproducedunderwater,nosoundisactuallygeneratedbythelistener
(UNRIOMP,2008).
TheUSNavycurrentlyworkswithtwomaintypesofactiveSONAR,theSURTASSLFA
(surveillancetowedarraysensorsystemlow‐frequencyactiveSONAR)andtacticalmid‐
frequencySONAR(Southallet.al.,2007).TheSURTASSLFAoperatesatafrequencyof
about300Hz,whilethemid‐frequencySONARoperatesprimarilybetween1‐5kHz
(Southallet.al.,2007).Thesesoundsaremultipulsedandbecausetheyareemittedwitha
specificallyhorizontaldirectionality,cantravelgreatdistances(Southallet.al.,2007).
PulsesfromthesetypesofSONARhavebeenrecordedtotraveltensofkilometersthrough
theocean(Southallet.al.,2007).
Theairgunarraysareprimarilyusedforoilandgasexplorationintheocean.Theselarge,
towed,arraysconsistoflonglinesofhydrophonesandnoisemakers(Southallet.al.,2007).
Theairgunlinesdeployedgeneratepulsedblastsofintensesoundinthe300Hzrange
everyfewsecondsthatpropagatesdowntheoceanfloor,isreflected,andthenmeasured
Page 20
20
onthereturnecho(Southallet.al.,2007).Byanalyzingtheechoesthatarereceivedbythe
hydrophones,prospectorscandeterminethetypesandthicknessesofrocklayersatthe
oceanbottomandthelocationofoilorgasdeposits.Soundwavesfromthesearrayshave
beenrecordedasfaras12kmfromtheirsourcearea(Southallet.al.,2007).
Theserepresentjustafewofthelargecontributorstosoundintheocean.Scientificstudy
ofallthepotentialgeneratorsofsoundisnecessarytodeterminerelativecontributionsand
impactsonmarinelife.Generatorsofsound,asstakeholdersindevelopingpolicyin
relationtocontrollinghumangeneratedsoundintheoceanarediscussedfurtherinSection
5.1
Page 21
21
4.0MARINELIFEANDSOUND
4.1AdaptationstoUnderwaterEnvironment
Intheunderwaterworldwherereducedlightpenetrationlimitsvisibilitytoafewhundred
metersatbest,marineanimalshaveadaptedtousesoundtopaintan‘acousticimage’of
theirworld(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).Asdiscussedabove,soundtravelsmuchfarther
underwaterthanitdoesintheair.Furthermore,thesounddoesnotdegradeasquickly.
Thisallowssomemarinespeciestoproduceandreceivevocalizationsovergreatdistances
ortodetectlocalizedsoundsatlevelsbeyondtherangeofhumanhearing.Marineanimals
likelyusesoundasaprimarymeansofinterpretingandinteractingwiththeir
environment.Soundbecomestheirmeansofcommunicatingwitheachother,detecting
andwarningofapproachingpredators,detectingpreyspecies,navigating,andmaintaining
familialandpodbonds(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Marineanimaluseofsound,2008).
Marineanimalshaveadaptedtotheirsound‐basedenvironmentbydevelopingspecialized
hearingandecholocationorgans.Cetaceans(whalesanddolphins)haveaninnerear
structurethatisremarkablysimilartothatofterrestrialmammals,butlackanexternalear
structure.Instead,soundisperceivedthroughvibrationsofathin‘window’ofboneinthe
jaw,whichtransmitssoundvibrationsthroughfattytissuethroughthemiddleear(the
structureofwhichispoorlyunderstood)totheinnerear.Soundproductioniscarriedout
bythepassageofairthroughsacsandnasalpassagesindolphinsandsomecetaceans.In
somewhales,thissoundisperhapsamplifiedbyresonatingairsacsbeforebeingemitted
directlythroughafattyorgancalledthemeloninthefrontofthehead.Thesesounds,
Page 22
22
eithershortpulsesofsoundorclicks,areusedasanecholocationdevice,withthecetacean
usingtheelapsedtimebeforethesoundechoesbacktodeterminedistanceanddirectionof
otherobjects(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Soundproductionandreception,2008).
Fishpopulationshavedevelopedatwo‐partstructureofaninnerearandalaterallinethat
allowsthemtohear.Thedensityofafishbodyissimilartothatofwater,sosoundpasses
directlythroughthefish’sbodytotheearbones(otoliths),whicharedenserandvibrate
moreslowlythanthesurroundingtissue.Thisvibrationdifferencestimulatesthefinecilia,
orhair,withintheinnereartocreatesoundperception.Thelaterallineisasensoryorgan
alongthesideofthefishthatallowittoperceivemovement,includingthekinetic
componentofsound.Somefishhaveswimbladdersthatcompresswithsoundwavesand
transmitvibrationstotheearaswell.(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Fishvocalizations
areproducedinseveralway,themostwell‐knownbeingthedrummingofsonicmuscles
againstairbladders(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Howdofishhearsounds?,2008)Fish
vocalizationscanbeavarietyofgrunts,clicks,drumming,andsnappingthatareusedto
attractmatesandwarnoffpredators(UniversityofRhodeIsland,Theimportanceofsound,
2008).
Thesespecializedhearingandvocalizationorgansareadaptedtoaccountforambient
noisefromwindandwaves,rain,seismicevents,andothermarinelife.Thisnaturalsystem
hasbeencompromisedbytheintroductionofmanmadesoundfromtheindustrialized
world.Thismanmade,oranthropogenic,soundcaninterferewithnormalcommunication,
increaseambientnoiselevels,andcausephysicalandbehavioralharmtosomemarine
species.Asdiscussedpreviously,thissoundcomesfromshipping,marineconstruction,
Page 23
23
airgunsforseismicsurveys,andmilitarytacticalsonar,amongothersources(Nowacek,
Thorne,Johnston,&Tyack,2007).
