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NO COMPROMISE The Conflict Between Two Worlds
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No Compromise the Conflict Between Two Worlds Melvin Rader 1939 412pgs PHI POL

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Page 1: No Compromise the Conflict Between Two Worlds Melvin Rader 1939 412pgs PHI POL

8/3/2019 No Compromise the Conflict Between Two Worlds Melvin Rader 1939 412pgs PHI POL

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NO COMPROMISEThe Conflict Between Two Worlds

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49 o

THE MACMILLAN COMPANYNEW YORE BOSTON • CHICAGO

DALLAS . ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCOMACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITEDLONDON •

BOMBAY • CALCUTTAMADRAS- MELBOURNETHE MACMILLAN COMPANYOF CANADA, LIMITED

TORONTO

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NO COMPROMISETHE CONFLICTBETWEEN TWO WORLDS

BYMELVIN RADER

DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY • UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

" T h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s

[Democracy and Fa scism] can Permit

no comprom ise. " MUSSOLINI

NEW YORK • 1939

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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Copy right, 1939, byTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY .

All rights reserved-no part of this book

m a y b e r e p r o duc e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h out

perm ission in writing from the publisher,

except b y a reviewer who wishes to quote brief

passages in connection with a review written

for inclusion in mag a zine or newspap er .

Set up a nd p rinted . Published June, 1939 .

FIRST PRINTING

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAAMERICAN BOOK-STRATFORD PRESS, INC., NEW YORK

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TO MY PARENTSCARY MELVIN RADER

HARRIET MILLER RADER

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FOREWORDIF ANY r e a d e r o f t h i s b o o k w o n d e r s w hy a t e a c h e r o f p h i l o s o -

p h y s h o u l d d e se r t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e m e s t o w r i t e a w o r k

o n F a s c i s m , t h e a n s w e r i s c o n t a i n e d i n a s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y

o n e o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h ed p h i l o s o p h i c a l j o u r n a l s o f E u r o p e ,

t h e P h i l o s o p h i s c h e H e f t e p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m er C z e c h o s l o v a -

k i a : " T o d a y t h e i s s u e i s n o t b e t w e e n t h i s o r t h a t s c h o o l o f

p h i l o s o p h y , b u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s u r v i v a l o f a n y p h i l o s o-

p h y a t a l l . T h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e a r e t o t t er i n g . " E v e r y -

t h i n g d e p e n d s u p o n r e p a i r i n g t h e m a t e r i a l a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l

b a s i s o f l i f e . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p h i l o s o p h y d a r e n o t

a b s t r a c t i t s e l f f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c s t r u g g l es o f

t h e p r e s e n t d a y . N o s t r u g g l e i s m o r e c r u c i a l t h a n t h a t b e -

t w e e n D e m o c r a c y a n d F a s c i s m .

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSMY COLLEAGUES, D r . W i l l i a m S a v e r y , D r . E v er et t J . N e l s on ,

D r . H e r b e r t J . P h i l l i p s , D r . B r e n t s S t i r l i n g , D r . G i o v a n n i C o s-

t i g a n , M r . A n g e l o M . P e l l eg r i n i , a n d M r . G l e nn W i p r u d, a l l

o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n, h a v e m a d e i m p o r t a n t c r i t i -

c i s m s a n d s u g g e st i o n s . D r . S a v e r y , a s m y f o rm e r te a c h er , h a s

c o n t r i b u t e d g re a t l y t o w h a t e v e r f u n d o f s o c i a l i d e a l s I n o w

p o s s e s s. Mr . P e l l e g r i n i h a s k i n d l y t r a n s l a t e d a n u m b e r o f

p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e I t a l i a n . M r . L e w i s M u m f o r d , w h o s e b o o k s

a n d a r t i c l e s I h a v e f o u n d h i g h l y s t i m u la t i n g , h a s r e a d t h e

e n ti r e m a n us c r i p t a n d gi v e n m e h i s ex p e r t a d v i c e . M y wi f e ,

V i r g i n i a R a d e r , h a s b e e n a f r e q u e nt s o u r c e o f e n c o u r a g e -

m e n t a n d c r i t i c i s m . T h e m a n us c r i p t h a s b ee n c a r e f u ll y t y p e d

by Mr . V e r n e B en e d i c t . M r s . H e l g a P h i l l i p s h a s a s s i s t ed i n

p r o o f - r e a d i n g a n d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e i n d e x . A b o v e a l l ,

I a m i n d e b t e d f o r i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e t o a f r i e n d w h o

p r e f e r s t o r e m a i n u n n a m e d . I a m d e e p l y g r a t e f u l f o r a l l o f

t h e h el p t h a t I h a v e r e c e i v e d . T h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d i n d i v i d -

u a l s , h o w e v e r , a r e i n n o s e n s e re s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i d e a s e x -

p r e s s e d o r t h e d e f e c t s i n s t y l e a n d t h o u g h t .

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CONTENTSI . Fa scism and the World Crisis . . 1

I I . The Flight from Reason . . . 20

I I I . Valuations : S e n t i m e n t a l o r S c i e n t i f i c ? 44

IV . Moral Bias and Obj ectivity . . . 88

V. Force or Consent?4 1VI . The Theory of the Elite . 1 8 5

VII . Race, Sta te, and Individual . . . 216

VIII. The Idealistic Mask and the Real F ace 253

IX . The P rospects of Western Culture . 293

X. The Present Cla sh of Ideals 334

Notes . 353

Index . 397

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NO COMPROMISEThe Conflict Between Two Worlds

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISISI f t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n i s t o b e s a v e d , i f i t i s n o t t o b e s u bm e r g e d by c e n -

t u r i e s o f b a r b a r i s m b u t t o s e c u r e t h e t r ea s u r e s o f i t s i n h e r i t a n c e o n n e w

and m ore stable foundations, there is indeed need for those now living

f u l l y t o r e a l i z e h o w f a r t h e d e c a y h a s a l r e a d y p r o g r es s e d .-JORAN HUIZINGA 1

i . The Scope of the Present BookAT THE b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n t u r y , H e n r y A d a m s f o r e c a s t t h a t

a n o t h e r g e ne r a t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e " a n e w s o c i a l m i n d . " 2

A d a m s ' p r e d i c t i o n h a s b e e n f u l f i l l e d ; a n e w m i n d i s d e s p e r -

a t e l y r e q u i r e d . T h e r e a s o n i s o b v i o u s : t h e c i v i l i z e d w o r ld i s

f a c i n g o n e o f t h e s u p r e m e c r i s e s o f i t s h i s t o r y . N o o n e e x c e p t

t h e h o p e l e ss l y i g n o r a n t w o u l d t hi n k o f d e n y i n g i t f o r a n i n -

s t a n t . M e n m a y d e b a t e w h e t h e r th i s i s t h e m o s t c r u c i a l t u r n -

i n g - p o i n t o f h i s t o ry , b u t t h ey c a n h a r d l y d e n y t h a t t h e p r e s e n t

s i t u a t i o n i s ex t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l . W e o b v i o u s ly l i v e i n o n e of

t h o s e a g e s o f p r o f o u n d t r a n s v a l u a t i o n - a n a g e l i k e t h e R e n a i s -

s a n c e o r t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , o r l i k e t h e r e v o l u ti o n a r y p e r i o d s

i n F r a n c e a n d A m e r i c a . Y e t t h e c u r re n t t ra n s f o r m a t i o n i s

e v e n b r o a d e r a n d d e e p e r . I t i s w o r ld - w i d e i n i t s s c o p e , u n i q u e

i n i t s o b j e c t i v e s , a n d u n p r e c e d e n te d i n i t s d a n g e r s . W e d o

n e e d a n e w s oc i a l m i n d .

B u t i s t h e re a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s n e w m i n d i s e m e r g i n g ?

A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t h e r e a r e t w o g r e a t i n s u r g e n t m o v e -

m e n t s t ha t a r e a t d e a t h g r i p s , a n d d i v i d e a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e

w o r l d b e t w e e n t h e m . O n e o f t h es e i s S o c i a l i s m , t h e o t he r i s

F a s c i s m . D o e s e i t h e r m o v e m e n t r e p r e s e n t t h e " n e w p h a s e

s u b j e c t t o n e w l a w s , " t h e " j u m p " i n h u m a n l i f e , w h i c h A d a m s

t h o u g h t w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y ?

W e s h a l l n o t u n d e r t a k e t o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e

t o S o c i a l i s m , a l t h o u gh w e s ha l l t o uc h u p o n t he s u bj e c t . O u r

1 Notes are to be found at the end of t he volume .

I

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2 NO COMPROMISEa i m i s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r F a s c i s m r e p r e s e n t s t h i s n e w

m e n t a l i t y , o r w h e t he r i t i s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a n e x t r e m e f o r m

o f c u l t u r a l d e c a y .

I u n d e r s t a n d b y F a s c i s m n o t m e r e l y t h e m o v e m e n t i n I t a l y ,

b u t t h e k i n d r e d m o v e m e n t s i n G e r m a n y , J a p a n , a n d e l s e -

where . M u s s ol i n i h a s r i g h t l y d e c l a r e d , " F a s c i s m h a s n o w a c -

q u i r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d t h a t u n i v e r s a l i t y w h i c h b e l o n g s

t o a l l d o c t r i n e s w h i c h b y a c h i e v i n g s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n r e p r e se n t

a m o m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f h u m a n t h o u g h t . " 3 D e s p i t e t h e

u s e o f o t he r t e rm s , s u c h a s " N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m " i n G e r m a n y ,

t h e r e i s e n o u g h s i m i l a r i t y t o j u s t i f y t h e c o m m o n n a m e .

F o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s , I h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d u p o n I t a l i a n

and German Fa scism . I n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s t h e m o v e m e n t ha s

a c h i e v e d i t s f u l l e s t a n d c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n . I t i s h a r d t o o b t a i n

a d e q u a t e d a t a f o r t h e s tu d y o f F a s c i s m i n o t h e r c o u n tr i e s .

J a p a n e s e F a s c i s m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t to s t ud y i f o n e i s

u n f a m i l i a r w i t h O r i e n t a l l a n g u a g e s . Y e t I h a v e b o r ne i n m i n d

t h a t F a s c i s m i s w o rl d - w i d e . T h e g re a t F a s c i s t p o w er s a r e su p -

p o r t e d b y s y m p a t h e t i c f o r c e s i n a l m o s t e v er y c o u n t r y , a n d

h e n c e w e s ho u l d b e l a c k i n g i n r e a l i s m i f w e d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e

t h a t t h er e i s a F a s c i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l .

B e f o r e w e a r e r e a d y t o p a s s j u d g m e n t u p o n F a s c i s m , w e

m u s t u n d e rs t a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o o t s o f F a s c i s t t h o u g h t .

S o m e o f t h e m o s t n o ta b l e t h i n k e r s i n t h e w o r l d h a v e u n w i t -

t i n g l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s n e w Welta nschauung . T h i s f a c t

s h o ul d f o r e w a r n us a g a i n s t a n y h a s t y d i s m i s s a l o f F a s c i s t

" p h i l o s o p h y . " T h i n k e r s of s u c h s t a t u r e a s M a c h i a v e l l i , F i c h t e ,

H e g e l , N i e t z s c h e , S o r e l , P a r e t o , a n d S p e n g l e r c a n n o t e a s i l y

b e r e f u t e d . N o o n e o f t h es e m e n w a s a F a s c i s t , y e t m u c h t h a t

t h e y t h o u g h t d o e s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e F a s c i s t o u t l o o k ; e a c h

c o n t r i b u t e d , i n c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f h i s t h o u g h t , to t h e p a t c h -

w o r k o f d o c t r i n e s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s " t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f F a s -

c i s m . " U n t i l w e h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e a r g u m e n t s o f t h e s e t h i n k -

e r s , w e a r e u n p r e p a r e d t o r e a c h a c o n c l u s i o n .

A s w e p r o c e e d , we s h a l l c o n s i d e r , o n e b y o n e , t h e m a j o r

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 3

p r o b le m s wh i c h a r e p r e se n te d b y F a s c i s t t he o ry . S h o u ld w e

r e l y m o r e o r le s s , u p o n r e a s on a s a b a s i s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n ? C a n

t h e re b e a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s? I s i t p o s s i b l e, a n d i f s o i s i t

d e s i r a b l e , t o a c h i e v e i m p a r t i a l i t y i n t h e s p h e r e o f m o r a l s ?

S h o u l d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y b e p l a c e d i n t h e h a n d s o f a n

e l i t e ? T o w h a t e x t e n t a r e m e n a n d n a t i o n s j u s t i f i e d i n r e s o r t -

i n g t o v i o l e n c e ? S h o u l d i n d i v i d u a l s b e s u b o rd i n a t e d t o t h e

S t a t e , o r s h o u l d t h e S t a t e b e m e r e l y a n i n s t r u m e nt f o r t h e

w e l f a r e o f i n d i v i d u a l s ? A r e " i d e a l s " o r "m a t e r i a l " p r o c e s s e s

m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l a s h i s t o r i c a l c a u s e s ? C a n W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a -

t i o n s u rv i v e , o r i s i t d o o m e d ? W h a t s o r t o f p r o g ra m , i f a n y ,

o f f e r s h o p e f o r t h e s a l v a g i n g o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ? T h es e f a r - r e a c h -

i n g q u e s t i o n s m u s t e n te r i n t o t h e p r e s e n t c r i t i q u e . W e s h a l l

i n d i c a t e h o w t h e s e q u e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n a n s w e r e d b y t h e

t h i n k e r s w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d m o s t to F a s c i s m . S o f a r a s o u r

s p a c e a l l o w s, w e s h a l l c r i t i c i z e t h e F a s c i s t a n s w er s a n d o f f e r

a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u ti o n s .

2 . T h e S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i c B a s i s o f F a s c i s t T h eo r y

W e c a n n o t g r a s p t h e i m p o r t o f F a s c i s t t h o u g h t w i t h o u t

u n d er s t a n d i n g i t s re l a t i o n s hi p t o t h e w o rl d c r i s i s . F a sc i s m i s

l a r g e l y t h e p r o d u c t o f w a r a n d e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e . I n t hi s

r e sp e c t , I d i s a g re e w i th t h e t h eo r y o f G . A . B orgese, the bril-

l i a n t a u t h or o f G o l i a t h : T h e M a r c h of F a s c i s m . B o r g e s e c o n -

t e n d s t h a t t h e I t a l i a n m o v e m e n t i s " a n o u t b u r s t of e m o t i o n a l -

i s m a n d p s e u d o - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m " s p r i n g i n g f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l

i n s p i r a t i o n o f M u s s ol i n i a n d t h e i n t e ll e c t u a l d e t er i o r a t i o n o f

m o d e rn I t a l y . H e s p e c i f i c a l l y a s s e r ts t h a t " s oc i a l a n d e c o n o m i c

f a c t o r s . . . e x p l a i n ` F a s c i s m ' a s l i t t l e a s t he m u s hr o o m s

c r o w d i n g a t t h e f o o t o f t h e t r e e o r t h e m i s t l e t o e c l a m b e r i n g

o n t h e b r a n c h e s e x p l a i n s t h e t r e e i t s e l f . " 4 Without deny-

i n g t h a t i d e a s a n d p e r s o n a l i t i e s a r e p o t e n t f o r c e s , I r e g a r d

B o r g e se ' s i n t e rp r e t a t i o n a s m u c h t o o i d e a l i s t i c a n d p e r s o na l -

i s t . M a n b o t h a c t s a n d r e a c t s : h e m a k e s h i s w o r ld a n d i s m a d e

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4 NO COMPROMISEb y i t . He is not the mere puppet of economic and social

forces, nor does he live in a vacuum, immune from these

f o r c e s . B o r g es e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , l i k e t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e o f

a q u i e t i s t i c e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s m , n e g l e c t s th e c o n s t a n t i n -

t e r p l a y b e t w e e n s p i r i t a n d m a t t e r , m a n a n d n a t u r e , t h o u g h t

a n d t h i n g s . T h e F a s c i s t s , l i k e e v e r y b o dy e l s e , c a n n o t e s c a p e

t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s i s a n a g e

o f c r i s i s : e v e r y g r e a t s o c i a l m o v e m e n t i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y c o n -

d i t i o n e d by t h i s f a c t .

W a r , t h e m o st v i o l e n t f o rm o f c r i s i s , h a s l e f t i t s d e e p i m -

p r i n t u p o n F a s c i s m . F r o m i t s v e r y i n c e p t i o n u n t i l t h e p r e s en t

d a y , t h e F a s c i s t e c o n o m y h a s b e e n m i l i t a r i s t i c i n c h a r a c t e r .

The World War, a ccording to Mussolini, overthrew Democ-

r a c y a n d i n a u g u r a t e d t h e a g e o f d i c t a t o r s h i p :

T h e w a r w a s " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " i n t h e s en s e t h a t - w i t h s t r e a m s o f

b l o o d - i t d i d a w a y w i t h t h e c e n t ur y o f D e m o c r a c y , t h e c e n t u r y

o f n u m b e r, t h e c e n t u r y o f m a j o r i t i e s a n d o f q u a n t i t i e s . 5

A f t e r M u s s o l i n i s e i z e d p o w e r , h e s a w t o i t t h a t I t a l i a n

e c o n o m y w a s d o m i n a t e d b y m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s . I n a s p e ec h

in Ma y, 1927, he announced :

T h e p r ec i s e , f u n d a m e n t a l , a n d p a r a m o u n t du t y o f F a s c i s t I t a l y

i s t h a t o f p u t t i n g i n a s t a t e o f p r e p a r e d ne s s a l l h e r a r m ed f o r c e s

o n l a n d , o n s ea , a n d i n t h e a i r . W e m u s t be i n a p o s i t i o n , a t a

c e r t a i n m o m e n t , t o m o b i l i z e f i v e m i l l i o n m e n , a n d w e m u s t b e i n

a p o s i t i o n t o a r m t h e m . O u r N a v y m u s t b e r e i n f o r c e d a n d o u r

A i r F o r c e - i n w h i c h I h a v e m o r e a n d m o r e f a i t h - m u s t b e s o

n u m e r o u s a n d s o p o w e r f u l t h a t t h e r o a r o f i t s e n g i n e s s h o u l d

d r o w n a n y o t h e r n oi s e i n t h e P e n i n s u l a a n d t h e s p a n o f i t s w i n g s

s h o u l d h i d e t h e s u n f r o m o u r c o u n t r y . °

T h re e y e a r s l a t e r, i n M a y , I 9 3 o , h e w a s a b l e t o st a g e a g i g a n t i c

m i l i t a r y r e v i e w . I n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t hi s o c c a s i o n , h e d e c l a r ed :

T o m o rr o w , B l a c k S h i r t s , y o u w i l l s e e a n a r m e d r e v i e w o f i m -

p r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r . I t i s I w h o d e si r e d i t , b e c a u s e , a l t h o u gh w o r d s

a r e b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s , r i f l e s , m a c h i n e g u n s , s h i p s , a e r o p l a n e s, a n d

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS5

cannons a re still more bea utiful things : because, my Black Shirts,

right, unless accompa nied by force, is a vain word, a nd your own

great Niccolo Machiavelli has warned us that prophets who ha ve

disarm ed will perish . ?

Four more years pass, and the armaments of Europe mountdizzily upwa rds . But Mussolini is not y et sa tisfied . H e thus

addresses the General Staff :

We are becoming- and sha ll become so increasingly beca use

this is our desire-a milita ry na tion . A militaristic nation, I will

add, since we a re not afra id of words . To complete the picture,

warlike-that is to sa y, endowed ever to a higher degree with the

virtues of obedience, sacrif ice, and dedica tion to country . This

mea ns that the whole life of the nation, political, economic, a nd

spiritual, m ust be system atica lly directed towards our military

requirements . . . . I recall to y ou that m ilitary forces represent

the essential element in the hierarchy of the nation . Nothing has

yet been discovered which can take the pla ce of that which is the

clearest, most tangible, m ost decisive expression of the total

strength of an entire people-that is to say , the size, the prestige,

the power of its arms on la nd, on the sea, and in the air . 8

T w o m o r e y e a r s e l a p s e . Italy is completing a war of conquest .

S o o n s h e wi l l b e p lun g e d i n t o a m i l i t a r y c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t

Spanish democracy. By this time, the armaments of Italyhave been b uilt up to huge dimensions, a nd Mussolini antici-

pa tes a general conflagration . War is now Italy's prime con-

cern, a s Mussolini st a tes in a s p eech before the a sse m bled

representa tives of industry :

I come now to a m ost important p oint in my sp eech, to what

I shall ca ll a plan for the regulation of Italian economy in the

near future of Fascism . This pla n is based on a prem ise : the

inevitability of war a nd of our nation being drawn into it .

When? H ow? No one c a n tell, but the wheel of destin y s p ins

f a s t . . . . D uring the p eriod we have entered these industries

[the "heavy industries"] will have neither tim e nor op portunity

to supp ly the private consumer . They will be obliged to work

exclusively, or almost so, for the arm ed forces of the State . 9

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6 NO COMPROMISET h e c y c l e h a s a l m o s t c o m e f u l l c i r c l e : f r o m w o r l d w a r t o

w o r l d w a r . B u t n o w th e s i t u a t i o n i s v e r y d i f f e r e nt f r o m t h a t

o f 1 9 1 3 , f o r t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d a r e s p e n d i n g a p p r o x i -

m a t e l y t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h o n m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s a s t h e y

d i d i n t h e y e a r b e f o r e t h e G r e a t W a r . 1 0 M o r e o v e r , s c i e n c e

h a s g r e a t l y p e r f e c t e d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of d e s t r u c t i o n .

W e s h a l l n o t u n d e r ta k e t o t r a c e t h e s i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e nt

t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d i n t h e e c o n o m y o f N a z i G e r m a n y . It w i l l

s u f f i c e t o q u o t e t he o p i n i o n o f t h e New York Times corre-

s p o n d e n t i n a d i s p a t c h t o h i s p a p e r o n M a r c h 2 2 , 1 9 3 6 :

"Fundam entally the German economic situation revolves

around the issue of how to finance rearm am ent ."" The

l a t e s t d i s p a t c h f r o m G e r m a n y i s i n t h e s a m e t e n o r .

T h e i n t e n s e c r i s i s o f S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 , r e v e a l e d t h e c r u e l

e x t r e m e s t o w hi c h t h e F a s c i s t s a r e p r e p a r e d t o g o i n t h r e a t e n -

i n g m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t of t h e

M u n i c h a g r e e m e n t , H i t l e r h a s v e r y g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d h i s

s t r e n g t h a n d p r e s t i g e : b y t h r ea t o f w a r , h i s de s i r e s h a v e b e en

imp osed upon the world . He now has more man-power,

v a s t l y m o r e r e s ou r c e s , a n d a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e i n C e n t r a l

Europe . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h i s o c c a s i o n a l p r o m i s e s t o re f r a i n

f r o m f u r t h e r a g g r e s s i o n a r e n o t r e a s s u r i n g ; h e h a s b ro k e n s ol -

e m n p r o m i s e s i n t h e p a s t , h e h a s l o s t n o t i m e i n b r e a k i n g t h e

s p e c i f i c p r o m i s e s h e m a d e a t M u n i c h , a n d h i s b o o k a d v o c a t e s

l y i n g a s a m e a n s o f a l l a y i n g s u s p i c i o n a n d o u t m a n e u v er i n g

t h e e n e m y . T h e B r i t i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s " r e a l i s t i c " p o l i c y o f

m a k i n g i m m e n s e c o n c e s s i o n s to a g g r e s s or - n a t i o n s a t t h e e x -

p e n s e o f t h e i r v i c t i m s h a s n o t s e r v e d t o tu r n a m a n l i k e H i t l e r

f r o m t he p a t h o f v i o l e n c e . T h e d e v a st a t i n g a r m s r a c e c o n -

t i n u e s , a n d t h e w a r l i k e s p i r i t o f F a s c i s m s h o w s n o s i g n o f

a b a t e m e n t .

T h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f F a s c i s m a r e d i r e c t l y r e -

l a t e d t o i t s m i l i t a r i s t i c t e m p e r . " W e a r e a n a r m y , " M u s s o -

l i n i h a s s a i d , " a n d i t i s j u s t b e c a u s e w e h a v e t h i s s p e c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t w e m u s t m a k e d i s c i p l i n e t h e s u p r e m e p i v o t

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS7

o f o u r li f e a n d a c t i o n . " 1 2 I n v e r y t r u t h , t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s

h a v e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d m o r a l e o f n a t i o n s i n a s t a t e o f

war. T h e e x t r e m e c e n t ra l i z a t i o n o f a u t ho r i t y , t h e r e g u l a t i o n

o f c a p i t a l a n d e sp e c i a l l y l a b o r , t he s u p p r e s si o n o f d i s s i d e n t

p o l i t i c a l e l e m e n ts , t h e r eg i m e n t a t i o n o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n b y

m e a n s o f p r o p a g a n d a , t h e s u b o r di n a t i o n o f o t h er p h a s e s o f

c u l t u r e to m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l r eq u i r e m e n t s , t h e a b a n d o n -

m e n t of t h e i d e a l a n d p r a c t i c e o f s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y , t h e

i n t e n s e u p s u r g e o f n a t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f

o b e d i e n c e a n d " h e r o i s m " a s o p p o s e d t o f r e e c r i t i c i s m , n o t

o n l y a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n a t i o n i n t h e d e sp e r a t e

t h r oe s o f w a r , b u t a r e a l s o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f F a s c i s m l T o

a g r e a t e x t e n t , M u s s o li n i a n d H i t l e r ha v e o b v i o u s l y r e f u r -

b i s h e d t h e i d e a l s o f w a r t i m e .

F a s c i s m i s j u s t a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r el a t e d to c l a s s c o n f l i c t , a l -

t h o u g h t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n o b s c u r e d b y

propaganda . T h e F a s c i s t s h a v e o f t e n p r o f e s s e d n ot t o b e

g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e c o n o m i c o r d e r , a n d e v e n w h e n

e c o n o m i c i n t e r es t s h a v e b e e n a d m i t t e d, F a s c i s t p r o p a g a n d a

h a s b e e n e x t r e m e l y m i s l e a d i n g i n d e sc r i b i n g i t s " ob j e c t i v e s . "

A s a r e n e g a d e S o c i a l i s t , M u s s o l i n i k n e w h ow t o c a p i t a l i z e

u p o n t h e s t r on g a p p e a l t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t h a d f o r

t h e m a s s of I t a l i a n s . H e s p o k e o f h i s p a r t y a s b a s e d u p o n

S y n d i c a l i s t i d e a l s , a n d m a d e u s e o f m a n y S o c i a l i s t s l o g a n s .

H i t l e r a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s l i k e w i s e a d o p t e d t h e n a m e o f N a -

t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t G e r m a n W o r k e r s ' P a r t y ( N a t i o n a l s oz i a l i s -

t i s c h e D e u t s c h e A r b e i t e r p a r t e i ) , a n d a n n o u n c e d m a n y o f t h e

o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h t h e n a m e i m p l i e s .

W e c a n n o t b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d F a s c i s m , h o w e v e r , i f w e

t a k e i t s p r o m i s e s a t f a c e v a l u e . The late Huey L ong, an

American would-be dictator, p ointed out, "Fa scism in

A m e r i c a w i l l a r r i v e o n a n a n ti - F a s c i s t p l a t f o r m . " 1 3 A s w e a l l

k n o w, i t a r r i v e d i n E ur o p e un d er f a l s e c o lo r s ; i n t h e n a m e o f

" s o c i a l i s m , " i t c l u b b e d , i m p r i s o n e d , a n d k i l l e d t h e S o c i a l -

i s t s . F i n a n c e d b y r i c h i n d u s tr i a l i s t s , i t a t t a c k e d c h i e f l y t r a d e

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8 NO COMPROMISEu n i o n s a n d w o r k e r s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t s d e v e l o p m e n t , a c c o r d -

i n g l y , c a n n o t be u n d er s t oo d a p a r t f r o m t h e c r i s i s o f c a p i t a l -

ism . T h e p o s t w a r c h a o s a n d w o r l d - d e p r e s s i o n m e a n t a r i s i n g

t i d e o f p o p u l a r r e s e n t m e n t a n d r a d i c a l i s m . F a s c i s m h a s b e e n

p r o m o t e d a s a c o u n t e r m o v e m e n t t o c r u s h t h e i n s u r g e n c y o f

t h e m a s s e s . I t h a d b e e n g r o w i n g w i t h i n t h e w o m b o f t h e o l d

o r d e r f o r m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y , b u t t h e wo r l d c r i s i s n o u r i s h e d

i t s g r o w t h , a n d b r o ug h t i t q u i c k l y t o b i r t h a n d m a t u r i t y .

A l t h o u gh i t p a r a d e s a s p u r i o u s ra d i c a l i s m , i t i s s ti l l c a p i -

t a l i s t i c . T h e I t a l i a n C h a r t e r o f L a b o r , t h e m o s t b a s i c l a w o f

t h e n e w r e g i m e , d e c l a r e s t h a t " p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e " i s " t h e

m o s t e f f e c t i v e a n d u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r -

e s t , " a n d a n n o u n c e s t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i n d u s t r y " b e l o n g s

t o t h e em p l o y e r , w h o i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t . " T h e c h i e f i n n o -

v a t i o n i s t h a t t h e r i g h t o f l a b o r t o b a r g a i n c o l l e c t i v e l y i s

q u a s h e d , a n d S t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d p e r m i s s i b l e

w h e n , a n d o n l y w h en , " p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e i s l a c k i n g o r i n s u f f i -

c i e n t , o r w h e n t h e p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e S t a t e a r e a t

s t a k e . "1 4

H i t l e r s i m i l a r l y p l e d g e s h i s g o v e r n m e nt t o " t h e u t -

m o s t f u r th e r a n c e o f p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e a n d . . . t h e r ec o g n i t i o n

o f t h e r i g h t s o f p r o p e r t y . " 1 5 F a s c i s m d o e s, o f c o u r s e, i n v o l v e

a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f S t a t e c a p i t a l i s m , b u t i t i s n o t so -

c i a l i s t i c i n i t s b a s i c i n t en t . I n t h e i n t e r es t s o f c l e a r n e s s a n d

r i g o r o f t h o u g h t , w e s h o u l d n o t c o n f u s e i t w i t h C o m m u n i s m ,

S o c i a l i s m , o r a n y o t h e r l e f t - w i n g m o v e m e n t .

O n e m u s t g r a n t , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e t e r m " s o c i a l i s m " h a s

b e e n a s s i g n e d m a n y d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s , a n d i t c a n b e e m -

p l o y e d i n a s e n s e w h i c h i s c o n s o n a n t w i t h " N a t i o n a l S o c i a l -

ism . " W e r n e r S o m b a r t , i n h i s D e u t s c h e r S o z i a l i s m u s , q u o t e s

numerous definitions of the term, m any of which are en-

t i r e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h c a p i t a l i s m . T h e d e f i n i t i o n s q u o t e d

f r o m N a z i s o u r c e s a r e e x t r e m e l y v a g u e , a n d i m p l y n o o p p o -

s i t i o n t o p r i v a t e i n d u s tr y . O n e G e r m a n w r i t e r , f o r e x a m p l e ,

a p p l i e s " s o c i a l i s m " t o H e n r y F o r d ' s t h e o r y o f " b e n e v o l e n t "

c a p i t a l i s m . B e r n ha r d K o h l e r, a l e a d i n g N a z i , h a s s t a t e d : " S o -

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 9

cialism is no economic form, but a m oral duty ." Dr . L e y ,

d i r e c t o r o f t h e N a z i " L a b o r F r o n t , " h a s de f i n e d s o c i a l i s m a s

" n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n c o m r a d e s h i p . " H i t l e r h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t

"he who so comprehends our great anthem, 'Deutschland,

Deutschland fiber a l l e s , ' t h a t n o t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d s t a n d s

h i g h e r f o r h i m t h a n t h i s G e r m a n y , p e o p l e a n d l a n d , l a n d a n d

p e o p l e , i s a S o c i a l i s t . "1 6

T h u s s o c i a l i s m m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d

w i t h e v e r y t h i n g f r o m H e n r y F o r d ' s a n t i u n i o n i s m t o H i t l e r ' s

n a t i o n a l i s m . B u t t h e se m e a n i n g s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e

s o c i a l i s m t o w h i c h M a r x l o o k e d f o r w a r d : " T h e k n e ll o f c a p i -

t a l i s t p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y s o u n ds . T h e e x p r o p r i a t o r s a r e e x p r o -

p r i a t e d . " I n t h i s r e v o lu t i o n a r y s e n s e o f t h e w o r d , s oc i a l i s m i s

a t t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e f r om w h a t i s c a l l e d " N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m . "

I n t h e o r y , t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e t e r m i n a t e s t h e s t r u g g l e b e -

t w e e n e c o n o m i c c l a s s e s . M u s s ol i n i a d v o c a t e s t h e f u l l es t c o l -

l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n c l a s s e s . He has declared that class

s t r u g g l e m e a n s " t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f w e a l t h , a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,

u n i v e r s a l p o v e r t y , " w h e r e a s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n c a p i t a l

a n d l a b o r m e a n s " a s t a t e o f w e l l - b e i n g f o r a l l t h e c i t i z e n s . " 1 7

S i m i l a r l y , H i t l er h a s s a i d :

T h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t S t a t e l e a d er s h i p i s s o s o v e r e i g n, s o

a b o v e a l l e c o n o m i c t i e s , t h a t i n i t s e y e s t h e d es i g n a t i o n " e m -

p l o y e e " a n d " e m p l o y e r " a r e i m m a t e r i a l c o n c e p t s . B e f o r e t he

g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t s o f t h e n a t i o n t h e r e a r e n e i t h e r e m p l o y e r n o r

e m p l o y e e , b u t o n l y l a b o r d e l eg a t e s o f t h e e n t i r e p e o p l e . 1 8

T h e p r i n c i p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s i s t h a t t h e i n -

t e r es t s o f t h e c l a s s e s a r e i d e n t i c a l . A s t h e F r e n c h m o n a r c h i s t ,

C h a r l e s M a u r r a s , h a s p u t i t , " T h e s o un d e s t gu a r a n t e e s o f a l l

t h e r i g h t s o f t h e l o w l y a r e i n s e p a r a b l y b o u n d u p w i t h t h e

a d v a n t a g e a n d p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e s t r o n g . " 1 9 Hence, Fascism

h a s n o i n t e n t i o n o f a b o l i s h i n g c l a s s e s. M u s s o l i n i h a s d e -

c l a r e d , " F a s c i s m s e i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s b y t h e i r n e c k s a n d t e ll s

them : ` Y o u m u s t b e w h a t y o u a r e . I f y o u a r e a b o u r g e oi s y o u

must rema in such . You must be proud of your class . ' " 2 0

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1 0 NO COMPROMISET h i s a t t i t u d e h a s c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s f o r t he b o u rg e o i s i e , b u t

d r a w b a c k s f o r t h e p r o l e t a r i a t .

M o r e o v e r , c l a s s s t r u g g l e , a s w e s h a l l m a i n t a i n i n a l a t e r

c h a p t e r , c a n o n l y b e e l i m i n a t e d by t h e a b o l i t i o n o f c l a s s e s ,

o r b y a l a r g e m e a s u r e o f r e p r e ss i o n . S i n c e t he f o rm e r a l t er na -

t i v e i s e x c l u d e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s , t h e y m u s t d e p e n d u p o n r e -

p r e s s i v e m e t h o d s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t m a n y s o r t s o f l i b e r t y m u s t

b e e l i m i n a t e d , a n d t h e F a s c i s t s b o l d l y a c k n o w l e d ge t h e n e c e s -

s i t y . M u s s o l i n i h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e " G o d d e s s L i b e r t y " i s

n o t h i n g b u t a " d e c a y e d c o r p s e " w h i c h F a s c i s m d o e s n o t h e s i -

t a t e t o t r a m p l e . 2 1 One m ight cite from H itler numerous

sentiments of a kindred imp ort, although perha ps not s o

p u n g e n t l y e x p r e s s e d . E v e r y o n e k n o w s t h a t t h i s t h e o r y h a s

b e e n a p p l i e d . A l l r i v a l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s h a v e b e e n a b o li s h e d ,

s t r i k e s a n d l o c k o u t s h a v e b e e n p r o h i b i t e d , a g r e a t m a n y o p -

ponents have been thrown into prisons or concentration

c a m p s , a n d t h e f r e e d o m o f e x p r e s s i o n h a s b e e n s e v e r e l y c u r -

t a i l e d .

T h e a b o v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F a s c i s t e c o n o m y i s a p p a r e n t l y

i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e o p i n i o n s o f c e r t a i n w e l l - i n f o r m e d o b -

s e r v e r s . The New York Times correspondent, Mr . Otto D .

T o l i s c h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s d e c l a r e d :

. . . I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e a l l G e r m a n s h a v e q u i c k l y d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m i s n o r e s p e c t e r , m u c h l e s s r e p r e se n t a t i v e ,

o f p e r s o ns , c l a s s e s o r c l a s s i n t e r e s ts , t h a t o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t i s a

s e m i - m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s m d e t e rm i n e d o n t ot a l i t a r i a n m o b i l i z a t i o n

o f t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n i n o r d e r t o e n a b l e G e r m a n y t o m a k e a n e w

b i d f o r a " p l a c e i n t h e s un , " a n d t h a t i n t h e s e rv i c e o f t h a t

m o b i l i z a t i o n i t h a s c l a m p e d a n i r o n r u le o n a l l c l a s s e s a n d i n -

t e r e s ts , m o s t e s p e c i a l l y l a b o r a n d c a p i t a l . . . B u s i n e s s a n d p r i v a t e

p r o p e r t y t h e r e b y b e c o m e n o t a n i n s t r u m e n t o f p r i v a t e " e g o i s m "

b u t " f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e . " T h e y r e m a i n p r i v a t e w h e r e v e r

a n d s o l o n g a s t h e y f u l f i l l t h e i r " f u n c t i o n s . " W h e r e v e r a n d w h e n -

e v e r t h e y f a l l d o w n , t h e S t a t e s t e p s i n a n d e i t h e r f o r c e s t h e m t o

f u l f i l l t h e f u n c t i o n s o r ta k e s t h e m ov e r e n t i r e l y .

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 1 1

Yet Mr . T o l i s c h u s a l s o w r i t e s t h a t " t h e l i s t o f G e r m a n m i l -

l i o n a i r e s , r e d u c e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c c r i s i s , i s l e n g t h en i n g

a g a i n " ; whereas wa ge rates have continued "unchanged"

d e s p i t e t h e a r m a m e n t s b o o m a n d i n c r e a s e d l i v i n g c o s t s .

L a b o r i n t h e a g g r e g a t e , i t i s t r u e , i s e a r n i n g m o r e n o w t h a n

a f e w y e a r s a g o b e c a u s e o f w i d e r e m p l o y m e n t a n d a g r e a t e r

d e m a n d f o r s k i l l e d w o rk e r s . T o l i s c h u s t h i n k s t h e r e a r e p r o s -

p e c t s , h o w ev e r , o f a d o w nt u r n i n b u s i n e s s a n d e m p l o y m e n t ,

s i n c e G e r m a n y , l i k e e v e ry c a p i t a l i s t i c c o u n t ry , i s s u b j e c t t o

e c o n o m i c c y c l e s . H e c i t e s n o f a c t s wh i c h c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t ed

f o r o n t h e b a s i s o f a r e gu l a t e d c a p i t a l i s m w i t h a l i m i t e d e x -

t e n s i o n o f p u b l i c o w n e rs h i p .

Germa n cap italism, we grant, ca n no longer function

u n d er t h e " a u t o m a t i c " o p e r a t i o n o f s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d , a n d

h e n c e S t a t e s u p e r v i s i o n i s r e q u i r e d t o k e e p t h e s y s t em i n t a c t .

T h e m a i n i n t e n t o f t h e n e w r e g u l a t i o n s h a s b e e n t o s a v e

t h e r e g i m e f r o m e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l c o l l a p s e , a n d s i m u l -

t a n e o u s l y t o b u i l d u p t h e m i l i t a r y p o w e r o f t h e n a t i o n . M r .

T o l i s c h u s a d m i t s t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f m a n a g e d e c o n o m y

" w e r e a p p l i e d h er e b e c a u s e N a t i o n a l i s t S o c i a l i s t G e r m a n y ' s

p r i m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s a n a t i o n a l m o b i l i z a t i o n f o r r e a r m a -

ment . ' A c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f t h e Manchester Guardian a l s o

e m p h a s i z e s t h e m i l i t a r y n a t u r e o f F a s c i s t " p l a n n i n g " :

T h e w o rk i n g c l a s s e s h a v e b e e n c r u s h e d , a n d p l a n n i n g h a s

i n t r o d u c e d c o m p u l s o r y l a b o u r i n t h e s e r v i c e o f f u t u r e d e st r u c -

t i o n , b u t n o t g e n e ra l w e l l b e i n g a n d s o c i a l j u s t i c e . E v e n i n i t s

m o s t p e r f e c t o rg a n i z a t i o n N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m h a s s o f a r s h o wn i t -

s e lf a t r a gi c p a r o d y o f S o c i a l i s m p r o p e r 2 3

S i m i l a r r e m a r k s a p p l y t o F a s c i s t I t a l y .

W e c o n c l u d e t h a t F a s c i s m , d e s p i t e i t s su p e r f i c i a l r e se m -

b l a n c e t o g e n u i n e S o c i a l i s m , m a y b e d e f i n e d i n i t s i n s t i t u -

t i o n a l a s p e c t s a s f o l l o w s : i t i s a n e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a l l i -

a n c e o f t h e a n t i d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s i n a t i m e o f p r o f o u n d

s o c i a l c r i s i s . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n e m b r a c e s a l l t h o s e o p p o s e d

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1 2 NO COMPROMISEt o e c o n om i c a n d s o c i a l d e m oc r a c y : t h e m i l i t a r i s t s , t h e c a p i -

t a l i s t s , th e la n d e d a r i s t o c r a t s , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e . I n t hi s

a l l i a n c e , t h e c a p i t a l i s t s h a v e t o c o m p r o m i s e t o s o m e e x t e n t ;

s i n c e t h e F a s c i s t h i e r a r c h y d e v e l o p s e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l

i n t e r e s ts o f i t s o w n , a n d t h e s e i n t e re s t s m a y d i v e r g e f r o m

t h o s e o f t h e o l d e r p r o p e r t i e d g r o u p s . B i g b u s i n e s s m e n , h o w -

e v e r , a r e c o m p e n s a t e d b y t h e f o r c i b l e s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h o se

e l e m e n t s t h a t a r e s t r i v i n g t o a c h i e v e a real s o c i a l a n d e c o -

nomic democracy . S i n c e F a s c i s m r e p r e s e n ts t h e e m b a t tl e d

f o r c e s o f a u t h o ri t a r i a n i s m , i t t e n d s t o s p r i n g u p w h e n t h e

e s t a b l i s h ed o r d e r i s j e o p a r d i z e d b y a g r e a t p o p u l a r m o v e -

m e n t t o e s t a b l i s h a m o r e n ea r l y e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y .

3 . The Econo mic F unction of the Fa scist Welt ansch a uung

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n p e r m i t s a m o r e r e a l i s t i c g r a s p o f F a s c i s t

t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e p r i n c i p a l c ha r a c t er i st i c s of F a s c i s m

a r e d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d t o i t s s oc i a l a n d e c o n o m i c o b j e c t i v e s .

T h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e F a s c i s t Weltanschauung may be

c a t a l o g u e d a s f o l l o w s : ( 1 ) t h e t h e o r y o f t h e e l i t e , ( 2 ) t h e

d o c t r i n e o f t h e to t a l i t a r i a n S t a t e , ( 3 ) t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

m i l i t a r i s m , ( 4 ) t h e i n t e n si f i c a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s m a n d r a c i a l

c h a u v i n i s m , ( 5 ) t h e e m p h a s i s u p o n " i d e a l i s m " a s o p p o s e d t o

" m a t e r i a l i s m , " a n d ( 6 ) t h e r e t r e a t f r o m r e a s o n . A l l o f t h e s e

e l e m e n t s i n t h e F a s c i s t c r e e d h a v e a n e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l

f u n c t i o n .

First, the theory of the elite is obviously a convenient doc-

trine for the defenders of economic ineq uali ty . A s i n t e r -

p r e t e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s , t h i s t h e o ry m e a n s t h a t t h e s t r a t i f i c a -

t i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s i m m u t a b l e a n d d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d . F o r

e x a m p l e , W a l t h e r D a r r e , t h e N a z i M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e

a n d o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g s p o k e s m e n o f t h e T h i r d R e i c h , s u b -

s c r i b e s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t i m e n t :

T h e o r de r o f s o c i e t y r e s t s u p o n a n i n e q u a l i t y w h i c h c a n n o t

b e a b o l i s h ed , b u t w h i c h i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m m a n l i k e b i r t h a n d

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 13

d e a t h . I n e q u a l i t y i s a s u n c h a n g e a b l e a s m a t h e m a t i c a l t r u t h s ,

a n d a s e t e r n a l a s t h e l a w s w h i c h g o v e r n t h e m o v e m e n t s o f o u r

p l a n e t a r y s y s t e m 2 4

S i m i l a r l y M u s s o l i n i h a s d e c l a r e d , " F a s c i s m . . . a f f i r m s t he

immutable, beneficial, and fruitful inequality of m an-

kind . " 2 5 There are some born to comm and a nd others to

obey : s u c h i s t h e t e n o r o f n u m e r o u s s t a t e m e n t s i n F a s c i s t

books .

T h e e l i t e i n t h e b u s i n e s s f i e l d a r e s a i d t o b e t h e e m p l o y -

e r s . T h e I t a l i a n C h a r t e r o f L a b o r s p e c i f i e s t h a t d i r e c t i o n o f

i n d u s t r y s h a l l " b e l o n g t o t h e e m p l o y e r , " a n d t h i s r e s u l t i s

insured by p rohibiting strikes and destroying bona fide

l a b o r u n i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , a N a z i d o c u m e n t s t a t e s :

A s i n e v e r y c o m m u n i t y s o a l s o i n b u s i n e s s th e r e c a n b e o n l y

o n e L e a d e r ; o n l y h e c a n m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d h e a l o n e i s r e s p o n -

s i b l e f o r ec o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l a f f a i r s . . . . T h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e

F o l l o w e r s m u s t b e p l a c e d b e h i n d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e b u s i n e s s

c o m m u n i t y , a n d b e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e e c o n o m i c

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e b u s i n e s s2 6

To safeguard the rule of the old economic, and the new

p o l i t i c a l , e l i t e , t h e d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s o f t h e w o r k e r s a r e

d e s t r o y e d . S i n c e p a r l i a m e n t h a d b e c o m e d a n g e r o u s a s a n i n -

s t r u m e n t f o r a t t a c k i n g t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r, i t i s e i t h e r a b o l -

i s h e d o r m a d e a p u p p e t o f t h e F a s c i s t p a r t y . M i l i t a n t r a d i -

c a l s , o r e v e n o r d i n a r y l i b e r a l s , a r e d r i v e n i n t o h i d i n g ,

c o n d u c t e d t o p r i s o n, o r k i l l e d . T h u s t h e s t r u gg l e f o r a d e m o -

c r a t i c e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l o r de r i s c h o k e d .

Second, the totalitarian State perpetuates social a nd eco-

nomic inequalities by controlling virtually every asp ect of

l i f e . O n e o f t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e ri s t i c s o f l i b e r a l d e m oc r a c y , i n

c o n t r a s t t o F a s c i s m , i s i t s r ec o g n i t i o n o f a n i m m e n s e s p h e r e

o f l i f e o v e r w h i c h t h e S t a t e h a s f a r l e s s c o n t r o l t h a n u n d e r a

t o t a l i t a r i a n s y s t e m . A r t , s c i e n c e , r e l i g i o n , a n d p h i l o s o p h y a r e

c o n s i d e r e d m a i n l y n o n p o l i t i c a l i n c h a r a c t e r . M e n a r e l e f t

r e l a t i v e l y f r e e , a f t e r p a y i n g t a x e s a n d p o s s i b l y p e r f o r m i n g

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1 4NO COMPROMISE

m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , t o w or k , p l a y , t h i n k , a n d f e e l a s c h o i c e d e -

t e r m i n e s o r o p p o r t u n i t y p e r m i t s . U n d e r F a s c i s m t h i s p r i n -

c i p l e o f t o le r a t i o n i s s u p p l a n t e d b y t he p r i n c i p l e o f t o t a l i t y .

T h e p r e s s , t h e r a d i o , t h e c i n e m a , t h e t h e a t e r , t h e s c h o o l , t h e

c h u r c h , e v e r y i n s t i t u t i o n i n f a c t , b e c o m e s m o r e o r l e s s su b -

s e r v i e n t t o t h e s i n g le p a r t y w h i c h c o n t r o ls t h e S t a t e . A s L e y ,

t h e L e a d e r o f t h e N a z i L a b o r F r o n t , h a s s t a t e d : " T h e p a r t y

claims the totality of the soul of the German people . "27

M u s s o l i n i s i m i l a r l y s u m s u p h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e t o t a l i -

t a r i a n S t a t e i n t h e o f t e n q u o t e d f o r m u l a : " A l l w i t h i n t h e

S t a t e , n o t h i n g ou t s i d e t h e S t a t e , n o t h i n g a g a i n s t t h e S t a t e . "

W h a t t h i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l m e a n s i n e f f e c -

t i v e n e s s o f r e g i m e n t a t i o n , a n d h e n c e i n p r o l o ng a t i o n o f t h e

s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c s t a t u s q u o , m u s t b e o b v i o u s t o t h e m o s t

s u p e r f i c i a l o b s er v e r . M u s s ol i n i h a s a n n o un c e d t h a t t h e F a s c i s t

r e g i m e w i l l l a s t a t l ea s t a c e nt u ry . H i t l e r , m o r e c o n f i d e n t ,

p r e d i c t s t h a t N a z i r u l e w i l l c o n t i n u e f o r a m i l l e n n i u m ! A l -

t h o u g h t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s m a y b e a b i t t o o s a n g u i n e , t h e y d o

i n d i c a t e t h e i n t e n t i o n o f f r e e z i n g t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s y s t e m

into a rigid, unbreakable mold . Nothing could be more

a g r e e a b l e t o t h o s e w h o e n j o y e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o w e r .

T h i r d , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m i l i t a r i s m i s a n o t h e r m e a n s o f

m a k i n g e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s p r e v a i l . T h e m i l i t a r y f o r c e h a s

a l w a y s e x e r c i s e d t h e c o e r c i v e p o w e r of t h e S t a t e . B y g r e a t l y

a u g m e n t i n g t h i s a r m o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t , F a s c i s m i s p r e p a r e d

not only to put down disobedience at home, but to force

conquest abroa d . D u r i n g t he p a s t s e v e n ty y e a r s , c a p i t a l i s t i c

n a t i o n s h a v e e ng a g e d i n a v a s t i m p e r i a l i s t i c r a c e f o r c o l o n i e s

a n d r a w m a t e r i a l s . I n t h i s ra c e , I t a l y , G e r m a n y , a n d J a p a n

have been worsted. T h e i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r e st s i n t h e s e c o u n -

t r i e s a r e n o w y e a r n i n g f o r a l a r g e r s h a r e o f t h e w o r ld ' s r e -

s o u r c e s . Hence we have Japa n's "penetration" into China,

I t a l y ' s " c i v i l i z i n g m i s s i o n " i n E t h i o p i a , a n d t h e r ec e n t " s tr u g-

gle" of both Germ any and Italy "against Comm unism" in

Spain .

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 1 5

T h e s p i r i t o f m i l i t a r i s m , m o r e ov e r , f i t s t h e p o l i t i c a l r e -

q u i r e m e n t s o f F a s c i s m . T h e " p r i n c i p l e o f l e a d e r s h i p " - " t h a t

a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d f r o m a b o v e d o w n w a r d s a n d

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m b e l o w u p w a r d s " 2 8 - i s th e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

p r i n c i p l e n o t o n l y o f t h e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e nt , b u t a l s o o f

t h e a u t h o ri t a r i a n o r d e r i n p o l i t i c s a n d i n d u s t ry . H e n c e t h e

v a l u e o f t h e m o r a l t e m p e r o f t h e s o l d i e r . T h e s o l d i e rl y c a s t

o f m i n d , i n v o l v i n g t h e s u bm i s s i o n o f t h o u g h t a n d f e e l i n g

t o t h e m i l i t a r y v i r t u e s , i s s p l e n d i d l y c a l c u l a t e d t o p r o l o ng a

s y s t e m o f f o r c e a n d p r i v i l e g e . T h e m i l i t a r i s ti c s p i r i t , i t i s

t r u e , s o m e t i m e s g e t s o ut o f h a n d , a n d w o r k s a g a i n s t t h e e c o -

n o m i c a d v a n t a g e o f c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a l m a g n a t e s ; b u t m o r e

o f t e n t h e r e i s a w o r k i n g p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n c a p i t a l i s m a n d

m i l i t a r i s m .

Fourth, intense nationalism and ra cial cha uvinism, which

a l m ost inva ri a bl y a cco m p a n y a n e x a g ger a ted m ilit a ris m , a lso

fit the social a nd economic purposes of Fa scism . S u c h n a -

t i o n a l i s m s e r v e s th e i m p e r i a l i s t i c a m b i t i o n s o f t h e F a s c i s t s ,

s i n c e i t p r e d i s p o s e s m e n t o ri s k a g g r e ss i o n , a n d p r e p a r e s

t h e m t o d i s o b e y t h e e d i c t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . Even a

t o t a l i t a r i a n S t a t e , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , i s n o t a l l - i n c l u s i v e :

a r r a y e d o u t s i d e , a n d o f t e n a g a i n s t i t , a r e o t he r S t a t e s . The

q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : D o e s e a c h S t a t e h a v e a n a b s o l ut e v a l u e b e -

y o n d w h i c h w e c a n n o t go , o r i s t h e r e a w i d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c o m m u n i t y w h i c h e x e r c i s e s j u s t c l a i m s o v e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l

S t a t e s ? T h e F a s c i s t a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s e m p h a t i c a l l y

t o r e j e c t t h e i d e a o f a w o r l d o r d er . M u s s o l i n i d e c l a r e s , " I n -

t e r n a t i o n a l i s m i s a n a b s u r d f a b l e , " a n d r e f e r s to t h e " i n s u p -

p r e s s i b l e d a t u m o f r a c e a n d n a t i o n . "2 9

I n t h e s a m e sp i r i t

H i t l e r h a s w r i t t e n :

A l l f o r e i g n p o l i c y m u s t b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g v i e w -

p o i n t : I s it of use, or will it bring inj ury , to our nation now or

i n t h e f u t u r e ? N o o t h e r t h o u g h t m u s t b e a l l o w e d t o i n t r u d e .

P a r t y p r o g r a m s , r el i g i o u s a s p i r a t i o n s , h u m a n i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s ,

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16 NO COMPROMISEi n f a c t a l l o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , f i n d no

p l a c e . 3 o

T h i s a p p a r e n t l y m e a n s t h a t t h e r e c a n b e n o m o r a l r e s t r i c -

t i o n s u p o n t h e S t a t e i n i t s d e a l i n g w i t h o t h er S t a t e s . I t c a n

d o a n y t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g s o l o n g a s t h i s c o n d u c e s t o t h e

n a t i o n ' s a d v a n c e m e n t . H e r e i s o n e o f t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s

o f F a s c i s t p h i l o s op h y : ethics simp ly do not ap ply as between

S t a t e s . T h e F a s c i s t p o w e r s , a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e y b e l o n g t o t he

" h a v e n o t " c o u n t r i e s , a r e t h u s p r e p a r e d t o a d o p t a p o l i c y

o f f o r c e a n d f r a u d i n t h e e f f o r t t o b ec o m e " h a v e " c o u n t r i e s .

M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n s u m i n g f i r e o f n a t i o n a l i s t a n d r a c i a l

p a s s i o n d i v e r t s m e n ' s a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e i r e c o n o m i c i l l s .

Ha tred is fanned against the international a nd "Jewish"

character of Socialism a nd Communism, the workers are

t h e r e b y d i v i d e d s o t h a t t h e y c a n n o t a c t i n c o n c e r t a g a i n s t

their opponents, and the socialist promises of the Nazi

p l a t f o r m a r e p a r t l y l i q u i d a t e d w h e n t h e r e s e n t m e n t a r o u s e d

a g a i n s t t he w e a l t h y i s d e f l e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e J e w s . T h e p e o p l e

are now told that "National Socialism" is not directed

a g a i n s t p a t r i o t i c G e r m a n c a p i t a l b u t o n l y a g a i n s t i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l J e w i s h h i g h f i n a n c e .

F i f t h , F a s c i s t " i d e a l i s m " i s a m e a n s o f d i v e r t i n g a t t e n t i o n

from economic ills and thereby winning supp ort from the

masses . I n t i m e o f w a r p e o p l e a p p e a l t o G o d t o b l e s s t h e i r

c a u s e , a n d t a l k a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t " i d e a l s , " " m o r a l e , " a n d

t h e " s p i r i t " o f t h e n a t i o n . In much the same m anner, the

F a s c i s t s e x u l t i n t h e i r " i d e a l i s m " a n d p r o c l a i m a r e l i g i o u s

r e v i v a l . M u s s o l i n i d e n o u n c e s " t h e d e m o c r a t i c s p i r i t " a s m a -

t e r i a l i s t i c , a n d a n n o u n c e s t h a t " s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s a r e r e t u r n -

i n g . " 3 1 T h e N a z i l e a d e r s s i m i l a r l y d e n o u n c e l i b e r a l i s m a n d

S o c i a l i s m o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t " J e w i s h m a t e -

r i a l i s m , " a n d s p e a k o f t h e n ec e s s i t y o f r e v i v i n g t h e G e r m a n i c

r e l i g i o n .

N o w i t i s n o t h a r d t o s e e t ha t s u c h " i d e a l i s m " h a s i t s p o -

l i t i c a l a n d e c o no m i c u s e s . E m p h a s i s u p o n t h e " s p i r i t " s er v e s

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 17

t o m a k e th e p oo r le s s d i s s a ti s f i e d w i th t he i r lo t . A s L e y , t h e

d i r e c t o r o f t h e N a z i l a b o r o rg a n i z a t i o n , e x p l a i n e d i n M a r c h ,

1 9 3 5 , a r a i s e i n w a g e s w a s " o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n , " a n d h e n c e

i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o " s u p p r e s s t h e m a t e r i a l i s m , " a n d " i n s t e a d

d i v e r t t h e g a z e o f t h e w o r k e r s t o t h e s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s o f t h e

n a t i o n . " 3 2 F a s c i s m c a n n o t a f f o r d t o i n c i t e t h e m a t e r i a l i n -

t e r e s ts o f t h e p e o p l e , b e c a u s e t h i s w o u l d i n t e n s i f y t h e d i s -

s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e m a s s e s w i t h t h e i r e c o n o m i c p l i g h t . To

emphasize the importance of economic values would give

a i d t o F a s c i s m ' s b i t t e r es t e n e m i e s , t h e S o c i a l i s t s a n d C o m -

m u n i s t s , w h o d e s i r e t o a b o l i s h p o v e r t y t h r o u g h a r e s t r u c -

t u r a l i z a t i o n , a n d e v e n t u a l a b o l i t i o n , o f e c o n o m i c c l a s s e s .

E v e n D e m o c r a c y i s d en o u n c e d a s m a t e r i a l i s t i c , s i n c e i t t e n ds

to emphasize economic welfare . To soften the p opular

c l a m o r f o r b r e a d , t h e F a s c i s t s h a v e s u m m o n e d m i g h t y f o r c e s

b o t h r e l i g i o u s a n d c h a u v i n i s t i c . T h e y h a v e b l e n d e d p a t r i o t -

i s m a n d f a i t h , t h e re b y d o u b li n g t h e e f f e c t .

Sixth, economic and political exp ediency necessitates the

rejection of science and reason in so fa r as these imp inge

upon p olitics . H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i h a v e l e a r n e d t h e l e s s o n

t a u g h t b y M a c h i a v e l l i a n d P a r e t o , t h a t t h e m a s s e s c a n b e

m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y m a n i p u l a t e d b y a n a p p e a l t o t h e i r p a s s i o n s .

M u s s o l i n i d e c l a r e s , " W e p l a y o n a l l t h e s t r i n g s , f r o m v i o -

l e n c e t o r el i g i o n , f r o m a r t t o p o l i t i c s . " 3 3 I n t h e s a m e s p i r i t

h e r e m a r k s , " I t i s f a i t h t h a t m o v e s m o u n t a i n s , n o t r e a s o n .

R e a s o n i s a t o o l , b u t i t c a n n e v e r b e t h e m o t i v e f o r c e o f t h e

crowd . T o d a y l e s s t h a n e v e r . " 3 4 E v e n m o r e f r a n k i s H i t l e r :

T h e g r e a t m a s s o f p e o p l e c o n s i s t s n e i t h e r o f p r o f e s s o r s n o r of

d i p l o m a t s . T h e s c a n t i n e s s o f a b s t r a c t k n o w l e d g e p o s s e s se d b y t h e

m a s s c o n f i n e s i t s p e r c e p t i v e f a c u l t i e s t o t he r e a l m o f f e e l i n g .

W i t h i n t h e se l i m i t s , i t s a t t i t u d e i s e i t h er p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . I t

c a n p e r c e i v e o n l y a f o r c e f u l s t i m u l u s i n o n e o f t h e s e tw o d i r e c -

t i o n s , a n d c a n n e v e r a p p r e c i a t e a m i d d l e gr o u n d l y i n g b e tw e e n

them . T h i s e m o t i o n a l i s m o f t h e m a s s , h o w e v e r , i s r es p o n s i b l e

f o r i t s e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t a b i l i t y . F a i t h i s m o r e di f f i c u l t t o sh a k e

t h a n k n o w l e d g e , l o v e u n d e r g o e s f e w e r c h a n g e s t h a n r e s p e c t , h a t e

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1 8 NO COMPROMISEi s m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n a v e r s i o n , a n d t h e i m p e t u s t o t h e m o s t

p o w e r f u l r e v o l ut i o n s u p o n t h i s e a r t h h a s l a i n a t a l l t i m e s l e s s

i n s c i e n t i f i c c o g n i t i o n d o m i n a t i n g t he m a s s e s t ha n i n t h e f a n a t i -

c i s m i n s p i r i n g t h e m a n d s o m e t i m e s i n t h e h y s t e r i a d r i v i n g t h e m

f o r w a r d . H e w h o w i s h e s t o w i n t h e b r o a d m a s s m u s t k n o w t h e

k e y w h i c h o p e n s t h e d o o r to i t s h e a r t . I t i s n o t c a l l e d o b j e c t i v i t y ,

i . e . w e a k n e s s , b u t w i l l a n d s t r e n g t h .3 5

I n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e s e m e t h o d s o f w i n n i n g p o p u l a r s u p p o r t ,

H i t l e r i s i n d i c a t i n g o n e of t h e m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f F a s -

c i s m . A l t h o u g h t h e F a s c i s t s su p p r e s s d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s

a n d e m p l o y f o r c e , t h e y a l s o r e c r u i t a l a r g e f o l l o w i n g b y t h e

methods of propaganda . I n t h u s a d d r e s s i n g t h e c r o w d , t h e y

r e j e c t t h e c a l m a n d j u d i c i o u s m e t h o d s o f r e a s o n i n g , a n d i n -

s t e a d a p p e a l ( a s P r o p a g a n d a M i n i s t e r G o e b be l s h a s s a i d ) " t o

t h e p r i m i t i v e i n s t i n c t s o f t h e m a s s e s . " 3 1 1

A n a n e c d o t e w i l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

F a s c i s t a n ti r a t i o n a l i s m . A friend of mine wa s traveling

through Germ any not long before the Nazis seized power .

H e d i s c o v e r e d t o hi s s u r p r i s e t h a t h e s ha r e d a t r a i n c o m p a r t -

m e n t w i t h s e v e r a l l e a d e r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t m o v e -

ment . B e i n g f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e a n d a c l o s e

s t u d e n t o f G e r m a n c u l t u r e , h e s u p p o s e d h i m s e l f p r e p a r e d f o r

a r g u m e n t w i t h h i s f e l l o w p a s s e n g e r s . Y e t i n t h e e n s ui n g d i s -

p u t e h e f o u n d h i m s e l f u t t e r l y d i s c o m f i t e d . His Nazi opp o-

n e n t s v e h e m e n t l y r e j e c t e d t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n o f a r g u m e n t .

" W e c a n n o t a r g u e w i t h y o u , " t h e y w o u l d e x c l a i m s c o r n f u l l y .

" Y o u a r e a r a t i o n a l i s t ! " M y f r i e n d w a s he l p l e s s i n hi s e f f o r t t o

r e a s o n w i t h m e n w h o t h u s r e j e c t e d t h e c l a i m s o f l o g i c . P e r -

h a p s t h e p o i n t i s t h a t a n t i r a t i o n a l i s m i s a n e c e s s a r y c r e e d f o r

t h e d e f e n d er s o f i r r a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . Men who defend un-

j u s t p r i v i l e g e f e a r n o t h i n g i n t h e w or l d s o m u c h a s v i g o r o u s

thought .

F a s c i s m e m p l o y s t h o u g h t , o f c o u r s e , b u t n o t a s a n u n f e t -

t e r e d i n s t r u m e n t t o r e a c h t h e t r u t h ; f r e q u e nt l y i t i s n o m or e

t h a n a c l o a k a n d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r c e rt a i n v e r y p r a c t i c a l o b -

j e c t i v e s . I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s i n t e r p r e ta t i o n , a n u m b er o f w r i t -

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FASCISM AND THE WORLD CRISIS 1 9

e r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t F a s c i s m e x i s t e d i n f a c t b e f o r e i t

c o n t r i v e d t o p i e c e t o g e t he r a " p h i l o s o p h y . " I n A u g u s t , 1 9 2 1 ,

M u s s o l i n i w r o t e t o o n e o f h i s s u p p o r t e r s : " N o w F a s c i s m , o n

p a i n o f d e a t h o r , r a t h e r , s u i c i d e , m u s t g i v e i t s e l f a b o d y o f

d o c t r i n e . . . . T h i s o r d e r i s a b i t b i g ; b u t I d e m a n d t h a t i n

t w o m o n t h s ' t i m e , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f I t a l i a n F a s c i s m b e c r e -

a t e d . " 3 7 T h e n ew i d e o l og y w a s t h u s a r t i f i c i a l l y f a b r i c a t e d t o

" j u s t i f y " t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f M u s s ol i n i a n d h i s s u p p o r t er s . A l -

t h o u g h F a s c i s t t h e o r y i s n o w m o r e e l a b o r a t e , i t s b a s i c c h a r -

a c t e r h a s n o t gr e a t l y a l t e r e d .

I n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g m u c h o f F a s c i s t t h e o ry a s m e r e a f t e r -

t h o ug h t , I d o n ot m e a n t o d e n y i t s e f f i c a c y o r s i g n i f i c a n c e .

R a t i o na l i z a ti o n i s us ef u l ; o t h e r w i s e i t w o u l d n o t b e s o c o m -mon. M u s s o li n i w a s r i g h t i n t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e la c k o f a " p h i -

l o s o p h y " w o u l d b e s u i c i d a l . S u c h " w i n d o w- d r e s s i n g " m u st b e

c o n v i n c i n g , s i n c e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t ha t i s palpably f a l s e w i l l

not work : t h i s i s t h e m a i n r e a s o n t h a t p r o p a g a n d a h a s b e -

c o m e a s u b t l e a r t . W h e n m e n c e a s e t o be l i e v e i n F a s c i s t t h e-

o r y , t h e d a y s o f t h e d i c t a t o r s a r e nu m b e r e d . E v e n f a l s e i d e o l-

o g y , m o r e o v e r , r e f l e c t s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f i t s p r o m u l g a t o rs ; j u s t

a s m e n c a n b e j u d g e d b y t h e k i n d o f l i e s t h e y t e l l , s o t h e

F a s c i s t s c a n b e j u d ge d b y t h e k i n d o f m y t h s t h ey p r o p a g a t e .

T h e s e m y t h s s e r v e t o p r o m o t e a n d p r e s e r v e a u t h o r i t a r i a n

c o n t r o l - a s e x e r c i s e d b y t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e i n d u s t r i a l , t h e a g r a r -

i a n , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l " e l i t e "- i n a t i m e o f e c o n o m i c d i s t r e s s

a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r m e nt . W e s h a l l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i t s c h a r -

a c t e r u nl e s s w e be a r t h i s f a c t i n m i n d . T h i s i n t e r p r e ta t i o n

d o e s no t m e a n t h a t F a s c i s m , e i t h e r i n t h e or y o r i n p r a c t i c e ,

s p r i n g s f r o m t h e c o n s p i r a c y o f a s m a l l g r ou p o f b u s i n e s s m e n

a n d l a n d o w n e r s w h o a r e i n t e n t u p o n s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e i r p r o f -

i t s . S u c h a n " e x p l a n a t i o n , " f o r a n u m b er o f r e a s o n s, i s a l t o -

g e t h e r t o o s i m p l e : i t i n v o l v e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y c r u d e f o r m o f

economic determinism . S o c i e t y a s a w h o l e i s u n de r g oi n g a

f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e e c o n o m i c f a c t o r , a l -

t h o u g h b a s i c , i n t e r m i n g l e s w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s i n a v a s t c o n -

c e r t o f f o r c e s .

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II

THE FLIGHT FROM REASONThe historical world stretches before us darker, m ore uncertain, a nd

more threa tening than our forefathers thought, as rega rds the nature

of its further course. For the full strength of the instinctive and dark

powers of history has revealed itself to our thinking and our exp eri-

ence . But huma n intelligence must not cease to ma intain itself aga instthem .-FRIEDRICH MEINECKE I

i . Reason in Discard

THE r e v o lt a g a i n s t r ea s o n i s t h e m o s t s t ri k i n g i n d i c a t i o n o f

t h e p r o f o u n d n a t u r e o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i s i s . The minds

o f m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e h a v e b e e n s o v i o l e n tl y s h a k e n t h a t t h e i r

w h o l e m a n n e r o f t h i n k i n g h a s b e e n d i s t u r b e d . N o t a s i n g l e

c o m p a r t m e n t o f h u m a n t h o u g h t s e e m s t o b e u n a f f e c t e d . U n -

d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , m e n a r e b e w i l d e r ed a n d t a k e f l i g h t

f r o m r e a s o n .

F a s c i s m i s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f t h i s t e n d e n c y . J a m e s D r e n -

n a n , s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e B r i t i s h U n i o n o f F a s c i s t s , h a s d e -

c l a r e d :

F a s c i s m i s r e a l i n s u r re c t i o n - a n i n s u r r ec t i o n o f feeling-a mu-t i n y o f men a g a i n s t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e m o d e r n w o rl d . I t i s

c o m p l e t el y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s a s p e c t o f F a s c i s m i n i t s e a r l y

s t a g e s , b o th i n I t a l y a n d i n G e r m a n y , t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t s ho u l d

h a v e g r o w n t o f u l l s t r e n g t h w i t h o u t e i t h e r l o g i c a l t h e o r y b e h i n d

i t o r c u t - a n d - d r i e d p r o g r a m i n f r o n t o f i t . T h e m e n w h o b u i l t

F a s c i s m i n I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y - w h o a r e t h e " c o m m o n m e n , " t h e

" m e n i n t h e s t r e e t , " l e a v e t h e o r i e s t o t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d p r o -

g r a m s t o t h e d e m o c r a t s w h o h a v e b e t r a y e d t h e m w i t h p r o g r a m s

f o r a c e n t u ry . T h e F a s c i s t . . . a c t s , i n f a c t , i n s t i n c t i v e ly , a n d

n o t th e o r e t i c a l l y . 2

L i k e w i s e M u s s o l i n i , i n s p e a k i n g o f th e ri s e o f F a s c i s m , b o a s t s :

T h e r e w a s m u c h d i s c u s s i o n , b u t - w h a t w a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t

and more sacred-men died . They knew how to die . D o c t r i n e

b e a u t i f u l l y d e f i n e d a n d c a r e f u l l y e l u c i d a t e d , w i t h he a d l i n e s a n d

20

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 21

p a r a g r a p h s , m i g h t b e l a c k i n g ; b u t t h e r e w a s t o t a k e i t s p l a c e

s o m e t h i n g m o r e d e c i s i v e - F a i t h . 3

Similar declarations occur frequently in Nazi books and

s p e e c h e s .

S u c h d i s a v o w a l o f t h e i n t e l l ec t i n d i c a t e s , n o t a n u t t er l a c k

o f p h i l o s o p h y ( a t l e a s t i n t h e b r o a d m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d ) ,

b u t r a t h e r t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f a r o m a n t i c p h i l o s o p h y b a s e d

u p o n i n t u i t i o n a n d p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . F a s c i s m i s e s-

s e n ti a l l y a c t i v i s t a n d i r r a t i o n a l . A n t i - i n t e l l ec t u a l i s t s su c h a s

F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e a n d G e o r g e s S o r e l f u r n i s h t h e p h i l o s o p h -

i c a l g r i s t f o r t h e F a s c i s t m i l l . W h a t i s s u e s t h en c e i s a l t e r e d, o f

c o u r s e , b u t i t s t i l l s h o w s s i g n s o f i t s o r i g i n s .

H u m a n b e i n g s , N i e t z s c h e b e l i e v e s , c a n n o t l i v e w i t h o u t f i c -

t i o n s ; h e n c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y " t o r e c o g n i z e u n t r ut h a s a c o n d i -

t i o n o f l i f e . " I n d e e d , " t he f a l s e s t o p i n i o n s a r e t h e m o s t i n d i s -

p e n s a b l e t o u s . " I l l u s i o n s c o n d u c e t o t h e n o b l e l i f e ; b u t

N i e t z s c h e w i l l n o t to l e r a t e "a n y n a m b y - p a m b y i d e a s o f n o b i l -

ityl A certain modicum of brutality cannot be dispensed

with . " 4 S u c h r e m a r k s p r o v i d e a m m u n i t i o n i n t h e o f f e n s i v e

a g a i n s t r e a s o n . N o t w i t h o u t j u s t i f i c a t i o n d o M u s s o l i n i a n d

Rosenberg claim this Germ an heretic as a founder of the

F a s c i s t c r e ed . 5

S o r e l ' s d e f e n s e o f " m y t h s " i s n o l es s f a m o u s t h a n N i e t z s c h e ' s

a d v o c a c y o f " v i t a l l i es . " A s a l e a d e r o f F r e n c h s y n d i c a l i s m ,

h e w a s f a r m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n " b a t t l e - i m a g e s " t h a n i n l o g i -

c a l a b s t ra c t i o n s . N o t h i n g b u t s u b l i m e v i s i o n s , h e d e c l a r e d ,

can incite men to heroic struggle and make deep impres-

s i o n s u p o n r e v o l u t i o n i s t s . C l a s s w a r r i o r s m u s t " p e r c e i v e i n -

s t a n t a n e o u s l y " a n d a c t b o l d l y . S c i e n c e c a n h e l p u s l i t t l e ,

a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e l i b e r a t i o n n o t a t a l l . H e n c e , r e l i a n c e

m u s t b e p u t u p o n " i n t u i t i o n a l o n e " a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h " c o n -

s i d e r ed a n a l y s i s . "6

S o r e l i s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y o n e o f t h e p r e c u r s o r s of F a s c i s m .

M u s s o l i n i a n d m a n y o t h e r I t a l i a n F a s c i s t s h a v e b e c o m e f a m i l -

i a r w i t h h i s t h e o ry o f m y t h s . A l t h ou g h th e N a z i s , i n c o n t ra s t ,

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2 2 NO COMP ROMISE

h a v e n o t b e e n d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y S o r e l t o a n y n o t a b l e

e x t e n t , R o s e n b e r g e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r p o i n t o f v i e w :

' - t i r e c a n n o t a p p e a l t o o u r m uc h l a u d e d h u m a n l og i c , n o r t o

i n s i g h t i n t o e c o n om i c l a w s ; f o r t h e di s p o s i t i o n o f f o r c e s e v e ry -

w h e r e i n t h e w o r ld h a s b e c o m e c l e a r ; i t i s n o t l o g i c t h a t g o v e r n s

t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s o f n a t i o n s , b u t t h e d ec i s i o n s o f t h e

w i l l , t h e p a s s i o n s . J u s t a s n a t u r e a n d i t s h a p p e n i n g s h a v e n o th -

i n g t o d o w i t h r e a s o n o r l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , s o a l s o d u r i n g

g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l m o v e m e n ts , t h e s a m e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e , o p e r a t i n g

i n t h e h u m a n s o u l , o v e r le a p t h e c o n f i n i n g w a l l o f l o g i c . ?

A l t h o u g h R o s e n b e r g d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n d i r e c t l y

i n f l u e n c e d b y S o r e l , h e en t e r t a i n s a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s

r e a s o n . H e h a s m a d e i r r a t i o n a l i s m a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e ,

a n d h a s d e m a n d e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f r a c i a l m y t h s a s t h e m e a n s

t o n a t i o n a l r e g e n e r a t i o n . P e r h a p s h e i s p a r t l y i n d e b t e d f o r

h i s m y t h - t h e o r y t o H a n s V a i h i n g e r , t h e f a m o u s a u t h o r of ThePhilosophy of As If, w h o c o n t e n d s t h a t f i c t i o n s a r e t h e b a s i s

o f l i f e .

B u t t h e F a s c i s t a b a n d o n m e n t o f r e a s o n c a n n o t b e t r a c e d

b a c k t o a n y s i n g l e so u r c e n o r t o a n y s m a l l g r o u p o f t h e o r i s t s .