Manmadesoundcancausebehavioralandphysiologicalresponsesinmarinelife,including
bothmammalsandfish.Thereisconsiderablescientificandstakeholderconsensusthat
effortsmustbemadetominimizeharmfuleffectstomarinelife(OceanStudiesBoard,
2003).Thedifficultyliesindeterminingwhatisharmfultowhichspeciesunderwhat
conditions.Thisiscomplicatedbydifferencesinsoundtransmissiondependingonsalinity,
temperature,thermallayers,distance,andorientationofboththesoundproducerand
receiver(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).
4.2ScopeofIssue
Inlookingatthisproblem,researchshouldfocusnotonlyonmarinemammalssuchas
whalesanddolphins,butalsoonfishpopulations.Someattentionshouldalsobegivento
turtles,crabs,squid,andinvertebrates.Researchtodatehasmainlyfocusedonindividual
animals,butpopulation‐leveleffectsarealsoofgreatconcern,especiallyintermsofthe
potentialharmtofisheries(NOAA,2004).Thispopulation‐levelresearchhasseenlittle
workbecauseofinherentdifficultiesinresearchingmarinepopulationsonthatscale
(OceanStudiesBoard,2005).
4.3ResearchObstacles
Researchsuggeststhatloudsoundscancausephysiologicalinjurytobothfish(Edds‐
Walton&Finneran,2006)andmarinemammals(Nowaceketal,2007).Unfortunately,it
appearsthatnearlyeveryspecieshasitsownuniquethresholdatwhichitcanperceive
Page 24
24
sound,auniqueoptimumhearingrangeinwhichitcommunicatesanddetectspreyand
predators,anduniquelevelsatwhichinjurycanoccur.Theresearchtodeterminethese
levelsistimeconsumingandpainstakingwork(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Itis
generallyconsideredthatifamarineanimalcannotperceiveasound,itisconsiderednon‐
harmfultothem.Withthisthresholdof‘harmfulsound’differingwitheachindividual
species,therearesignificantobstaclestodeterminingaregulatorystandard.Arecent
efforttodevelopcriteriaformarinemammalsresultedineightyuniqueexposurecriteria,
whichtheresearchersacknowledgethattheircategorieswereincomplete(NOAA,2004).
4.4PhysicalHarm
Asstatedearlier,manmadesoundcanhavephysiologicalandbehavioraleffectsonmarine
animals.Asidefromtheregulatoryobstacles,thephysiologicalharmistwofold.Like
terrestrialanimals,soundsofsufficientdecibelsanddurationcanproducebothtemporary
andpermanenthearingdamage.Thisischaracterizedasathresholdshift,meaningthat
theouterlimitsofsoundperceptionareshifted,reducingtherangeofhearing.Most
researchinvolvesstudyingtemporarythresholdshifts,whichappeartobefarmore
commonatthecurrentlyusedsoundlevels(Nowaceketal,2007).Again,eachspecies
appearstohaveitsownlevelsthatcauseathresholdshift.Atbest,researcherstryto
determinethelevelsforindividualspeciesinlaboratorywork.
Second,ifloudenough,soundmayproduceactualtissuedamage.Underwaterexplosions
canclearlycausefataltissuedamage(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Thereis
circumstantialevidencethatsomesonarmaycauseauditorytraumainsomespecies,but
themechanismisunknown.Somestrandedwhaleshaveshownsignsofhemorrhaging
Page 25
25
aroundtheauditoryorgansandgasbubbleformation,butthecauseisunknown,aswillbe
exploredlater.
4.5BehavioralEffects
Manmadesoundmaycausebehavioralshifts,whichmay,inthelongterm,bemoreharmful
thantissuedamagetoindividualanimals.Thesuddenorpersistentpresenceofaloudor
irritatingsoundmaycausemarinespeciestoswimawayfromthesound,either
temporarilyorpermanently.Thisrisksexposingtheanimaltonewpredatorgroupsor
forcingthemintoareaswithlessfavorablefoodsupplies,temperatures,orenvironment.
Thereisresearchshowingthatschoolsoffishmoveawayfromthesoundoffishingboats,
swimawayfromicebreakersinthearctic,andmayleavetheareaofpersistentairgunuse
(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).
Infish,theresponsestounusualsoundsincludestartleresponses,alarmbehavior,and
avoidancebyswimmingaway(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Inmammals,research
showschangesindepthanddurationofdives,blowpatterns,andvocalization(changein
durationandfrequencyofcalls)whencertainnoiseispresent(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).
Thesebehavioralchangeareusuallytemporary,butlong‐termchangeshavebeenfoundin
somecases.
Thesebehavioraleffectsarehighlyspecies‐dependentandvariationisshownwithineach
species.Someofthefactorsinthisvariabilityinclude:environmentalfactorsinsound
transmission,locationandsource;individualsensitivityandtolerances;activityatthetime
ofsoundperception(ieprotectingyoung,feeding,migration);andtheageandgenderof
individual(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).Asignificantfactorinthevariableresponseis
Page 26
26
observedhabituationandsensitizationwithrepeatedexposurestosound.Somespecies,if
exposedtoasoundwithalackofnegativeeffects,willbecomehabituatedtothesoundand
willceasereactingtothesound.Others,ifexposedtoasoundassociatedwithnegative
effects,willbecomesensitizedtothesoundandreactatlowerlevels.(Southalletal.,
2007).
4.6.Masking
Anotherissueisthemaskingofbiologicalsoundbymanmadesound.Asmentionedearlier,
eachspecieshasanoptimumsoundlevelinwhichitcommunicates,navigates,andlocates
predatorandpreyspecies.Usually,thissoundisatadifferentfrequencythanmost
ambientsound.Ifmanmadesoundisintroducedatafrequencysimilarenoughtothatused
bythemarineanimal,itcan‘drownout’ormaskthebiologicalsounds(NOAA,2004).This
couldhavepopulationleveleffectsandmaycausechangesinvocalization.Thisis
particularlyaconcernwithshipping,whichcanincreasethedecibellevelsofambientnoise
aswellaslow‐frequencysonar,whichcanmasksoundsfromcertainwhalesoverlong
distances.Asmentionedearlier,oneresponsetothismaskinghasbeenachangeinthe
durationandfrequencyofvocalization.
4.7Stress
Someresearchersareconcernedaboutthestresseffectsoflong‐termexposureto
manmadesounds.Littleresearchhasbeendoneinthisareabecauseofdesigndifficulties,
butresearchersspeculatethattheincreasednervoussystemresponsefromstress
reactionscouldcauseindividual‐levelgrowth,reproductivity,andgeneralhealtheffects
(Edds‐Walton&Finneran,2006).Theseindividualleveleffects,ifseenthroughouta
Page 27
27
population,couldhavesignificanteffectsonthelong‐termhealthofournation’sfisheries.
Therearesuggestionsthatstressresponsescouldbeanissueforlocalpopulations(non‐
migratory)offish.Thisisanareawherefurtherresearchcouldbeinvaluableto
determiningifthereis,infact,aproblem.
4.8WhalesandSonar
Therehasbeenconsiderablepublicattentionfocusedontheissueofmid‐frequencyactive
sonar(MFA)andwhalestrandings.Thereisgeneralagreementnowthatmilitarymid‐
frequencysonarexercisesmay,incertaincircumstances,leadtothestrandingofdeep‐
divingbeakedwhales(NOAA,2001).Therehavebeenanumberofstrandingsofbeaked
whalescloselyrelatedintimeandspacetoMFAsonaruse.Whiletherecertainlyappears
tobeacorrelation,itisstillacircumstantialconnection(OceanStudiesBoard,2003).The
incidentsinvolvedthemassstrandingsofdeep‐divingbeakedwhales(whichrarelystrand,
normally)showingsomehemorrhagingandsignsconsistentwithauditorytrauma.
Despitethesephysicalsigns,nooneyethasdeterminedamechanismthroughwhichsonar
exposurecouldcausetheseeffects.Sometheoriesincludeacousticresonancecausinggas
bubbles,disorientationcausingpanicsurfacinganddecompression,andgasbubbles
formedbysonarinsupersaturatedtissues(NOAA,2002).Theseremaintheoriesatthis
time,butbeakedwhaletaggingexercisessuggestnonaturalcausesforsuchinjuries
(Tyack,Johnson,Soto,Sturleses,&Madsen,2006).Furthercomplicatingtheissue,MFAis
usedthousandsoftimeseachyeararoundtheworldbyover300shipswithoutcausing
knownstrandings.AjointNavyandNOAAreportonastrandingeventintheBahamas
suggestedthatstrandingmighthavebeencausedbyacombinationofsurfaceduct
Page 28
28
conditions,unusualbathymetry(especiallysteepslopesintropicalarea),aconfinedarea,
andheavysonaruseoveranextendedperiod(NOAA,2001).
4.9Conclusion
Thishasonlytouchedonsomeoftheissuesaroundbiologicaleffectsofmanmadesoundon
marinelife.Iftherewereoneoverridingtheme,itwouldbeuncertainty.Thereclearly
appearstobethepotentialforsignificantharmtoavarietyofmarinespecies.Thetrouble
isthatthereissimplynotenoughdatatounderstandwhichsoundsaffectwhichspecies
underwhichcircumstanceswithanycertainty(Nowaceketal,2007).Wecanfindpatterns
andextrapolateanticipatedimpacts,buttheimpactsonanimalsthatremainoutofsight
andhardtodetect,count,orstudyarelargelyaguessinggame.Thatleadstothequestion
ofhowtoregulateaproblemwhenwecan’tidentifytheextentormechanismsofthe
problem.
Page 29
29
5.0OCEANNOISE–AREVIEWOFEXISTINGPOLICY
Regulationofpollutionintheoceanhasbeenachallengeforpolicymakerseversincethe
recognitionthattheoceanwasnotalimitlessresourceandcouldbeimpactedbyhuman
actions.Therecognitionofnoiseintheoceanasatypeofpollutionisnewbecauseuntil
recentlythetechnologydidnotexisttoexperienceunderwatersounds,especiallyas
experiencedbymarinelife.Noiseisadifferentkindofpollutionthanthosetraditionally
regulatedintheoceanbecauseitisaformofenergy,ratherthanamaterial,suchasoilor
sewage.Anotherchallengetopolicyformationandultimatelymanagementofoceannoise
isthetransboundarynatureofthepollution,whichmakesnationalandinternational
co‐operationessential.
5.1.0TheStakeholders
Itisimportanttounderstandthestakeholdersinvolvedinpolicyformation.Non‐
governmentalorganizationshavebeenimportantinframingtheissueofoceannoiseas
wellasbringingtheimportanceoftheproblemtothemediaandthepublic.
5.1.1NonGovernmentalOrganizations
Non‐GovernmentalOrganizations(NGOs)bydefinitionarenotorganizedbygovernments
orintergovernmentalagreements,butarecapableofbeinginvolvedinnationalor
internationalaffairsduetotheirleveloforganizationorexpertise.(McCarthy,2004)The
mostimportantNGOsintheUnitedStatesthathavebeeninvolvedinoceannoisepolicy
formationhavebeentheNationalsResourcesDefenseCouncil(NRDC),Seaflow,Inc.,and
severalanimalwelfareandmarinemammaladvocacygroups.Internationalcoordinationof
Page 30
30
NGOshasbeenleadbytheInternationalOceanNoiseCoalition,whichhasorganizedover
150NGOs,whichhaveconcernsabouttheoceannoiseissue.TheNGOsrepresentthe
sectorofthepublicthatisconcernedabouttheanimals,primarilywhales,butalsofishand
othermarinespeciesthatmaybeaffectedbyoceannoise.NGOshaveadvocatedfortheir
pointofviewthroughtheuseofmedia,includingjournalism,video,websites,emailsand
directmailtothepublic.TheNDRCandothershavealsousedthelegalsystemtoattempt
tostopactivitiesbytheNavyandresearchvesselswhentheyfeltitendangeredmarine
mammals.Otherstakeholdersareprimarilythosewhoseactivitygeneratesanthropogenic
soundandthosewhoregulatethem.