A n t i - i n t e l l ec t u a l i s m h a s b e e n p a r t o f t h e " m e nt a l c l i m a t e " o f

t h e a g e . A m o n g t h e c r e e d s w h i c h h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e -

v o l t a g a i n s t r e a s o n m a y b e m e n t i o n e d H e n r i B e r g s o n ' s t h e o r y

o f t h e s up e r i o r i t y o f i n s t i n c t a n d i n t u i t i o n , O s w a l d S p e n g l er ' s

p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e m o r e r om a n t i c a n d a c t i v i s t p h a s e s o f c u l -

t u r e , G i o v a n n i P a p i n i ' s e x a g g e r a t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

pragmatism of William Ja mes, Vilfredo Pareto's emphasis

u p o n s e nt i m e n t a n d i l l u s i o n a s t h e ba s i s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n , a n d

s u c h v o l u nt a r i s t i c c r e e ds a s G a b r i e l e d ' A n n u n z i o ' s t h e a t r i c a l

r o m a n t i c i s m , C h a r l e s M a u r r a s ' p a s s i o n a t e n a t i o n a l i s m , M a u -

r i c e B a r r es ' " p h i l o s o p h y o f e n e rg e ti c i s m , " G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e ' s

"philosophy of the pure act," and Houston Chamberlain's

t h e o r y o f m i l i t a r i s m a n d r a c i a l i m p e ri a l i s m . W e c o u l d tr a c e

b a c k t h e c u r r e n t t o s u c h m e n a s W a g n e r , T r e i t s c h k e , F i c h t e ,

and to German romanticists like Adam Muller and Ludwig

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 23

von Haller . S i m i l a r e a r l y f o r e r u n n e r s m a y b e f o u n d a m o n g

t h e I t a l i a n s . B u t w e m u s t l e a v e t o f u t u r e h i s t o r i a n s t h e d e -

t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e se s o u r c e s . I t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t t h e

a c t i v i s t a n d p r a g m a t i c f l a v o r o f F a s c i s t p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e re -

s u l t o f m a n y f a c t o r s .

T h e r e c a n b e n o do u b t t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s , i n f l u e n c e d i n t h i s

m a n i f o l d w a y , d i s a v o w t h e i n t el l ec t u a l l i f e . "We think with

our blood," has becom e the well-known slogan . M u s so l i n i ' s

o f f i c i a l b i o g ra p h e r , M a r g h e ri t a S a r f a t t i , d e s c r i b e s t h e m en t a l

p r o c e s s e s o f h e r h e r o a s f o l l o w s :

" M y b l o o d te l l s m e , " " I m u s t l i s t e n t o m y b l o o d, " a r e p h r a s e s

s o m e t i m e s u s e d by t h i s s t a t e s m a n - g l a d i a t o r , s o r a t i o n a l n o r m a l l y

i n c o p i n g w i t h t h e u r g en t q u e s t i o n s w hi c h c o n f r o n t h i m . " I t i s

n o g o o d l " h e w i l l a d d : " I a m l i k e t h e a n i m a l s . I feel w h e n t h i n g s

a r e g o i n g t o h a p p e n - s o m e i n s t i n c t w a r n s m e a n d I a m o b l i g e d

t o f o l l o w i t . " 8

H i t l e r o f t en a p p e a r s t o b e m ot i v a t e d b y a d r e a m l i k e f a i t h a n d

s e l f - a s s u ra n c e . S h o r tl y a f t e r th e m i l i t a r y r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e

R h i n e l a n d , w h i c h b r o u g h t E u r o p e t o t h e v e r g e o f w a r , h e d e -

c l a r e d i n a s p e e c h b r o a d c a s t t o G e r m a n y a n d t h e w o r l d : " I g o

my own way with the assurance of a somnambulist-the way

w h i c h p r o v i d e n c e h a s s e n t m e . " s

E v e n G e n t i l e , t h e c h i e f p r o f e s s i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r i n t h e

r a n k s o f F a s c i s m , h a s d ec l a r e d :

I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t t he t r u e d o c t r i n e i s t h a t w h i c h i s

e x p r e s s e d i n a c t i o n r a t h e r t ha n i n w o r d s o r b o ok s , i n t h e p e r -

s o n a l i t y o f m e n a n d i n t h e a t t i t u d e s w hi c h t h e y a s s u m e i n t he f a c e

o f p r o b l e m s ; a n d t hi s i s a m u c h m o re s e ri o u s s ol u ti o n t o p r o b-

l e m s t h a n t h a t o f a b s t r a c t d i s s e r t a t i o n s , s e r m o n s a n d t h e o r i e s . ' 0

M u s s o l i n i h a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t " p r a g m a t i s m " i s o n e o f " t h e

f o u n d a t i o n - s t o n e s " o f F a s c i s m , a n d h a s b o a s t e d t h a t " we h a v e

n o p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n s , n o f i x e d i d e a s , a n d , a b o v e a l l , n o

s t u p i d p r i d e . "u

Such pragmatism is much more exa ggerated than that of

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24 NO COMPROMISEWilliam James, who declared : "Our pa ssional na ture not

o n l y l a w f u l l y m a y b u t m u s t , d e c i d e a n o p t i o n b e t w e e n p r o p o -

s i t i o n s , w h e n e v e r i t i s a g e n u i n e o p t i o n t h a t c a n n o t b e d e -

c i d e d o n i n t e l l ec t u a l g r o u n d s . " 1 2 T h i s s t a t e m e n t i m p l i e s t h a t

i n t e l le c t m u s t f i r s t b e g i v e n i t s c h a n c e , a n d t h a t p a s s i o n i s

a l l o w e d t o d i s p o s e o n l y o f t h o s e p r o b l e m s w h i c h t h o u g h t c a n -

n o t r e s o l v e . But Mussolini ap pa rently favors action even

w h e n r e a s o n t e ll s hi m i t i s u n w i s e . H e h a s d e c l a r e d :

T h e u p s h o t o f t h e b a t t l e i s b u t a s e c o n d a r y m a t t e r . The

s t r u gg l e i s i t s o w n r e w a r d , e v e n i f o n e s h o u ld b e d e f e a t e d . . . .

I t h a s b e c o m e e v e r m or e p l a i n t o m e t h a t a c t i o n i s o f p r i m a r y

i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s e v e n w h e n i t i s a b l u n d e r . N e g a t i v i s m , q u i e t -

i s m , m o t i o n l e s s , i s a c u r s e . . . . I a m a w a n d e r er . 1 3

S u c h e x a g g e r a t e d v o l u n t a r i s m i s u p h e l d a s t h e n e w w a y o f

l i f e f o r t h e F a s c i s t e l i t e .

M u s s o l i n i ' s c r e e d a p p r o a c h e s m o r e c l o s e l y t o t h e p h i l o s o -

p h y o f B e r g s o n t h a n t o t h a t o f J a m e s . B e r g s o n h a s d e c l a r e d

t h a t t h e i n t el l e c t i s a m e r e " a n n e x t o t h e f a c u l t y o f a c t i o n , "

a n d h a s sa i d : " W e c a n n o t t oo o f t e n r e p e a t i t , i n t e l li g e n c e a n d

i n s t i n c t a r e t u r n e d i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . " 1 4 Y e t i n t h i s c a s e ,

a l s o , t h e re i s a d i f f e r e n c e : B e r g s o n d o e s n o t a p p r o v e o f F a s -

c i s m . T h e " i n t u i t i o n " w h i c h h e e x a l t s i s " i n s t i n c t b e c o m e

d i s i n t e r e s t e d , " a n d i s m u c h m o r e a k i n t o p u r e e s t h e t i c c o n -

t e m p l a t i o n t ha n t o p o l i t i c a l p r a g m a t i s m . I t i s S o r e l w h o r ei n -

t e r p r e t s B e r g s o ni a n i n t u i t i o n s o t h a t i t b e c o m e s a f a c u l t y o f

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , a n d t he r e b y su p p l i e s M u s s o li n i w i t h a p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l t o ol .

F a s c i s t " i n t u i t i o n i s m " f i n d s i t s f u l le s t ex p r e s s i o n i n a n i n -

t e n s e p a t r i o t i s m . I n o f t e n q u o t e d w o r d s t h a t r e m i n d u s o f

S o r e l , M u s s o l i n i h a s p r o c l a i m e d :

W e h a v e c r e a t e d o u r m y t h . T h e my t h i s a f a i t h , i t i s a p a s -

s i o n . I t i s n o t n ec e s s a r y t h a t i t s h a l l b e a r e a l i t y . I t i s a r e a l i t y

b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s a g o a d , a f a i t h , t h a t i t i s c o u r a g e . O u r m y t h

i s t h e N a t i o n , o u r m y t h i s t h e g r e a t n e ss o f t h e N a t i o n ! A n d t o

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON25

t h i s m y t h , t o t h i s g r a n d e u r , t h a t w e w i s h t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o a

c o m p l e t e r e a l i t y , w e s u b o r d i n a t e a l l t h e r e s t . 1 5

I n t h e N a z i v e r s i o n , t h e " r a c e " c a l l s f o r t h t h e s a m e s o r t of

r e s p o n se a s i s e v o k e d i n I t a l y b y t h e " na t i o n . "

T h e a n t i - i n t e l le c t u a l i s t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r o f t h e ne w

c r e e d i s a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e w o r d s o f A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g , t h e

o f f i c i a l i n t e rp r e t e r of N a z i i d e o lo g y :

T o d a y a n e w f a i t h i s a w a k e n i n g : t h e m y t h o f t h e b l o o d , t h e

b e l i e f t h a t i t i s b y t h e b lo o d t ha t t h e d i v i n e m i s s i o n o f m a n i s t o

b e d e f e n d e d ; t h e b e l i e f , b a s e d o n t h e c l e a r e s t k n o w l e d g e , t h a t

N o r d i c b l o o d r e p r e s e n t s t h a t m y s t e r y w h i c h h a s o v e r c o m e a n d

r e p l a c e d t h e a n c i e n t s a c r a m e n t s . 1 6

I t i s t o t h i s s o u rc e t h a t R o s e n b e r g t r a c e s t h e m e n t a l l i f e o f

the Germa n people :

W e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t h r e e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f u n d e rs t a n d i n g t h e

u n i v e r s e t hr o u gh p e r c e p t i o n , w i l l a n d r e a s o n , o r i g i n a t e f r o m a

s i n g l e f a i t h , f r o m a s i n g l e m y t h , t h e m y t h o f t h e b l o od , t h e

m y t h o f t h e p e o p l e . 1 7

T h e b lo o d - m e t a p h o r i n N a z i l i t e r a t u r e i s e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e

new Welta nschauung . B l o o d i s t h e s y m b o l o f b a t t l e , a n d a l s o

o f t h e c o n t i n ui t y o f l i f e ; i t h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d i n m y s t i c a l

l o r e a n d re l i g i o u s s a c r a m e n t s . I t c o n n o te s t h e p r i m e v a l , m y s -

t e r i o u s a s p e c t s o f e x i s t e n c e . N o d o u b t t h e w o r d i s v a l u e d f o r

t h es e d a r k a ss o c i a t i o n s . B u t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , " s p i r i t " t a k e s

precedence over "blood" ; whereas in the Nazi religion,

" b l o o d" i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e , a n d a l l t h o u g h t i s s a i d t o

b e d et e r m i n e d b y b i o l o gi c a l f a c t o r s . W e a r e sp e c i f i c a l l y t o ld

t h a t " s c i e n c e i s a c o n s e q u e nc e o f t h e b lo o d . " 1 8

Y e t w e a r e a l s o i n f o r m e d t h a t b l o o d a n d s p i r i t a r e o n e .

R o s e n b e r g r ef e r s a l m o s t a s f r e q u e n t l y t o t he " r a c i a l s o u l " a s

t o t h e b l o o d . E v e n w h e n h e e m p l o y s t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e t e r m i -

n o l o gy , h e r e t a i n s h i s b i a s a g a i n s t r e a s o n :

T h e li f e o f a r a c e a n d o f a p e o p l e i s no t a p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r e a -

t i o n w h i c h d e v e l o p s l o gi c a l l y , n o r a p r o c e s s w h i c h u n f o l d s a c -

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26 NO COMPROMISEc o r d i n g t o a n a t u r a l l a w ; i t i s r a t h e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a m y s t i c a l

s y n t h e si s , a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e s ou l , w h i c h c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d

b y t h e l o gi c o f r e a s o n n o r b y c a u s a l a n a l y s i s . ' 9

Reason has a very limited value, and the attemp t to make life

rational leads only to decadence :

T h e i n t e l l ec t i s a p u r e l y f o r m a l a n d t h e re f o r e e m p t y t o o l ; i t s

t a s k c o n s i s t s m er e l y i n d i s c o v e r i n g t h e l a w o f c a u s a l i t y . I f i t b e -

c o m e s e n t h r o n e d a s l a w g i v i n g s o v e r e i g n , t h e e n d o f t h e c u l t u r e

i s a t h a n d . 2 0

Such declarations are typ ical of Fa scist neo-romanticism.

When translated into practice, they constitute a very effec-

t i v e a t t a c k u p o n t h e l i f e o f r e a s o n .

2 . The Regimenta tion of Thought

On the celebra ted occasion of the "burning of the books"

(May io, 1933) the Minister of Propa ganda , Dr . Goebbels,

proclaimed a new era of Germa n liberation, and q uoted the

words of a Renaissance scholar : "0 Century! 0 Science!

What a joy to be alive!" But the ma n who first used these

words was rejoicing at the escap e from ignorance a nd super-

s t i t i o n , w h e r e a s G o e b b e l s w a s j u b i l a n t a t a r e t u r n t o b o n d a g e.

The Nazis not only have burned books but have driven

into exile the greater proportion of notable German authors .

American scholars have estima ted that of the one hundred

writers who were most highly rega rded before the advent of

Hitler only twelve are now living within Germ any . E v e n i f

one includes, to be comp letely obj ective, the most fam ous

Nazi authors, Hitler, Rosenberg, and G oebbels, the number

i s o n l y f i f t e e n . O f t h e e l e v e n w r i t e r s w h o e n j o y e d t h e g r e a t e s t

international reputation before Hitler's advent, only two are

still living within Germ an boundaries . These estima tes are

b a s e d u p o n p u r e l y o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a - t h e s i z e o f t h e e d i t i o n s ,

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 27

t h e n u m b e r o f t r a n s l a t i o n s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f r e v i e w s e x -

c e e d i n g f i f t y l i n e s .2 1

T h e r e h a s b e e n a s i m i l a r e x o d u s o f G e r m a n s c h o l a r s a n d

a r t i s t s . A m o n g t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d e x i l e s a r e B r o n i s l a w H u b e r -

m a n , v i o l i n i s t , O t t o K l e m p e r e r , s y m p h o n y c o n d u c t o r , G e o r g

G r o s z , p a i n t e r , M a x R e i n h a r d t , t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c e r , T h o m a s

M a n n , n o v e l i s t , E r n s t T o i l e r , p l a y w r i g h t , E l i s a b e t h B e r g n e r ,

a c t r e s s , H e i n r i c h B r u n i n g , f o r m e r C h a n c e l l o r , K u r t R o s e n -

f e l d , P r u ss i a n M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e , D r . J a m e s F r a n c k , N o b e l

P r i z e w i n n e r i n P h y s i c s , A l b e r t E i n s t e i n , a u t h o r o f t h e R e l a -

t i v i t y t h eo r y , W a l t e r B e h r en d t , a u t h o ri t y o n a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d

c i t y p l a n n i n g , W a l t e r G r o p i u s , a r c h i t e c t a n d i n d u s t r i a l d e -

s i g n e r , H a n s R e i c h e n b a c h , p h i l o s o p h e r a n d m a t h e m a t i c i a n ,

M a x W e r t h e i m e r , p s y c h o l o g i s t , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h e l i s t i n -

c l u d e s m e n o f g r ea t a t t a i n m e n t i n e v e r y f i e l d o f e n d e a v o r .

The higher schools have consequently suffered tremen-

d o u s l y . T h e r e h a s b e e n a n i m m e n s e d e c l i n e i n s t u d e n t r e g i s -

t r a t i o n , a n d a g r e a t m a n y f a c u l t y r e s i g n a t i o n s , d e m o t i o n s ,

a n d d i s c h a r g e s2 2

T h e s e a l t e r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n i n c o n f o r m i t y

w i t h N a z i t h e o r y . T h e c o n c e p t o f s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y i s e n -

t i r e l y f o r e i g n t o H i t l e r ' s m o d e o f t h i n k i n g . H e t h u s d e f i n e s

h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i n Mein Kamp f :

I t i s t h e ta s k o f t h e r a c i a l S t a t e t o s e e th a t w o r l d hi s t o r y i s s o

w r i t t e n t h a t t h e p r o bl e m o f r a c e i s e l e v a t e d t o a d o m i n a n t p o s i -

t i o n . . . . E v e n s c i e n c e m u s t be r e g a r d e d b y t h e r a c i a l S t a t e a s a

m e a n s o f p r o m o t i n g n a t i o n a l p r i d e . N o t m e r e l y w o r l d h i s t o r y ,

b u t t h e e n ti r e h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , m u s t b e t a u g h t f r o m t h i s p o i n t

o f v i e w . T h e i n v e n t o r s h a l l a p p e a r g r e a t , n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e h e

i s a n i n v e n t o r , b u t e v e n m o r e a s a m e m b e r o f o u r n a t i o n . T h e

a d m i r a t i o n f o r e v e r y g r e a t d e e d m u s t b e b a t h e d i n p r i d e b e -

c a u s e h e w h o s o f o r t u n a t e l y a c h i e v e d i t w a s a m e m b e r o f o u r

own people . W e m u s t s e l e c t t h e g re a t e s t f r o m t h e l i s t o f g r e a t

n a m e s i n G e r m a n h i s t o r y a n d p l a c e t h e m b e f o r e o u r y o u t h s o

i m p r e s s i v e l y t h a t t h e y m a y s e r v e a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a n u n -

s h a k a b l e p a t r i o t i s m . 2 8

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28 NO COMPROMISES i m i l a r d e c l a r a t i o n s a r e m a d e b y A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g ( t o w h o m

t h e G o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 7 a w a r d e d a n a t i o n a l p r i z e o f a p p r o x i -

m a t e l y $ 4 0 , 0 0 0 f o r h i s s e r v i c e s t o G e r m a n c u l t u r e a n d e n -

l i g h t e n m e n t ) . H e i n s i s t s t h a t a r t , h i s t o r y , a n d s c i e n c e m u s t b e

b a s e d u p o n p u r e l y G e r m a n i c f o u n d a t i o n s :

U p o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e , p e o p l e h a v e

s p o k e n o f t h e i n t e r na t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of a r t a n d s c i e n c e . W e a r e

n o w p r e p a r e d t o s a y t h a t t h i s v i e w o f a r t i s a n t i q u a t e d ; s i n c e n o

a s p e c t o f t h e n a t i o n a l l i f e i s m o r e f o r c e f u l a n d t e nd e r t ha n i t s

a r t ; a n d a s f o r s c i e n c e , I b e l i e v e t h a t s o - c a l l e d i n t e r na t i o n a l

s c i e n c e n e v e r e x i s t e d, a n d d o e s no t e x i s t t o d a y . . . . I f p e o p l e

t e l l u s t h a t o b j e c t i v e s c i e n c e a n d h i s t o r y s u f f e r b e c a u s e o f s u c h

a s s e r t i o n s, w e c a n o n l y r e p l y t h a t a n o b j e c t i v e c o n c e p t o f h i s -

t o r y d o e s n o t e x i s t , a n d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w h o s p e a k i n i t s n a m e

a t t a c k e a c h o t he r . W e b e l i e v e t ha t t h e t i m e h a s a r r i v e d t o a n -

n o u n c e a G e r m a n v e r s i o n o f h i s t o r y .2 4

I n h i s My th of the Twentieth Century , R o s e n b e r g p r e s e n t s

u s w i t h s uc h a " G e r m a n v e r s i o n , " a n d a v e r y b i z a r r e o n e i t i s .

H e e x p l a i n s t h a t t he " s i g n i f i c a n c e o f w o r l d h i s t o ry " i s d u e t o

Northern genius and the sp read of culture "by a blonde,

b l u e- e y e d r a c e . " 2 5 " F o r a l o n g t i m e i t h a s b e e n a t r u i s m , " h e

a s s e r t s , " t h a t a l l t h e S t a t e s o f t h e O c c i d e n t a n d th e i r c r e a t i v e

values were produced by the Germa ns . "2 s From the Ger-

manic migrations sprang the great men of past cultures .

R o s e n b e r g r e f e r s , f o r e x a m p l e , t o " t h e b l u e - e y e d f o r c e f u l

S u l l a , t h e p u r e l y N o r d i c h e a d o f A u g u s t u s , " a n d f i n d s N o r d i c

q u a l i t i e s e v e n i n J e s u s , w h o h e i n s i s t s w a s n o t a J e w 2 7

E v e n i n t h e U n i v e r si t i e s r a c i a l c h a u v i n i s m p r e v a i l s . A t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f H e i d e l b e r g , t o c i t e a f a m o u s e x a m p l e w h i c h

b e a r s r e p e a t i n g , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p o r t a l

o f o n e o f t h e b u i l d i n g s t h e s t a t u e o f A t h e n a , t h e g o d d es s o f

w i s d o m , a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g i n s c r i p t i o n " T o t h e E t e r n a l

S p i r i t , " a n d h a v e s u b s ti t u t e d t h e G e r m a n s y m b o l o f t h e e a g l e

a n d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n " T o t h e G e r m a n S p i r i t . " T h e U n i v e r s i t y

i t s e l f h a s u t t e rl y c h a n g e d i t s c h a r a c t e r . H e i d e l b e r g w a s t h e

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 29

f i r s t U n i v e r s i t y i n E u r o p e t o e st a b l i s h a c a d e m i c f r e e d om , a n d

o n c e o f f e r e d a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n t o t h e g r e a t a n d h e t e r o d o x

J e w , S p i n o z a . B u t t h e c e le b ra t i o n i n 1 9 3 6 o f t h e 5 5o t h a n n i -

v e r s a r y o f t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y i n d i c a t e d t h a t

H e i d e l b e r g i s n o l o n g e r a f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n .

On this anniversary occasion, the German Minister for

E d u c a t i o n , H e r r R u s t , a s s e r t e d t h a t s c i e n c e m u s t n o w e m a n -

c i p a t e i t s e l f f r o m " t h e f a l s e i d e a o f o b j e c t i v i t y , " a n d t h a t " t h e

n e w s c i e n c e i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i d e a o f k n o w l e d g e

t h a t f o u n d i t s v a l u e i n a n u n c h e c k e d e f f o r t t o r e a c h t h e

t r u t h . " D r . E r n e s t K r i e c k , P r o f e s s o r of P h i l o s o p h y a t H e i d e l -

b e r g , d e c l a r e d o n t h e s a m e o c c a s i o n : "We do not know of

o r r e c o g n i z e t r ut h f o r t r ut h ' s s a k e o r sc i e n c e f o r s c i e n c e ' s

s a k e . "2 s

T h e p u r p o s e s t o w h i c h t h e N a z i s s u b o r d i n a t e t r u t h

a r e i n d i c a t e d b y D r . K a h r s t e d t, P r o f e s s o r o f H i s t o r y a t t h e

University of Gottingen, in an a ddress on German Empire

D a y :

W e r e n o u nc e i n t e rn a t i o n a l s c i e n c e . W e r e n ou n c e t h e i n t e rn a -

t i o n a l r e p u b l i c o f l e a r n i n g . W e r e n o u n c e r e s e a r c h f o r i t s o w n

s a k e . W e t e a c h a n d l e a r n m e d i c i n e , n o t t o i n c r e a s e t h e n um b e r

o f k n o w n m i c r o b e s , b u t t o k e e p t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e s t r o n g a n d

h e a l t h y . W e t e a c h a n d l e a r n h i s t o ry , n o t t o s a y h o w t h i n g s a c t u -

a l l y h a p p e n e d , b u t t o i n s t r u c t t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e f r o m t h e p a s t .

W e t e a c h a n d l e a r n t h e s c i e n c e s , n o t t o d i s c o v e r a b s t r a c t l a w s ,

b u t t o s h a r p e n t h e i m p l e m e n t s o f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e i n c o m p e -

t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s . I f t h e G e r m a n u n i v e r si t i e s m a k e a n d

k e e p t h i s v o w , t h e n i t w i l l n a t u r a l l y c o m e a b o u t a g a i n t h a t t h ey

a r e t h e f i r s t t o b e c o n s u l t e d i n a l l c u l t u r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l q u e s -

t i o n s . 2 9

M a n y o f t h e g r e a t U n i v e r s i t i e s o f t h e w o r l d , b e i n g a w a r e o f

t h e s e op i n i o n s o f N a z i e d u c a t o r s , a n d r e a l i z i n g t h a t h u n d r e d s

o f G e r m a n p r o f e s s o r s h a v e b e e n d i s m i s s e d f o r o p p o s i t i o n t o

t h i s p r o g r a m , r e f u s e d i n v i t a t i o n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e H e i d el -

b e r g a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n a n d t h e s i m i l a r c e l e b r a t i o n a

y e a r l a t e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G o t t i n g e n .

The progra m of "Germ anic" instruction has involved

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30 NO COMPROMISEstrange innovations in the field of science and education . An-

thropology has been transformed into a glorification of Ger-

m a n " blood," courses in intern a tion a l l a w h av e been a bol-

ished, m ilit a r y science h a s beco m e a p rinci p a l ite m in the

curriculum, physics and mathematics have become "Germansciences ." Einstein's theories, for exa mp le, are rejected on the

ground th a t the y h av e been for mul a ted b y a Jew . At a recent

international congress of astronom ers at Basel, the Nazi sci-

entists attacked, on ra cial grounds, the work of Einstein and

of other Jewish astrophy sicists .

The new attitude towards science is illustrated by the fol-

lowing statement by Dr . Wacker, a high Nazi official in the

Ministry of Education :

It is very superficial to sp eak of science "as such," as a com-

mon prop erty of mankind, equally a ccessible to all peoples and

classes a nd offering them all an eq ual field of work . The prob-

lems of science do not present themselves in the same way to all

men . The Negro or the Jew will view the same world in a dif-

ferent w a y fro m the G er m a n investig a tor .3 0

A speech by Dr. Toma schek, Professor at the U niversity of

Dresden, reveals how this rela tivistic conception of truth is

a p p lied . The G er m a n p ress g av e the following re p ort of his

rema rks upon the occa sion of dedicati ng a new Institute of

Phy sics at Heidelberg :

In an enthralling wa y he contrasted the Nordic conception of

infinity with the stra nge shrinking of the Semites from such in-

finity (the Bedouin tent) . In the sam e spirit he ex pla ined Ein-

stein's theory of relativity, with which he settled in great style .

To the abstract m athema tical junk of the Jewish phy sicists he

opp osed the living conception of high and holy la ws of Nature,

such as the Nordic investiga tor wins for hims elf in reverence

before the logic and greatness of Nature . At the conclusion of

his stirring address, Professor Toma schek emphasized that over-

lo a ding a nd co m p lic a ting the m ethods of rese a rch with m a n y

ma thematical formulae would certainly not lead to Nature .3 1

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 3 1

Even eminent scientists deny tha t science is internationa l,

and contend that there is a specifically "Germ an" truth . A

distinguished Germa n phy sicist, Philipp L enard of Heidel-

berg, has issued a treatise on phy sics with the title "Germa n

Physics ." He begins his preface as follows :

"Germa n Physics?" one asks . I might rather have said Aryan

Phy sics or the Phy sics of the Nordic species of man, the Phy sics

of those who have fathomed the depths of Rea lity, seekers after

Truth, the Physics of the very founders of Science . B u t I s h a l l b e

answered, "Science is and remains international ." It is false .

Science, like every other huma n product, is racia l and condi-

tioned by the blood . 8 2

The first issue of a new ma thema tical journal, Deutsche

Mathem aiik, announced its program as follows :

We serve the Germa n way in m athema tics and wish to culti-

v a t e i t . We are not alone in this world ; other peoples ha ve the

same claim to express their way in ma thematics . Various points

of contact exist between the m athema tical work of the different

peoples . Our review has a n open m ind for the suggestions and

informa tion which may derive therefrom for us, also . But we

see everything from the standpoint of the ma thematica l accom-

plishments of our people . For it, our labor is mea nt, conscious

of the fact that creative ma thema tics also develops the stronger

and a chieves the greater imp ortance for the world the deeper it

is rooted in the national sp irit .3 3

If even mathema tics, the most neutral a nd abstract of a ll the

sciences, is made to conform to the "Germa n spirit," we can

be sure that history and the socia l sciences are thoroughly

regi mented . The elementa ry schools ha ve been subjected to

supervision as rigid a s that in the Universities . Free and im-

pa rtial education no longer exists in Germany .

The more informa l instruction afforded by the p ress has

also p assed entirely under the control of the Nazis . News-

pa per editors have been forced to conform, or their pa pers

ha ve been seized . Even President Roosevelt's speeches a re re-

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3 2 NO COMPROMISEg a r d e d a s d a n g e r o u s a n d a r e b a n n e d i n G e r m a n y . 3 4 The con-

t r o l o f t h e p r e s s h a s b e e n s u p p l e m e n t e d b y " c o o r d i n a t i o n " o f

t h e c i n e m a , s t a g e , r a d i o , a n d p u l p i t .

A g r e a t m a n y p e o p l e f i n d t hi s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s v e r y o p p r e s -

s i v e . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 6 s e a s o n , o n e o f t h e B e r l i n t h e a t e r s p r e -

s e n t e d S c h i l l e r ' s D o n C a r l o s , i n w h i c h o c c u r s M a r q u i s P o s a ' s

f a m o u s a d v i c e t o K i n g P h i l i p , " G i v e u s f r e e d o m o f o p i n i o n ! "

E v e r y n i g h t d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e t h i s s p e e c h w a s g r e e t e d

w i t h l o u d a p p l a u s e . T h e n e w s p a p e r s a t t a c k e d t h e " p o l i t i c a l

i m m a t u r i t y " o f t h e a u d i e n c e s , b u t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n c o n t i n -

u e d a n d w a s l o u d e r t h a n e v e r w h e n t h e M i n i s t e r o f P r o p a -

ganda a ttended . 3 5 The pla y, we suspect, would have been

s u p p r e s s e d i f i t h a d n o t b e e n a p o p u l a r G e r m a n c l a s s i c .

T h e c h a r a c t e r o f N a z i p r o p a g a n d a h a s b e e n i n a c c o r d w i t h

H i t l e r ' s n o t i o n s . I n Mein Kam pf, h e f r a n k l y o u t l i n ed t h e p o l -

i c y w h i c h G o e b be l s w a s l a t e r to c a r r y i n t o e x e c u t i o n :

T h e m o r e m o d e s t i t s sc i e n t i f i c b a l l a s t , a n d t h e m o r e e x c l u -

s i v e l y i t d i r e c t s i t s e l f t o t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e m a s s e s , t h e m o r e s uc -

c e s s f u l p r o p a g a n d a w i l l b e . T h i s i s t h e b e s t p r o o f o f t h e

c o r r e c t n e s s o r i n c o r r e c t n e s s o f p r o p a g a n d a , n o t t he s a t i s f a c t i o n

i t m a y a f f o r d t o c e r t a i n s c i e n t i s t s or e s t h et e s . . . . T h e p o w e r o f

r e c e p t i o n o f t h e m a s s e s i s o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d , t h e i r u n d er s t a n d i n g

i s s m a l l , b u t t he i r c a p a c i t y t o f o r g e t i s g r ea t . 3 6

H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t m u s t n o t t r y t o b e o b -

j e c t i v e :

T h e t a s k o f p r o p a g a n d a i s n o t t h e m e a s u re m e n t of c o n f l i c t i n g

r i g h t s , b u t e x c l u s i v e e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e r i g h t w h i c h i t r e p r e -

s e n t s . I t d o e s n o t n ee d t o s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e l y f o r t r u t h t h a t i s

f a v o r a b l e t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e n g i v e t h i s t r u t h t o t h e

m a s s e s w i t h d o c t r i n a i r e s i n c e r i t y , b u t i t u n i n t e r m i t t e n tl y m u s t

s e r v e i t s o w n t r u t h . 3 7

T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h H i t l e r h i m s e l f a v o i d s " d o c t r i n a i r e

s i n c e r i t y " i s i l l u s t r a t ed b y hi s c o n d u c t d u r i n g t h e C z e c h o -

s l ov a k i a n c r i s i s . I n h i s s p e e c h a t t h e S p o r t P a l a c e o n S e p -

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON33

t e m b e r 2 6 , h e g r o s s l y d e c e i v e d h i s a u d i e n c e . "Never by a

p h ra s e, " p o i nt s o ut th e ed i to r of F o r ei g n A f f a i r s , " d i d H i t l e r

l e t h i s h e a r e r s k n o w t h a t t h e r e a l d i s p u t e n o l o n g e r w a s b e -

tween him and Beneg but between Germany on the one hand

a n d B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e o n t h e o t h e r . N e v e r d i d h e l e t t h e m

g u e s s t h a t i t w a s n o t a p a r a d e i n t o C z e c h o s l o v a k i a w h i c h

h u n g i n t h e b a l a n c e , b u t a E u r o p e a n w a r . " I n s t e a d o f r e c i t -

i n g t h e t ru e f a c t s , h e l a s h e d h i s a u d i e n c e i n t o a h y s t e r i c a l

d e m o n s t r a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e C z e c h p e o p l e a n d t h e i r P r e s i d e n t .

" T h e s u rg e o f v o i c e s , a s i n a m e n a g e r i e w h e r e a l l t h e a n i m a l s

h a v e g o n e m a d , b u t b y s o m e t r i c k c a n s t i l l b e m a d e t o b a y

a n d h o w l i n u n i s o n , w i l l n o t s o o n b e f o r g o t t e n b y a n y o n e w h o

l i s t e n e d t h r o u g h t o t h e e n d . "3 8

I t a p p e a r s t h a t H i t l e r w a s

n o t o n l y r e a d y t o p l u n g e h i s p e o p l e i n t o a v a s t w a r , b u t e v e n

t o l e a d t h e m b l i n d a n d f r e n z i e d t o t h e s l a u g h t e r . When we

r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e G e r m a n p r e s s i s c o m p l e t e l y s u b s e r v i e n t

t o t h e F i i h r e r , w e c a n e x p e c t e v e r y " n e w s " o r g a n t o b e k e p t.

T h e re c o r d i n F a s c i s t I t a l y i s s i m i l a r t o t ha t i n N a z i G e r -

m a n y . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e I t a l i a n p r e s s i s c e n s o r e d i s

c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t t o I t a l i a n n e w s -

papers by the government . C a r l o R o s s el l i , t h e e d i t o r o f a n

I t a l i a n a n t i - F a s c i s t n ew s p a p e r i n P a r i s , p u b l i s h e d a s er i e s o f

s e c r e t i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t he I t a l i a n p r e s s c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d

from January5

t o M a y i o , 1 9 3 7 . T h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e r e -

produced by the Manchester Guardian a n d o t h e r r e l i a b l e

newspap ers . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a f e w e x c e r p t s :

J a n u a r y 1 6 : G i v e n o n e w s o f t h e b o m b a r d m e n t s o f i n h a b i t e d

c e n t e r s by t h e S p a n i s h " N a t i o n a l i s t s , " a n d a b o v e a l l d e n y t h a t

i t i s d o n e by I t a l i a n o r G e r m a n a v i a t o r s .

F e b r u a r y 9 : D o n o t de s c r i b e t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n o f t h e

S p a n i s h " R e d s " a s d i s a s t r o us . B e l e s s op t i m i s t i c .

F e b r u a r y 2 0 : B e g i n a n d c o n t i n u e a s t r o n g c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t

C z e c h o s l ov a k i a . A b s o l u t e s i l e n c e o n t h e d a t e f i x e d f o r e n d i n g

t h e d i s p a t c h o f v o l u n t e e r s t o S p a i n .

F e b r u a r y 2 6 : I n s i s t o n t h e e v e nt u a l i t y o f E d e n ' s l e a v i n g t h e

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3 4NO COMPROMISE

F o r ei g n O f f i c e . Ha ve sent from L ondon news of Eden's dis-

m i s s a l .

M a y 6 : I t i s a b s o l u t e ly f o r b i d d e n t o p u b l i s h a n y a r t i c l e s o r

m a k e a n y r e f e r e n c e w h a t e v e r t o t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t ; l i m i t

y o u r s e lv e s p u r e ly t o S t e f a n i [ F a s c i s t n ew s a g e n c y ] . E m p h a s i z e t he

n e w s a b o u t t h e bi g c r o w d a t R o m e f o r t o m o r r o w ' s r e v i e w .3 s

R o s s e l l i h a d p u b l i s h e d a s i m i l a r s e r i e s o f s e c r e t i n s t r u c t i o n s a

f e w m o n t h s p r e v i o u s l y . F o r t h e s e o f f e n s e s , h e a n d h i s b r o t h e r,

i t a p p e a r s , w e r e m u r d er e d b y F a s c i s t a g e n t s 4 0 A s i m i l a r l i s t o f

" d i r e c t i v e s " i s s u e d t o th e G e r m a n p r e s s i n A u g u st , 1 9 3 5 , h a s

b e e n p u b l i s h e d b y t h e Manchester Guardian . T h e s e i n d i c a t e

t h e s a m e s o r t of d i s t o r t i o n a n d s u p p r e s s i o n a s a p p e a r i n t h e

I t a l i a n i n s t r uc t i o n s .

T h e t e m p e r o f I t a l i a n j o u r n a l i s m i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p r o -

n o u n c e m e n t s o f V i r g i n i o G a y d a , a u t h o r i t a t i v e F a s c i s t e d i t o r ,

whose G i o r na l e d ' I t a l i a i s a s e m i o f f i c i a l o r ga n . S h o r t l y a f t e r

F r a n c e ' s a b j e c t s u r r e n d e r t o t h e G e r m a n - I t a l i a n d e m a n d s a t

t h e M u n i c h c o n f e r e n c e , G a y d a u t i l i z e d t he p a g e s o f h i s j o u r -

n a l f o r a t y p i c a l a t t a c k u p o n F r e n c h d e m o c r a c y . H e s p o k e o f

F r a n c e ' s " a v i d e g o i s m , o v e r b e a r i n g p r e t e n t i o u s n e s s , g e n e r a l

j e a l o u s y , i n t r i g u e , c o n t i n u o u s h o s t i l i t y a n d u n r e m i t t i n g

m a r c h t o w a r d s t h e d e p t h s o f s u b v e r s i v e c r i m i n a l i t y . " 4 1 Such

l a n g u a g e w a s s e l e c t e d b y t h e c h i e f e d i t o r o f I t a l y , i m m e d i -

a t e l y a f t e r " p e a c e " h a d b e e n s e c u r e d b y t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f

Chamberlain and Daladier .

T h e I t a l i a n c o n t r o l o f e d u c a t i o n h a s n o t b ee n s o s ev e r e a s

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s y s t e m i n G e r m a n y , y e t i t h a s b e e n e f f e c -

t i v e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s t e r m i n o f f i c e , M u s s o li n i d i d n o t

m o l e s t s c h o l a r s . A f t e r t he m u r d er o f M a t t e o tt i i n 1 9 2 4 , I t a l -

i a n p r o f e s s o r s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o op p o s i n g c a m p s , t h e F a s c i s t s

b e i n g l ed b y G i o v a n n i G e n ti l e , a n d t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t s by B e n e -

d e t t o C r o c e . T h i s c o n d i t i o n w a s n o t a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e . I n

J a n u a r y , 1 9 2 5 , t h e F a s c i s t " r e v o l ut i o n " w a s c o m p l e t e d by t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n o f o p p o s i t i o n p a r t i e s , t h e m u z z l i n g o f t h e p r e s s ,

and the suppression of autonomous trade unions . A t t h i s

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON3 5

t i m e , t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s w e r e p l a c e d u n d e r S t a t e c e n s o r -

s h i p , a n d t e x t b o o k s t h e n c e f o r w a r d h a d t o e m b o d y F a s c i s t

d o c t r i n e s .