5.1.2TheMilitary
Themilitary,primarilytheUSNavy,havethemostdocumenteduseofsoundintheocean
andarethemostcontroversialofallnoisegenerators.Navalvesselsfromallovertheworld
usesonar,bothpassiveandactivefornavigationandforfindingenemysubmarinesor
underwaterdevises.Themilitaryalsohasexplodedminesandtorpedoesunderwater
whichcreatesapressurepulsewhichareknowntocausedeathandinjurytomarine
mammals.Activesonarcanbehighfrequency,whichcanevenbelocatedonatorpedofor
shortrangetargeting,orlowfrequencyandhighpowerabletorangeoverlargedistances
andareofmostconcernintheissueofoceannoise.Generally,themilitarypositionisthat
theirusesofsonarandothernoiseproducingactivitiesarenecessarytothesecurityof
theircountryandresistregulationsthatwouldlimittheiruse.However,theNavyofthe
UnitedStatesandothercountries,suchasAustraliahavevoluntarilylimitedtheiruseof
sonarinsomeareasofspecificconcernandsharedresearchaboutunderwaterambient
Page 31
31
soundsinsomecases.USNavyhasalsomitigatedtheirimpactsbyanumberofvoluntary
measureswhenusingsonarsuchasimplementingwhalespottersandhaltingexercises
whenawhaleisdetectedinthearea.
5.1.3OceanographicResearch
Oceanographicresearchalsousesactivesonartodeterminebathymetry,researchwater
massesandstudyoceanbottomcharacteristics.Someseafloorresearchtechniquesuse
explosivesandairgunssimilartothoseusedinseismicsurveys.Oneofthemost
controversialusesoflowfrequencysonarmonitorsglobalwarmingtrendsintheoceanin
theAcousticThermomteryofOceanClimateprojectlocatedoutofScrippsInstitutionof
OceanographyinSanDiego.Thisisanewtypeofresearchinwhichsoundscanbedetected
almosthalfwayaroundtheworld.TheNRDCandcoalitionpartnersstronglyopposedthis
typeofresearch,butresearchonthemarinemammalsthatwouldbeaffectedshowedno
significantdisturbance(Brown,1998).
5.1.4CommercialShipping
Manycommercialinterestsgeneratenoise.Shippingisprobablythebiggestcontributorto
backgroundnoisethroughengines,flownoise,propellers,pumps,compressorand
generators.Thistypeofnoiseislowfrequencyandlargeshipsthatarefullyloadedor
pushingortowingaloadgeneratethemostnoise.(McCarthy,2004)Thenumberofships
beingbuiltandusedaswellasshipsizehasincreasedandisexpectedtokeepincreasingas
longasinternationaltradedemands.Thenoisefromshippinghasnotnecessarilyincreased
duetoadvancesintechnology,butthishasnotbeenwidelystudied.However,noisefrom
Page 32
32
shippingisprobablymostintenseintheshippinglanes,whichmaybesignificant
dependingonthelocationofmarineanimalhabitats.
5.1.5Offshoreoilexploration
Offshoreexplorationforoilandthentheextractionmayincreaseaslandbasedoilreserves
aredepleted.Airgunsarethemostcommonwayforseismicsurveystogeneratesounds.
Drillingactivitiesalsogeneratenoisethatcontributestotheambientsoundandadditional
noiseisgeneratedbythesupportfunctionsassociatedwiththedrillingplatform,such
supplyships,aircraftandsoforth.Drillingactivityinrecentyearshasbeenlocatedin
deeperwaters,whichindicatesmoreexplorationisoccurringindeeperwaters.Thisleads
toincreasesintheimpactsofthesoundsinceitcantravelfartherindeeperwaters.Onthe
otherhand,advancesintechnologyandreducedactivityofexplorationvesselsmay
indicateadecreaseinnoisegenerationbythisindustry.
5.1.6Dredging,TunnelingandDriving
Dredging,tunnelinganddrivingofpilingcanalsocontributetooceannoiseincoastal
regions.Theseactivitiesusemachineswithlow‐frequencysoundsignaturesthatmay
disturbmarinespeciesintheintenselyusedcoastalhabitats.Theseeffectswouldbe
expectedtobelocalized,aswouldtheactivitiesoffishing,whichmayusesoundforfinding
fish.AquacultureusesAcousticHarassmentDevices(AHD)todeterspeciesthatmight
interferewiththeirfishorgear.Unintendedeffectshavebeenclaimedsincespeciesother
thanthosetargetedmaybeimpacted.Forexample,whaleresearchersclaimthatkiller
whalehaveabandonareasthattheyusedtomigrateintobecauseofAHDsdesignedtokeep
sealsoutofsalmonpens(Bressen,n.d.).
Page 33
33
5.2DevelopingPolicy
Indevelopingfuturepolicytoregulateoceannoise,wemustdeterminewhowouldmanage
thepolicyandunderwhatjurisdiction
5.2.1International(Global)Policy
Scientificevidencesuggeststhatnoiseintheoceancantraveloverlongdistancesand
thereforecrossesinternationalboundaries.Someanthropogenicsoundscanalsobe
consideredpollutantsandregulatedassuchbecauseoftheabilitytoinjureorkillmarine
lifeandpotentiallyhaveadamagingimpactonanimalbehavior.McCarthy(2004)argues
thatoceannoiseissimilartoairpollutionasatrans‐boundarypollutantandcitingthe
“TrailSmelterCaseof1941”aslegalprecedent;sheassertsthataninternationalpolicy
shouldregulateoceannoise.TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization,partoftheUN,
regulatessomepollutantsfromships,suchasradioactivematerialsandcouldalsoregulate
oceannoise.Atpresentthereisnopolicytoregulatenoiseintheoceanonagloballevel.
5.2.2InternationalPolicies
InternationalPolicyparticularlythatinEuropehasgenerallybeenmoreprogressivethan
thatintheUnitedStates.Theregionaltreaty,AgreementontheConservationofSmall
CetaceansoftheBalticandNorthSeas(ASCOBANS),firstrecognizedthedangerofnoise
pollutionin1994,thenpassedaresolutiontorequestnoisegeneratorstoreducethe
impactsofnoiseoncetaceans,andin2006,passedasecondresolutionrequestingmember
statestodevelopspecificguidelinestominimizerisksofnoisetosmallcetaceans.InJuneof
Page 34
34
2004,theInternationalWhalingCommissioncalledformultinationalcooperationto
monitoroceannoiseandthedevelopmentregionalnoisebudgets.
SpecificactionbytheEuropeanParliamentin2004placedamoratoriumontheuseofhigh
intensityactivesonaruntilaglobalassessmentoftheenvironmentaleffectsoftheuseof
thistypeofsonarhasbeendetermined.ThisisconsistentwiththeEuropeanapproachto
environmentalmanagementcalledtheprecautionaryapproach.Thisapproachpreventsan
activitythatmightbeharmfulfromproceedinguntilithasbeenproventobesafe.The
burdenofprooffallsonthepartythatgeneratestheactivity‐inthiscase,noise.Alsoin
2004,theAgreementontheconservationofcetaceansoftheBlackSea,MediterraneanSea
andContiguousAtlanticArea(ACCOBAMS)recognizedoceannoiseasadangerous
pollutantandcalledonmemberstatestoavoidanyuseofanthropogenicnoiseinhabitats
ofvulnerablespecies.In2007,theregionalgroupurgedpartiestoreducenoiseand
developtoolstoassessimpactsandestablishmitigationmeasures.TheEuropeanUnion
includesunderwaternoiseinthedefinitionofpollutioninits2008MarineStrategy
Directive,inwhichactionisrequiredbymemberstatestoachievethe“goodenvironmental
status”ofEuropeanmarinewatersby2020.Inaddition,oceannoisepollutioniscovered
indirectlybytheHabitatsDirective,whichprohibitsallformsof“deliberatedisturbance”of
cetaceans.
TheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeahasaddressednoisespecificallyin
paragraph107ofitsresolution61/222on"Oceansandthelawofthesea",adoptedon20
December2006.It"encouragesfurtherstudiesandconsiderationoftheimpactsofocean
noiseonmarinelivingresources,andrequeststheDivisiontocompilethepeer‐reviewed
Page 35
35
scientificstudiesitreceivesfromMemberStatesandtomakethemavailableonits
website."Asofyet,theUNhasnotmovedbeyondthedemandtocollectmoredataand
doesnothaveaclearpolicytoregulateoceannoise.
TheinternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO),aUnitedNationsAgency,hasaMarine
EnvironmentalProtectionCommitteededicatedtodevelopingpolicytoolstoprotectthe
internationalmarineenvironment.InApril2008theIMOrecognizedtheharmfuleffectsof
commercialshippingnoiseandinvitedmemberstatestoparticipateinadialogueto
determinemitigation.InJune,theUnitedStatesintroducedaworkprogramthatrequests
actiontoreducenoisefrombytheimplementationofnewtechnologiesthatdampenthe
sound.
InternationalPolicyhasmovedforward,primarilyinEurope,butalsoinCanada,wherein
2002therecoveryplansforfourendangeredspecieslistednavalsonarasathreat.In
Spain,in2002,amoratoriumwasplacedontheuseofsonarwithin50milesoftheCanary
Islands(Fortescueetal2005).
Themilitary,particularlytheUSNavyandNATOhaveworkedbothinternallyandin
cooperationwithscientificgroupstodevelopmitigationmeasuresfortheuseofsonarin
responsetothethreatstomarinemammals.BothNATOandtheUSNavyhaverecognized
thatnavalsonarhasbeenalikelycauseofwhaledeaths,andhaveimplementedsome
voluntarymitigationmeasuressuchaslimitingtheareasandintheseasoninwhichsonar
isused.ManynationsincludingtheUS,Canada,UK,Norway,NetherlandsandSpainhave
beendevelopingnavaltoolstomodelandassessrisktooceanmammalsfromsonar
activitiesindifferentregions(Fortescueetal2005).
Page 36
36
5.2.2PolicyintheUnitedStates
TheprimaryinstrumentofUSoceanpolicythathasbeenusedtoprotectmarinelifefrom
excessivenoiseistheMarineMammalProtectionAct(MMPA),whichhasimposeda
moratoriumon“taking”ofmarinemammalsinUSwaters.“Takings”appliestohunting,
harassingorkillingtheanimal,butalsoincludesinjuryandbehavioraldisruption
(http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/mmpa_factsheet.pdf).TheMMPArequiresanyone
whomightharmmarinemammalstofirstobtainapermitfromawildlifeagency.Many
noisegenerators,however,donotenterintothepermittingprocess.Thislawwas
weakenedin2003withtheamendmenttoauthorizeexemptionsfornationaldefense.The
USNavyappliesforpermitsfortakingsfromtheNationalMarineFisheriesService.The
EndangeredSpeciesAct(ESA)hasalsobeenusedinsomespecificcases,suchasinbridge
constructioninSanFrancisco(Stocker,2004)tolimitoceannoiseandtheUSCoastGuard
doesenforceandprosecuteviolators.ThepurposeofboththeMMPAandtheESAwereto
protectspecificanimalspeciesandarenotcomprehensiveenoughtoadequatelyaddress
theeffectthatnoisepollutioncanhaveonhabitatincludingnon‐endangeredmarine
animals.