T h e U n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y f r e e , a l t h o u g h t h e

p r e s s u r e g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t he n e x t f e w y e a r s . M a n y

p r o f e s s o r s wr o t e t o I l D u c e p l e d g i n g t h e i r s u p p o r t , a n d a

l a r g e n u m b e r f o u n d i t p r u d e n t t o j o i n t h e F a s c i s t A s s o c i a t i o n

o f U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s . I n 1 9 3 1 c a m e t h e d e c i s i v e s t r o k e .

A l l p r o f e s s o r s w er e c o m p e l l e d t o t a k e a n o a t h o f a l l e g i a n c e t o

t h e F a s c i s t r e g i m e . O n l y t w e l v e r e f u s ed , a n d t h e y w e r e d e-

p r i v e d o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s . T h e U n i v e r s i t i e s a r e n o w f i r m l y

r u l e d b y t h e S t a t e . B e n e de t t o C r oc e , I t a l y ' s g r e a t e st p h i l o s o -

p h e r , h a s b e e n f o r c e d i n t o r e t i r e m e n t a t N a p l e s , a n d t h e

g o v e rn m e n t h a s e v e n s e a r c h e d h i s l i b r a r y t o f i n d i n c r i m i -

n a t i n g d o c u m e n t s . B u t C r o c e r e m a i n s t h e u n d e v i a t i n g f o e o f

F a s c i s m . H e h a s c o u r a g e o u s l y d e c l a r e d th a t l i b e r t y m e a n s

" h u m a n d i g n i t y a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n , " a n d t h a t t h e " s u p p r e s s i o n

o f l i b e r t y " u n d e r d i c t a t o r s h i p m e a n s " t h e de b a s i n g o f m e n

u n t i l t h e y a r e e i t h e r a f l o c k t o b e l ed t o p a s t u r e , o r c a p t u r e d,

t r a i n e d a n i m a l s i n a c a g e . "42

A n u m b e r o f I t a l i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s , l i k e t h e i r G e r m a n c o n -

t e m p o r a r i e s , h a v e s o u g h t r e f u g e a b r o a d . T h e l o n g l i s t o f

e x i l e s a n d e x p a t r i a t e s i n c l u d e s su c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d m en a s

T o s c a n i n i , t h e m u s i c i a n , S i l o n e , t h e n o v e l i s t , B o r g e s e , t h e

p u b l i c i s t , A s c o l i , t h e p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t, V e n t u r i , a u t h o r i t y

u p o n a r t h i s t o r y . D e M a r c o , e x p e r t o n p r o b le m s o f f i n a n c e ,

a n d D e S a n c t i s , S a l v e m i n i , a n d F e r r e r o , t h e hi s t o r i a n s . T h e

m o s t p r o m i n e n t v i c t i m s o f F a s c i s m h a v e b e e n s c h o l a r s a n d

intellectuals : G i a c o m o M a t t e o tt i , t h e c r i m i n o l og i s t , G i o v a n n i

A m e n d o l a , t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , L a u r o d e B o s i s , t h e p o e t a n d

c h e m i s t , C a r l o R o s s e l l i , t h e e c o n o m i s t , a n d N e l l o R o s s e l l i ,

t h e hi s t or i a n . A l l o f t h e l e a r n e d p r o f e s si o n s h a v e b e e n " c o o r -

d i n a t e d " ; d o c t o rs , l a w y e r s , j o u r n a l i s t s, t e c h n i c i a n s , a n d a r t i s t s

a r e a l l r e g i m e n t e d b y t h e S t a t e43

T h e c o n c e p t s t h a t g o v e r n I t a l i a n e d u c a t i o n a r e i l l u s tr a t e d

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3 6 NO COMPROMISEb y t h e o p e n i n g r e m a r k s o f P r o f e s s o r S e r g i o P a n u n z i o i n i n -

a u g u r a t i n g a n ew c o u r s e i n p o l i t i c a l t h eo r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of Rome in 1928 . H e c o n t e n d e d :

W e m u s t " F a s c i c i z e " t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f l a w a n d p o l i t i c s i n

o r d e r t o d i s s i p a t e t h e a g n o s t i c a n d n e u tr a l s p i r i t w h i c h , i n t h e

f o r m o f o b j e c t i v i t y a n d r i g i d s c i e n t i f i c i s m , i s o r m a y b e l i m i t e d

t o a s t u d y o f l a w a n d p o l i t i c s e i t h e r c o n t r a r y t o , o r o ut s i d e o f ,

F a s c i s m . . . . Instruction in theory o f the law is like instruction

i n r e l i g i o n . T h e r e c a n b e n o n e u t r a l s . . . . O n l y i n s t ru c t i o n i n

t h e th e o r em o f P y t h a g o r a s c a n b e a - p o l i t i c a l 14 4

T h e n e w c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y i s d e f i n e d b y a n I t a l i a n p r o -

f e s s o r : " H i s t o r y i s e f f e c t i v e a s m y t h a n d n o t a s t r ut h . . . . I t i s

n o t th e t r ut h o f t h e hi s t o r i c a l f a c t w h i c h i s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , b u t

t h e e f f e c t w h i c h f o l l o ws . " 4 5 T h u s m e n t a k e f l i g h t f r o m r e a s o n

i n I t a l y a s w e l l a s i n G e r m a n y .

3 . Ex am ination of the Fascist Assump tions

S i n c e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t r u th a n d s c i e n t i f i c m e t h od

a r e i n q u e s t i o n , w e s h o u ld e x a m i n e t h e te n e t s of F a s c i s m w i t h

e x t r e m e c a r e . W h a t a r e t h e m a i n a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h u n d e r l i e

F a s c i s t a n t i - i n t e l l ec t u a l i s m ? A r e t h e s e a s s um p t i o n s v a l i d ? W e

c a n r e d u c e t h e se b a s i c p r e m i s e s t o t h r e e :

First, the Fa scists maintain that truth is relative to national-

istic or racial interests . T h e N a z i s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a r e t h e

m o s t a r d e n t a d v o c a t e s o f t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w ; b u t i n I t a l y , i n

J a p a n , a n d e v e n i n t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e i s a p r o -

n o u n c e d t e n d e n c y t o c o n c e i v e o f t r u t h a s t h a t w h i c h s e r v e s

t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e st s .

J u l i e n B e n d a , t h e f a m o u s F r e n c h c r i t i c , p o i n t s o u t t h a t

t r u th i s a b a r r i e r t o n a t i o n a l c h a u v i n i s m . S i n c e t he tr ut h i s

e s s e n t i a l l y u n i v e r s a l , i t i s o p p o s e d t o t h e se p a r a t i s t t e n d e n c i e s

o f n a t i o n a l i s m . H e n c e t h e n a t i o n a l i s t s t e l l u s t ha t t h e r e i s n o

" u n i v e r s a l t r u t h" - t h e r e i s o n l y t h a t w h i c h i s " t r u e i n F r a n c e , "

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 37

o r " t r ue i n G e r m a n y , " e t c . " W h a t i s t r u e o n o n e s i d e o f t h e

P y r e n e e s m a y p e r f e c t l y w e l l b e e r r o r o n t he o t h e r s i d e ! " 46T h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e t h a t c a n b e s a i d i n a n s w e r t o s u c h a

thesis exc ept that it is nonsense . T h e m er e f a c t t h a t a m a n i s

( l e t u s s a y ) a G e r m a n , e v e n i f h e i s o f t h e m o s t a p p r o v e d

" N o r d i c " t y p e , d o e s n o t e q u i p h i m t o g r a s p t r u t h i n a w a y

d e n i e d t o m e n o f o t h e r n a t i o n s . T h e p r i n c i p l e s o f l o g i c a r e

u n i v e r s a l ; m e n o f a n y r a c e o r na t i o n a l i t y c a n t h i n k s t r a i g h t,

o r c o m m i t f a l l a c i e s . A l l m e n h a v e e y e s , n o s e s , e a r s a n d o t h e r

s e n s e o r g a n s - t h e y a l l c a n o b s e r v e , w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l

e q u i p m e n t , t he c o n to u r s o f r e a l i t y . T h e y a l l h a v e m i n d s w i t h

w h i c h t o i n t e r p r e t w ha t t h e y o b s e rv e . G r e a t d i s c o v e ri e s a n d

i n v e n t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n t ri b u t e d b y a l l t h e p r i n c i p a l r a c e s ,

a n d n o t l e a s t b y t h e J e w s . T w o p l u s t w o e q u a l s f o u r i n e v e r y

l a n d u n d e r t h e s u n . S c i e n c e i s b a s e d o n j u st s u c h u n i v e r sa l l y

t r u e p r o p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e s a m e b a s i c m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d l o g i -

c a l p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l i e t h e wo r k o f s c i e n t i s t s a l l o v e r t h e

w o r l d . S c i e n c e i s a n i n t e r na t i o n a l p a t r i m o n y , e n r i c h e d by

m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s i n a l l c i v i l i z e d l a n d s .

I f t h e N a z i s i n s i s t t h a t w h a t i s t r u e f o r a G e r m a n m a y b e

f a l s e f o r a J e w , w e c a n o n l y a n s w e r t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n h a s n o t b e e n r e v o k e d b y N a z i d e c r e e . A p r o p o s i -

t i o n , i f u n d e r s t o o d i n a n i d e n t i c a l s e n s e , c a n n o t b e b o t h t r u e

a n d f a l s e . W h e n a G e r m a n s a y s H i t l er i s i n f a l l i b l e , a n d a J e w

s a y s t h a t h e i s n o t , a n d t h e y a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e s a m e i d e n -

t i c a l " H i t l e r " i n i d e n t i c a l t e r m s , e i t h e r o n e p e r s o n o r t h e

o t h er i s m i s t a k e n .

Second, the Fa scists deny the value of an op en discussion

and review of ma ny basic problems . T h e r e i s a c u r i o u s c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n i n t h e i r p h i l o s op h y i n t h i s r e sp e c t . M u s s o l i n i h a s

d e c l a r e d :

S t r u g g l e i s t h e o r i g i n o f a l l t h i n g s , f o r l i f e i s f u l l o f c o n t r a s t s :

t h e re i s l o v e a n d h a t r e d , w h i t e a n d b l a c k , d a y a n d n i g h t , g o o d

and ev il ; and until these contrasts a chi eve balance, struggle f ate-

f u l l y r e m a i n s a t t h e r o ot o f h u m a n n a t u r e . H o w e v e r , i t i s g o o d

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38 NO COMPROMISEf o r i t t o b e s o . Today we can indulge in wars, economic battles,

conflicts of ideas, but if a day cam e to pass when struggle ceased

to exist, that day would be tinged with melancholy ; it would be

a da y of ruin, the day of ending .47

Rosenberg ap plies this doctrine of conflict to the political

sphere :

It is to be understood that there will and m ust alwa ys ex ist

political p ersonalities and groups within a body politic . A

"people of brothers" is a utopia and not a fine one at that . Com-

plete brotherhood mea ns equalization of all differentials of

value, of all tensions and of all the dyna mics of life . H e r e , t o o ,

conflict remains the life-producing spa rk . 48

This doctrine has been inherited from such roma ntic pred-

ecessors as Adam Muller . In his E l e m e n te d e r S t a a t s k u n s t,

published in . i8og, this political theorist of the German ro-

ma ntic period wrote :

There is a comm on say ing which is not alwa ys understood :

"Where we find no pla intiff, we find no judge ." Translated into

the language of higher jurisp rudence, this mea ns : "Without

hostile factions there is no judge, without opp osing rights there

is no law, without war there can be no p eace ." Through comba t,

through clashing rights, through contending p arties-the concepts

of "pea ce," "law" and "judge," which p e r s e are dead, become a

l i v i n g r e a l i t y .4 e

This doctrine of conflict was a n integral pa rt of romantic the-

ory, a nd has been revived by a number of m odern writers . I t

fits the Fa scist ideal of a n "heroic" and "energetic" life . Un-

questionably it contains a n imp ortant truth, although certain

form s of strife are of course undesira ble .

But the Fa scist practice of supp ressing all politica l and

ideological opp osition does not harm onize with this concep-

tion of the value of conflict . It would seem that the Fa scists are

only devoted to the more violent forms of opp osition . They

divert strife from the field of debate to the field of carna ge .

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 39

I t i s i n t h e i r s q u a d ri s t t a c t i c s , a n d i n t h e i r w a r s i n E t h i o p i a ,

S p a i n , C h i n a , t h a t t h e y h a v e d e m o ns t r a t ed t h e i r l o v e o f " c o n -

t r a s t s . " W e s h a l l l a t e r e x a m i n e t h e i r p h i l o so p h y o f f o r c e , a n d

d i s c o v e r r e a s o n s t o q u e st i o n i t s v a l i d i t y .

F o r t h e p r e s e nt , i t w i l l s u f f i c e t o p o i n t o u t t he f l i m s y b a s i s

u p o n w h i c h t h e y s u p p r e s s i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o s i t i o n . M u s so l i n i

h a s s a i d :

O p p o si t i o n i s st up i d ; s u p e r f l u o u s i n a u n a n i m o u s a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n l i k e t h e F a s c i s t r e gi m e . . . . W e a r e n o t o ld n a g s t h a t h a v e

t o b e s p u r r e d . W e c o n t r o l o u r s e l v e s s e v e r e ly . . . . I n I t a l y t h e re

i s n o r oo m f o r a n t i - F a s c i s t i ; t h e r e i s r o om o n l y f o r F A S C I S T I .5 o

The Duce thinks there is enough opposition in inanimate

t h i n g s, a n d i n t h e " o b j ec t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s of l i f e . " 51O b v i o u s l y t h e F a s c i s t s , d e s p i t e t h e i r p r a i s e o f c o n t r a s t s , d o

n o t r es p e c t t h e d i a l e c t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h o ug h t . A n i d e a l i v e s

o n l y i n c o n f l i c t w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e . W i t h o u t d e b a t e a n d d i s c u s -

s i o n , e v e n a t r u e d oc t r i n e r a p i d l y d e g e n er a t e s i n t o a l i f e l e s s

dogma . W i t h o u t r el a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e a n d l i v e o p p o s i t i o n , w i t h -

o u t t h e c l a s h a n d c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n m i n d s , e v e n t h e b e s t

o f t h i n k e r s c e a s e t o t h i n k . B u t t h e F a s c i s t s t oo o f t e n c a n n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o p p o s i t i o n a n d t r e a s o n .

I n s t e a d o f t e s t i n g b e l i e f s b y m e a n s o f d i s c u s s i o n t h e y a s -

s u m e t he i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f t h e i r d i c t a t o r s . T h e 1 9 3 8 N a z i Y e a r -

b o o k s t a t e s : "The F i i h r er i s a l w a y s r i g h t . " 6 2 I t a l i a n r e c r u i t s

t o t h e F a s c i s t p a r t y m u s t p l e d g e t h e m s el v e s " t o o b ey w i t h o u t

q u e s t i o n t h e c o m m a n d s o f t h e D u c e , " a n d a w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d

F a s c i s t d e c a l o g u e a n n o u n c e s : " M u s s o l i n i i s a l w a y s r i g h t . " 5 3

O n e w o n d e r s w h e t h e r H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i r e t a i n t h e i r i n -

f a l l i b i l i t y e v e n w he n t h ey d i s a g r e e ( a s f o r e x a m p l e w h en M u s -

s o l i n i f a v o r e d , a n d H i t l e r o p p o s e d , t h e r u le o f D o l l f u s s i n

A u s t ri a ) .

N o d o u b t , a s t h e F a s c i s t s c o n t e n d , t h er e a r e l i m i t s t o t o l e r a -

t i o n : we should not allow indiscrimina te slander, or the

s p r e a d o f p a l p a b l e f a l s e h o o d s w h i c h c a u s e g r e a t i n j u r y . We

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40NO COMPROMISE

w o u l d n o t r e p e a t e d l y a l l o w a m a n t o o f f e r l i t t l e c h i l d r e n p o -

t a s s i u m c y a n i d e , a d e a d l y p o i s o n , a n d t o t e l l t h e m t h a t i t i s

candy . Y e t i n t o l er a n c e c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d b y m e r e l y a s s u m -

i n g i n f a l l i b i l i t y i n r e s p e c t t o h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . U n -

l e s s i t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t r e p r e s s i o n w i l l p r o b a b l y o p e r a t e i n

t h e i n t e r e s t s o f h u m a n w e l f a r e , t h e r e i s n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n

s u p p r e s s i n g f r e e d e b a t e a n d d i s c u s s i o n . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e m -

o n s t ra t e t h a t p o t a s s i u m c y a n i d e i s p o i s o n o us , b u t i t i s n o t p o s -

s i b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t a n t i - F a s c i s t p r i n c i p l e s a r e d e a d l y .

I n d e e d , t h e F a s c i s t s h a v e n e v e r a d v a n c e d a r e a s o n e d d e f e n s e

o f r e p r e s si o n . They have never answered the powerful argu-

m e n t s i n f a v o r o f t o l e r a t i o n t o b e f o u n d i n c l a s s i c w r i t e r s

s u c h a s M i l t o n , L o c k e , a n d M i l l .

Third, the Fascists often p refer "myths" or m islea ding

propa ganda to the conclusions reached by scientific method .

We are so used to the technique of propa ganda , which has

been adap ted from m odern advertising, that we seldom real-

i z e h o w i r r a t i o n a l i t i s ; b u t a v i s i t o r f r o m a n a l i e n c u l t u r e

cannot fail to notice that our minds have been stultified .

When Rabindrana th Tagore visited the United States, he

was imp ressed by the way in which Democracy had a dapted

t h i s s a m e t e c h n i q u e t o p o l i t i c s . I n J u n e , 1 9 2 7 , h e w r o t e :

. . . W h i l e a r i s t o c r a c y s t r en u o us l y c u l t i v a t e s s e l f - r e s p e c t , o f t e n

a t t h e c o s t of m a t e r i a l p r o f i t , a n d g ua r d s a h i g h s t a n d a r d o f c u l -

t u r e a g a i n s t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , u n d i l u t e d d e m o c r a c y h a s a t e n d e n c y

t o g l i d e d o w n t o t h e l a z y l e v e l o f t h e a v e r a g e , f o r a l l i t s s t r i v i n g

i s t o a d d t o i t s r i g h t s , n o t t o b u i l d u p a h i g h t o w e r o f e x c e l -

l e n c e . I t m a k e s a d e l i b e r a t e s t u d y o f t h e d a r k p a t c h e s i n t h e

h u m a n i n t e l l e c t , w h e r e w i t h t o h e l p i t s e l f t o c r e a t e a n a t m o s -

p h e r e o f d e l u s i o n t h r o u g h h i n t s , g e s t u r e s , y e l l s a n d s t a r t l i n g

g r i m a c e s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s t u p e f y i n g t h e p o p u l a r m i n d . O n c e

w h e n I w a s i n C h i c a g o I s a w e v e r y w h e r e o n t h e t o w n w a l l s o n e

s i n g l e n a m e b l a z o n e d i n b i g l e t t e r s i n a n e n d l e s s r o u n d o f r e p e -

t i t i o n , l i k e t h e wh i r l i n g m o n o t o ny o f a d e r v i s h d a n c e t h a t d a z e s

o n e ' s m i n d i n t o v a c u i t y . E v i d e n t l y t h e n a m e b e l o n g e d t o s o m e

c a n d i d a t e f o r p o l i t i c a l e l ec t i o n . B u t w h a t a n i n s u l t t o t h e p e o p l e ,

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 4 1

w h o a r e s u p p o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t he s u p r e m e p o w e r i n t h e i r g o v -

e r n m e n t , o p e n l y t o a p p l y t o t h e m t h e s p e l l o f h y p n o t i s m i n p l a c e

o f r e a s o n , a s t h e m e d i c i n e m a n d o e s i n t h e h e a r t of A f r i c a 15 4

W h e n t h e f o m e n t i n g o f e x t r a v a g a n t d e s i r e a n d t h e s p r e a d i n g

o f m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a r e a d d e d to t h e m e c h a n i c a l e f f e c t o f r e p e -

t i t i o n , t h e p r a c t i c e o f a d v e r t i s i n g , w h et h e r c o m m er c i a l o r p o l i t -

i c a l , m a y b e s a i d t o c o n s t i t ut e t h e m os t e f f e c t i v e p s y c h o lo g i c a l

t e c h n i q u e i n s t i m u l a t i n g p u b l i c i r r a t i o n a l i s m e v e r p r a c -

t i c e d o n a v a s t s c a l e . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t f a t e f u l d i s c o v e r y o f t h e

e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w a s t h a t t h i s t e c h n i q u e h a s a l m o s t

l i m i t l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n p o l i t i c s . D u r i n g t h e w a r , t h e m e t h o d

o f p r o p a g a n d a w a s p e r f e c t e d a n d a p p l i e d w i t h t er r i f i c e f f e c t ;

b u t n o t un t i l t h e r i s e o f F a s c i s m d i d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s e sp o u s e

a c r e e d o f l i f e t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e m o t i o n a l i s t i c m e t h -

o d s o f t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n

e m p l o y i n g t h e m e t h o d s o f p r o p a g a n d a f o r a l i m i t e d p u r p o s e

a s i n W e s t e r n d e m o c r a c i e s a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p u l l i n g

t h e w h ol e o f l i f e d o w n t o t hi s p l a n e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y . Y e t n o w

w e a r e t o l d b y H i t l e r t h a t " o b j e c t i v i t y " i s " w e a k n e s s , " a n d

" f a n a t i c i s m " i s " w i l l a n d s t re n g t h . "

S u c h a n a b a n d o n m e n t o f r e a s o n s u r e l y d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t

a n a d e q u a t e i d e a l o f h u m a n l i f e . I n s o f a r a s m a n ' s v o l i t i o n a l

a n d p a s s i o n a l n a t u r e i s d e v e lo p e d a t t h e c o s t o f h i s i n t e l l ec -

t u a l n a t u r e , t h e p e r s o n a l i t y i s d i s t o r t e d, a n d l o s e s i t s h a r m o n y

a n d i n t e g r i t y . A s P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e m a i n t a i n e d , t h e n e g l e c t

o f a n y e s s en t i a l p a r t o f h u m a n n a t u r e i s w r on g , a n d i t i s e s p e -

c i a l l y s h a m e f u l a n d d a n g e r ou s t o c o n s t r i c t t h e r e a s o n , w h i c h

i s m a n ' s m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e g i f t .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o n s t a n t e m p l o y m e n t o f m y t h a n d p r o p a -

g a n d a m u s t r e s u l t i n t h e w i d e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f e r r o r . I f s uc h

e r ro r i s u s ef u l , i t i s u s e f u l t o re a l i z e s om e o bj e c t i v e . T o j u s t i f y

t h e m ea n s i t i s n e c e ss a r y t o j u st i f y t h e e nd : t h e F a s c i s t s m us t

s h o w th a t d e c e p t i o n i s b e i n g p r a c t i c e d f o r a w o r t hy p u r p o s e .

O t h e r w i s e , w e s h a l l s u s p e c t t h a t t h e y a r e m e r e l y m a k i n g u s e

o f a b a d m e a n s f o r a b a d e n d .

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4 2 NO COMPROMISEE v e n i f t h e e n d b e a p p r o v e d , m o r e o v e r , t h e m e a n s m i g h t

s t i l l b e c o n de m n ed a s i n ef f e c t i v e . A n e r r o n e o u s d e f e n s e o f a n

e x c e l l e n t p r a c t i c e e x p o s e s t h a t v e r y p r a c t i c e t o t h e d a n g er o f

d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y a t t e n d s t h e f a l s e b e l i e f .

T h e g o o d a n d r e a l r e a s o n s f o r a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n a r e o b -

s c u r e d a n d w e a k e n e d b y a n u n r e a l d e f e n s e o f t h a t c o u r s e ; a

w e a k d e f e n s e i s s u b s ti t u t e d f o r a s t r o n g . I f t h e r e a r e s o un d

r e a s o n s f o r F a s c i s m , i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s n e g l ec t

t h e m i n f a v o r o f e r r o n eo u s r e a s o ns , w h i c h a r e l i a b l e t o a t t a c k

a n d r ef u t a t i o n .

T o f o s t e r e r r o r i s i n s o f a r t o e n c o u r a g e e r r o n e ou s w a y s o f

t h i n k i n g i n g e n e r a l ; i t i s t o s a p t h e p o w e r o f t h e p e o p l e to

r e c o g n i z e v a l i d r e a s o n i n g . J u s t a s s e n sa t i o n a l j o u r n a l i s m d e -

b a s e s p u b l i c t a s t e , s o l y i n g j o u r na l i s m u n d e r m i n e s p u b l i c r a -

t i o n a l i t y . O n c e c e r t a i n e r r o r s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e p u b l i c

m i n d , s u b o rd i n a t e o r s u p p l e m e n ta r y e r r o rs m u s t b e i n v e n t e d

t o l e n d s up p o r t t o t h e p r e - e x i s t e n t s t o c k o f e r r o r . U n l e s s t h e

r e g i m e i s f i n a l l y e x p o s e d t o p e o p l e i n g e n e ra l a s a f a b r i c a t o r

o f l i e s , t h e r e c a n b e n o e n d t o th i s p r o c e s s o f c u n n i n g d ec e p -

t i o n : o n e l i e w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b e g e t a n o t h e r . E v e n i f a l l t h e s e

l i e s a r e b e li e v e d b y t h e p u b l i c , t h e e f f e c t u p o n m e n' s c r i t i c a l

f a c u l t i e s , a n d u p o n t h e m o r a l n a t u r e o f t h o s e wh o s p r e a d t h e

l i e s , c a n n o t b e o t h e r t h a n d e p l o r a b l e .

W h a t e v e r a i d a f a l s e b e l i e f m a y f u r n i s h t ow a r d t h e r e a l i z a -

t i o n o f p r e s e n t o bj e c t i v e s , i t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t o b e o f b e n e f i t

i n t h e l o n g r u n . A n e r r o r o n c e i n c u l c a t e d c a n n o t b e i m m e d i -

a t e l y d i s p e l l e d w h e n i t h a s s e r v e d i t s p u r p o s e . I t p e r s i s t s t o

c l o g t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e o f m e n t o i l i n g t o r e a c h t h e t r u t h . O n e

o f t h e c h i e f o b s t a c l e s t o h u m a n i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t h i s -

t o r y h a s b e e n s u p e r s t i t i o n a n d f a l s e h o o d . A s G o e t he h a s s a i d ,

" T h e t r u t h h e l p s u s ; n o t h i n g c o m e s of e r r or : i t s i m p l y e n -

t a n g l e s u s . " 6 5 U n f o r t u n a t el y , t h i s r e m a r k a p p l i e s o n l y t o

good men . M e n o f e v i l w i l l c a n o f t e n a c h i e v e t h e i r o bj e c t i v e s

b y m e a n s o f l i e s .

T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e re h a s b e e n a s h a r p

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THE FLIGHT FROM REASON 43

b r e a k w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t t r a d i t i o n s o f o u r c u l t u r e . D u r i n g t h e

m o s t p r o g r e s s i v e e r a s o f m o d e r n h i s t o r y , t h e i d e a l o f s c i e n -

t i f i c h u m a n i s m h a s b e e n a s u p r e m e r en o v a t i n g f o r c e . T h e i n -

t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s of s o c i e t y h a v e a c c e p t e d th e c o n c l u s i o n o f

S o c r a t e s , " A l i f e u n c r i t i c i z e d i s n o t wo r t h l i v i n g . " H i s a d m o -

n i t i o n t o b e c r i t i c a l , a n d J e s u s' c o m m a n d m e nt t o b e k i n d ,

h a v e s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r a l m o s t a l l t h e i d e a l i s m , i f n o t m o s t o f

t h e p r a c t i c e , o f t h e e n s u i n g c e n t u r i e s o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t . I n

p l a c e o f t h e s e i d e a l s , t h e F a s c i s t s w o ul d n o w s ub s t i t u t e a d i f -

f e r e n t s e t o f v a l u e s . N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e o p p o s e d t o t h e

S o c r a t i c i d e a l o f c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n t h a n t he w o rd s o f R o s e n-

b e r g : " T o a l l d o u b t s a n d q u e s t i o n s t h e n e w m a n o f t h e f i r s t

G e r m a n e m p i r e h a s o n l y o n e a n s w e r : N e v e r t he l e ss , I w i l l l " a s

T h i s o n e - s i d e d e m p h a s i s u p o n v o l i t i o n a n d i n s t i n c t t h re a t -

e n s t o u n d e r m i n e d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

w o r l d . D e m o c r a c y i s a n a t t e m p t t o s ub s t i t u t e p e r s u a s i o n i n

p l a c e o f f o r c e : c o n f l i c t s a r e r e s o lv e d b y t h e m e t h o d s o f d e b a t e

a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l e f f o r t , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e d o m i n e e r i n g c o n -

t r o l o f m e n of f a n a t i c a l w i l l . I n t h i s s en s e , d e m oc r a c y i s t h e

p r o d uc t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t , a n d i s a h e ri t a g e f r o m G r e e c e

a s w e ll a s J u d ea . H e n c e F a s c i s t i r r a ti o n a l i s m i n v ol v e s a n a s -

s a u l t u p o n t h e v e r y b a s i s o f d e m o c r a c y . T h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f

o u r s o c i a l o r d e r a r e t o t t e ri n g .

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III

VALUATIONS: SENTIMENTAL ORSCIENTIFIC?T o l i v e b y s c i e n c e r e q u i r e s i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d f a i t h , b u t n o t t o l i v e b y

i t i s f o l l y .-GEORGE SANTAYANA 1

i . Pa reto and the Fa scists

IN THE p r e s e nt c h a p t e r , w e s h a l l a n a l y z e o n e o f t h e m a i n a s -

p e c t s o f F a s c i s t a n t i - i n t e ll e c t u a l i s m : t h e re f u s a l t o e m p l o y s c i -

e n c e i n t h e d e t er m i n a t i o n o f b a s i c h u m a n i d e a l s . Our method

w i l l b e t o e x a m i n e t h e t e n e t s o f t h a t s c h o l a r l y f o r e r u n n er o f

F a s c i s m , V i l f r e d o P a r e t o , w h o s e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t v a l u e s a r e

n o t a m e n a b l e t o s c i e n c e w a s w e l c o m e d b y M u s s o l i n i a n d h i s

s y m p a t h i z e r s , a n d w h o s e i d e a s e m b o d y a n u m b e r o f t h e b a s i c

e l e m e n ts i n t h e F a s c i s t c r e e d .

A s a y o u t h f u l e x i l e i n S w i t z e r l a n d i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 0 4 ,

M u s s o l i n i s u b s c r i b e d t o t w o c o u r s e s g i v e n b y P a r e t o a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f L a u s a n n e . T h e r e i s n o r e c o r d o f h o w f a i t h f u l l y

h e a t t e n d e d c l a s s e s d u r i n g t h e n i n e w e e k s o f t h e s u m m e r -

s c h o o l t e r m ; b u t i f w e c a n b e l i e v e h i s s o - c a l l e d Autobi og-

r a p h y (actually written by Richard Washburn Child, the

American Amba ssador to Rome), he followed the lectures

w i t h g r e a t e a g e r n e s s . 2 H i s f r i e n d a n d b i o g r a p h e r , M a r g h e r i t a

S a r f a t t i , l i k e w i s e d ec l a r e s t h a t t h e se l e c t u r es o n E c o n o m i c s

a n d S o c i o l o g y l e f t " a n i n d e l i b l e i m p r e s s i o n u p o n h i s m i n d . "

S h e b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e i s m u c h i n c o m m o n b e t w e e n M u s s o -

l i n i ' s a v e r s i o n t o s y s t e m a t i c t h o u g h t a n d P a r e t o ' s e m p h a s i s

u p o n t h e " t e n t a t i v e " a n d " i m p o n d e r a b l e " f a c t o r s i n s o c i a l

s c i e n c e . 3

I n t h e s a m e y e a r t h a t t h e s e l ec t u r e s w e r e g i v e n , t h e y o u n g

e x i l e ( t h e n o n ly t w e n t y - o n e y e a r s o f a g e ) w r o t e e n t h us i a s t i -

c a l l y a b o u t t h e " d i s t i n g u i s h e d a u t h o r o f Les Systemes So-

c i a l i s t e s ." His r e m a r k s i n d i c a t e t h a t h e w a s e s p e c i a l l y i m -

4 4

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VALUATIONS 45

p r e s s e d b y P a r e t o ' s d e n i a l o f t h e intellectual, p o l i t i c a l ,

r e l i g i o u s, a n d m o r a l u n i t y o f s o c i e t y , a n d t h a t h e i n t e r p r e te d

t h e P a r e t a n r e l a t i v i s m a s a p r o o f o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c l a s s

s t r u g g l e . A g a i n i n I 9 o 8 , M u s s o l i n i w r o t e : " D o y o u r e c a l l t h e

t h e o r y o f t h e e l i t e s of V i l f r e d o P a r e t o ? I t i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t

e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n c e p t i o n o f m o d e r n t i m e s . '1 4

I n t h e s e e a r l y

c o m m e n t s , t h e f u t u r e d i c t a t o r i n t e r p r e t e d P a r e t o a s o f f e r i n g

s u p p o r t f o r a s oc i a l i s t i c d o c t r i n e o f c l a s s - c o n f l i c t a n d o f t h e

r i s e t h r o u g h s u c h s t r u g g l e o f a n e l i t e r e c r u i t e d f r o m t h e p r o -

l e t a r i a n c l a s s . E v e n t u a l l y h e r e v i s e d t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d

u t i l i z e d t h e a r g u m e n t s o f t h e s a m e a u t h o r i n d e f e n s e o f

F a s c i s m .

P a r e t o ' s d o c t r i n e s e v e nt u a l l y f o u n d m a n y a d v o c a t e s . H i s

t h e o r i e s w e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Voce, a j o u r n a l w h i c h s e r v e d

t o c r y s t a l l i z e p r e - F a s c i s t t h o u g ht . 5 S o m e o f h i s i d e a s w e r e a l s o

a i r e d i n M u s s ol i n i ' s n e w s p a p e r , t h e Popolo d ' I t a l i a . He thus

b e c a m e k n o w n t o t he F a s c i s t g r o u p s , w h i c h w e r e t h e n b e i n g

o r g a n i z e d .

W h a t e v e r m a y b e t h e d e g r e e o f P a r e t o ' s i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e

t h e o r y o f F a s c i s m , M u s s o l i n i w a s o n l y p e r f o r m i n g a s y m b o l i c

a c t o f j u s t i c e w h e n he a p p o i n t e d h i s f o r m e r te a c h e r ( w h o w a s

s h o r t l y t o d i e ) , a m e m b e r o f t h e I t a l i a n S e n a t e a n d a n e c o -

n o m i c d e l e g a t e o f I t a l y t o t he L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s . I t w a s a l t o -

g e t h e r f i t t i n g t h a t t h e w o r l d' s p r e m i e r F a s c i s t s h o u l d h o n o r

t h e m a n w h o w r ot e , l o n g b e f o r e th e M a r c h o n R o m e , a n i m -

p r e s s i v e a p o l o g y f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f " m y t h s " a n d t he f o r -

c i ble rule of the "elite . "

P a r e t o r e c i p r o c a t e d t he s e f a v o r s b y b e c o m i n g a c o n t r i b u -

t o r t o M u s s o l i n i ' s p e r s o n a l p e r i o d i c a l , Gerarchia . He em-

p l o y e d i t s p a g e s b o t h to p r a i s e a n d b l a m e t h e F a s c i s t g o v -

ernment . D e s p i t e h i s p u b l i s h ed u t t er a n c e s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o

s a y h o w f a r h e m i g h t h a v e a g r e e d wi t h t h e l a t e r a c t i v i t i e s o f

F a s c i s m , s i n c e h e d i e d o n A u g u s t i g , 1 9 2 3 , l e s s t h a n a y e a r

a f t e r M u s s o l i n i ' s s e i z u r e o f p o w e r . W e k n o w t h a t h e a d v o -

c a t e d a r e t en t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d i n s t i t u ti o n s o f

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46 NO COMPROMISEliberalism, such as freedom of sp eech and of trade, and hence

he probably would have been disapp ointed by much that ha s

hap pened in recent years . N e v e r t h e l e s s, t h e m a i n t e n o r o f h i s

thought can be ada pted to the Fa scist program .

Since we are abstracting those elements in Pareto's theory

which either have influenced or typ ify F ascism, our disap -

proval of these does not mean tha t we regard his work as

without m erit . I n d ee d , F a s c i s m i t s e lf h a s c e r t a i n m e r i t s w h i c h

we would not think of deny ing . I n t h i s c a s e , h o w e v e r , t h e b a d

effects seem to us greatly to overbalance the good, and it is

t h e r e f o r e m o r e r ea l i s t i c t o p o i n t o u t t h e s e e v i l s t h a n t o d w e l l

a t l e n g t h u p o n t h e o c c a s i o n a l b e n e f i t s .

2 . The Significance of the Problem Reform ulated by P areto

The contention advanced by P areto is by no means novel .

Ma ny thinkers in addition to the Fa scists have agreed with

him in rejecting a scientific ap proach to ethics . The Greek

Sophists cham pioned uncritical self-interest or the whim of

the m o m e n t ; M achiavelli and Nietzsche extolled the strong

ma n's power as op posed to the moralist's scruples ; P l o t i n u s ,

the Scholastics, a nd the H indus espoused a religious ethics

based upon supernaturalism ; Pa scal, Shaftesbury, a nd Rous-

seau trusted to the "heart" ra ther than the "head" ; S h e l l e y

and the German roma nticists based morals on ima gination

rather than on reason ; F ichte transformed pa triotism into a

religion largely ex empt from rational considerations ; W e s t e r -

ma rck, observing the diversity of moral ideas, concluded that

values rest upon emotion . T h u s t he i d e a o f a s c i e n c e * o f h u -

ma n welfare, conceived by Socrates more than two thousand

yea rs ago, has m et with stubborn opp osition down to the

present .

* B y " s c i e n c e , " i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , I m e a n a b o dy o f k n o w l ed g e d er i v e d

f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , a n d s o c o o r d i n a t e d t h a t i t w i l l b e u s e f u l f o r p r e d i c t i o n

and control .

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VALUATIONS 47

T h e p r o b l e m o f s c i e n t i f i c v a l u a t i o n i s t r e a t e d a f r e s h i n

P a r e t o ' s T r a t t a t o d i S o c i o l o g i a g e n e r a l e . T h i s e l a b o r a t e w o r k

u n d e r t a k e s t o p r o v e a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t e t h i c s a n d a l l

t h e o r i e s o f u l t i m a t e v a l u e r e s t s o l e ly u p o n " s e n t i m e n t ." The

a r g u m e n t t u r n s u p o n a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e " lo g i c a l " a n d

" n o n l og i c a l " a s p e c t s o f l i f e . T h e " l o g i c a l " d i v i s i o n e m b r a c e s

b o t h " l o g i c o - e x p e r i m e n t a l t h e o r y " a n d " l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . "

L o g i c o - e x p e r i m e n t a l t h e o r y i s t h a t f o r m u l a t e d b y t h e p u r e

s c i e n t i s t i n t h e a c t o f k n o w i n g , l o gi c a l a c t i v i t y i s t h a t o f t h e

c a p a b l e p o l i t i c i a n o r a n y o th e r i n di v i d u a l w h o f i n d s e f f e c t i v e

mea ns to promote a given end . T h e " n o n l o g i c a l " d i v i s i o n

e m b r a c e s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a n y a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e

g o a l s o f l i f e . T h u s w e m a y b e l o g i c a l i n f i n d i n g ways t o s a t -

i s f y w a n t s , b u t t h e w a n t s t h e m s e l v e s a r e b e y o n d t h e p a l e o f

r e a s o n . W e m a y h a v e a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s , s u c h a s e c o n o m i c s ,

o n l y i f w e r i g i d l y e x c l u d e th e c o n s i d e ra t i o n o f u l t i m a t e p u r -

p o s e s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , e c o n o m i c s c o n t a i n s n o c r i t i c i s m o f

e n d s , a n d i t c a n b e s c i e n t i f i c o n l y b e c a u s e i t d o e s n ot . " D i f f e r -

e n t i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f w e l f a r e , a n d

s c i e n c e c a n n o t c o m p a r e o r r e d u c e t h e s e h e t e r o g e n e o u s g o o d s .