AnotherpotentialtoolbeingusedbytheNRDCandotheradvocacygroupsistheNational
EnvironmentalPolicyAct,whichrequiresanEnvironmentalImpactStatementtobe
preparedbyanyfederallyfundedorpermittedprojectorprogramwithpotential
environmentalimpacts.Manydifferentprojectsincludingoilandgasdrilling,USNavy’s
SURTASS‐LFAprojectandScrippsInstitution’sATOCprojectallpreparedEnvironmental
ImpactStatementswithreferencetonoisegeneration(McCarthy,2004).Thispolicy
Page 37
37
instrumentisverypowerfulsincethemethodicalandcomprehensiveapproachto
examiningtheprosandconsofaproposedprojectareusefulanditsrequirementtohave
theprocessopentopubliccommentprovidesanopportunitytochallengegovernment
actions.Butitisalsotimeconsuming,costlyandoflimitedaccuracysinceitrequiresa
predictionoffutureimpacts.
WhileUSpolicyonoceannoiseisnotusuallyspecific,therehavebeenindividualcasesof
source‐specificregulationofunderwatersound.ItisfoundinthefinalrulingoftheUS
NationalMarineFisheriesService(NMFS)abouttheoperationofseismicairguns.The
NMFSsetcriterianottoexceed180dBre1μPaformammalssuchasporpoisesandgray
whalesand190dBre1μPaformammalssuchassealionsandharborseals(Souththall,
2007).TheNMFSalsohasimposedspecialprovisionsaroundparticularareasdesignated
ofimportancetomarinemammals.Forexampletherule,prohibitssonarlevelsnotto
exceed180dBre1μPawithin23nauticalmilesoftheOlympicCoastNationalMarine
SanctuaryduringthemonthsofDecember,January,MarchandMay(McCarthy,2004).
OnthehorizonisnewpolicyincludingtheNationalOceansProtectionActof2008,which
hasbeenintroducedintheUSSenate.Oneoftheprinciples,“Thelackofscientificcertainty
shouldnotbeusedasjustificationforpostponingactiontopreventnegativeenvironmental
impacts”,couldhaveanimpactonthedevelopmentoffutureUSpolicyintheareaofocean
noise(anabstractcanbefoundathttp://thomas.loc.gov/cgi‐bin/query/z?c110:S.3314).
Whileinternationalpolicyisthebestwaytoaddressoceannoisebecauseitisatrans‐
boundarypollutant,theUnitedStates,asaleaderinworldpolicyaswellasadominant
Page 38
38
userofoceanresourcesandgeneratorofoceannoise,needstodevelopanationalpolicyon
oceannoise.
ANationaloceanpolicyhasbeenslowindevelopmentdespiteextensiveworkbythePew
OceanCommission(2003)andtheUSCommissiononOceanPolicy(2004.)ThePew
Commissioncalledforthedevelopmentofanationalpolicyaddressingoceannoise,while
theUSCommissionreportrecognizedtheimportanceofsoundintheoceanenvironment
andstressedmoreresearch.
5.2.3StatePolicyintheUnitedStates
Intheabsenceofeitheraninternationalornationalpolicy,somesmallerjurisdictional
areashaveaddressedthisissue.Forexample,TheCaliforniaOceanResourcesManagement
Planadoptedin2004istheonlystatewideplanthataddressesnoiseasanissue.Itmakes
nospecificrecommendationsbeyondadirectivetowardmoreresearchandthe
developmentofnoisecriteria
(http://resources.ca.gov/ocean/Cal_Ocean_Action_Strategy.pdf).
WithoutclearUSNationalpolicy,theconflictbetweenadvocacygroupsandnoise
generatorshasendedupincourt.InNovember2008,theSupremeCourtruledthatan
injunctionontheUSNavytostopsonartrainingexercisesoffthecoastofCaliforniabythe
USdistrictCourtinCaliforniawasnotproperandliftedit.Thisinjunctionwasbrought
aboutbyajudgmentinfavoroftheNationalResourcesDefenseCouncilthatcalledforthe
Navytodoafullenvironmentalimpactstatementbeforeproceedingwiththeexercise.In
theruling,theSupremeCourtjusticescitednationalsecurityconcernsassociatedwiththe
trainingexerciseasmoreimportantthanpossibleimpactstomarinelife.
Page 39
39
CurrentlyintheUnitedStates,theagenciesregulatingoceannoiseincludetheNational
MarineFisheriesService,apartofNOAAandtheArmyCorpsofEngineers(fordredging
andconstruction).
Page 40
40
6.0NATIONALOCEANANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION(NOAA)
In1998,NOAAestablisheditsAcousticsPrograminresponsetoincreasingconcernabout
underwatersoundandtheeffectitmightbehavingonprotectedmarinespecies(Southall
andGentry2005;http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/acoustics/).TheAcousticsProgram
supportsacousticsresearchtodevelopoceannoisecriteriaincooperationwithUSNavy.
Theprogramalsosponsorssymposiatocommunicatefindingsandcoordinatenationaland
globalresearchandreachesouttothepublicwithunbiasedinformationaboutoceannoise.
Anotherprogramofinterestisthesmallbusinessinnovationsresearchprogramwhichhas
acompetitivegrantprocessinwhichsomeprojectstodeveloptechnologythatinvestigates
theoceannoiseproblemhavebeenfunded
(http://www.oar.noaa.gov/orta/docs/FY2008Abstracts.pdf).