T h e r e su l t i s t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t f r o m e t h i -

c a l c o n d u c t . V a l i d t h e or y i s b a s e d u p o n e m p i r i c a l l og i c , b u t

t h e o ry i s n o g u i d e t o m o r a l p r a c t i c e . T h e c h o i c e o f m e a n s d e -

p e n d s u p o n w a n t s , a n d w a n t s a r e d i v o r c e d f r o m r e a s o n . M o r -

a l i t y , a l o n g wi t h r e l i g i o n , f a l l s w ho l l y o u t s i d e t he s c o p e o f

s c i e n c e :

I n m o r a l s a n d r e l i g i o n s e n t i m e n t s r e i g n s u p r e m e , a n d t h e r e -

f o r e i n t h o s e f i e l d s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e t t h e or i e s t h a t , l e t a l o n e

s c i e n t i f i c , a r e e v e n t o a n y e x t e n t e x a c t ; w h a t w e g e t i s a n a m o r -

p h o u s m a s s of m e t a p h y s i c a l p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s o f

s e n t i m e n t s . . . . P s e u d o - s c i e n c e s [ s u c h a s t h e o lo g y a n d e t h i c s ] . . .

t a k e u s a l t o g e t h e r o u t s i d e t h e l o g i c o - e x p e r i m e n t a l f i e l d . ?

T h e n o n ra t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f a c t i o n d o e s n ot s e e m t o P a r e t o

a l a m e n t a b l e c o n d i t i o n ; h e e v e n c o n t e n d s t ha t i t i s d e s i r a b l e :

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48 NO COMPROMISEF or purposes of knowing, logico-experim ental s c i e n c e i s the

o nl y t hi ng o f a n y va lue ; for p urposes of doing , it is of much

greater imp ortance to follow the lead of sentiments . . . . P r a c t i c e

is the better the more pra ctical it is and theory the better the

more theoretical it is . Altogether wretched, in general, are

"theoretical practices" and "practical theories . " 8

Nothing could be more a bsolute than the sepa ration which

Pa reto tries to establish between theory based on science and

pra ctice based on sentiment . "T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d n o n-

exp erimental worlds," he contends, "have nothing in com-

mon a nd nothing touching the one can be inferred from the

other . " s

While the theories of ethics and religion from the logico-

experim ental standpoint are said to be devoid of all exa ctness

and of any strict accord with facts, yet P areto does not deny

the great imp ortance that these theories have had in history

and in determining the social equilibrium . 10 Indeed, roughly

two-thirds of his argument is concerned with pr oving the tre-

mendous influence of such nonscientific factors in human b e-

havior. He believes that science play s an alm ost negligible

role in social p rocesses, and he is q uite willing that it should

occupy a restricted sphere . Indeed, he asserts :

Men have an absolute need to escap e from the doma in of

reality, to m ake excursions into the doma in of the indemon-

s t r a b l e . It is because of this that a religion is indispensable tothem. To wish to substitute science in place of religion is anabsurdity . In this sense one ha s cause to spea k of "the bank-

ruptcy of science ." But it is necessary to add that the science

which has become insolvent is the science which has wished to

depa rt from its true domain, a nd which has pretended to satisfy

the non-logical and non-exp erimental needs of men, whereas it

has no business outside of the sphere of logic and ex perience ."

Ethics, we must remem ber, is classed with religion, as en-

tirely nonscientific .

Pa reto app lies his doctrines to society with cynical frank-

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VALUATIONS 49ness . Since sentiments are exem pt from criticism, the ruling

minority should waste no time with moralistic scruples . The y

should rid themselves of those sentiments tha t hinder their

own a dv a nce m ent, a nd le a rn to m a ni pul a te the p re judices of

others :

. . . The art of government lies in finding ways to ta ke advan-

tage of . . . sentiments, not in wa sting one's energies in futile

efforts to destroy them . . . . The person who is able to free him-

self from the blind dominion of his own sentiments is cap able of

utilizing the sentiments of other p eople for his own end s . . . .

The statesma n of the greatest service to himself and his pa rty is

the ma n who himself ha s no prejudices but knows how to profit

by the prejudices of others .1 2

If the rulers are unable to work their will by mea ns of de-

ception, they should not hesitate to emp loy violence : for the

meek, Pa reto thinks, shall not inherit the earth :

. . . The use of force is indispensa ble to society ; a nd when the

higher classes a re averse to the use of force, which ordinarily

hap pens because the ma jority in those classes come to rely wholly

on their skill at chica nery, a nd the minority shrink from ener-

getic a cts now through stupidity, now through cowardice, it be-

comes necessary , if society is to subsist and prosp er, that that

governing class be replaced by a nother which is willing and able

to use force . Roma n society was sa ved from ruin by the legions

of Caesar and Octa vius .1 3

The ruling minority, however, is ap t to be threatened by

insurrection fro m the m a sses . Even a military dictatorship

m a y fa il if the people become aroused to what they consider

their own interests . Hence the elite should do everything p os-

sible to tea ch docility to the m ultitude . The pious sentiments

o f o r t h o d o x r e l i g i o n a n d m o r a l i t y s h oul d b e w i d e l y p r o p a -

g a t e d :

. . . It is a dvantageous to society tha t individuals not of the

ruling class should sp ontaneously accept, observe, resp ect, revere,

love, the precepts current in their society, p rominent am ong

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50 NO COMPROMISEt h e m t h e p r e c e p t s c a l l e d - r o u g h l y , i n a d e q u a t e l y , t o b e s u r e - p r e -

c e p t s o f " m o r a l i t y " a n d p r e c e p t s o f " r e li g i o n . " 1 4

T h e s u b j e c t c l a s s m a y a l s o b e e nc o u r a g e d i n i t s i n t e r e s t i n

t h e n a t u ra l s c i e n c e s , b u t re f l e c t i o n i n t h e f i e l d o f e t h i c s i s a p t

t o b e e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s :

E x p e r i m e n t a l r es e a r c h e s , e v e n i f i m b i b e d o r p r a c t i s e d b y t h e

m a s s e s a t l a r g e , h a v e p r o v e d b e n e f i c i a l ; w h e r e a s e t hi c a l r e -

s e a r c h e s h a v e , u n d e r th e s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p r o v e d h a r m f u l i n

t h a t t h e y a r e f o r e v e r s h a k i n g t h e f o u n da t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l

o r d e r . 15

A l t h o u g h P a r e t o d e n i e s t h a t i d e a l s a r e a m e n a b l e t o s c i e n -

t i f i c c r i t i c i s m , h e l o ok s w i t h g r e a t a p p r e h e n s i o n up o n t h e a t -

t e m p t s o t o c o n s i d e r t h e m . ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , h e c a n n o t c o n s i s t -

e n t l y e m p l o y s u c h t e rm s a s " a d v a n t a g e o u s , " " b e ne f i c i a l , " a n d

" h a r m f u l " i n a n y s t r i c t l y o b j e c t i v e s e n s e , s i n c e h e d e n i e s t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n o b j e c t i v e d e te r m i n a t i o n o f v a l u e s . )

T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f P a r e t o i s t h a t o f a m o d e r n M a c h i a v e l l i .

J u s t a s The Prince i n s t r u c t e d t h e t y r a n t s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e

i n t h e m e t h o d s o f f r a u d a n d v i o l e n c e , s o t h i s Treatise i n -

s t r u c t s o u r m o d e r n o v e r l o r d s i n t h e " g e n t l e " a r t o f g o v e r n -

ment . T h e a d v a n t a g e o f P a r e t o ' s b o o k i s t h a t i t n o t o n l y s u g -

g e s t s r ut h l e ss t a c t i c s , b u t o f f e r s a c l e v e r d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e

p a n g s o f c o n s c i e n c e . I t e n l i s t s t h e p r e s t i g e o f s c i e n c e i n

s u p p o r t o f t h e w i l l - t o - p o w e r . A s a n a p o s t l e o f t h e " l o g i c o -

e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d , " P a r e t o b e d e c k s h i s p a g e s w i t h a l g e -

b r a i c s i g n s a n d g r a p h s , m o s t o f w h i c h a r e e m p l o y e d t o e x c e l -

l e n t p u r p o s e . H e " p r o v e s " h i s v i e w t h a t v a l u e s a r e p u r e l y

s e n t i m e n t a l b y m a r s h a l i n g a l a r g e a m o u n t o f " i n d u c t i v e e v i -

dence . " H e t h u s a p p e a r s t o b e a r e s o l u t e d e f e n d e r o f s c i e n c e ,

i n t e n t u p o n k e e p i n g " t h e o r y " u n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y " p r a c t i c e "

a n d " s e n t i m e n t . "

S i n c e h e a d o p t s th e r ol e o f a s c i e n t i f i c p u r i s t , t he c a s u a l

r e a d e r i s a p t t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p o r t o f h i s a r g u m e n t .

H i s t r ea t i s e i n e f f e c t i s a n a t t a c k u p o n t he l i f e o f r e a s o n , a n d

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VALUATIONS 5 1

t h i s i s t r u e d e s p i t e h i s a p p a r e n t a t t a c h m e n t t o s tr i c t s c i e n -

t i f i c m e t ho d . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , h e s o u n du l y r e s t ri c t s t h e

f i e l d o f s c i e n c e t h a t a g r e a t p o r t i o n o f e x i s t e n c e i s t u r n e d o v e r

t o v i o l e n c e a n d p a s s i o n . H e r e g a r d s m o s t o f l i f e a s g o v e r n ed

b y s e n t i m e n t , a n d h u m a n n a t u r e a s u n a l t e r a b l e i n t h i s r e -

s p e c t . R e a s o n m a s k s r a t h e r t h a n c u r b s or e r a d i c a t e s o ur s e m i -

i n s t i n c t i v e a n d u bi q u i t o u s b i a s e s . M o r a l s a n d so c i a l i d e a l s a r e

o n l y " d e ri v a t i o n s , " t h a t i s , m e r e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s o r s o p h i s m s .

T h i s r e s t r i c t i o n o f s c i e n c e t o a n a r r o w s p h e r e i s o p p o s e d t o

t h e m a i n t r e n d o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , w h i c h h a s i n v o l v e d t h e

e x p a n s i o n o f s c i e n c e i n t o a n i n c r e a s i n g n um b e r o f f i e l d s , i n -

c l u d i n g s c i e n ti f i c c r i t i c i s m o f m o r a l , r el i g i o u s, a n d m e t a p h y s i -

c a l d o g m a s .

I t w o u l d b e w r o n g t o s a y t h a t P a r e t o ' s s t a n d p o i n t , h e r e a n d

e l s e w he r e , w h o ll y c o i n c i d e s w i t h F a s c i s m . T h e F a s c i s t s ei t h e r

l e a v e n o r o o m f o r p u r e t h e o r y , o r s u b o r d i n a t e i t t o m o r a l e

a n d a c t i o n . T y p i c a l o f t h e F a s c i s t a t t i t u d e a r e t h e w o r d s o f a n

e a r l y N a z i t h e o r i s t , M o e l l e r v a n d e n B r u c k : " T h e f u t u r e b e -

l o n g s n o t t o t h e p r o b l e m - m o n g e r , b u t t o t h e m a n o f c h a r -

a c t e r . "1 6

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , P a r e t o h a s m o r e r e s p e c t f o r t h e

t h i n k e r ; b u t h e c o n c e i v e s t h e r o l e o f i n t e l l e c t s o n a r r o w l y

t h a t h i s i n f l u e n c e i s c a s t u p o n t h e s i d e o f F a s c i s m .

H i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t p r a c t i c e s h o u l d i n g e n e r a l b e di v o r c e d

f r o m t h e o r y , a n d t h a t v a l u e s m u s t b e f o u n d e d u p o n s e n t i -

m e n t , i s c e r t a i n l y n o t f a r f r o m t h e p o s i t i o n o f W a l t h er D a r r t ,

t h e N a z i M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e . T h e l a t t e r e m p h a s i z e s t h e

" i m p o n d e ra b l e " f a c t o r s i n l i f e :

T h e e s s e n t i a l b a s i s u p o n w h i c h d e p e n d s e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e

p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e d o es n o t c o n s i s t i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f t h o u g h t,

i n p r o g r a m s a n d t h e s e s , b u t i n t h e i m p o n d e r a b l e s : d i s p o s i t i o n ,

i n n e r a t t i t u de , p a s s i o n a t e wi l l i n g , t h e s a c r i f i c e o f a l l t h i n g s i n

f a v o r o f t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f o n e ' s k i n d - a l l t h e e l em e n t s wh i c h

w e c a l l " c h a r a c t e r . " O u t o f c h a r a c t e r d ee d s a r e b o r n , a n d w e

t h e r ef o r e f i n d t h a t w h e n e v e r a c t i o n i s u p p e r m o s t , t h e q u a l i t i e s

o f c h a r a c t e r a r e i n t h e f o r e gr o u nd . 1 T

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5 2 NO COMPROMISES a r f a t t i r e m a r k s t h a t P a r e t o d i s c o u r s e d t o M u s s o l i n i " d u r i n g

h i s U n i v e r s i t y y e a r s o n ' t h e v a l u e o f t h e s u m t o ta l o f i m p o n -

d e r a b l e t h i n g s . ' " 1 8 T h e s e "i m p o n d e r a b l e s " a r e t h e v e r y f a c -

tors that def y logi c . E m p h a s i s u p o n t h e m w a s b ou n d t o a p p e a l

t o m e n o f F a s c i s t i n c l i n a t i o n s .

3 . Truth and Error in Pareto's Argument

T h e r e i s t h i s m u c h t r u t h i n t h e a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t t h e s i s o f

P a r e t o - t h a t i n t e l li g e n c e i s n o t a l l - s u f f i c i e n t . E v e n S p i n o z a ,

t h e a r c h - r a t i o n a l i s t , s u r m i s e d t h a t r e a s o n l e f t t o i t s e lf i s i m -

p o t e n t . 1 9 T h e b us i n e s s o f e t hi c s , a s a g u i d e t o m o r a l p r a c t i c e ,

i s n o t to s u p p l a n t e m ot i o n by i n t e l l i g en c e . A s F r a n c i s B a c o n

a p t l y s a i d , e t h i c s s h o u l d s o c o m p o s e t h e p a s s i o n s t h a t t h e y

f i g h t o n th e s i d e o f r e a s o n r a t h e r t h a n i n v a d e i t . T h e u n i t y

t o w a r d s w hi c h w e m u s t s t r i v e i s a h a r m o n y o f i n t e l l e c t a n d

emotion . Y e t w e m u s t be s u r e t ha t e a c h i s g e n u i n e : t h a t s c i -

e n c e i s n o t c o r r u p t e d b y b i a s , n o r f e e l i n g w e a k e n e d a n d m a d e

a n a e m i c b y t h o u g ht .

P a r e t o i s a l s o ri g h t i n t h i n k i n g t h a t t h er e a r e sp e c i a l d i f f i -

c u l t i e s i n t h e w a y o f a s c i e n c e o f w e l f a r e . T h e m o r e c o m p l e x

v a l u e s o f h u m a n l i f e d e p e n d u p o n a g r e a t n u m be r o f p h y s i -

c a l , b i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d s o c i a l f a c t o rs . W e a r e h e r e

d e a l i n g , a s t h e s c i e n t i s t w o u l d s a y , w i t h a l a r g e r n u m b e r o f

" v a r i a b l e s, " a n d a l l o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ly

m o r e d i f f i c u l t . E x p e r i m e n t , m o r e o v e r, i s h a r d t o c o n t ri v e , o r

e v e n i m p o s s i b l e : w e c a n n o t s o e a s i l y s u b j e c t m e n a n d s o c i -

e t i e s t o ex p e r i m e n t a t i o n a s w e c a n w h i t e r a t s o r p i e c e s o f c a r -

bon . W e c a n w a t c h t h e d e v el o p m e n t o f F a s c i s m o r S o c i a l i s m ,

b u t w e c a n n o t , a s a v e r a g e i n d i v i d u a l s , d i r e c t t h a t d e v e l o p -

ment .

B i a s , m o r e ov e r , i s e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t to a v o i d i n t h e c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n o f v a l u e s . H u m e l o n g a g o r e m a r k e d , a f t e r o b s e r v -

i n g h u m a n b e h a v i o r , t h a t " m o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e n o t t h e

o f f s p r i n g o f r e a s o n, " 2 0 a n d P a r e t o h a s c o l l e c t e d a h o s t o f

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VALUATIONS5 3

i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f n o n l og i c a l c o n d u c t i n t h e f i e l d o f v a l u e s . D i s -

t o r ti o n s w h i c h s p r i n g f r o m p r e j u d i c e a r e e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t

t o a v o i d d u ri n g a p e r i o d o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t. T h e d a y s o f c o m -

b a t a r e i l l s u i t e d t o t he s c i e n t i f i c s p i r i t o f t e n t a t i v i t y ; a n d

e v e n i n n o r m a l t i m e s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t r a n s c e n d t h e p r e j u d i c e s

o f t h e s o c i e t y a b o u t u s . " T h r e e de g r e es o f l a t i t u d e r e v e rs e a l l

j u r i s p r ud en c e , " o b s e r v e d P a s c a l ; " a m e r i d i a n d e c i d e s t h e

t r u th . F u n d a m e n t a l l a w s c h a n g e a f t e r a f e w y e a r s o f p o s s e s -

s i o n ; r i g h t h a s i t s e p o c h s ; t h e e n t r y o f S a t u r n i n t o th e L i o n

m a r k s t o u s t h e or i g i n o f s u c h a n d s u c h a c r i m e . A s t r a n ge

j u s t i c e t h a t i s b o u n d e d by a r i v e r l T r u t h o n t h i s s i d e o f t h e

P y r e n e e s , e r r o r o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . " 2 1 O p i n i o n s i n t h e f i e l d o f

t h e " p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s , " a s P a r e t o r e a l i z e d , a r e n o t s o l i a b l e to

t h e se w a r p i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s .

W e m u s t a l s o c o n c e d e t h a t u l t i m a t e v a l u e s a r e , i n a s e n s e ,

d e t e r m i n e d b y " s e n t i m e n t " r a t h e r t h a n b y r e a s o n . S u c h v a l -

u e s r e s t u p o n p r e f e r e n c e , i . e . , u p o n e m ot i o n a n d v o li t i o n . N o

o n e , f o r e x a m p l e , c a n prove that pleasure is, or is not, intrin-

s i c a l l y g o o d . I t h a s t o b e " t a s t e d, " a n d i t s g o o dn e s s d i r e c t l y

e x p e r i e n c e d . I f t w o p e o p l e d i s a g r e e a s t o w ha t i s g o o d f o r i t s

o w n s a k e , a n d i f t h e y c o n t i n u e t o d i s a g r e e a f t e r i g n o r a n c e ,

m i s u n d e r st a n d i n g , p r e j u d i c e , a n d i r r e l e v a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

a r e e l i m i n a t e d , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a t c a n b e d o n e t o

r e c o n c i l e t h e i r d i v e r g e n t a t t i t u d e s .

P a r e t o a n d m o s t e t h i c a l r e l a t i v i s t s , h o w e v e r , t e n d t o c o n -

f u s e t w o q u e s t i o n s w h i c h a r e r e a l l y q u i t e d i s t i n c t . T h e f i r s t

q u e s t i o n i s : " W h a t i s t h e en d - o f - a c t i o n w h i c h I p r e f e r , d e si r e ,

o r s t r i v e f o r ? " A n d t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n i s : "What would I

p r e f e r , d e s i r e , o r s t r i v e f o r i f I knew much more a bout m y-

s e l f a n d t h e w o r l d a b o u t m e ? " T o o o f t e n i t i s s up p os ed t h a t

o n l y t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n n e e d s t o be a n s w e r e d a n d t h a t n o f u r -

t h e r p r o b l e m c a n a r i s e . B u t i t i s q u i t e c o m m o n f o r a p e r s o n

t o c h a n g e h i s o p i n i o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g o a l o r g oa l s o f l i f e

a s a r e s u l t o f l e a r n i n g m o r e a b o u t h i m s e l f a n d h i s w o r l d . V a l -

u e s , i n o t h e r wo r d s , a r e b a s e d u p o n p r e f e r e n c e - a n o n r a t i o n a l

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54 NO COMPROMISEf a c t o r - b u t p r e f e r e n c e s t h e m s e l v e s c h a n g e i n r e s p o n s e t o

k n o w l e d g e a n d i n s i g h t . P a r e t o i s f l y i n g i n t h e f a c e o f e x p e r i -

e n c e w h e n h e a s s u m e s t h a t p u r p o s e s a n d i n c l i n a t i o n s a r e

m e r e ly g i v e n , a n d a r e i m p e r v i o u s t o i n t el l e c t u a l c r i t i c i s m . I n

t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d a r k a g e s t o m o d er n t i m e s , e t h i c a l

i d e a s a n d t e nd e n c i e s c h a n g e c o n c u r r e n t ly w i t h d e e p e r i n s i g h t

i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a n a n d h i s p l a c e i n t h e c o s m o s .

O u r p r e s e n t i d e a l s c a n b e i m m e a s u r a b ly c l a r i f i e d a n d d ee p -

e n e d b y t h e f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . W i t h ou t a s c i -

e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f w e l f a r e , o f

t h e n a t u r e o f p u r p o s i v e a c t i v i t y , o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f h u m a n

n e e d s a n d f r u s t r a t i o n s , a n d o f t h e m a l a d j u s t m e n t s a n d e x p e r i -

m e n t s t ha t a b o u n d i n t h e s o c i a l s p h e r e , n o m a n c a n p r e t e n d

t o s p e a k w i t h a u t h o r i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p e r o b j e c t i v e o f

s o c i e t y . A f t e r su c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a p e r s o n w i l l p r o ba b l y f i n d

t h a t h i s e n t i r e c o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n g o o d h a s b e e n t r a n s -

f o r m e d , a n d t h a t h i s b a s i c p r e f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n p r o f o u n d l y

i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d e e p e n i n g o f h i s i n s i g h t . I t i s i n t h i s s e n s e ,

a n d t h i s s e n se o n l y , t h a t w e c a n s p e a k o f a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s :

b u t n o s u c h s c i e n c e , e v e n a s a p o s s i b i l i t y , i s a d m i t t e d by t h e

F a s c i s t s .

O n e o f t h e b a s i c e r r o r s o f P a r e t o i s t o d i s t i n g u i s h v e r y

s h a r p l y b e t w e e n e n ds a n d m e a n s , a n d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t s c i -

e n c e d o e s n o t a p p l y t o e n d s e v e n t h o ug h i t d o e s a p p l y t o

means . N o w , w e m u s t o b j e c t t o t h i s d o c t r i n e o f t h e d i s c o n -

t i n u i t y o f m e a n s a n d e n d s f o r t w o r e a s o n s .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , a s c i e n c e o f m e a n s , w i t h o u t a c r i t i q u e o f

e n d s , d o e s n o t m a k e l i f e r a t i o n a l . ( P e r h a p s l i f e c a n n o t b e ra -

t i o n a l , b u t w e s h o u l d he s i t a t e t o l e a p t o t h i s c o n c l u s i o n . ) I f

t h e r e i s n o w a y o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r o u r p u r p o s e s a r e r e a -

s o n a b l e , t h e r e c a n b e n o w a y o f j u d g i n g w h e t h e r t h e m e a n s

a r e r i g h t l y e m p l o y e d . E v e r y t e c h n i q u e m a y b e a d a p t e d t o a

v a r i e t y o f e n d s . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f c h e m i s t r y t h a t i s a p p l i e d

i n m e d i c i n e c a n b e d i v e r t e d t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f p o i s o n

g a s . E x p l o s i v e s c a n b e u s ed t o m a k e f i r e w or k s , m i n e c o a l , o r

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VALUATIONS 55

m a i n t a i n a m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r sh i p . T h e m e t h o d s o f a d v e r t i s i n g

c a n b e e m p l o y e d t o s e l l e i t h e r a u s e f u l o r a f r a u d u l e n t p r o d -

u c t . P r o p a g a n d a i s u s e f u l i n p r o m o t i n g s u c h d i v e r g e n t i d e a l s

a s F a s c i s m a n d S o c i a l D e m oc r a c y . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f e c o n o m -

i c s m a y b e u s e d t o d e f r a u d t h e p u b l i c o r t o o r g a n i z e a s y s t e m

o f e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y f o r t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e . C l e a r l y , w e

s h a l l b e n o n e t h e b e tt e r f o r a l l o u r t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e dg e u n -

l e s s w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g m o r e - k n o w l e d ge o f t h e g o o d . W i t h -

o u t t hi s , o u r e f f i c i e n c y p r o f i t s u s n ot h i n g, o r i s a n a c t u a l l i a -

b i l i t y . I f m e n a r e h e l l - b e n t, t h e e x p e d i t i o u s a r e w o r s e of f t h a n

t h e h a n d i c a p p e d . A d e v i l i s h l o t o f m o d er n i n g e nu i t y , i n f a c t ,

h a s g o n e i n t o t h e e f f o r t t o p o i s o n a n d d e s tr o y h u m a n l i f e .

R e v e r s i n g t he r e m a r k i n Ham let, w e c a n s a y t o t h e F a s c i s t s ,

" T h o u g h t h i s b e m e t h o d , y e t t h e r e i s m a d n e s s i n ' t . "

I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , t h e re c a n b e n o s u f f i c i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n

o f m e a n s w i t h o u t a c r i t i c i s m o f e n d s . M a n y c o n f l i c t s b r ea k

o u t i n t h e f i e l d o f p r a c t i c e , a n d t h e s e c a n n o t b e a d j u s t e d wi t h -

o u t m o r a l re f l e c t i o n . S o m e e x a m p l e s w i l l . h e l p t o v e r i f y t h i s

f a c t : W e m i g h t s u p p o s e t h a t t h e de s i r a b i l i t y o f h e a l t h c a n b e

t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s c i e n c e o f m e d i -

c i n e l e a d s o n l y t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f m e a n s . B u t m e d i c i n e h a s

f o r c e d u s t o r e v i s e o u r w h o l e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f h e a l t h , a n d t o c a l l i n q u e s t i o n t h o s e v a l u e s w h i c h o b s t r u c t

i t . M e n h a v e b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e m e ri t s o f r e l i -

g i o n s w h i c h i n t e r f e r e wi t h m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s , m o r a l c o d e s

w h i c h o p p o s e v i v i s e c t i o n o r t h e c a n d i d t r e a t m e n t o f s e x u a l

d i s o r d e r s, e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s t h a t n e g l e c t o r o v e r t a x t h e

p h y s i c a l o r g a n i s m , p h i l o s o p h i e s t h a t s e t u p a d u a l i s m b e -

t w e e n m i n d a n d b od y , a n d e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s t h a t c r e a t e m a l -

n u t r i t i o n a n d w r e t c h e d h o u s i n g . U l t i m a t e l y m e n a r e f o r c e d

t o c o n s i d e r t he i d e a l o f s o c i a l i z e d m e d i c i n e , a n d t h i s , i n t u r n ,

i n v o l v e s t h e v e x e d q u e s t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m v e r s u s c o l l e c -

t i v i s m .

A g a i n , i t m i g h t b e c o n t e n d e d t h a t b e a u t y i s o b v i o u s l y d e -

s i r a b l e , a n d t h a t w e n e e d o n l y a s c e r t a i n t h e m e a n s t o i t s r e a l -

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56 NO COMPROMISEi z a t i o n . B u t s ha l l we d e v o t e m o r e e n e r g y t o t h e p u r s u i t o f

b e a u t y t h a n t o t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t r u t h? S h a l l w e e l i m i n a t e

t h e v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f u g l y m e r c h a n d i s e t h a t f l o w f r o m o u r

f a c t o r i e s , e v e n i f t h i s m e a n s a b a n d o n i n g t h e p r o f i t s y s t e m ?

S h a l l w e i n s i s t t h a t e v e r y m a n h a s a r i g h t t o a b e a u t i f u l

h o m e , e v e n i f t h i s i n v o l v e s t h e d e s tr u c t i o n o f p r e s e nt r e a l e s -

t a t e v a l u e s ? S h o u l d w o r k e r s b e s u p p l i e d w i t h l a b o r i n w h i c h

t h e i m p u l s e of c r a f t s m a n s h i p f i n d s a c o n g e ni a l e x p r e s s i o n? I s

i t p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e a u n i o n o f a r t a n d m a c h i n e - i n d u s t r y ?

A n d , i f s o , w h a t s a c r i f i c e s s ho u l d w e m a k e t o a c h i e v e t h i s

g o a l ?

T h e se e x a m p l e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e v i g o r o u s

p r o s e c u ti o n o f a m a j o r o b j e c t i v e i n v o l v es a c o n t i n u o us r e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n o f i d e a l s . M e n a r e f o r c e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o t he a s -

s u m p t i o n s b e h i n d t h e i r a c t i o n s , a n d t o f r a m e d e f i n i t i o n s o f

s p e c i f i c a n d u n i v e r s a l v a l u e s u nt i l t h e y f o r m a s y s t e m . P a r e t o ' s

s h a r p s e p a r a t i o n o f e n d s a n d m e a n s , a n d t h e r e s u lt a n t d o c -

t r i n e t h a t s c i e n c e m a y d e t e r m i n e t e c h n i q u e s b u t n o t i d e a l s ,

o v e r l o o k t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n f l i c t s t h a t a r i s e w h e n w e t r y t o

a p p l y i d e a l s , c o n f l i c t s t h a t c a n n o t be r e s o lv e d w i t h o u t a c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n o f u l t i m a t e v a l u e s .

4 . The Argument Ba sed on the Freedom of the Will

T h e r e a r e s t i l l c e r t a i n o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h w e h a v e n o t m e t .

P a r e t o a n d h i s d i s c i p l e s h a v e a d v a n c e d a n u m b e r o f a r g u -

m e n t s t o p r o v e t h a t a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s i s i m p o s s i b l e . The

f i r s t a r g u m e n t t h a t w e s h a l l c o n s i d e r i s b a s e d o n t h e f r e e d o m

of the will . I t i s m a i n t a i n e d t ha t m e n a r e e n d ow e d wi t h a f a c -

u l t y o f a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e w h i c h r e n d e r s h u m a n l i f e a n d i t s v a l -

u e s t o o un p r e d i c t a b l e f o r s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t m e n t .

T h e em p h a s i s u p o n f r e e w i l l i s t y p i c a l o f F a s c i s m . Mr .

L a w r e n c e D e nn i s , a n A m e r i c a n e x p o n e n t of F a s c i s m , h a s d e -

c l a r e d , " T h e F a s c i s t s c h e m e o f t h i n g s i s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h u -

m a n w i l l w h i c h c r e a t e s i t s o w n t r ut h s a n d v a l u e s f r o m d a y t o

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VALUATIONS 57

d a y t o s u i t i t s c h a n g i n g p u r p o s e s . " 2 2 S i m i l a r l y , M u s s o l i n i h a s

s a i d , " B y t h e ex e r c i s e o f h i s f r e e wi l l , m a n c a n a n d m u s t c r e -

a t e h i s o w n w o r l d . " 2 3 I f m a n ' s " w o rl d " i s c r e a t e d b y f r e e w i l l ,

a n d a l t e r e d f r o m d a y t o d a y t o s u i t e v e r - c h a n g i n g p u r p o s e s ,

t h e r e w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e n o b a s i s f o r s c i e n t i f i c p r e d i c t i o n .

P a r e t o d o e s n o t m a k e u s e of t h i s a r g u m e n t , s i n c e t h e d o c t r i n e

o f f r e e w i l l i s t o o " me t a p h y s i c a l " f o r h i s t a s t e , b u t i t h a s b e e n

u s e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s t o s u p p o r t h i s t h e s i s t ha t a s c i e n c e o f

v a l u e s i s i m p o s s i b l e .

The argument, if valid, would elimina te not only the

value-sciences, but also psychology and sociology . T h e l a t t e r

m u s t a l s o d ep e n d u p o n a c e r t a i n c o n s t a n c y i n h u m a n n a t u r e .

I f f r e e d om i s c o n c e i v e d a s p u r e i n d e t e rm i n i s m , i n t h e s e ns e o f

a b s o l u t e c h a n c e , n o s c i e n c e o f h u m a n l i f e i s p o s s i b l e i n s o f a r

a s f r e e d o m o b t a i n s . H e n c e i f p s y c h o l o gy a n d s o c i o l o g y c a n b e

s c i e n t i f i c , t h i s o b j e c t i o n m u s t be i n v a l i d .

V e r y f e w p e o p l e w o u ld m a i n t a i n t h a t p s y c h o l og y a n d s o -

c i o l o g y a r e u t t e rl y u n s c i e n t i f i c . T h e a d v a n c e s i n t h e f i e l d o f

p s y c h i a t r y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n d i c a t e t h a t m e n h a v e g a i n e d s o m e

s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r st a n d i n g o f t h e p s y c h o l og i c a l b a s i s o f c o n d u c t .

S o c i o l og y i s a n e v e n y o u n g er s c i e n c e ; y e t i t s a c h i e v e m e n ts a r e

s u f f i c i e n t t o p e r m i t s u c h i m p r e s s i v e w or k s a s t h e Encyclo-

p a e d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c es a n d t h e r e p o r t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s

R e s e a r c h C o m m i t t e e on S o c i a l T r e n d s . 2 4 W e m u s t c o n c l u d e ,

t h e r ef o r e , t h a t f r e e w i l l , i f i t d o e s ex i s t , m u s t b e s uc h a s t o

p e r m i t a s c i e n c e o f h u m a n l i f e .

T h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y , m o s t o f u s w o u ld s a y , i s t o s o m e

e x t e n t f r e e . S u c h f r e e d o m c o n s i s t s n ei t h e r i n t h e b l i n d o p e r a -

t i o n o f l i f e l e s s , u n t h i n k i n g f o r c e s , a s i n a l a n d s l i d e , n o r i n

s h e e r i n d et e r m i n i s m , w h i c h i s e q u a l l y b l i n d . N o t h i n g i s s o

f a t a l a s a n a c c i d e n t , a n d n o t h i n g i s m o r e a c c i d e n t a l t h a n a n

u n d e t e r m i n e d e v e n t . A s S a n t a y a n a h a s s a i d :

T h e n ot i o n t h a t a b s o lu t e f r e ed o m m i g h t s a v e m a n y a c r i t i c a l

s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h a t i n g e n e r a l t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f g r o u n d l e s s

m o v e m e n t s w o u l d t e n d t o wa r d s a h a p p y i s s u e r e st s u p o n a c o m -

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58 NO COMPROMISEp l e t e c o n f u s i o n . I t i s t h e g a m b le r ' s f a l l a c y . E m p t y p o s s i b i l i ty

s e e m s t o h i m f u l l o f p r o m i s e ; b u t i n f a c t s h e e r c h a n c e , t h r o w i n g

d i c e , w o u l d s e ld o m t h r o w s i x e s . T h e o n l y f o r c e t h a t r e a l l y t e n ds

t o w a r d s h a p p y r e s u lt s i s t h e i n n a t e f o r c e o f t h e s o u l h e r s el f . . . ? 6

R e a l f r e e d o m , a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e b o gu s f r e e d o m o f " i n -

d e t e r m i n i s m , " i n v o l v e s t h e c a u s a l e f f i c a c y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d c h a r a c t e r . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e f r e e p e r -

s o n a l i t y , a s a p a r t o f n a t u r e , a n d y e t a p o w e r i n i t s o wn r i g h t ,

i s e n t i r e ly c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s c i e n t i f i c p r e d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l ;

i t s i m p l y i n s i s t s t ha t h u m a n n a t u r e, a s p u r p o s i v e , i s a f o r c e

t o b e r e c k o n e d w i t h . P s y c h ol o gy a n d so c i o l og y , i n a n y e v en t ,

h a v e m a d e i m p o r t a n t a d v a n c e s , a n d th i s f a c t i s s u f f i c i e n t i n d i -

c a t i o n t h a t " f r e e w i l l " d o e s no t p r e c l u d e a s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t -

ment of huma n problems .

5 . The Argument Based upon the "Superiority" of

Nonrational F aculties

Another argument, unlike the preceding one, does not

n e c e s s a r i l y d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s , b u t

d o e s q u e s t i o n i t s w o r t h . T h e s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o h u m a n

w e l f a r e m e r i t s l i t t l e r e s p e c t , i t i s m a i n t a i n e d , b e c a u s e v a l u e s

a r e b e s t a p p r e h e n d e d i n n o n s c i e n t i f i c w a y s . T h e p r o - F a s c i s t

E n g l i s h w r i t e r , M a j o r J . S . B a r n e s , h a s a d v a n c e d t h i s p o i n t

o f v i e w :

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e to t ur n li f e i n t o a s y s t e m . L i f e i s a n a r t a n d

s h o u ld b e c o n c e i v e d a s a w o r k o f a r t , w h i c h i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f

a n i n t u i t i o n . . . . T h i s i n t u i t i v e o ut l o ok , t y p i c a l o f t h e I t a l i a n

p e a s a n t , r e p r e s e n t s i n d ee d t h e c e n t ra l a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e

F a s c i s t Weltanscha uung, i n c o n t ra s t t o t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i c a n d

a n a l y t i c a l t e m p e r o f t h e c e n t u r i e s t h a t h a v e j u s t f l o w n by . 2 6

B a r n e s i s c e r t a i n l y r i g h t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s

s t r e s s ot h e r f a c t o r s t h a n i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h i s i s t r u e e v e n o f

P a r e t o , s i n c e h e w o u l d b a s e v a l u a t i o n , a n d m u c h o f a c t i o n ,

upon sentiment .

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VALUATIONS 59

T h er e i s a p a r t i a l v a l i d i t y i n t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w : n o o n e c a n

deny the tremendous importance of emotion and ima gina-

t i o n i n a c h i e v i n g t h e g o o d l i f e . B u t i nt el li g en c e i s a l so re -

q u i r e d , f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i t i s n o t o ri o u s t h a t e m o t i o n s

o r e s th e t i c i m p r e s si o n s m a y b e i n c o n f l i c t . T h e r e i s o f t e n d i s -

a g r e e m e n t a m o n g m e n , o r e v e n w i t h i n a s i n g l e m i n d a t d i f -

f e r e n t t i m e s . S c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t i s r e q u i r e d t o a d j u s t s u c h

c o n f l i c t s . S e c o n d , e m o t i o n a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , w h e n t o o e x c l u -

s i v e , m e re l y l ea d t o p r ej u d i c e . S e x a n d r e li g i o n , f o r e x a m p l e ,

are intensely em otionalized, and it is well known that

t h o u g ht i n t h e s e re s p e c t s i s a p t t o b e f a n a t i c a l . M e n s p e a k o f

" b l i n d l o v e , " a n d s e x u a l a n t a g o n i s m s a r e n o t o r i o u s l y b l i n d .