NOAAhasabroader`mandateforstewardshipofmarinemammalsandothermarine
resourcesthananyotherfederalagency.Therefore,thereisagrowingneedforNOAAtotake
anactiveroleinresearchontheeffectsofanthropogenicsoundsonmarinemammalsand,
indeed,ontheentiremarineecosystem’(NOAA,2004).
NOAAhasanimportantroletoplayintheprotectionofmarinelifethroughresearchand
regulationofman‐madesoundintheocean.Thedifficultyfacingtheagencyisthe
determinationofhowandevenwhentoregulatemanmadesound.Theacoustic
complexitiesoftheunderwaterenvironment,whencoupledwiththebroadrangeof
biologicaldiversityfoundinmarinemammalsandfish,makedefiningaregulatory
standardaverydifficultobjective.
Page 41
41
7.0RECOMMENDATIONSFORNOAA
7.1.1NOAAPolicy
NOAApolicyshouldbebasedonscience.Muchisstillunknownaboutunderwatersound
andhowmarinelifeisaffectedbyanthropogenicnoise.Alinkhasbeenestablished
betweensometypesofnoiseandsomeinjurytoanimalsandclearlyunderwatersoundis
animportantpartoftheoceanenvironments.
Policyshouldincludeecosystem‐basedmanagement.Thespeciesbyspeciesapproachnow
implementedthroughtheMMPAandtheESAisinsufficienttoprotectmarinelife,onlythe
mostsensitiveandprominentspecies.Fishandinvertebratesmayalsobeaffectedbyocean
noisepollution,butwithoutobviousimpacts.Ecosystem‐basedapproachesalsorecognize
thatthereisacumulativerisktospeciesofmanydifferentimpacts.Theestablishmentand
useofMarineProtectedAreas(MPA)wouldbeonepolicyinstrumentthatNOAAcoulduse
toimplementoceannoisepolicy.MPAprotecttheentirehabitat,whichisconsistentwith
ecosystem–basedmanagement.MPAshavealreadybeenestablishedintheUSand
internationallyfortheprotectionofmarinemammalssuchastheHawaiianIslands
NationalMarineSanctuary.ExistingregulationslimitactivitiesinsomeMPAsthatinclude
noiseandthistrendcouldexpandtootherMPAsandincludebufferzonesaroundthese
areas.TheUScouldconsiderproposalofnewMPAsandparticipateinthecreationof
internationalMPAs.Zoninghasbeeneffectivelyusedonlandtoprotectareasofinterest
fromnoisepollution.Oceanzoningcouldhavethesameimpact,buttherewouldbe
significantchallengesduetotheinternationalnatureofoceannoisepollutionandthe
migratorynatureofsomeofthemarinelifetargetedforprotection.
Page 42
42
7.1.2 NationalandInternationalOceanPolicy
AstheleadagencyinoceanconcernsNOAAthroughitsAcousticsProgramshouldbe
activelyinvolvedwithnationalandinternationaleffortstoformulatenationaland
international(global)policyinrelationtonoiseintheocean.
7.2Research
7.2.1NoiseBudgets
NOAAshouldcontinuetoworkcooperativelywiththeUSNavyandresearchinstitutionsto
createanoisebudgetfortheoceantohelpputanthropogenicnoiseincontextandlookfor
cumulativeeffectsofdifferenttypesofnoise.
7.2.2Effectofoceannoiseondifferentspecies
Researchshouldcontinueintotheeffectsofoceannoiseonthemanyspeciesthatcouldbe
impacted.Whilethefocushasbeenoncetaceansandothermarinemammals,fishand
invertebratesalsodevelopintheacousticenvironmentintheoceanandmayhaveimpacts
thatarenotasobvious,orarepartofacumulativeenvironmentalimpact.Goodquality
controlisnecessaryinthescienceresearchaswellascommunicationsoffindingsinthis
globallyimportantscientificissue.FortunatelyNOAA’sOceanAcousticprogramisfocused
onmuchofthisessentialscientificstudyandshouldcontinue.
7.3Regulation
Thenatureoftheregulationofnoisegeneratorsshouldbescalableastothetypeand
natureofnoisegenerator,whichincludestakingintoaccounttheenvironmentalimpact
Page 43
43
andfinancialabilityofeachstakeholdertoadoptpolicychanges.Thisputsregional
stakeholdersintoaglobalcontext.Newtechnologiestolimitnoisegenerationbyboth
commercialandrecreationwatercraftshouldbedevelopedandimplemented.The
legislationshouldalsobeprogressiveinthatitshouldallowgeneratorstophaseouttheir
noisyequipmentovertime.Thiswouldmakethelegislationmoreacceptableto
stakeholders(Stocker,2004).
7.4 PublicOutreach
Theproblemofoceannoisepollutionhasbeenframedinthemediaasahighlyemotional
conflictbetweenthemilitaryandwhales.NGOs,inbringingattentiontothistopic,have
usedmediasuchaswebsites,videofeaturingcelebrityhostsandgraphicphotographsof
whalesindistress.Themilitary,ontheotherhand,hasnotrespondedtopublicoutcryina
waythathasdemonstratedtheircooperation.NOAAisinapositiontobeanunbiased,
scientificallybasedsourceofinformationforthepublicaboutthisissueandshouldfund
outreacheffortstoprovideabalancedviewoftheproblemandpotentialsolutionstoocean
noisepollution.
Page 44
44
8.0REFERENCES
Bressen,R.(n.d.)AcousticPollutioninthePugetSoundanditseffectsonMarineMammals
ExecutiveSummary,accessedNovember20,2008from
http://www.sanjuans.org/pdf_document/ExecutiveSummaryoceannoise.pdf
Brown,M.(1998)GlobalThermometerImperiledbyDispute.NewYorkTimes;October26,
1998accessedNovember20,2008from
http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/102798sci‐sound.html
Cousteau,Jacques,1953.ASilentWorld.