T h e i m a g i n a t i o n a l s o h a s i t s s p e c i a l f o r m s o f b i a s : i t a d m i r e s

t h e g r a n d g es t u re , t h e t r a g i c s p e c t a c l e , t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c d i s -

p l a y . If Napoleon had not captivated the imagination of

France, and been duped by his own imagination, he could

n e v e r h a v e t u r n e d E u r o p e i n t o a b l o o d y s h a m b l e s . T h e a p -

p e a l o f F a s c i s m , a t t h e p r e s en t t i m e , i s g r e a t l y h e i g h te n e d b y

i t s g l i t t e r a n d f a l s e h e r o i c s .

Undoubtedly values involve much more than mere a b-

s t r a c t t h o u g ht ; b u t t h i s f a c t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e y a r e

e x e m p t f r o m c r i t i c i s m . I t i s o n e t h i n g t o c h er i s h , a n d q u i t e

a n o t h e r t h i n g t o d i s c o v e r r e a s o n s w h y t h e o b j e c t s h o u l d b e

c h e r i s h e d , o r wh y , p e r c h a n c e , t h e c h e r i s h i n g i s m i s d i r e c t e d .

T h u s I m a y l o v e , b u t t o r e f l e c t u p o n t h a t l o v e , a n d t o d e t e r -

m i n e i t s v a l i d i t y , i s n ot i n i t s e l f a n a c t o f l o v i n g . T h e s o l u t i o n

o f l i f e ' s p r o b l e m s r eq u i r e s s u c h c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , a n d n o t

j u s t s p o n t a n eo u s l i k i n g o r d i s l i k i n g . T h e p r o p e r a l t e r n a t i v e

t o a n o v e r e m p h a s i s u p o n r e a s o n i s n o t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e

o f c a p r i c e .

6 . The Argument Ba sed on the History of Science

S c i e n ti s t s , i t i s o f t e n s a i d , h a v e g r a d u a l ly d i s c a r d ed e x p l a -

n a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f v a l u e s . T h e y h a v e a b a n d o n e d t h e s a c r e d

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6o NO COMPROMISEn u m b e r s o f P y t h a g o r e a n m a t h e m a t i c s , t h e o c c u l t f o r c e s o f

m e d i e v a l c h e m i s t r y , t h e l u c k y a n d u n l u c k y s t a r s o f t h e a n -

c i e n t a s t r o n o m e r s . K e p l e r ' s " a r g u m e n t , " t h a t t h e s u n m u s t

b e t h e c e n t er o f t h e u n i v e r s e b ec a u s e i t i s v e r y b e a u t i f u l a n d

d i g n i f i e d , c a n n o w o n l y p r o v o k e a s m i l e . N e w t o n ' s b e l i e f ,

t h a t s p a c e a n d t i m e a r e t h e s e n s o r i u m o f G o d , c a n n o l o n g e r

a p p e a l t o s c i e n ti s t s, a s su c h . S c i e n c e , i t i s m a i n t a i n e d , h a s a d -

v a n c e d o n l y w h e n i t h a s r i d i t s e l f o f a l l r e l i g i o u s a n d e t h i c a l

n o t i o n s , a n d h a s l o o k e d u p o n r e a l i t y a s a b s o l u t e l y n e u t r a l .

A s s o o n a s t he s o c i a l s c i e n c e s r e a c h m a t u r i t y t h e y a l s o w i l l

r e n o u n c e a l l n o t i o n s o f g o o d a n d e v i l .

P a r e t o o n t he w h o l e a c c e p t s t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w . W i t h i n c e r-

t a i n l i m i t s , h e t a k e s a s h i s m o d e l t he " n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , " a n d

eschews both religion and m etap hysics, in which "senti-

m e n t s " a r e s a i d t o c o l o r t h e r e s u l t s :

W e a r e t r y i n g t o f o l l o w i n s o c i o l o g y t h e p a t h t r o d d e n b ef o r e

u s b y a s t r o no m e r s , p h y s i c i s t s , c h e m i s t s , g e o lo g i s t s , b o t a n i s t s ,

z o o l o g i s t s , p h y s i o l o g i s t s , i n s h o r t , b y a l l n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s o f

m o d e r n t i m e s ; a n d t o a v o i d , s o f a r a s w i t h i n u s l i e s , t h e r o a d t h a t

l e d t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s to d e n y i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n t i p o d e s ,

a n d H e g e l t o p r a t t l i n g a b o u t m e c h a n i c s , c h e m i s t r y a n d o t h e r

s i m i l a r s c i e n c e s - a n d w h i c h i s g e n e r a l ly f o l l ow e d b y m e t a p h y s i -

c i s t s , t h e ol o g i a n s , a n d m e n o f l e t t e r s i n s t u d i e s t h a t t h e y p r e t e n d

d e a l w i t h f a c t s o f n a t u r e bu t w h i c h i n r e a l i t y a r e a m e r e ho t c h -

p o t c h o f s e n t i m e n t s . 2 7

T h i s a r g u m e n t , a t f i r s t g l a n c e , a p p e a r s r e m o t e f r o m a n y -

t h i n g a d v a n c e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s . I t i s b a s e d u p o n a p l e a f o r

s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y , w h e r e a s t he F a s c i s t s a r e i n c l i n e d t o c a s t

o b j e c t i v i t y t o t h e w i n d s . Y e t H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i a r e n o t

o p p o s e d t o t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s s o f a r a s t h e y c a n m a k e u s e

of them . T h e y a r e d e l i g h t e d w i t h a c h e m i c a l s c i e n c e w h i c h

m a n u f a c t u r e s p o i s o n g a s ( u s e d i n c o n q u e r i n g E t h i o p i a ) , o r

w h i c h c r e a t e s s y n t h et i c p r o d u c t s t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f f o r e i g n

i m p o r t s . T h e F a s c i s t s d o n o t w a n t t o d e s t r o y t h e n a t u r a l

s c i e n c e s , b u t t h e y d o w a n t t h e s e s c i e n c e s t o b e p u t t o t h e

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VALUATIONS 61

" r i g h t " u s e s . P a r e t o' s t h e o r y s u i t s t h e m p e r f e c t l y i n t h i s r e -

s p e c t . I t e x e m p t s e t h i c s a n d r e l i g i o n f r o m t h e c o n t ro l o f s c i -

e n t i f i c m e t ho d , b u t o t h er w i s e r e t a i n s s c i e n c e . The e n d s

w h i c h s c i e n c e i s m a d e t o s e r v e c a n t h e n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y

" c h a r a c t e r , " b y t h e " i m p o n d e r a b l e s , " i n o t h e r w o r d s , b y t h e

F a s c i s t Welta nschauung . I f t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w p r e v a i l s , t h e

sc i entist, as such, i s not able to remonstrate, sinc e no sc i entist,

i n h i s p r o f e s s i o na l c a p a c i t y , i s p e r m i t t ed t o c r i t i c i z e e n d s .

U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e a r g u m e n t p o s s e s s e s s o m e v a l i d i t y :

e t hi c s a n d p h y s i c s a r e d i s t i nc t . P a r e t o ri g h t l y p o i n t s t o t h e

e r r o r s w h i c h a r i s e f r o m a l l o w i n g o n e ' s s e n s e o f t h e " o u g h t "

t o i n f l u e n c e o n e ' s s e n s e o f w h a t " i s . " B u t t h o s e w h o a d v a n c e

t h e a r g u m e n t u s ua l l y t a k e a g r e a t d e a l f o r g r a n t e d . F i r s t ,

t h ey a s s u m e t h a t a l l sc i e n c e s a re i n th i s re s p e c t a l i k e . S i n c e

v a l u e s f a l l o u t s i d e th e s c o p e o f c e r t a i n s c i e n c e s , i t i s p r e -

s u m e d b y s o m e w r i t e r s t h a t t h e y f a l l b e y o n d t h e r a n g e o f

s c i e n c e a l to g et h er . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s s u r el y u n c r i t i c a l . We

a d m i t t h a t i t i s n o n s e ns e t o s p e a k o f n a u g h ty a t o m s ; b u t i s i t

n o n s e n s e t o s p e a k o f b a d m e n ? W h a t i s t r u e o f r o c k s o r c a r -

r o t s o r t i g e r s , m a y n o t b e t r u e of h u m a n b e i n g s . E v e n i n t h e

c a s e o f t i g e r s, a d i f f e r e n t le v e l o f r ea l i t y i s r e a c h e d ; c e r t a i n

r e s t r i c t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o v a l u e a r e n o l o n g e r s i l l y . S o m e b i o l o-

g i s t s m a i n t a i n , o n t h e b a s i s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , t h a t t h e

h i g h e r a n i m a l s a r e g o a l - s e e k i n g c r e a t u r e s , a n d t h a t t h e p u r e l y

m e c h a n i s t i c a c c o u n t o f t h e i r b e h a v i o r i s i n a d e q u a t e . A t a n y

r a t e , w h e n w e r e a c h m a n , t h e p r o b l e m o f s c i e n t i f i c d e s c r i p -

t i o n i s a di s t i nc t i v e o ne . T h i n k o f m a n ' s e s t he t i c , e r o t i c , r e -

l i g i o u s , a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , t h i n k o f h i s s t r u g gl e s i n

w a r a n d r e v o l u t i o n , t h i n k o f h i s e n d e a v o r s t o s u b d u e n a t u r e

t o h i s e n d s . I t w o u ld b e a h a r d y m e c h a n i s t w h o w o u ld m a i n -

t a i n t h a t a l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t a n y p u r p o s e s

o r i de a ls o p er a ti n g a s c a us es . V a l u a t i o n s a c t u a l l y o c c u r , a n d

n o t h e or y o f m a n ' s l i f e t h a t r e f u s e s t o r e c o g n i z e t h em c a n p r e -

t e n d t o b e t ru e o r s c i e n t i f i c .

P a r e t o , o f c o u r s e , a d m i t s t ha t h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e l i k e s a n d

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62 NO COMPROMISEd i s l i k e s , a n d i n d e e d h e l a y s g r e a t s t r e s s u p o n t h e s e f a c t o r s

o f p r e f e r e n c e . I n t h i s se n s e, h e d oe s n ot r e du c e " s oc i a l s c i -

e n c e " t o t h e le v e l o f " p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , " a n d h e n c e i s n o t s u b -

j e c t t o t h e c r i t i c i s m c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e d o e s n o t e n d e a v o r s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t o

g a u g e t h e v a l i d i t y o f h u m a n v a l u a t i o n s , a n d i n d e e d h e d e -

n i e s t h e p os s i b i l i t y o f d o i n g s o . I n i n s i st i n g o n t he p u r e l y

d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f a l l s c i e n c e , h e i s " r e d u c i n g " th e a c -

c o u n t o f h u m a n v a l u a t i o n s t o t h e n o n n o r m a t i v e l e v e l . T h i s i s

t o n e g l ec t w h a t i s m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e a b o u t t h e m ; n a m e ly , t h ei r

c l a i m t o v a l i d i t y .

T h e s o - c a l l e d n o r m a t i v e a s p e c t o f v a l u e s c a n n o t s i m p l y b e

b r u s h e d a s i d e ; w e c a n n o t b e c o n t e n t to s u rr e n d e r o u r i d e a l s

t o t h e w h i m s y o f m e r e e m o t i o n a l i s m . As Edward L . T h o r n -

d i k e , s p e a k i n g a s P r e s i d e n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r

t h e A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , h a s p e r t i n e n t l y r e m a r k e d :

I t i s c e r t a i n l y u n d e s i r a b l e f o r m e n o f s c i e n c e t o r e s tr i c t t h e i r

t h i n k i n g t o w h a t i s a n d w i l l b e , l e a v i n g t o p r o p a g a n d i s t s a n d

r e f o r m e r s a n d t a l k e r s t h e d ec i s i o n s a b o u t w h a t o u g h t t o b e . I s

a n y g r o u p o f t h i n k e r s q u a l i f i e d t o s t ud y t h e w a n t s o f m a n k i n d ,

t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c t s a n d e v e n t s , a n d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f

h u m a n v a l u a t i o n s w i t h o u t r e l i a n c e o n t h e f a c t s a n d m e t h o d s o f

a n t h r o p o lo g y , p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , e c o n o m i c s , g o v e r n m e nt a n d

o t h er s c i e n c e s o f m a n ? C a n s c i e n c e a v o i d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

t r y i n g w h a t i m p a r t i a l c u r i o s i t y a n d h o n e st w o rk c a n a c c o m p l i s h

i n t h i s f i e l d o f c o n t r o v e r s y a n d p r e j u d i c e ? 28S u r e l y t h e r e i s m o r e p r o m i s e i n t h i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f a

d i s t i n g u i s h e d p s y c h o l o g i s t t h a n i n t h e i m m e m o r i a l r e l i a n c e

u p o n e m o t i o n a l b i a s . G r a n t e d th a t c e r t a i n s c i e n c e s m u s t e x -

c l u d e t h e t ho u g h t f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f h u m a n o b j e c t i v e s , i t d o e s

n o t f o l l o w t h a t a l l s c i e n c e s s h o u l d d o s o .

The proponents of this argument also assume that the

m e t h o d s t h a t s c i e n c e h a s f r u i t f u l l y e m p l o y e d i n t h e p a s t

m u s t n ec e s s a r i l y c o n t i n u e wi t h o u t e x t e n s i o n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n .

B u t t h i s i s t o o v e r l o o k t h e p r o g re s s i v e c h a r a c t e r o f s c i e n c e ,

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VALUATIONS 63

w h o s e t e c h n i q u e s a n d o b j e c t i v e s a r e b y n o m e a n s s t a t i c . I t i s

t r u e t h a t i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e r e

w a s a t e n d e n c y t o r e s tr i c t s c i e n c e t o t he q u a n t i t a t i v e a s p e c t s

o f r e a l i t y . T h e w o r l d w a s a t t i m e s c o n c e i v e d a s a h u g e , u n i -

f o r m m a c h i n e , t h e l a w s o f w h i c h c o u l d be e x p r e s s e d m a t h e -

m a t i c a l l y . G a l i l e o b a n n e d v a l u e s f r o m t h e r e a l m o f s c i e n c e ,

a n d H o b b e s t r i e d t o r ed u c e a l l l i f e t o t h e m e c h a n i c a l l e v e l .

B u t t o d a y w e a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s e r es t r i c t i o n s . W e a r e

n o w i n s i s t i n g t h a t s c i e n c e i n c l u d e t h e q u a l i t a t i v e : the esthetic

s t r u c t u re , t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e w e a l a n d w o e o f h u m a n

l i f e - a l l t h es e a r e p r e s e nt i n e x p e r i e n c e a n d d e m a n d a r a -

t i o n a l i n t e r p r e ta t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , m a n y o f u s w h o a r e

g r e a t l y d i s t r e s s ed b y t h e e x t e n t o f h u m a n m i s e r y r e c o g n i z e

t h e p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , a n d b e li e v e t h a t

s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e s e f i e l d s m u s t m a n i f e s t a d e e p c o n c e r n f o r

huma n welfare . W e a r e n o l o n ge r c o n t e n t wi t h a n a b s t r a c t

e c o n o m i c s t h a t f a i l s t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f s u f f e r i n g , a n d t h a t

m e r e l y c o n t r i b u t e s, b y r e a s o n o f i t s v e r y a b s t r a c t n e s s , t o t h e

d e h u m a n i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r y . S i m i l a r l y , w e m u s t c h a l l e n g e a

p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e t h a t h a s n o c l e a r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r

g o a l o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p .

7 . The Argument Based on the Prevalence of Ethical

I n t u i t i o n s

W e a r e o f t e n t o l d t h a t s c i e n c e u s e s e x p e r i m e n t a n d i n d u c -

t i o n a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e a n d i n t u i t i o n a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e .

F o r e x a m p l e , P a r e t o c o n tr a s t s g en u i n e s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s

w i t h t h e " c o n c e p t s t h a t t h e hu m a n m i n d f i n d s i n i t s e l f , a s

s o m e s a y , w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f o b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . " 2 9 W e a l l

r e c o g n i z e t h a t p e o p l e w h o h a v e a f r e q u e n t r e c o u rs e t o t h e

" s e lf - e v i d e n t " a r e n o t o f a s c i e n t i f i c t e m p e r . C o n s i d e r t h e

s t a t e m e n t o f H e r r G o e b b e l s : " C h r i s t c a n n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e

been a Jew . I d o n' t h a v e t o p r o v e t h a t s c i e n ti f i c a l l y . I t i s a

f a c t . " 3 0 T h i s " f a c t , " t h o u g h p e r h a p s " s e l f - e v i d e n t " t o t h e

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64 NO COMPROMISEN a z i M i n i s t e r o f P r o p a g a n d a , i s s u r e l y o p e n t o q u e s t i o n . I f

v a l u e j u d g m e n t s a r e , i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , " i m m e d i a t e " a n d

" i n t u i t i v e , " t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o q u e s t i o n t h ei r s c i e n t i f i c

s t a t u s . Y e t s u c h j u d g m e n t s a r e c o m m o n l y s a i d t o r e s t u p o n

" c o n s c i e n c e " o r " t a s t e . " H e n c e P a r e t o a n d o t h e r s h a v e c o n -

c l u d e d t h a t t h e y l i e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f s c i e n c e .

I f a l l p e o p l e r e l i e d a s m u c h a s t h e F a s c i s t s d o u p o n " i n -

t u i t i o n " o r " i n s t i n c t , " t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t w e a r e n o w c o n -

sidering would be a crushing one . The typically Nazi

a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s of s o c i a l e t h i c s i s d i s c l o s e d i n t h e f o l -

l o w i n g p a s s a g e f r o m A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g :

R i c h a r d W a g n e r o n c e u t t e r e d a m a r v e l l o u s l y w i s e a p h o r i s m

f o r a l l e d u c a t o r s . H e s a i d t h a t m a n i n h i s c r e a t i v e e n d e a v o r c a n -

n o t a l w a y s b e s u r e o f w h a t h e w a n t s , b u t h e c a n a l m o s t i n v a r i -

a b l y r e c o g n i z e w h a t h e d o e s n o t w a n t . I f h e o nl y c a s t s a s i d e a l l

t h o s e t h i n g s w hi c h i n h i s h e a r t h e f i n d s a n t a g o n i s t i c , h i s i n s t i n c t

w i l l l e a d h i m t o t h o s e t h i n g s wh i c h c o r r e sp o n d t o h i s c h a r a c t e r .

. . . T h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t m o v e m e n t u n d o u b t e d l y t a k e s u p o n

i t s e l f a g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , b u t i t d o e s s o b e c a u s e i t i s s u s t a i n e d

b y a g r e a t f a i t h i n t h e t r u th f u l n e s s of i t s i n s t i n c t s . 3 1

T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t s u c h a v i e w p r e v a i l s , t h e r e c e r t a i n l y c a n

b e n o s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s .

Y e t w e m a y q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f a n i n -

t u i t i v e e l e m e n t , i f k e p t w i t h i n b o u n d s, i s s u f f i c i e n t t o r en d e r

a f i e l d o f th o ug h t n o ns c i e n ti f i c . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e m o n -

s t r a t e a b s o l u te l y e v e r y t h i n g , s i n c e a f e w p r i n c i p l e s m u s t b e

u s e d e v e n i n t h e f i r s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n . T h e r e a r e a f e w b a s i c

p r i n c i p l e s a n d p o s t ul a t e s i n e v e r y s c i e n c e t h a t m u s t b e t a k e n

f o r g r a n t e d . S o l o n g a s t h e s e a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e m i n i m u m ,

a n d s u b j e c t e d t o a r i g o r o u s c r i t i c i s m w h i c h e l i m i n a t e s q u e s -

t i o n a b l e o r r e d u n d a n t e l e m e n t s , t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e h a s

not been abandoned .

B u t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t w e a r e n o w c o n s i d e r i n g i s t h a t

v a l u e - t h e o r y r e l i e s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y u p o n i n t u i t i o n a s t h e

guide to knowledge . T h o s e w h o t h i n k t h i s s u r e l y u n d e r e s ti -

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VALUATIONS 65

m a t e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f m o d er n t h i n k e r s . A l m o st e v er y -

b o d y k n o w s t h a t " c o n s c i e n c e " i s n o t a n i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e t o

r i g h t a n d w r o n g. T h e r e i s n o g r e a t e r c o m m o n p l a c e o f h i s -

t o r y o r d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e t h a n t h e f a c t t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s

c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y d i f f e r a s t o w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s r i g h t c o n d u c t .

T h e c o n sc i e n c e o f S t . F r a n c i s i s n o t t h a t o f S a v o n a r o l a ; t h e

s c r u p l e s o f D o s t o e v s k i d o n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e o f L e n i n .

T o r e s o lv e s u c h c o n f l i c t s , m e n m u s t r e s or t t o e v i d e n c e a n d

r e f l e c t i o n - i n o t h er w o r d s, t o s c i e n c e , i n t h e w i d e m e a n i n g

o f t h e t e r m . I t i s o n l y a t t he n o ns c i e n t i f i c l e v e l o f t h i n k i n g

t h a t i n t u i t i o n s a b o u n d .

A s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s , n o m o r e th a n t h r e e

e t h i c a l i n t u i t i o n s w o u ld s e e m t o be r e q u i r e d . F i rst, there c an

b e n o s u c h s c i e n c e u n l e s s m e n r ec o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e a r e v a l u e s .

H e n c e w e m a y s a y t h a t t h e i n t u i t i o n t h a t s o m e ex p e r i e n c e s

a r e b e t t e r ( o r w o r s e ) t h a n o t h e r s i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e . There

w o u l d s e em t o b e n o r i s k o f e r r o r i n v o l v e d i n t h i s i n t u i t i o n .

V a l u e s of s o m e s o r t a c t u a l l y o c c u r , a n d w e h a v e o n l y t o l i v e

t o b e a w a r e o f s o m e o f t h e m .

S e c o n d , t h e r e m u s t b e a n i n t u i t i o n a s t o w h a t i s t h e g o o d

( o r e v i l ) . T h i s i n t u i t i o n sh o ul d b e hi g h ly c r i t i c a l . T h e i n v e s -

t i g a t o r m u s t u n d e r t a k e t o r i d h i m s e l f o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s ,

p r e j u d i c e s , i r r e l e v a n t c o n s i d er a t i o n s , a n d i n a d e q u a c i e s i n h i s

o w n ex p e r i e n c e o f v a l u e s . H e m u s t n o t c o n f u s e w h a t i s g o od

a s a m e a n s w i t h w h a t i s g o o d a s a n e n d . H e m u s t n o t a t -

t r i b u t e e x i s t e n c e t o u n r e a l a b s t r a c t i o n s , s u c h a s a b a r e

p l e a s u r e , a p a r t f r o m s o m e f u r t h e r c o n t e n t . S o f ar as possible,

h e s h o u l d i s o l a t e t h e f a c t o r w h i c h h e r e g a r d s a s g o o d , t o s e e

i f i t i s r e a l l y g o o d w h en c o n s i d e r e d b y i t s e l f , o r w h e t h er t h e

g o o d d e p e n ds u p o n s o m e a s s o c i a t e d f a c t o r . F i n a l l y , h e s h o u ld

c h e c k h i s c o n c l u s i o n a g a i n s t t h e j u d g me n t o f o t h e r c a r e f u l

t h i n k e r s , s o a s t o r e d u c e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f e r r o r . S u c h a n i n -

t u i t i o n i s h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a n d m a y p r o p e r l y b e c o n s i d -

e r e d a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a " s c i e n c e " o f v a l u e s . ( I f a f t e r s u c h

c r i t i c a l i n t u i t i o n t he i n v e s t i g a t o r s t i l l f i n d s h i m s e l f i n d i s -

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6 6 NO COMPROMISEa g r e e m e n t w i t h o t h e r e t h i c a l t h i n k e r s , h e s h o u l d n o t c o n -

clude that he has reached an impasse . He ma y p ersuade

o t h e r s o f h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , a n d e v e n i f m e t h o d s o f p e r -

s u a s i o n f a i l , h e m a y b e a b l e t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e m i n t h e

p u r s u i t o f c o n c r e t e g o a l s . A " u n i t e d f r o n t , " f o r p r a c t i c a l

purposes, may be maintained am ong people who differ in

p o i n t s o f t h e o ry . )

A t h i r d i n t u i t i o n i s t h a t g o o d s h o u l d b e p r o m o t e d , a n d

e v i l s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d . I t i s w r o n g t o c h o o s e th e w o rs e w h en

o n e c a n c h o o s e t h e b e t t e r . I t i s w r o n g t o c h o o s e o n e ' s o w n

l e s s e r g oo d i n p l a c e o f s o m e o n e e l s e ' s g r e a t e r g o o d . N o t y p e

o f b i a s , s u c h a s eg o i s m , r a c i a l i s m , o r n a t i o n a l i s m , c a n j u s ti f y

t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e g r e a t e r g o o d , a s t h i s w o u l d b e e s t i m a t e d

b y a n i m p a r t i a l a n d a c c u r a t e j u d g e . T h i s i n t u i t i o n i s t h e

b a s i s o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y ; i t i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e i f t h e s c i e n t i f i c

a t t i t u d e of i m p a r t i a l i t y i s t o b e m a i n t a i n e d . I d o n o t s e e th a t

a n y f u r t h e r " i n t u i t i o n s " a r e r e q u i r e d .

8 . The Argument Based upon the Supp osed Inefficacy o f

Reason

N e x t , t h e F a s c i s t m a y c o n t e n d t h a t a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s ,

however m uch a d e s i d er a t u m , i s a p r a c t i c a l i m p o s si b i l i t y .

Human beings, it may be said, merely employ thought in

t h i s f i e l d t o ex c u s e w ha t i n s t i n c t o r s e n ti m e n t d i c t a t e s .

T h i s a r g u m e n t b u l k s v e r y l a r g e i n P a r e t o ' s t r e a t i s e . I d e a l s

a n d e t h i c a l s y s t e m s , h e m a i n t a i n s , a r e p r o d u c t s o f p s e u d o -

r e a s o n i n g u s e d to m a s k t h e r e a l f a c t s . I n e m p l o y i n g t h o u g h t

i n t h i s m a n n e r , m o s t p e o p l e e v e n d e c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s :

C i v i l i z e d p e o p l e s n a i v e l y i m a g i n e t h a t t h e y f o l l ow i n p r a c t i c e

t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f a c e r t a i n th e or e ti c a l e t hi c s . I n p o i n t o f f a c t ,

t h e y a c t v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y i n d e e d a n d t h e n r es o r t t o s u bt l e i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s a n d i n g e n i o u s c a s u i s t r i e s t o r e c o n c i l e t h e o r y a n d

p r a c t i c e t h a t a r e e v e r a n d a n o n d i s c o r d a n t . 3 2

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VALUATIONS 6 7

T h i s n a i v e t e , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e m a s s e s , d o e s n o t e x -

t e n d t o t h e m o r e w i l y o f t h e e l i t e . T h e l a t t e r b e c o m e c o n -

s c i o u s o f t h e u s e of s o p h i s m s a n d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s a n d c u n -

ningly emp loy them to dupe the ma sses .

T h u s P a r e t o , w h o h a d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t l o s t f a i t h i n t h e

l i b e r a l i d e a l s of h i s g e n e ra t i o n , a d o p t e d a c y n i c a l , n i h i l i s t i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e t h i c a l t h o u g h t . M u s s o l i n i c l o s e l y r e s e m -

b l e s h i m i n t h i s r e s p e c t . H i s t h e o r i e s ex h i b i t a c u r i o u s d u a l -

i t y : h e s p e a k s l o f t i l y o f t h e i d ea l i s t i c o u t l oo k o f F a s c i s m , y e t

h e f i n d s t h a t t h e s t a r k f a c t s a r e s u m m e d u p i n t h e a n c i e n t

phrase, "man a wolf to man . " S o m e t i m e s h e f r a n k l y s a y s

that the accepted ideals merely serve to mask the ugly

r e a l i t i e s :

I s e e t h e w o rl d a s i t a c t u a l l y i s ; t h a t i s a w o r l d o f u n b r i d l e d

e g o i s m . W e r e t he w o r ld a p a s t o r a l A r c a d i a , i t w o u ld b e a v e r y

p l e a s a n t a n d b e a u t i f u l t h i n g t o s p e n d t h e t i m e a m o n g t h e

n y m p h s a n d s h e p h e r d s . B u t I d o n o t s e e t h i s A r c a d i a . A n d e v e n

w h e n I l o o k a t t h e g r ea t f l a g s o f g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s f l u t t e r i n g i n t h e

w i n d , I d o n o t f a i l t o p e r c e i v e t h a t b e h i n d t h e se f l a g s , m o r e o r

l e s s h a l l o we d , a r e h i d d e n e g o i s t i c i n t e r e st s s e e k i n g t h e i r p l a c e i n

t h e s u n .3 3

S u c h u n r e s e r v e d c y n i c i s m r e p e a t e d ly a p p e a r s i n F a s c i s t w r i t -

i n g s . I f t h i s w e r e i n d e e d a n a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t o f h u m a n l i f e ,

our boasted ideals could never be more than sentimental

v a p o r i n g s o r c l e v e r d i s g u i s e s . T o m a k e m a t t e r s w o r s e , P a r e t o

c o n t e n d s th a t " h u m a n n a t u r e " i s p r a c t i c a l l y u n a l t e r a b l e . H i s

c o n s t a n t e m p h a s i s i s u p o n t h e invariant f a c t o r s t h a t u n de r -

l i e t h e v a r i a b l e d i s g u i s e s . A c c o r d i ng t o t hi s t y p i c a l l y F a s c i s t

point of view, whatever basic failings human beings now

h a v e t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e x h i b i t i n t h e f u t u r e .

T h e p l a u s i b i l i t y o f P a r e t o ' s i n d i c t m e n t o f h u m a n t h o u g h t

d e p e n d s u p o n p r e s e n t i n g a g r e a t m a n y e x a m p l e s o f s o p h i s t r y

a n d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e r e f u t a t i o n s i m i l a r l y d e p e n d s

upon a ma ssing counter evidence . W h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s a h i s -

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6 8 NO COMPROMISEt o r y o f h u m a n w i s d o m , w h i c h p r e s e n t s t h e m a s s o f e v i d e n c e

c o u n t e r t o P a r e t o . O b v i o u s l y s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n i s i m -

p o s s i b l e w i t h i n a b b r e v i a t e d s p a c e .3 4

L e t u s a s s u m e , h o w e v e r , f o r t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t , t h a t

P a r e t o i s r i g h t . I t w o u l d n o t f o l l o w t h a t w h a t h a s b e e n p r e v a -

l e n t i n t h e p a s t m u s t b e e q u a l l y p r e v a l e n t i n t h e f u t u r e .

W h a t e v e r m a y b e t h e d e p t h s o f f o l l y , t h e r e a r e s u r e l y d e g r e e s :

o n e m a n i s m o r e u t t e r l y b i a s e d t h a n a n o t h e r . Although no

o n e i s a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e l i f e o f r e a s o n c o n s i s t en t l y , a m a n

c a n a p p r o a c h c l o s e r t o t h i s s t a t e t h a n m a n y o f h i s f e l l o w s .

S o c r a t e s w a s l e s s a s l a v e o f p a s s i o n t h a n A l c i b i a d e s , a n d C o n -

fucius was more impartial than Genghis Khan . J u s t a s o n e

i n d i v i d u a l m a y d i f f e r f r o m a n o t h e r i n d e g r e e o f r a t i o n a l i t y ,

s o o n e p e r i o d o f t i m e m a y b e m o r e n e a r l y r a t i o n a l t h a n a n -

o t h e r . W e a r e n o t f o r e v e r c o n d e m n e d t o t h e t h o u g h t p r o c -

e s s e s o f t h e v o o d o o m a n .

T h e f a c t t h a t r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s c a n b e d e t e c t e d i s i n d i c a -

t i o n t h a t t h e y c a n o f t e n b e g ua r d e d a g a i n s t . T h i s i s t h e c o n -

clusion of Karl Ma nnheim, the a uthor of I d e o l o g y and

U t o p i a , who has given much thought to the p resent prob-

lem . H e f i n d s t h a t o n e o f t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o u r a g e

i s t h e t e n d e n c y t o u n m a s k r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s , a n d h e b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h i s f a c t a f f o r d s a m p l e g r o u n d f o r h o p e :

E v e n i n o u r p e r s o na l l i f e w e b e c o m e m a s t e r s o f o u r s e l v e s o nl y

w h e n t h e u n c o ns c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s w h i c h f o r m e rl y e x i s t e d b e h i n d

o u r b a c k s s u d d e n l y c o m e i n t o o u r f i e l d o f v i s i o n a n d t h e re b y b e -

c o m e a c c e s s i b l e t o c o n s c i o u s c o n t r o l . M a n a t t a i n s o bj e c t i v i t y . . .

n o t b y g i v i n g u p h i s w i l l t o a c t i o n a n d h o ld i n g h i s e v a l u a t i o n s

i n a b e y a n c e b u t i n c o n f r o n ti n g a n d e x a m i n i n g h i m s e l f . 3 5

Mannheim is as much aware as Pareto of the influence of

n o n l o gi c a l f a c t o r s u p o n l i f e a n d t h o ug h t , b u t h e t h i n k s t h a t

t h i s v e r y a w a r e n e ss , i f i t b e c o m e s g e n e r a l , w i l l b e t h e p r e l ud e

t o f a r m o r e o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l s c i e n c e .

H i s s u g g e s t i o n , i n t h e a b o v e p a s s a g e , t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t

g i v e u p t h e w i l l t o a c t i o n , a l s o p r o v i d e s a c o n t r a s t w i t h

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VALUATIONS 69

P a r e t o ' s s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e o r y f r o m p r a c t i c e b a s e d o n v a l u e

s e n t i m e n t s . T h i s s u g g e s t i o n h a s a b e a r i n g u p o n t h e q u e s t i o n

w e a r e n o w d i s c u s s i n g. M a y n o t t h e s e e m i n g i n e f f i c a c y o f

r e a s o n b e t h e r e s u l t of f a i l u r e i n a c t u a l l i f e t o l i n k t h o u g h t

w i t h a c t i o n ? U n l e s s w e t a k e s t e p s t o p u t o u r j u d g m e n t s i n t o

o p e r a t i o n , w e s h o u l d n o t b e s ur p r i s e d t o f i n d t h e m i n e f f e c -

tual .

Two other fam ous thinkers, Freud and Ma rx, m ay be

m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h P a r e t o ' s a r g u m e n t . Sigmund

F r e u d h a s s t r e s s e d t h e h u m a n p r o n e n e s s t o r a t i o n a l i z e , b u t

h e h a s w o r k e d o u t p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s w h e r e b y r a -

t i o n a l i z a t i o n s c a n b e de t e c t e d a n d gu a r d e d a g a i n s t . I n s o f a r

a s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s s o u nd , i t o f f e r s a n a n t i d o t e f o r t he v e r y

d i s e a s e w h i c h P a r e t o r e ga r d s a s h o p e l e s s . K a r l M a r x h a s e m -

p h a s i z e d t h e f a l s i t y o f m a n y i d e o l og i e s , b u t h e b e l i e v es t h a t

p r o f o u n d s o c i a l c h a n g e m a y b e a m e a n s o f r e s t o ri n g h o n e s ty

and vigor to huma n thought . H e c o n t e n d s t h a t f a l s e i d e o l -

o g i e s s p r i n g m a i n l y f r o m t h e d ec a y o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s . W h e n a

r u l i n g c l a s s h a s o u t l i v e d i t s u s e f u l n e s s t o s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e ,

i t m u s t m a s k t h e f a c t s f r o m t h e p e o p l e a n d f r o m i t s o w n

c o n s c i e n c e i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e .

T h e f a l s e i d e o l o g y o f F a s c i s m m a y b e a c c o u n t e d f o r o n

t h i s b a s i s . I t s c a p i t a l i s t i c f o u n da t i o n a n d m a t e r i a l i s ti c i n t e r-

e s t s h a v e b e en e l a b o r a t e l y m a s k e d b y a n " i d e a l i s t i c " c r e e d .

Professor Ga udens Megaro has shown, for exam ple, that

M u s s o l i n i h a s b e e n a " d o u b l e a d v o c a t e " t o a n a m a z i n g d e -

g r e e . B e f o r e hi s s u d d en c o n v e r s i o n t o F a s c i s m , h e w a s m a k -

i n g s u c h d e c l a r a t i o n s a s t h e f o l l o w i n g : " D o w n w i t h t h e S t a t e

i n a l l i t s f o rm s a n d i n c a r n a t i o ns . " " W e a r e p o s i t i v e l y a g a i n s t

e v e r y f o r m o f d i c t a t o r s h i p . " " I m a g i n e a n I t a l y i n w h i c h t h i r ty -

s i x m i l l i o n c i t i z e n s s h o u l d a l l t h i n k i n t h e s a m e m o u l d . . .

a n d y o u w o u l d h a v e . . . t h e k i n g d o m o f b o r e d o m a n d i m b e c i l -

i t y . " " T h e n a t i o n a l f l a g i s a r a g t o b e p l a n t e d o n a d u n g h i l l . "

" G o d d o e s n o t e x i s t . I n s c i e n c e , r e l i g i o n i s a n a b s u r d i t y ; i n

p r a c t i c e , i t i s i m m o r a l i t y ; a n d i n m en , i t i s a d i se a s e . " " M i l i -

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70 NO COMPROMISEt a r i s m l H e r e i s t h e m o n s t r o u s p o l y p w i t h a t h o u s a n d v i s c o u s

t e n t a c l e s t h a t s u c k s u n c e a s i n g l y t h e b l o o d a n d b e s t e n er g i e s

o f p e o p l e s ! " N o w t h a t h i s p u r p o s e i s d i f f e r e nt , M u s s ol i n i

t a l k s i n a n e n t i r el y d i f f e r e n t v ei n . A f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g M u s -

s o l i n i ' s s o m e r s a u l t s, M e g a r o c o n c l u d e s t ha t " n a t i o n a l i s m ,

p a t r i o t i s m , I t a l y , t h e i n t e re s t s o f t h e I t a l i a n p e o p l e a r e m e r e

w o r d s t o h i m , m e r e s y m b o l s o f s e n t i m e n t s w h i c h h e c a n a n d

d o e s u se a n d e x p l o i t t o h i s o w n a d v a n t a g e w i t h s u p e r l a t i v e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s . " 3 6 U n q u e s t i o n a b l y m a n y F a s c i s t p r o n o u n c e -

m e n t s m u s t s i m i l a r l y b e c l a s s i f i e d a s m a s k s a n d s h i b b o l e t h s

w h i c h c o n c e a l t h e e s s e nt i a l i n t e r es t s o f t h e d i c t a t o r sh i p .

T h e r em e d y f o r s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o M a r x , i s n o t

t o l a p s e i n t o i r r a t i o n a l i s m o r d e s p a i r , b u t t o m o b i l i z e t h e

f o r c e s f o r s o c i a l c h a n g e . I n a j u s t s o c i e t y m e n w i l l h a v e n o

n e e d to s h y a w a y f r o m r e a l i s t i c t h o u g h t , a n d t h e of f i c i a l s w i l l

n o t n e e d d i s g u i s e s . F r e u d t h u s a f f o r d s a p s y c h o l o gi c a l t e c h -

n i q u e f o r c o m b a t i n g f a l s e i d e o l o g i e s , a n d M a r x a d v o c a t e s a

r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o c i a l t e c h n i q u e .

W h e t h e r o r n o t w e a c c e p t t h e s p e c i f i c p o i n t o f v i e w o f

M a n n h e i m , F r e u d , M a r x , o r s o m e o t h e r o f s i m i l a r p e r s u a -

s i o n , w e c a n h a r d l y d e n y t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e c o n tr a s t b e -

t w e e n a t h e o ry s u c h a s t h a t o f P a r e t o , w h o r eg a r d s t h e f a i l -

i n g s o f h u m a n t h o ug h t a s p r a c t i c a l l y i r r e d u c i b l e , a n d t h e

t h e o ri e s o f e q u a l l y e r u d i t e t h i n k e r s , w h o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e

m i n d i s s u b j e c t t o d i s c i p l i n e a n d c o r r e c t i o n . T h e e v i d e n c e

i s a l m o s t o v e r w h e l m i n g i n f a v o r o f t h e se c o n d t y p e o f t h e o r y .

W e k n o w f a r t o o m u c h a b o u t t h e c i v i l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e o f c u l -

t u r e , a n d t h e m od i f i a b i l i t y o f h u m a n n a t u r e a s a r e s u l t of

e d u c a t i o n a n d s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t o b e li e v e t h a t h u m a n

n a t u r e i s c a s t i n a n u t t er l y r i g i d m o l d .

9 . T h e A r g u m e n t B a s e d o n t h e R e l a t i v i t y o f V a l u e s

T h e r e la t i v i s t a s s e r t s th a t v a l u e s v a r y s o m u c h f r o m p e r s on

t o p e r s o n , o r f r o m g r o u p t o g r o u p , t h a t s c i e n c e i s i n a p p l i -

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VALUATIONS7 1

c a b l e t o t he d e t e rm i n a t i o n o f i d e a l s . W h a t i s o n e m a n ' s m e a t

i s a n o t h e r m a n ' s p o i s o n ; b u t r e a s o n i n v o l v e s s o m e d e g r e e o f

u n i v e r s a l i t y , a n d h e n c e t h e r e i s n o u s e i n d i s p u t i n g a b o u t

t a s t e s .

P a r e t o f u l l y e n d o r s e s t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w . H e a s s e r t s t h a t

" t h e c o n c e p t s v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e o f w h a t i s g o o d f o r

t h e m a n d g o o d f o r o t h e r s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s , a n d

t h e r e i s n o w a y o f r e d u c i n g t h e m t o u n i t y . "3 1

A l l t h a t t h e

v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e " h i g h e s t g o od , " o r e v e n t he p l a i n

" g o o d , " h a v e i n c o m m o n , i s t h a t e a c h d e f i n i t i o n i s " a g r e e -

a b l e " t o i t s p r o p o n e n t s . 3 8 " S o c i a l r e f o r m e r s " w h o a t t e m p t t o

e s c a p e f r o m t h i s s u b j e c t i v e b i a s a r e m e r e l y d e l u d i n g t h e m -

s e l v e s . 3 9

T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f e t h i c a l r e l a t i v i t y h a s a l s o b e e n a c -

c e p t e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s . I n a n a r t i c l e e n ti t l e d "R e l a t i v i t y a n d

F a s c i s m , " w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n t h e P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a November

2 2 , 1 9 2 1 , M u s s o l i n i h i m s e l f c h a m p i o n s t h e r e l a t i v i s t i c p o s i -

t i o n . E n d e a v o r i n g t o g o t he r e l a t i v i s t s o n e b e t t e r , h e de f i n e s

F a s c i s m a s " s up e r - r e la t i v i t y . " T h e F a s c i s t s, h e a s s e rt s , d i s p l a y

t h e i r e x t r e m e ly r e l a t i v i s t i c o u t l o o k b y r e f u s i n g t o g i v e a d e f -

i n i t e f o r m t o t h ei r p r o g r a m , a n d b y r ec o g n i z i n g " i n li f e a n d

a c t i o n a n a b s o l u t e s u p r e m a c y o v e r i n t el l i g e n c e . " T h e t h e o r y

o f " s u p e r - r e l a t i v i t y " i s l i n k e d t o N i e t z s c h e , w h o s e " w i l l t o

p o w e r " i s s a i d t o r e p r e s e nt r e l a t i v i s t i c e t h i c s a s a p p l i e d t o

i n d i v i d u a l a n d n a t i o n .4 o

The American F ascist, Lawrence Dennis, similarly con-

n e c t s r e l a t i v i t y w i t h t h e f o r c i b l e e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r . L i k e

P a r e t o , h e c o n t e n d s t h a t v a l u e s a r e w h o l l y s u b j e c t i v e . Two

p e o p l e o r t w o na t i o n s m a y b e e q u a l l y j u s t i f i e d " i n c h o o s i n g

a n d p u r s u i n g a d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e s e t o f o b j e c t i v e s . "41

I n c a s e o f a c o n f l i c t o f w i l l s , t h e u l t i m a t e a r b i t e r i s f o r c e :

T h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t r i g h t , i n d e p e n d e n t o f m i g h t , c a n e v e r b e

a n y t h i n g b u t a f i g m e n t of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , o r t h a t m i g h t d o e s n o t

m a k e r i g h t , o r t h a t a g i v e n n o r m of r i g h t c a n p r e v a i l e x c e p t b y

m i g h t , i s i n v a r i a b l y r e f u t ed b y t h e c o n f l i c t w h i c h a l w a y s f o l l o w s

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72 NO COMPROMISEa n a t t e m p t t o a s s e r t a r i g h t w i t h o u t m i g h t or a g a i n s t a s u p e r i o r

m i g h t . I n d e e d , t h e f a l s i t y o f s u c h a s s u m p t i o n s m a y b e s a i d t o b e

p r o v e d b y e v e r y s t a n d i n g a r m y , e v e r y p o l i c e f o r c e , e v e r y g o v e r n -

m e n t a l a c t o f c o e r c i o n , a n d e v e r y w a r o r s u c c e s s f u l r e v o lu t i o n . .. .

W h a t i s t h e s en s e o f " X " b u i l d i n g u p a s y s t e m o f c o n c e p t s o f r i g h t

o r et h i c s to p r ov e t ha t " a " eq u a l s " b, " i f " Y " has interests or voli -

t i o n s w hi c h m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r h i m t o a c c e p t t h e p r e m i s e s a n d

m o r a l e q u a t i o n s o f t h a t s y s t e m ? S o f a r a s t h o s e e t h i c a l p r o p o s i -

t i o n s o r m o r a l v a l u e s a n d t h e p e r s o n s " X " a n d " Y " a r e c o n c e r n e d ,

t h e r e i s b u t on e d e t er m i n i n g f a c t o r - f o r c e42

T h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e a n c i e n t S o p h i s t s i s h e r e r e v i v e d , a s i t

h a s b e e n m a n y t i m e s i n t h e p a s t .

T h e r e a r e t h r e e p a r t s t o t h e a r g u m e n t : f i r s t , t h a t e x t r e me

e t h i c a l r e la t i v i s m i s a f a c t ; s e c o n d , t h a t t h i s f a c t p r e c l u d e s a

s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o v a l u e s ; a n d t h i r d , t h a t f o r c e , r a t h e r

t h a n p e r s u a s i o n , m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y b e t h e a r b i t e r o f e t h i c a l

d i s p u t e s . A l l t h r e e p a r t s m a y b e c h a l l e n g e d .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , a l i t t l e r ef l e c t i o n w i l l d i s c l o s e t h a t t h e r e

a r e d e f i n i t e l i m i t s t o re l a t i v i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o t he r e l a t i v i s t s ,

" g o o d n e s s " i s b a s e d s i m p l y u p o n t h e s u b j e c t i v e b i a s o f e a c h

i n d i v i d u a l . The good is wha t each individual likes . V e r y

w e l l . W e w i l l t h e n h a v e t h e f o l l ow i n g t y p e o f s i t u a t i o n :

Mr. A . l i k e s p o we r .

M r . B . l i k e s k n o w l e d g e .

M r . C . l i k e s a r t .

M r . D. l i k e s f r i e n d s h i p .

M r . E . l i k e s p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e .Mr. X . l i k e s t r a v e l .

T h e l i s t c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d i n d e f i n i t e l y , a l t h o u g h s o o n w e

s h o u l d f i n d t h a t t h e r e a r e p e o p l e w h o l i k e t h e s a m e t h i n g s .

L e t u s , f o r t h e p r e s en t , d i s r e g a r d t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e . I s t h e r e

a n y t h i n g i n c o m m o n b e t w e e n t h e s e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s ? O b -

v i o u s l y t h e r e i s . T h e y a l l " l i k e " s o m e t h i n g . I s t h er e a n y t h i n g

i n c o m m o n b e t w e e n a l l t h e o b j e c t s l i s t e d ? Y e s , o f c o u r s e -

t h e y a r e a l l o b j e c t s of " l i k i n g . " N o w l e t u s g i v e t o " l i k i n g "

a n d i t s o p p o s i t e , " d i s l i k i n g , " t h e n a m e o f " i n t e r es t ." We can

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VALUATIONS 73

t h e n sa y t h a t , i n a l l s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s o f v a l u e , t h e r e i s a n

i n t e r e st i n a n o b j e c t , o r a n o b j e c t o f i n t e r e s t . H e n c e , t h e r e

i s a k i n d o f u n i v e r s a l i t y a f t e r a l l .

A l t e r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e m a y b e e m p l o y e d b y t h e r el a t i v i s t s ,

b u t t h e r e su l t w i l l b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e . I k n o w o f o ne

r e l a t i v i s t w h o s a y s t h a t g o o d n e s s s i m p l y m e a n s " e n d - o f -

a c t i o n , " a n d t h e e n d s s e l e c t e d m a y v a r y . L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t

t h i s i s t r u e . A l l o f e t h i c s w i l l t h e n i n v o l v e e n d s - o f - a c t i o n .

" A c t i o n " i n t u r n w i l l b e f o u n d t o d e p e n d u p o n v o l i t i o n ,

f e e l i n g , a n d o f t e n ti m e s j u dg m en t . H e n c e a g a i n t h e r e i s a

k i n d o f u n i v e r s a l i t y .

L e t u s n ow t a k e o u r u n i v e r s a l f a c t o r - c a l l i t " i n t e r e s t " o r

p u r p o s i v e " a c t i o n " - a n d s u b j e c t i t t o a n a l y s i s . P s y c h o l og y

a n d t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s h o ul d b e a b l e t o t hr o w a g r e a t d e a l

o f l i g h t u p o n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s c o n c e p t . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n ,

g e n e s i s , v a r i e t i e s , a n d m u t a t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t ( o r p u r p o s i v e

" a c t i o n " ) c a n b e s t u d i e d w i t h gr e a t c a r e . T h e r e s u l t w i l l b e

t o d e e p e n o u r s e n s e o f w h a t v a l u e m e a n s , a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e

m e a s u r e o f a g r e e m e n t c a n s u r e l y b e r e a c h e d .

S u p e r f i c i a l l y , t h e r e i s a n i r r e c o n c i l a b l e d i v e r g e n c e b e tw e e n

t h e m a i n t h e o r i e s o f v a l u e , y e t t h e d i f f e r e n c e t e n ds t o d i s a p -

p e a r i n t h e s p h e re o f p r a c t i c e . H e d o n i s m , v o l u n t a r i s m , s e l f -

r e a l i z a t i o n i s m , t h e " i n t e re s t t h e or y , " a n d r e l a t i v i s m - t o m e n -

t i o n t h e t h e o r i e s m o s t c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d - s e e m t o d i f f e r

w i d e l y a s t o w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s " g o od n e s s" ; a n d y e t a l l t h e se

t h e o r i e s w o u l d a g r e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t n o r m a l l y a m a n

s h o u l d e a t w h e n h e i s h u n g r y . T h e h e d o n i s t w o ul d s a y t h a t

t h e m a n s h o u l d e a t t o a t t a i n p l e a s u r e a n d t o a v o i d d i s -

p l e a s u r e ; t h e v o l u n t a r i s t w o u l d a s s e r t t h a t t h e m a n s h o u l d

e a t t o s a t i s f y h i s d e s i r e a n d t o a v o i d f r u s t r a t i o n ; t h e " s e l f -

r e a l i z a t i o n i s t " w o u l d d e c l a r e t h a t t h e m a n s h o u l d e a t i n

o r d e r t o a c t u a l i z e h i s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a n d t o a v o i d t h wa r t i n g

h i s n a t u r e ; t h e a d v o c a t e o f t h e i n t e r es t t h e o ry w o u l d c o n -

t e n d t h a t t h e m a n s h o u l d e a t t o f u l f i l l h i s i n t e r e s t ( i . e . , h i s

a f f e c t i v e - v o l i t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e ) a n d t o a v o i d n e g a t i v e i n -

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74 NO COMPROMISEt e r e s t o r d i s l i k e ; t h e r e l a t i v i s t w o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e m a n

s h ou l d e a t t o r e a li z e t hi s s p e c i f i c e n d - o f - a c t i o n . B u t a l l t h e

t h e o r i e s w o u l d a g r e e t h a t t h e m a n s h o u l d e a t !

W h a t d o t h e t h e o r i e s h a v e i n c o m m o n w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r

t h i s a g r e e m e n t i n p r a c t i c e ? T h e a n s w e r , I t h i n k , i s t h a t t h e

good depends in every instance upon the existence and

s a t i s f a c t i o n of a w a n t . I f t h e m a n d i d n o t want t o t a s t e t h e

f o o d , i f i n o t h e r w o r d s h e h a d n o r e l i s h f o r t h e t a s t e , h e

w o u l d n o t g e t p l e a s u r e f r o m e a t i n g ; n o r w ou l d h e h a v e a d e -

s i r e t o sa t i s f y ; n o r w o u l d h e ha v e a t e n d e n c y t o r e a l i z e ; n o r

w o u l d h e h a v e a n i n t e r e s t t o f u l f i l l ; nor would he have a

s p e c i f i c e n d- o f - a c t i o n t o a t t a i n . A l l t h e s e t h e o r i e s o f v a l u e

d e p e n d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y u p o n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

huma n wants . I f w e w e re a l l a s i m p a s s i v e a s s t i c k s o r s t o n e s ,

i f t h e r e we r e n e v e r a f l i c k e r o f i n c l i n a t i o n , t h e r e w o u l d b e

n o g o o d o r e v i l s o f a r a s w e a r e c o n c e r n e d . H e n c e a l l t h e

t h e o r i e s c a n a g r e e u p o n t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f s a t i s f y i n g t h e

b a s i c w a n t s o f m a n.43

N o t o n l y d o v a l u e s d e p e n d u p o n w a n t s , b u t h u m a n b e i n g s

i n g r e a t m e a s u r e a g r e e i n w h a t t h e y d o w a n t . T h e v a l u e s o f

love and warmth and sunshine and rest and food are uni-

v e r s a l , o r n e a r l y s o . The subtler values which dep end upon

t r a i n i n g a n d p e r s o n a l e n d o w m e n t a r e m a n i f e s t l y l e s s u n i -

v e r s a l ; b u t o u r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e m n e e d n o t b e s h a k e n u p o n

t h i s a c c o u n t . T h e f a m i l i a r f a c t t h a t t a s t e c a n b e i n t e l l i g e n t l y

c u l t i v a t e d s h ow s t h a t t h e re a r e p r i n c i p l e s o f g r o w th a n d d e -

velopm ent . "Disagreements" in this sphere, moreover, do

n o t u su a l l y i n v o l v e a c o n f l i c t a b o u t t he s a m e t h i n g ; a n a l y s i s

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e d i s p u t a n t s a r e r e a l l y t a l k i n g a b o u t q u i t e

d i f f e r e nt t h i n g s . T h u s t w o p e o p l e m a y " d i s a g r e e " a b o u t t h e

v a l u e o f a c e r t a i n m u s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e ; but one of them

g r a s p s t h e m u s i c a l r e l a t i o n s , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r f i n d s t h e

f o r m t o o d i f f i c u l t t o f o l l ow . E a c h o n e h e a r s s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r -

e n t , a n d i t i s n o t s u rp r i s i n g t h a t t h e y d i f f e r i n t h e i r a p -

p r a i s a l s . D i s a g r e e m e n t s a b o u t s o c i a l i d e a l s a r e l i k e w i s e a t

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VALUATIONS 75

t i m e s m u c h m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n r e a l . A s H a r o l d L a s k i h a s

p o i n t e d o u t , s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o f t e n " a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

d i f f e r e n t s oc i a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w e c o n f r o n t ." Thus no one

s h o u ld d e m a n d t h a t a b a c k w a r d i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r y c l i n g t o

t h e s a m e i d e a l s a s a n a d v a n c e d c o u n t r y , a n d " n o on e w o u ld

e x p e c t A r i s t o t l e t o da y t o d e f e n d t h e i n s t i t u ti o n o f s l a v e r y . "44

S i n c e h u m a n b e i n g s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a l i k e t o p e r m i t a

s c i e n c e o f p s y c h o l o gy , t h e y m u s t b e en o u g h a l i k e , w e c o n -

t e n d , t o p e r m i t a c e r t a i n c o m m u n i t y o f v a l u e s . E v e r y v a l u e

i n a m a n ' s l i f e i s b a s e d u p o n s o m e p r o p e r t y o f h u m a n n a -

t u re . T h e q u e s ti o n o f i t s v a l i d i t y i s w h e t h er i t i s w e l l b a s e d

o r n o t . W h e n t h e i n c l i n a t i o n s a n d n e e d s o f h u m a n b e i n g s

a r e n o t r i g h t l y u n d e r s t o o d , t h e v a l u e s a r e a p t t o b e s u p e r -

f i c i a l o r c o n f u s e d l y a p p r e h e n d ed . T h e b us i ne ss o f th e et hi c a l

t h i n k e r i s n o t t o d e n y f a c t s i n b e h a l f o f i d e a l s , n o r t o n eg l e c t

i d e a l s o u t o f r e s p e c t f o r " b r u t e " f a c t s . I t i s t o di s c o v e r m a n ' s

b a s i c n e e d s a n d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , a n d r e a l i s t i c a l l y t o p l a n a

c o u r s e o f a c t i o n f o r t h e s t ea d y r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h o s e g o o d s

w h i c h o t h e r w i s e w o u l d b e p a r t i a l a n d f l e e t i n g . T h e p r o b l e m

i s o n e o f e s t i m a t i n g h u m a n n a t u r e a n d i t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s

t r ul y : i t i s s i m i l a r t o th e p r o bl e m o f p s y c h o l o g y , e x c e p t t h a t

t h e f a c t s a r e a p p r o a c h e d f r o m a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e . If human

b e i n g s c o n t r a s t ed w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a s s h a r p l y a s m e n c o n -

t r a s t w i t h r a t s , w e s h o u ld h a v e t o a b a n d o n b o t h p s y c h o l o gy

a n d e t h i c s . F i n d i n g o u r d i f f e r e n c e s i r r e c o n c i l a b l e, w e c o u l d

o n l y r e s o r t t o f l i g h t o r m u t u a l e x t e r m i n a t i o n . B u t i t w o u l d

a p p e a r t h a t h u m a n n a t u re i s n o m e r e f i g m e n t o f t h e i m a g i -

n a t i o n : men, being somewhat alike, can m eet on comm on

g r o u nd a n d e r e c t p r i n c i p l e s t o g o v er n t h e i r b e h a v i o r . The

v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l i n s t i t u ti o n s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y c a n ,

o n o c c a s i o n , d o t h i s .

U n l e s s w e a s s u m e t h a t t he r e i s a v e r y r a d i c a l d i s p a r i t y

b e t w ee n h u m a n b e i n g s , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n r e l a t i v i s m t h a t

p r e c l u d e s s c i e n c e . G r a n t e d t h a t w a n t s v a r y t o s o m e e x t e n t

f r o m p e r s o n t o p e r s o n , o r f r o m g r o u p t o g r o u p , t h e r e w o u l d

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76 NO COMPROMISEs t i l l b e t he s c i e n t i f i c p r o b l em o f e l i m i n a t i n g c o n f l i c t s . A s

S a m u e l A l e x a n d e r h a s s a i d , e t h i c s i s t h e a n s w e r t o th e p r o b -

l e m o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e m a n i f o l d l i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s o f m a n y

p e o p l e . 4 6 A s c i e n c e o f h u m a n w e l f a r e w o u l d n o t c a l l i n q u e s -

t i o n t h e s e d i v e r g e n t p r e f e r e n c e s u n l e s s t h e y s e r i o u s l y o b s t r u c t

e a c h o t h er . I n s t ea d , i t s e f f o r t w o u l d be t o i n d i c a t e t h e c o n -

d i t i o n s f o r t h e f u l l e st a n d m o s t v a r i e d r e a l i z a t i o n o f v a l u e s .

N o o n e s h o u ld e x p e c t a n a r t i s t a n d a n e n g i n e e r t o c h o o s e

t h e s a m e v a l u e s , b u t t h o u g h t f u l m e n s h o u l d t ry t o d i s c o v e r

h o w s u c h d i v e r s e v a l u e s c o u l d b e c o m b i n e d i n a h a r m o n i o u s

s o c i e t y . H e r e i s a p r o b l e m w h o s e u r g e n c y w o u l d o n l y b e i n -

c r e a s e d b y t h e f a c t o f e t h i c a l r e l a t i v i s m ; a n d t h e t a s k o f

a c h i e v i n g s u c h a h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f v a l u e s c o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t

b e r e s o l v e d i n a p u r e l y t h o u g h t l e s s w a y . S c i e n c e w o u l d n o t

b e a b o l i s h e d ; i t s f u n c t i o n w o u l d m e r e l y b e r e i n t e r p r e t e d .

T h e p l a i n f a c t , w e m a y s a f e l y c o n c l u d e , i s t h a t h u m a n b e -

i n g s a r e a g o o d d e a l a l i k e . T h e y h a v e s i m i l a r b i o l o gi c a l n a -

t u r e s , t h e y a r e b o r n i n t o a c o m m o n w o r l d , a n d t h e y m u s t

l e a r n t o l i v e a s c i t i z e n s a n d n e i g h b o r s . F o r t u n a t e l y t h e y d o

d i f f e r , s i n c e n o o n e c a r e s f o r s t a n d a r d i z e d r o b o t s . T h e s e

d i f f e r e n c e s s ho u l d b e a c c e p t e d a s w e l c o m e v a r i a t i o n s u p o n

t h e b a s i c t h e m e o f l i f e . U n l e s s m e n ' s m i n d s h a v e b e e n s o

p o i s o n e d t h a t t h e y r e f u s e t o r e a s o n t h e y s h o u l d b e a b l e t o

f i n d w a y s o f e n j o y i n g , o r a t l e a s t a d j u s t i n g , t h e i r d i f f e r -

e n c e s .

T o m a i n t a i n , a s d o m a n y o f t h e F a s c i s t s , t h a t m i g h t m a k e s

r i g h t , i s t o o v e r l o o k t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h h u m a n w a n t s a r e

i d e n t i c a l o r c a n b e i n t e l l i g e n t ly h a r m o n i z e d . E v e n i n t h e

j u n g l e , t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n a n i m a l s ,

a n d s o m e t o l e r a t i o n o f d i v e r g e nc i e s . I s e e n o r e a s o n w h y

h u m a n b e i n g s s h o u l d d e s c e n d l o w e r t h a n t h e j u n g l e . We

h a v e e v e r y r e a s o n a t t h e p r e s e nt t i m e t o i n s i s t u p o n p e r -

s u a s i o n , t o l e ra n c e , a n d m u t u a l a i d . I f t h e op p o s i t e c r e e d

p r e v a i l s , L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k w i l l e v e n tu a l l y s u f f e r t h e

s a m e w a r t i m e f a t e a s A d d i s A b a b a , M a d r i d , a n d S h a n g h a i ;

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VALUATIONS7 7

a n d a l l t h a t w e m o s t c h e r i s h m a y u l t i m a t e l y b e s h a t t e r e d .

T h e F a s c i s t s a r e w i l l i n g t o a d m i t a c o m m u n i t y o f i n t e r e s t

o n a n a t i o n a l o r a r a c i a l b a s i s ( f o r c i b l y e x c l u d i n g c e r ta i n e l e -

m e n t s ) ; b u t t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e u p o n t he r e l a t i v i t y o f v a l u e s a s

b e t we e n ra c e s o r n a t i o n s m a y p r o v e f a t a l t o c i v i l i z a t i o n . P r o -

f e s s o r T a w n e y h a s r e m a r k e d t h a t c l e v e r m e n e m p h a s i z e t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h s e p a r a t e t h e m f r o m t h e i r f e l l o w s a n d w i s e

m e n e m p h a s i z e w h a t t h e y h a v e i n c o m m o n . T h i s r e m a r k a p -

p l i e s u p o n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c a l e .

i o . The Argument Based on the "Ought"

T h i s o b j e c t i o n t o a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s r es t s o n t he d i s t i n c -

t i o n b e t w e e n f a c t s a n d i d e a l s . I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t n o m a n

c o u l d d e n y t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t i s a n d w h a t o u g h t t o

b e . M a n ' s s o a r i n g v i s i o n s o f a b e t te r w o r ld a r e o b v i o u s l y

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t he c o n c r e t e m u d d le o f a c t u a l i t y . H i s t o r y i s

f u l l o f c r i m e s a n d c a l a m i t i e s ; w h a t h a p p e n s i s o n e t hi n g , a n d

w h a t o u g h t t o h a p p e n i s o f t e n a n o t h e r . H e n c e , i t m a y b e

s a i d , w e c a n n o t u s e a s c i e n t i f i c t e c h n i q u e , w h i c h i s a d a p t e d

t o t h e st u d y o f f a c t s , i n a n e f f o r t t o d e te r m i n e i d e a l s . F a c t s

a r e d i s c o v e r e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; v a l u e s a r e f o r m u l a t e d b y

i m a g i n a t i o n a n d s e n t i m e n t .

This is an argument of which Pareto is fond . H e r e -

p e a t e d l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h e m o ra l i m p e r a t i v e i s t o o s u bj e c t i v e a

t h i n g t o b e b a s e d o n s c i e n c e . T h e t e r m " o u g h t , " h e s a y s ,

" d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o a n y c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y , " a n d t a k e s u s

" o u t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f i e l d . "4 s

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n -

c e p t o f " o u g ht " i s t h a t o f " d u t y , " w h i c h P a r e t o a l s o f i n d s

b e y o n d t he s c o p e o f s c i e n c e :

W h a t i n t h e w o r l d i s t h i s t h i n g " d u t y " t h a t h a s s u d d en l y

p o p p e d u p ? E v e r y b o d y h a s h i s a n s w e r - t h e i l l i t e r a t e , t h e e du c a t e d

m a n , t h e p h i l o s o p h e r, a l l a l i k e ; a n d w e g o f r o m th e c h i l d i s h

a n s w e r o f t h e p l a i n m a n t o t h e a b s t r u s e , b u t f r o m t h e l o g i c o -

e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a n d p o i n t n o b e tt e r , t h e or y o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c i s t . 4 7

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78 NO COMPROMISE

A c c o r di n g t o P a r e t o, f a c t s a r e o n e t h i n g , e t hi c a l i m p e r a t i v e s

a r e q u i t e a n o t h e r . O n l y f a c t s c a n b e de a l t w i t h by s c i e n c e .

T h e F a s c i s t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s d u t i e s a n d i d e a l s i s n o t s o

c o n s i s t e n t a s P a r e t o ' s , b u t t h e up s h o t i s m u c h t h e s a m e . T h e

F a s c i s t s b o a s t o f b e i n g g u i d e d s ol e l y b y f a c t s r a t h e r t h a n b y

w e a k - k n e e d i d e a l s . I n t h i s m o o d , t h e y w i l l s p e a k o f " w h a t

t h e l a w s of n a t u r e d e m a n d " ( G o r i n g ) , o r r e j e c t t h e " f a b l e " o f

"huma n brotherhood" (Mussolini) . S i m i l a r l y , J a m e s D r e n -

n a n , t h e E n g l i s h F a s c i s t , q u o t e s wi t h a p p r o v a l t h e f o l l o w i n g

s t a t e m e n t o f S p e n g l e r :

. . . I n t h e h i s t o ri c a l w o r l d th e r e a r e n o i d e a l s , b u t o n ly f a c t s -

n o t r u t hs , b u t o n l y f a c t s . T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n , n o h o n e s t y , n o

e q u i t y , n o f i n a l a i m , b u t o nl y f a c t s , a n d a n y o n e w h o d o es n o t

r e a l i z e t h i s s h o u l d w r i t e b o o k s o n p o l i t i c s - l e t h i m n o t t r y t omake p o l i t i c s48

I n a n o t h e r m o o d , F a s c i s t " i d e a l i s m " c o m e s t o t h e f o r e , a n d

p o l i t i c s a r e s a i d t o r e s t u p o n a m o r a l , a n d e v e n a m y s t i c a l ,

f o u n d a t i o n . T h u s w e f i n d C a m i l l o P e l l i z i , o n e o f t h e e a r l y

c o n t r i b u t o r s t o F a s c i s t d oc t r i n e , w r i t i n g a s f o l l o w s :

W e s t a r t o u t w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t p o l i t i c s i s a n o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n o f

t h e s p i r i t a n d t h a t t h e s p i r i t r e a l i z e s i t s e l f i n p o l i t i c s a s a n a b s o -

l u t e re s p o n s i b i l i t y t o i t s e l f a n d t o i t s o w n a c t i o n a n d i n p o l i t i c s

c r e a t e s i t s o w n m o r a l p e r s o n a l i t y . . . . N o t e v e r y d e e d o f m a n i s

c o n s e q u e n t l y g o o d , b u t e v e r y d e e d of m a n t h a t i s i n s p i r e d b y t h i s

t o t a l , m y s t i c a l r e s p o ns i b i l i t y . 4 9

F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f P e l l i z i , i d e a l s a r e b a s e d u p o n a n

i n n e r , m y s t i c a l p r o m p t i n g , w h e r e a s f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w

o f S p e n g le r , i d e a l s a r e s i m p l y d i s m i s s e d i n f a v o r o f " f a c t s . "

A c c o r d i n g t o b o t h , t h e r e c a n b e n o s c i e n t i f i c d e t e rm i n a t i o n

o f v a l u e s .

T h e p r o b l e m w e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g i s a s e r i o u s o n e . I f s c i e n c e

i s a k n o w l e d g e o f existence, and an "ideal" or "norm" is

w h a t o u g h t t o b e b u t i s not, t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a " n o r m a t i v e

s c i e n c e " i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y . M o d e r n t h i n k e r s h a v e b e e n d e e p l y

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VALUATIONS 79

d i s t u r b ed b y t h i s a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n . The remedy, we

s h a l l c o n t e n d , i s t o r e m o v e t h e s h a r p a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n

f a c t s a n d i d ea l s .

W h a t i s t h e b a s i s i n a c t u a l i t y o f o b l i g a t i o n s a n d i d e a l s ?

T h e r e mu s t b e s o me ba s i s , s i n c e a n i d e a l i s f a l s e i f i t i s i r r e l e -

v a n t t o l i f e . " O n l y a m o r a l i t y f r a n k l y r e l a t i v e t o m a n ' s n a -

t u r e , " a s S a n t a y a n a h a s r e m a r k e d , " i s w o r th y o f m a n , b e i n g

a t o n c e v i t a l a n d r a t i o n a l , m a r t i a l a n d g e n e r ou s ; w h e re a s a b -

s o l u t i s m s m e l l s o f f u s t i n e s s a s w e l l a s o f f a g g o t s . " 5 0 The

p r i n c i p l e o f a l l s o u n d i d e a l i s m i s i m p l i e d i n t h e s a y i n g o f

C h r i s t : " T h e s a b b a t h w a s m a d e f o r m a n , a n d n o t m a n f o r

t h e s a b b a t h . " A v a l i d i d e a l i s a p l a n o f a c t i o n f o r t he s a t i s -

f a c t i o n o f g e n u i n e n e ed s , a n d a s s u c h r e f e r s t o w ha t e x i s t s .

A n e e d a r i s e s w h e n t h e r e i s a n i m p u l s e t h a t i s f r u s t r a t e d ,

o r a t l e a s t , u n c o n s u m m a t e d . We need food when we are

hungry, compa nionship when we are lonely, information

w h e n w e a r e c u r i o u s . W e m a y d e f i n e a n e e d a s a n a u t h o r i t a -

t i v e w a n t : s t r o n g a n d d u r a b l e e n o u g h t o b e w o r t h y o f o u r

a t t e n t i o n , a n d c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a w o r k i n g h a r m o n y a m o n g

o u r v a r i o u s d e s i r e s . M o s t m e n , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e a r e a l n e e d

t o l o v e ; b e c a u s e t h e s e x u a l i m p u l s e i s a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t o f

m a n ' s n a t u r e , a n d l o v e b l e n d s w e l l w i t h o t h er p o s i t i v e v a l u e s .

O n t h e o t h er h a n d , t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r n o ne e d t o w a l k a t i g h t

r o p e ; b e c a u s e t he m a s t e r y o f t h i s d i f f i c u l t a r t c o r r es p o n d s t o

nothing deep in human na ture, and would consume m uch

t i m e t h a t c o u l d b e d e v o t e d t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f o t h e r wa n t s .

H e r e w e a r e o n s c i e n t i f i c g r o u n d ; t h er e a r e t e c hn i q u es f or

f i n d i n g o u t w h a t p e o p l e w a n t . A n i n t e r e s t i n g m e t h o d w a s

a d o p t e d b y t h e e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s w h o c o n d u c t e d t h e

N a t i o n a l S u r v e y o f Po t e n ti a l Pr o d u c t C a p a c i t y . T h i s s u r v e y ,

m a d e u n d e r th e a u s p i c e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t ,

c a l c u l a t e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h o u r p r o d u c t i v e r e s o u r c e s

c o u l d s a t i s f y t h e w a n t s a n d n ee d s o f o u r p o p u l a t i o n i f t h e

A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s h o u l d f u n c t i o n t o t h e f u l l e x -

t e n t o f i t s c a p a c i t y . O n e o f t h e t a s k s o f t h e s u r v e y w a s t o d i s -

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8o NO COMPROMISEcover what the American p eople do require in the way of

g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s t o a c h i e v e d e s i r a b l e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s. T h i s

problem, declares Ha rold Loeb, one of the directors of the

s u r v e y , " d i d n o t p r o v e a s d i f f i c u l t a s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d . " 5 1

The survey exp erts recognized that the way p eople sp end

their money is one of the surest indications of wha t they

want . S i n c e m o n ey i s i t s e lf a m e a s u re o f m a r k e t v a l u e , i t p r o -

vides an objective indication of the chara cter and intensity

o f w a n t s s o f a r a s t h e s e c a n b e s a t i s f i e d t h r o u g h o rd i n a r y p u r -

c h a s e s . This method, however, is largely inap plicable to the

poor, since they want m any things which they cannot possibly

a f f o r d . Also the method does not work very well in reference

to the rich, since they have so much money that they ca n

i n d u l g e i n f a n t a s t i c a n d i d l e e x p e n d i t u r e s . Consequently, the

Nationa l Survey investigated the spending of an intermedia te

group ; na mely, fam ilies with an average yearly income of

$6,ooo . The exp erts decided that the clothes purchased by

mem bers of this income group in the a rea of Berkeley, Cali-

f o r n i a ( a t y p i c a l c i t y i n t e r ms o f l i v i n g c o s t s) , w o u l d b e a f a i r

indication of what huma n beings want in the wa y of clothing

when they a re not hamp ered by poverty nor spoiled by

luxury . Now this method can be ap plied to many typ es of

goods and services, and a schedule of typical wa nts can thus

be prepared .

The survey a lso ma de use of other methods . I n t h e c a s e o f

food, it was quite reasonably assumed that most people would

l i k e t o e n j o y a " l i b e r a l d i e t " a s d e f i n e d b y t h e s p e c i a l i s t s o f

the United States D epa rtment of Agriculture . T h i s d i e t i n -

cludes "just what a fam ily req uires in the way of foodstuffs

in our clima te in order to ma intain the ma xim um efficiency

and growth, and to provide meals gratifying to the taste . " 5 2

Next the survey dep ended upon the a dvice of recognized

medical a uthorities as to what is required for proper medical

c a r e . In education, the budget was determined by the au-

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VALUATIONS 8 1

t h o r i t i e s a t T e a c h e r s C o l l e ge , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , e t c . S c i -

entific standards were thus worked out as to what would

satisfy the fundam ental wants a nd needs of huma n beings .

T h e N a t i o n a l S u r v e y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e c h i e f r e q u i r e m e n t s

i n g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s c o u l d b e d e f i n e d w i t h s c i e n t i f i c p r e -

c i s i o n .

V a r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s c a n a l s o b e o f g r e a t a s -

sistance in determining what human beings want . A good

e x a m p l e i s a f f o r d ed b y t he i n v es t i ga t i o n s o f D r . G . V . H a m i l -

t o n , D i r e c t o r o f P s y c h o b i o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h f o r t h e B u r e a u o f

S o c i a l H y g i e n e , N e w Y o r k C i t y . H e h a s m a d e a d e t a i l e d s t u d y

o f p a t i e n t s a f f l i c t e d w i t h n e r v o u s di s o r d e rs . S u c h p e o p l e su f -

f e r f r o m t h e f r u s t r a t i o n o f m a j o r c r a v i n g s ; h e n c e , b y s t ud y -

i n g t h e s e c a s e s i n t en s i v e l y , a s k i l l e d p s y c h i a t r i s t c a n d e t e r -

mine which cravings are so basic that a denial of them

p r o d u c e s n e u r o s i s . After an ex am ination of two hundred

n e r v o u s c a s e s , H a m i l t o n r e a c h e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n .

P r o du c t i v e o c c u p a t i o n , a c c e s s t o f a m i l i a r s o u r c e s o f g r e g a r i o us

s a t i s f a c t i o n , h a r m o n i o u s d o m e s t i c c o n d i t i o n s , f r e e do m t o p u r s u e

a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p u r s u i n g v a r i o u s s e x u a l - r o m a n t i c v a l u e s ,

c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h m a k e f o r t h e i n c i d e n c e o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i e t y

o f s t i m u l a t i o n , - t h e s e f a c t o r s m u st e n t e r i n t o t h e l i f e o f t h e a v e r -

a g e i n d i v i d u a l i f h i s r e a c t i v e e q u i p m e n t i s t o f u n c t i o n s m oo t h ly . 5 3

T h e " c r e a t i v e t y p e " o f p e r s o n m u s t i n a d d i t i o n s e c u r e c o n -

s t r u c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n f o r h i s a r t i s t i c , s c i e n t i f i c , o r i n v e n ti v e

bent. H a m i l t o n n o t o n l y g i v e s a g e n e r a l a c c o u n t o f h u m a n

c r a v i n g s , bu t p o i n t s t o m a n y s p e c i f i c i n c l i n a t i o n s , es p e c i a l l y

t h o s e of a s e x u a l n a t u r e .

Another attempt to work out a schedule of human wants

o c c u r s i n t h e wr i t i n g o f t h e C h i c a g o s o c i o l o g i s t , W i l l i a m I .

T h om a s . I n h i s e x t e n s i v e s t u d y , The Polish Peasant in

Europe and America, 5 4 h e i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e d i s o r ga n i z a t i o n o f

p e r s o n a l i t i e s u n d e r t h e t r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f m i g r a t i o n f r o m

t h e " o l d c o u n t r y " t o t h e " n e w . " A f t e r m a n y c a s e s t u d i e s o f

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8 2 NO COMPROMISEt h e s t r u g g l e s o f t h e s e P o l i s h i m m i g r a n t s , T h o m a s c o n c l u d e s

t h a t t h e g r ea t v a r i e t y o f h u m a n w i s h e s m a y b e r e d u c e d t o t h e

f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n :

i . T h e d e s i r e f o r n e w e x p e r i e n c e .