Cousteau,JeanMichel.http://www.oceanfutures.org/images/d&w3d_editorial_byjean‐
michelcousteau.pdf.Accessed12/04/08
EddsWalton,P.L.andFinneran,J.J.(2006).Evaluationofevidenceforalteredbehavior
andauditorydeficitsinfishesduetohuman‐generatednoisesources.SanDiego:United
StatesNavy.
Frantzis,A.1998.Doesacoustictestingstrandwhales.Nature392,29(5March1998).
Fortescue,P.,etal.(2005)MARINEMAMMALSANDACTIVESONAR:Apaperpreparedfor
theNATOMilitaryOceanographyGroupaccessedNovember30,2008from
http://pubs.drdc.gc.ca/inbasket/jimt.051012_1004.2005‐229%20Doc.pdf
Hildebrand,JohnandWiggins,Sean,2008.JournaloftheAcousticalSocietyofAmerica
Reportonpaperaccessedon12/04/08athttp://www.physorg.com.news75355639.html
Luczkovich,J.2008.Personalpresentation“BioacousticsoftheSea:BiologicalSoundsand
AnthropogenicImpacts”.
Page 45
45
Madsen,P.,2004.TheDeceptiveDecibel–PitfallsintheDiscussionontheEffectsof
UnderwaterMan‐madeNoiseonMarineMammals.VoicefromtheSea,ODYSSEYlog.
MMC2008MarineMammalCommissionWebsiteat:http://www.mmc.gov
Accessed09/11/08
McCarthy,E.(2004)InternationalRegulationofUnderwaterSound.KluwerPublishers.
Massachusetts.
NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)andU.S.Navy.(2001).
Jointinterimreport Bahamasmarinemammalstrandingeventof15‐16March2000.
UnpublishedreportreleasedbytheDepartmentofCommerceandtheSecretaryofthe
Navy.
NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA).(2002).Reportofthe
workshoponacousticresonanceasasourceoftissuetraumaincetaceans.ReleasedbyU.S.
DepartmentofCommerce.
NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA).(2004).Reportofthe
NOAAworkshopon anthropogenicsoundandmarinemammals,19‐20February2004.
ReleasedbyU.S.DepartmentofCommerce.
Noel,Kristen,2007.NavyInvestsinprotectingmarinemammals.NewsRelease
12/20/2007.Accessed12/02/08at
http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=34061
Nowacek,D.P.,,Thorne,L.H.,Johnston,D.W.&Tyack,P.L.(2007).Responsesof
cetaceansto anthropogenicnoise.MammalReview,No.2,81‐115.
Page 46
46
Oceanus2008.TheSoundsofSonarandtheFuryaboutWhaleStrandings.
www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=37146Accessed12/03/08
OceanStudiesBoard:NationalResearchCouncil.(2003).Oceannoiseandmarine
mammals.Washington,D.C.:NationalAcademiesPress.
OceanStudiesBoard:NationalResearchCouncil.(2005).Marinemammalspopulations
andocean noise:determiningwhennoisecausesbiologicallysignificanteffects.
Washington,D.C.:NationalAcademiesPress.
PodestaMichelaetal,2006,AreviewofCuvier’sbeakedwhalestrandingsinthe
MeditteraneanSea.JournalCetaceanResearchManagement.7(3):251‐261.
Russell,Sharman,2008.ReviewofRothenberg,David,2008.ThousandMileSong.In
Onearth,Summer2008,53.
Southall,B.L.andGentry,R.L.2005.NOAA’sOceanAcousticsProgram:supporting
science,managementandpubliceducation.InOceans2005,proceedingsofMTS/IEEE.
Abstractaccessedat
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/absprintf.jsp?arnumber=1640017&page=free
12/01/08
Southall,B.L.,Bowles,A.E.,Ellison,W.T.,Finneran,J.J.,Gentry,R.L.,Greene,Jr.C.R.,Kastak,
D., Ketten,D.R.,Miller,J.H.,Nachtigall,P.E.,Richardson,W.J.,Thomas,J.A.,&Tyack,P.L.
(2007).Marinemammalnoiseexposurecriteria:initialscientificrecommendations.
AquaticMammals,33(4),411‐414.
Sprague,M.2008.Personalpresentationonsoundintheocean.
Page 47
47
Stoker,M.(2004)Oceanbioacoustics,HumanGeneratedNoiseandOceanPolicy,Seaflow,
Inc.accessedNovember20,2008fromhttp://ocr.org/literature/papers/ocean‐noise‐and‐
policy.pdf
Tyack,P.L.,Johnson,M.,Soto,N.A.,Sturlese,A.,&Madsen,P.T.(2006).
Extremedivingofbeaked whales.TheJournalofExperimentalBiology,209,4238‐4253.
UniversityofRhodeIsland.(2008).Discoveryofsoundinthesea:Animalsandsoundin
thesea:the importanceofsound.Retrievedfrom
http://www.dosits.org/animals/import/1b.htm.
UniversityofRhodeIsland,OfficeofMarinePrograms.2008ScienceofSoundinthe
Sea,2008.http://www.dosits.org/science/intro.htm
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K‐12/airplane/sndwave.html
http://hyperphysics.phy‐astr.gsu.edu/hbase/press.html
http://wikipedia.com
UniversityofRhodeIsland.(2008).Discoveryofsoundinthesea:Animalsandsoundin
thesea:marineanimaluseofsound.Retrievedfrom
http://www.dosits.org/animals/use/1.htm.
UniversityofRhodeIsland.(2008).Discoveryofsoundinthesea:Soundproductionand
reception: hearingincetaceansandsirenians:thefullyaquaticear.Retrievedfrom
http://www.dosits.org/ animals/produce/ceta.htm