2 . T h e d e s i r e f o r s e c u r i t y .

3 . T h e de s i r e f o r r es p o n s e ( l o v e , i n t i m a c y , f r i e n d s h i p ) .

4 . T h e d e s i r e f o r r e c o g n i t i o n ( s t a t u s , r e p u t a t i o n ) .

T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s re a c h e d

by Ha milton .

T h e s e a n d s i m i l a r s t u d i e s p r o v e t h a t w a n t s c a n b e s u b -

j e c t e d t o s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . There i s no necessity of

relying upon the vague "intuitions" of the F ascists . Plans for

the betterm ent of huma n life can be worked out upon the

basis of very definite knowledge of the ma jor huma n crav-

ings .

O n e g re a t d i f f i c u l t y , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t w a n t s o f t e n c o n f l i c t ,

b o t h w i t h i n a s i n g l e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d b e t w e e n p e r s o n s . H e n c e ,

c e r t a i n w a n t s m u s t b e s a c r i f i c e d t o o t h e r s . H o w s h a l l w e a s -

s i g n w e i g h t s i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h s h o u l d b e s a c r i f i c e d ?

F a s c i s m ' s a n s w e r i s t o a c c e p t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f b i a s . The

b i a s e s o f r a c e , n a t i o n , c l a s s , s e x , e t c . , d e t e r m i n e w h i c h w a n t s

t h e F a s c i s t s c h o o se t o s a c r i f i c e . T h e w a n t s o f a J e w , f o r e x -

a m p l e , a r e t o be s a c r i f i c e d t o t h os e o f a n " A r y a n " ; t h e w a n t s

o f a w o m a n a r e t o r e c e i v e l e s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a n t h o s e of a

m a n ; t h e w a n t s o f a n e m p l o y e e a r e t o b e l es s r e s p e c t e d t h a n

t h o s e of a n e m p l o y e r . ( C h a p t e r I V w i l l b e d e v o te d to p r o v i n g

that these biases p redominate under Fa scism . ) T h e p r i n -

c i p l e s w h i c h s h o u l d g o v e r n a m o r e o b j e c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e

p r o b l e m m a y b e o u t l i n e d s o m e w h a t a s f o l l o w s :

F i r s t , t h e m o r e d u r a b l e s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r e g e n er a l l y t o b e

p r e f e r r e d t o t h e le s s d u r a b l e . O t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , a

l a s t i n g g o o d i s o b v i o u s l y b e t t e r th a n a t r a n s i e n t g o o d .

S e c o n d , t h e m o r e b a s i c a n d i n t e n s e s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r e g e n e r -

a l l y t o b e p r e f e r r e d t o t h e m o re s u p e r f i c i a l . C l e a r l y , i f s o m e-

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VALUATIONS 83

t h i n g h a s t o b e sa c r i f i c e d , w e s h o u ld g i v e u p s a t i s f a c t i o n o f

o u r m i n o r c r a v i n g s r a t h e r t h a n o f o u r m a j o r c r a v i n g s . R e -

n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r d o e s n o t i n v o l v e g r e a t l o s s , w h e r e a s

d e n i a l o f t h e l a t t e r p r o d u c e s m e n t a l d i s e a s e a n d m i s e r y . We

h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t s c i e n c e c a n d i s c o v e r w h i c h c r a v -

i n g s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l .

T h i r d , t h e m o r e c e r t a i n s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y t o b e p r e -

f e r r e d t o t h e l e s s c e r t a i n . W e m u s t , l i k e i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s ,

c o n s i d e r t h e f a c t o r o f r i s k . T h i s j u s t i f i e s a c e r t a i n p r e f e r e nc e

i n f a v o r o f b e i n g s n e a r u s i n t i m e a n d s p a c e a n d s i m i l a r t o

u s i n n a t u r e , s i n c e d i s t a n c e a n d u n f a m i l i a r i t y o b s c u r e t h e

e f f e c t s of o u r a c t i o n s . The Fa scists, however, put far too much

stress upon this fa ctor . I n t h e i r o p p o r t u n i s m , t h e y t e n d t o

s a c r i f i c e u l t i m a t e w e l f a r e f o r t h e s a k e o f a n i m m e d i a t e a d -

v a n t a g e ; a n d t h e i r r a c i a l a n d na t i o n a l i s t i c p r e j u d i c e s c r u e l l y

r e s t ri c t t h e i r s y m p a t h i e s . Under modern conditions of com-

m u n i c a t i o n a n d r a p i d m o b i l i t y , m o r e o v e r , w e c a n o f t e n d e -

t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s o f c h o i c e s u p o n a l i e n o r d i s t a n t p e o p l e

w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y .

F o u r t h , t h e m o r e h a r m o n i o u s s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r e o r d i n a r i l y

t o b e p r e f e r r e d t o t h e l e s s h a r m o n i o u s . A s B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l

h a s w i t t i l y r e m a r k e d , l o v e i s u s u a l l y b e t t e r th a n m u r d e r , b e -

c a u s e l o v e s u i t s b o t h p a r t i e s a n d m u r d e r s u i t s o n l y o n e . I n

t h e e v e nt o f c o n f l i c t , t h e r e i s s u f f e r i n g o r d e p r i v a t i o n . We ma y

a c c o r d i n g l y c l a s s i f y s o u r c e s of s a t i s f a c t i o n r o ug h l y a s f o l l o ws :

G enera lly Concorda nt Genera lly D iscorda nt

Love T y r a n n i c a l p o w e r ov e r p e o p l e

Wisdom B i g o t r y

Health A c q u i s i t i v e n e s s

S e n s e o f w or k m a n s h i p M i l i t a r y p r o w es s

D e v o t i o n t o b e a u t y R a c i a l o r n a t i o na l i s t i c p r i d e

E c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y , e t c .V a r i o u s i m m o d e r a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n s , e t c .

Now the chief fault of F ascist values is that they tend to fa ll

into the discordant class . T h e y i n t e n s i f y c o n f l i c t s w h i c h a r e

t h e m a i n s o u r c e s o f m i s e r y . T h e s c i e n c e o f w e l f a r e , i n c o n -

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84 NO COMPROMISEt r a s t , w o u l d st u d y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c a u s e s o f c o n f l i c t a n d s e e k

to remove them .

T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d c o n j o i n t l y a n d b a l -

a n c e d a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r . T h e ul t i m a t e o bj e c t i v e o f s e c u r i n g

t h e g re a t e s t p o s s i b l e su r p l u s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n o v e r d i s s a t i s f a c -

tion must be kept in m ind and should determine which

w a n t s a r e t o b e r e g a r d e d a s genuine needsW e a r e n o w p r e p a r e d t o s u m m a r i z e t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m u -

l a t i n g a n d t e s t i n g i d e a l s . T h e r e i s a n e e d , t o b e d e t e r m i n e d

i n t h e m a n n e r w e h a v e j u s t i n d i c a t e d , w h i c h g i v e s r i s e t o a

c e r t a i n " i d e a l " a s t o h o w t h e n e e d c a n b e m e t . T h i s i d e a l i s a

plan o f action, c o n s t r u c t e d a s a r e su l t of a p p r a i s i n g p r e s e n t

a n d p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , b u t i n v o l v i n g a n e l e m e nt o f u n c e r t a i n t y

b e c a u s e o f i t s p r o s p e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r . I n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h i s

f a c t o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , w e m u s t a s k o u r s e lv e s , " W h a t a c t s c a n

w e p e r f o r m t h a t w i l l b r i n g t o l i g h t t h e d a t a t h a t w e n e e d i n

o r d e r t o v e r i f y o u r o b j e c t i v e s ? " T h e p r o b l e m , a s J o h n D e w e y

h a s s t a t e d i t , i s

t o b r e a k u p o u r j u d g m e n t o f c h o i c e , o r a c t t o b e p e r f o r m e d ,

i n t o a n u m b e r o f a c t s a s s p e c i f i c a s p o s s i b l e, s o t h a t f l e x i b l e

r e a p p r a i s a l c a n b e p e r f o r m e d w i t h a m i n i m u m o f w a s t e . No

" i d e a l " i s e v e r r e a l i z e d o f f - h a n d o r w h o l e s a l e . We only embody

i t t h r o u gh a c t s i n s u c h w a y s t h a t i t s m e a n i n g b e c o m e s c l e a r e r ,

s o t h a t w e g et t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a f u r t h e r i n t e l l i g e n t a c t . 5 5

S o m e t i m e s , a s i n t h e s o c i a l f i e l d , t h e e x p e r i m e n t c a n n o t b e

m a d e b y t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ; b u t h e c a n a t l e a s t c r i t i c a l l y e v a l u -

a t e s o c i a l m o v e m e nt s a s t h e y e m e r g e, s t a g e b y s t a g e , i n v a r i -

o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .

M a n y d i f f e r e nt i n d i v i d u a l s c a n j o i n i n t h e te s t i n g a n d a p -

p l i c a t i o n o f o u r i d e a l s : t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , t h e e s t he t i c i a n , t h e

p h y s i c i a n , t h e h y g i e n i s t , t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t , the welfare

w o r k e r , t h e c o m m u n i t y p l a n n e r , t h e a r c h i t e c t , t h e e n g i n e e r ,

a n d t h e s t a t e s m a n . T h e h u m a n e a r t s a n d s c i e n c e s c a n p o o l

t h e i r w i s d o m i n m a p p i n g o u t a p r o g r a m f o r h u m a n w e l f a r e .

W e h a v e t h e e x p e r t s a n d t h e r e s o u r c e s ; w e l a c k o n l y a d e -

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VALUATIONS 8 5

t e r m i n a t i o n t o d r a w u p t h e p l a n s a n d p u t t h e m i n t o v i g o r o u s

o p e r a t i o n . S u c c e s s , w e be l i e v e , w i l l d e p e n d u p o n t h e p r e s e r -

v a t i o n o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c v i r t u e s : f r e e t h o u g h t , v o l u n t a r y

a c t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a l e f f o r t , u n f e tt e r e d s y m p a t h y , a n d r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e p e o p l e - v i r t u e s o p p o s e d t o t h e a u t h o r i -

t a r i a n r u le o f t h e F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s h i p s .

What ought t o b e , w e h a v e s e e n , i s w h a t s a t i s f i e s n e e d s .

T h e s e n e e d s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y , a n d a p l a n t o

s a t i s f y t h e m e l a b o ra t e d w i t h d u e r e g a r d t o t h e f a c t s . T h i s

p l a n o r i d e a l i s t h e n s ub j e c t t o c r i t i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n a n d r e -

v i s i o n . W e m a y t h u s i n t e r p r e t t h e m e a n i n g o f " o u g h t " a n d

" i d e a l " s o t h a t t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

s c i e n c e .

As yet we have scarcely touched upon the m eaning of

" o ug h t" i n t h e sp e c i f i c a l l y m o r a l s en s e o f d u ty . T h i s q u e s t i o n

w i l l b e f u l l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . I s h a l l t he n i n d i -

c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g a n t i s c i e n t i f i c i n t h e c o n c e p t o f

o b l i g a t i o n . I f w e d i v e s t o ur m i n d s o f s u p e r st i t i o u s i n t e rp r e -

t a t i o n s o f d u t y , t h e c o n c e p t o f " m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n " c a n b e

c o n s t r u e d a s a d e m a n d f o r i m p a r t i a l i t y a s o p p o s e d t o p r e j u -

d i c e . I d o n o t m e a n t h a t m o r a l o bj e c t i v i t y , a s e m b o d i e d i n

t h e s en s e o f d u ty , i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y , b u t

I d o c o n t e nd t h a t t h e on e k i n d o f o b j e c t i v i t y i s e n t i r e l y c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h , a n d e v e n c l o s e l y a k i n t o , t h e o t he r . I t i s n o t t h e

r e c o g n i t i o n o f o b l i g a t i o n , b u t th e a c c e p t a n c e o f v a r i o u s t y p e s

o f b i a s , w h i c h l e a d s t h e F a s c i s t s t o a b a n d o n t h e m e t h o d s o f

b o t h s c i e n t i f i c a n d m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y .

i i . Conclusion

I n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w e h a v e d e f e n d e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f

i n q u i r y a s o p p o s e d t o F a s c i s t a n t i - i n t e l l ec t u a l i s m . W e f u l l y

a g r e e w i t h t h e p o i n t o f v i e w e x p r e s s e d l o n g a g o b y S o c r a t e s ,

w h o i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y P l a t o a s d e c l a r i n g :

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86 NO COMPROMISES o m e t h i n g s I h a v e s a i d o f w h i c h I a m n o t a l t o g et h e r c o n f i -

d e n t . B u t t h a t w e s h a l l b e b e t t e r a n d b r a v e r a n d l e s s h e l p l e s s i f

w e t h i n k t h a t w e o u g h t t o e n q u i r e , t h a n w e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n

i f w e i n d u l ge d i n t h e i d l e f a n c y t h a t t h e r e w a s n o k n o w i n g a n d

n o u s e i n s e e k i n g t o k n o w w h a t w e d o n o t k n o w ; - t h a t i s a t h e me

u p o n w h i c h I a m r e a d y t o f i g h t , i n w o r d a n d d ee d , t o t h e ut -

most of my power . 5 °

I t i s t h i s b a s i c a t t i t u d e t h a t h a s b e e n o f i n e s t i m a b l e i m -

porta nce in the developm ent of Western culture . The hu-

m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a l t o ou r s oc i e t y , i s m a i n l y

a com bination of this Greek ideal of inquiry a nd the

C h r i s t i a n i d e a l o f k i n d l i n es s . By "huma nism" we mean the

t r a d i t i o n o f u t i l i z i n g t h e f u l l r e s o u r c e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r t h e

welfare and happ iness of ma nkind . N o w F a s c i s m i s a n t i h u -

m a n i s t i c : i t r e j e c t s m a n y o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c , h u m a n i t a r i a n , a n d

u n i v e r s a l i s t i c e l e m e n t s o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t e x a l t s s t r e n g t h

o f w i l l a n d e m o t i o n a l i s t i c b i a s a n d a t t a c k s f r e e i n q u i r y a n d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l b r o t h e r h o o d.

C h o o s i n g P a r e t o ' s a r g u m e n t a s t h e m o s t a r t i c u l a t e e x p r e s -

s i o n o f c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s i n t h e F a s c i s t i d e o l o g y , w e h a v e

o p p o s e d t h o s e a s p e c t s o f h i s t h e o r y w h i c h e m b o d y a n a n t i -

h u m a n i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o v a l u e s . W e h a v e c r i t i c i z e d hi s t h e or y

o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f m e a n s a n d e n d s , a n d h i s t e n d e n c y t o

l i m i t u n d u l y t h e p r o v i n c e o f s c i e n c e . W e h a v e c o n t e n d e d t h a t

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s a r g u m e n t a r e m u c h m o r e o p p o s e d t o

a l i f e o f r e a s o n t ha n a p p e a r s a t f i r s t gl a n c e . I n e f f e c t , h e p r e -

pares the way for a regime of force and fraud . We have

a r g u e d , i n o p p o s i t i o n , t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a b l e a n d o n ly p r o p e r

b a s i s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n i s s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i n t o f u n d a m e n t a l

human needs and the available means of satisfying them ;

a n d w e h a v e a n s w e r e d , o n e b y o n e , t h e p r i n c i p a l a r g u m e n t s

a g a i n s t t h e sc i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s o f v a l u e . I n d oi n g

s o w e h a v e p r o v i d e d a b a s i c c r i t i c i s m o f t h e F a s c i s t " r ev o l t

a g a i n s t r e a s o n . "

S o l o n g a s w e r e a l i z e t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i d e a l s s h o ul d

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VALUATIONS 87

i n v o l v e r e a s o n a n d e v i d e n c e , i t m a t t e r s l i t t l e w h e t h er w e c a l l

i t s c i e n c e . W e a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s u b s t a n c e t h a n

w i t h t h e n a m e . W h a t i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t w e v i g o r o us l y o p -

p o s e i r r a t i o n a l i s m , w h i c h i s r a m p a n t i n t h e w or l d . C i v i l i z a -

t i o n i s n o w c o n f r o n t e d b y t h e a d v a n c i n g o u tp o s t s o f d i s a s t e r .

I f w e w i s h t o s a v e o u r so c i e t y f r o m r u i n , w e m u s t u ti l i z e a l l

o u r i n t e l li g e n c e t o h u r l b a c k t h e f o r c e s o f s a v a g e r y .

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IVMORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITYWhat a re kingdoms without justice but large robber ba nds?-ST. AUGUSTINE I

i . The Meaning of Mora l Objectivity

THE c r i t i c i s m o f t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f v a l u e s , w h i c h w e u n d e r-

took in Chap ter III, m ust now be supp lemented by an

a n a l y s i s o f t h e F a s c i s t a t t i t u d e t o wa r d m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n . We

m u s t f i r s t i n d i c a t e t h e st a n d p o i n t w h i c h w e m e a n t o e m p l o y

i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f F a s c i s t m o r a l i t y .

N o o n e c a n r e a d a n y l a r g e a m o u n t o f F a s c i s t l i t e r a t u r e

w i t h o ut n o t i c i n g t h a t t h e i d e a l o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y r e c e i v e s

b u t sc a n t r e s p e c t i n t h e o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

H i t l e r d e c l a r e s i n Mein Kampf :

W h e n e v e r o ur p r o p a g a n d a p e r m i t s i n a s i n g l e i n s ta n c e t h e

s h i m m e r o f a n a p p e a r a n c e o f r i g h t o n t he o t h er s i d e , i t h a s l a i d

a b a s i s f o r d o u b t i n t he r i g h t o f o u r c a u s e . . . e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g

a p e o p l e t h a t s o s u f f e r s f r o m ob j e c t i v i t y - m a n i a a s t h e G e r m a n j 2

I n a n o t he r p a s s a g e , h e r e f e r s t o " o b j e c t i v i t y " a s " w e a k n e s s , "

a n d c o n t r a s t s i t w i t h t h e " st r e n g t h" t o b e f o u n d i n " f a n a t i -

c i s m " a n d e v e n i n " h y s t e r i a . " 3

T h e o u tr i g h t a b a n d o n m e n t o f " o b j e c t i v i t y " i l l u s t r a t e d i n

t h e s e s ta t e m e n t s , r e p r e s e n t s w h a t w e s h a l l m e a n i n t h i s c h a p -

t e r b y t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e m o r a l " o u g h t . " F o r t h e p e r -

s o n w h o f e e l s t h e v a l i d c l a i m s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e

" o u g h t , " t he r e i s a r e c o g n i z e d n e e d t o t a k e a n i m p a r t i a l

p o i n t o f v i e w . " M e n o f g o o d w i l l " t r y o n oc c a s i o n t o r i d th e i r

m i n d s o f b i a s , t h a t t h e y m a y c h o o s e a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n w h i c h

w i l l b r i n g a b o u t t h e m o s t w e l f a r e , i n s t e a d o f a c o u r s e wh i c h

h a s o n l y i r r a t i o n a l p a s s i o n t o re c o m m e n d i t .

L a r g e l y a s a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t a s c e t i c m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f

8 8

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 89

t h e " o ug h t , " v a r i o u s t h i n k e r s h a v e t r i e d t o e x p l a i n a w a y t h e

f a c t o f m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n . N o o n e , I b e l i e v e , h a s s u c c e e d e d .

T h e c h i e f a t t e m p t s m a y b e s u m ma r i z e d a s f o l l o ws :

A p e r s o n m a y a r g u e t h a t t h e " o u g h t " m e r e l y m e a n s t h a t t h e

a g e n t h a s a f e e l i n g o f a p p r o v a l t o w a r d s t he a c t i n q u e s t i o n .

A c t s w e f e e l i n c l i n e d t o do , i t m a y b e s a i d , a r e t h e v e ry a c t s

w e s a y w e o u g h t t o p e r f o r m . B u t t h i s c o n t e n t i o n i s i n c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m o r a l e m ot i o n i s a t t i m e s

causally determined b y t h e m o r a l j u d g m e n t . We sometimes

r e c o g ni z e w h a t o u r d u t y i s b e f o r e w e h a v e m u c h , i f a n y , f e e l -

i n g o n t h e s c o r e , a n d t h i s v e r y r e c o g n i t i o n a r o u s e s t h e em o -

t i o n . M o r e ov e r , t h e r e i s s u re l y a s e n se i n w h i c h a p e r s o n

o u g h t t o d o a n a c t , w h e t h e r h e i s s o i n c l i n e d o r n o t . I f a

c h i l d i s i n d a n g e r of d r o w n i n g , a n d a n e x p e r i e n c e d s w i m m e r

c a n e a s i l y s a v e t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e , h e c a n n o t e s c a p e h i s d u t y b y

s i m p l y d e c l a r i n g , " I a m n o t so i n c l i n e d . " I n d e ed , t h e f e e l i n g

o f " o u g h t n es s " u s u a l l y a r i s e s i n resistance t o i n c l i n a t i o n .

A s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f a r g u m e n t i s t h e a t -

t e m p t t o s u bs t i t u t e t he c o n c e p t o f " s y m p a t h y " i n p l a c e o f

" o b li g a t i o n ." But it i s evident, for the reasons just given, that

o b l i g a t i o n i s n o t s i m p l y r e d u c i b l e t o s y m p a t h y ( w h i c h i s a

t y p e o f f e e l i n g or i n c l i n a t i o n ) . S y m p a t h y , i n f a c t , m a y b e

w r o n gl y d i r e c t e d ; i t i s o f t e n e x c e s s i v e , i n a d e q u a t e , o r m i s -

p l a c e d . H e n c e i t n e e d s t o b e c r i t i c i z e d . O n t h e ot h e r ha n d , i f

s y m p a t h y i s r i g h t l y d i r e c t e d , i t i s w h a t we ought t o f e e l .

T h e r e i s n o re a s o n f o r s a y i n g t h a t s y m p a t h y i s g o o d a t a l l

u n le s s i t o ug h t t o ex i s t . C l e a r l y t h e " o u g h t " i s a n i n d i s p e n -

s a b l e c o n c e p t , a n d i s n e c e s sa r y t o c o n f e r m o r a l v a l i d i t y u p o n

sympa thy .

A p e r s o n m a y c o n t e n d t h a t t h e "o u g h t " s i m p l y e x p r e s s e s

t h e a p p r o v a l o f h i m s e l f p l u s t h e a p p r o v a l o f h i s g r o u p . F r e -

q u e n t l y w e a r e t o l d t h a t t h e " o u g h t " i s m e r e l y a n e c h o o f

custom . B u t s u re l y w e c a n f e e l a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n e v e n w h e n

o t h e r s q u i t e d i s a g r e e w i t h u s . W e c a n n o t b e c o n t e n t su p i n e l y

t o a c c e p t w h a t e v e r s t a n d a r d s h a p p e n t o b e c u r r e n t . M o r e -

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90 NO COMPROMISEo v e r , t h er e i s s u c h a t h i n g a s m or a l g e n i u s- a c a p a c i t y t o

s e e m o r e p r o f o u n d l y i n t o t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e m o r a l l i f e

t h a n o t h e r s h a v e s u c c e e d e d i n d o i n g . M o r a l c h a r a c t e r u n -

q u e s ti o n a b l y d e v e l o p s a s a r e su l t o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , b u t a n

i n d i v i d u a l c a n n e v e r t h e l es s e x h i b i t i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d o r i g i -

n a l i t y o f j u d g m e nt . H e n c e t o s a y t h a t t h e s e n s e o f d u t y i s

e n t i r e ly t h e r e s u l t of " s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g " i s t o o f f e r a n i n -

a d e q u a t e ex p l a n a t i o n .

I n a n y e v e n t , w e c a n n o t d i s m i s s t h e be l i e f i n o b l i g a t i o n b y

m e r e ly i n d i c a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f i t s o r i g i n . I t is too often

a s s u m e d t h a t v a l u e s a r e d i s c r e d i t e d i f i t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t

t h e y a r i s e i n a c e r t a i n w a y . B u t t h e q u e s t i o n i s n o t h o w t h e y

a r i s e b u t w h e t h e r th e y a r e v a l i d . I n i t s d e v e l o p e d f o r m , t h e

s e n s e of o b l i g a t i o n i n v o l v e s m u c h m o r e th a n a m e r e p a s s i v e

r e a c t i o n t o c u s t o m o r so c i a l t r a i n i n g , a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f i t s

v a l i d i t y i s n o t t o b e d e c i d e d b y a m e r e f a c t u a l r e f e r e n c e t o i t s

origins . T h e f a l l a c y o f s a y i n g t h a t " o b li g a t i o n i s o n l y t h e

r e f l e c t i o n o f c u s t o m o r s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g " l i e s i n t h a t w o r d

" o n l y " ; i t i s a c a s e of o v e r si m p l i f i c a t i o n .

A p e r s on m a y c o n t e n d th a t , w h e n w e s a y t h a t a m a n o u g h t

t o d o a c e r t a i n a c t , a l l w e m e a n i s t h a t h e i s b o u n d u n d e r

p e n a l t i e s t o d o i t - t h e p e n a l t i e s b ei n g p u b l i c d i s f a v o r a n d

p o s s i b l y l e g a l p u n i s h m e n t . B u t w e a d m i t t h a t t h e re a r e a c t s

w h i c h i t i s r i g h t t o p e r f o rm , b u t w h i c h w i l l c a l l f o r t h p u b li c

d i s a p p r o v a l ; a n d t h a t t he r e a r e a l s o a c t s wh i c h t h e p u b li c

m a y a p p r o v e , b u t wh i c h w e o u g h t t o a v o i d . A g a i n , w e r ec o g -

n i z e t h a t a m a n m a y b e u n j u s t ly p u n i s h e d, a n d t h a t i t m a y

b e a p e r s o n ' s d u t y t o o p p o s e a v e r y u n j u s t l e g a l o r d e r . T h u swe d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e en w h a t a p e r s o n o u g ht t o d o , a n d w h a t

t h e l a w ha p p e n s t o p r e s c r i b e . N e i t h e r d e m o c r a t i c n o r F a s c i s t

l a w m a k e r s a r e m o r a l l y i n f a l l i b l e .

A p e r s o n m a y c o n t e n d t h a t o b l i g a t i o n m e r e l y m e a n s t h a t

G o d w i l l r e w a r d t h e p e r s o n w h o o b e y s h i s c o m m a n d m e n t s ,

a n d p u n i s h t h e p e r s o n w h o d i s o b e y s . B u t a s H e n r y S i d g w i c k

points out, ma ny p eople ma ke moral judgments and feel

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 9 1

m o r a l e m o t i o n s w i t h o u t b e l i e v i n g i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f

t h e i s m . O u t r i g h t a t h e i s t s h a v e a s e n s e o f o b l i g a t i o n . E v e n

t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e i n d i v i n e r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s , g e n e r -

a l l y s u p p o s e t h a t G o d i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a j u s t r e tu r n f o r a c t s

independently r i g h t o r w r o n g . F i n a l l y , i t i s r i g h t f o r G o d t o

a c t j u s t ly ; a n d t h i s c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h e w i l l b e

p u n i s h e d b y h i m s e l f i f h e d o e s no t . 4

T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t w e m u s t s e e k s o m e o t h e r e x p l a n a -

t i o n t h a n a n y o f t h e f o r e g o i n g . W e w o u l d n ot d e n y t h a t t h e

s e n s e of o b l i g a t i o n a r i s e s f r o m a s y n t h e s i s o f a n u m b e r o f

f a c t o r s a n d i s s u b j e c t t o a n a l y s i s ; b u t t h e " o u g h t " h a s a

m e a n i n g o f i t s o w n wh i c h r e s i s t s c o m p l e t e i d e nt i f i c a t i o n w i t h

a n y o t h e r c o n c e p t . T h i s i r r e du c i b l e c o n c e p t , n e v e r t he l e ss , i s

t o o i m p o r t a n t t o l e a v e i n a n e b ul o u s s t a t e : w e c a n n o t b e s a t i s -

f i e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d i t s m e a n i n g . U n -

d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s d o e s t h e j u d g m e n t o f o b l i g a t i o n a r i s e ?

W h e n i s t h i s j u d g m en t v a l i d ?

T h e e s se n t i a l c l u e s a r e p r o v i d e d , I b e l i e v e , b y t w o S c o t c h -

men of the eighteenth century, Da vid Hume and Adam

Smith . T h e s e f a m o u s m e n w e r e b y n o m e a n s m e r e i n t e l l e c -

t u a l i s t s . B o t h i n s i s t e d u p o n t h e p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e o f s y m -

p a t h y a s a b a s i s f o r t he m o r a l li f e . T h i s " f e l lo w f e e li n g , " t hi s

i m a g i n a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e w e a l a n d w o e o f o t h e r s ,

w a s h e l d t o b e t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l u n s el f i s h a c t i o n s , a n d t h e

m e a n s o f b r e a t h i n g l i f e i n t o e t hi c a l d e l i b e ra t i o n s . B u t b o th

m e n re a l i z e d t h a t s y m p a t h y i s o f t e n c a p r i c i o u s . B a r r i e r s of

r a c e , c l a s s , a n d c r e e d , d u l li n g e f f e c t s o f i g n o r a n c e a n d d i s -

t a n c e , b e nu m b a n d di s t o rt o u r n a t u ra l f e e l i n gs . W e a r e i n -

c l i n e d t o b e t o o p a r t i a l t o w a r d o u r i n t i m a t e s a n d o u r o w n

k i n d , a n d t o o c o l d t o w a r d p e o p l e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r -

s e l v e s . F a v o r i t i s m a n d c a l l o us n e ss p l a y t h e d e v i l w i t h o u r

s e n s e o f j u s t i c e . H e n c e w e m u s t c o n t r o l o u r p r e j u d i c e s , a n d

s t r i v e t o b e m o r e o b j e c t i v e .

I n h i s Treatise o f Human Nature, H u m e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t

a l l m e n a r e p r o n e t o b e b i a s e d i n t h e i r o u t l o o k :

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9 2NO COMPROMISE

. . . E v e r y p a r t i c u l a r m a n h a s a p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d

t o o t h e r s ; a n d ' t i s i m p o s s i b l e w e c o u l d e v e r c o n v e r s e t o g e t he r o n

a n y r e a s o n a b l e t er m s , w e r e e a c h o f u s t o c o n s i d e r c h a r a c t e r s a n d

p e r s o n s , on l y a s t h e y a p p e a r f r o m hi s p e c u l i a r p o i n t o f v i e w . I n

o r d e r , t h e r e f o r e , t o p r e v e n t t h e s e c o n t i n u a l contradictions, and

a r r i v e a t a m o r e s t a b l e j u d g m e n t o f t h i n g s , w e f i x o n s o m e

steady and general p o i n t s o f v i e w ; a n d a l w a y s , i n o u r t h o u g ht s ,

p l a c e o u r s el v e s i n t h e m , w h a t e v e r m a y b e o u r p r e s en t s i t u a t i o n . 5

I n a n o t h e r p a s s a g e h e de c l a r e s :

T h e g o o d q u a l i t i e s o f a n e n e m y a r e h u r t f u l t o u s ; b u t m a y

s t i l l c o m m a n d o u r es t e e m a n d r e s p e c t . ' T i s o n ly w h e n a c h a r a c -

t e r i s c o n s i d e r e d i n g e n e r a l , w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o o u r p a r t i c u l a r

i n t e r e s t , t h a t i t c a u s e s s uc h a f e e l i n g o r s e nt i m e n t , a s d e n o m i -

n a t e s i t m o r a l l y g o o d o r e v i l . 6

Moral judgments a re those which we formulate when we

e s c a p e f r o m b i a s .

T h i s c o n t e n t i o n i s a l s o a d v a n c e d i n A d a m S m i t h ' s e a r l y

w o r k , t h e Theory of Moral Sentiments . H e d ef i n i t e l y r e c o g -

n i z e s t h a t o u r s y m p a t h i e s a r e a p t t o b e d i s t o r t e d b y p r e j u -

d i c e s a n d p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . H e n c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o

a p p e a l t o a h i g h e r s ta n d a r d t h a n t h e w h i m s a n d b i a s e s o f t h e

i n d i v i d u a l o r o f t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d g r o u p . T h i s u l t i m a t e a u -

t h o r i t y i s t h e " s u p p o s e d w e l l - i n f o r m e d a n d i m p a r t i a l s p e c -

t a t o r ." Such a com pletely wise and unprejudiced being is

o n l y h y p o t h e t i c a l . H e i s " t h e m a n w i t h i n t h e b r e a s t , " t h e

ideal m an which judges "the outward m an . " A s t h e p e r s o n i -

f i c a t i o n o f t h e m o r e s t a b l e , ra t i o n a l , a n d u n i v e r s a l e l e m e n t s

i n h u m a n s y m p a t h y , h e r e p r e s e n t s t h e g o a l w h i c h w e s t r i v e

t o a c h i e v e . I n s o f a r a s w e a t ta i n s u c h ob j e c t i v i t y , o ur m o ra l

j u d g m e n t s p o s s e ss v a l i d i t y . B u t i n s o f a r a s w e y i e l d t o b i a s ,

a n d a s a r e s u l t c h o o s e t h e w o r s e i n s t e a d o f t h e b e t t e r , o u r

j u d g m e n t s a r e i n v a l i d .

P r o f e s s o r F . C . S h a r p h a s f o r m u la t e d t hi s d o c t r i n e a s f o l -

l o w s :

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 93

T h a t c o n d u c t i s r i g h t w h i c h a j u d g e w o u l d d e s i r e w h o w a s

a b l e t o p u t h i m s e l f c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f e a c h a n d e v e r y

p e r s o n m a k i n g u p t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h u s t o r e a l i z e t o t h e f u l l

p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h e p r o p o s e d c o u rs e o f a c t i o n w o u l d m ea n t o a l l .

. . . O n l y t h a t c o n d u c t c a n p r o p e r l y b e c a l l e d r i g h t w h i c h i s

d e s i r e d wh e n i t i s l o o k e d a t f r o m a n i m p e r s o na l p o i n t o f v i e w . ?

T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t e m o t i o n s h o u l d b e e r a d i c a t e d , b u t

m e r e l y t h a t i t s h o u l d b e r e gu l a t e d . I t s h o u ld b e s t e a d y , g e n -

e r o u s , a n d u n p r e j u d i c e d .

F r o m t h i s v a n t a g e - p o i n t , w e a r e a b l e t o d i s c e r n t h e na t u r e

o f m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n . T h e " o u g h t , " a s w e w o u l d i n t e r p r e t i t ,

e x p r e s s e s t h e n e ed f o r m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y . T h i s c o n c e p t i s a p -

p l i e d w h e n t w o o r m o r e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s a b a s i s

f o r c h o i c e . The feeling and judgment of oughtness arises

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e s i s t a n c e t o " te m p t a t i o n . " W e a r e " t e m p t e d "

w h e n e v e r w e a r e p r o n e t o c h o o s e a l e s s e r g o o d i n p l a c e o f a

g r e a t e r g o o d . The r i g h t w a y t o a c t i s t o r e a l i z e t h e g r ea t e r

g o o d ( s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t i s g o o d a n d i s g r e a t e r ) , e v e n a t t h e

c o s t o f s a c r i f i c i n g t h e l e s s er g o o d w hi c h t e m p t s u s .

B y g o o d w e m e a n h u m a n w e l f a r e o r h a p p i n e s s , a n d b y e v i l

we mean huma n misery . F o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , h a p p i n e s s

c a n b e t a k e n a s c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f w a n t s , w i t h

t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g p l e a s u r e ; a n d m i s e ry c a n b e t a k e n a s c o n -

s i s t i n g o f t h e f r u s t r a t i o n o f w a n t s , w i t h t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g

d i s p l ea s ur e . F u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s i n a n a l y s i s a r e d e b a t a b l e ,

a n d a r e h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t . A n a c t , f r o m

t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , c a n b e a c c o u n t e d r i g h t i f i t c o n d u c e s t o

the maximum surplus of happiness over misery, everybody

c o n s i d e r e d a n d i n t h e l o n g r u n . The i n c r e a s e o f m i s e r y a n d

t h e d e c r e a s e o f h a p p i n e s s i s c o n v e r s e l y t h e s i g n o f w r o n g

a c t i o n .

B i a s i s t o b e c o n d e m n e d b e c a u s e i t m a k e s u s c h o o s e t h e

w r o n g a c t . A s t h e e i g h t e e n th c e n t u r y m o r a l i s t , L o r d S h a f t e s -

b u r y , d e c l a r e d : " W h a t e v e r c a u s e s a m i s c o n c e p t i o n o r m i s a p -

p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e w o r t h o r v a l u e o f a n y o b j e c t , s o a s t o

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9 4 NO COMPROMISEd i m i n i s h a d u e , o r ra i s e a n y u n d u e , i r r e gu l a r , o r u n s oc i a l

a f f e c t i o n , m u s t n e c e ss a r i l y b e t h e o c c a s i o n o f w r o n g . " 8 B i a s

i s j u s t s u c h a n o c c a s i o n .

B u t w h y n o t y i e l d t o b i a s e v e n i f i t d o e s l e a d t o l e s s w e l -

f a r e ? W h y n o t c h o o s e t h e l e s s e r g oo d o f o u r s e l v e s o r o f t h o s e

p e o p l e w h o a r e m e m b e r s o f o u r g r o u p , i n s t e a d o f t h e g r e a t e r

g o o d o f o t h e r s ? T h e o n l y a n s w e r i s t h a t g o o d o u g h t t o b e

m a x i m i z e d , a n d e v i l o u g h t t o b e m i n i m i z e d . T h e r e i s n o

m o r e s i m p l e a n d u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e o f e t h i c s t h a n t h i s . T h i s

p r i n c i p l e a p p e a r s u n r e a s o n a b l e o n l y w h e n w e a r e o v e r m a s -

t e r e d b y b i a s . A s w e e x p a n d o u r s y m p a t h i e s a n d a t t a i n a

l i v e l i e r r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s o f p e o p l e a t a g r e a t e r r e m o v e

f r o m o u r s el v e s , a s w e a p p r o a c h a c o m p l e t e k n o w l ed g e a n d a

p e r f e c t r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e w e a l a n d w o e o f e v e r y b o d y c o n -

c e r n e d , w e c a n f i n d l e s s a n d l e s s e x c u s e t o c o n f i n e o u r " m o r a l

c o d e " w i t h i n n a r r o w b o u n d s . I t w i l l t h en s e e m i r r a t i o n a l t o

d e a l w i t h l i v i n g m e n a s i f t h e y w e r e d e a d c i p h e r s, a n d t o

h a r d e n ou r h e a r t s a g a i n s t p e o p l e o f a d i f f e r e n t ra c e , o r s e x ,

o r n a t i o n , o r c l a s s , o r c r e e d . I f i t b e r ea s o n a b l e to a c t u p o n

t h e b a s i s o f t h e c l e a r e s t r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e ef f e c t s o f a c t i o n ,

t h e n b i a s m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s u n r e a s o n a b l e ; s i n c e i t p r e v e n t s

m e n f r o m r e a c h i n g o u t , i n i m a g i n a t i o n a n d s y m p a t h y , t o

c o m p r e h e n d t h e j o y s a n d s u f f e r i n g s o f o t h e r s .

I n t e r m i n g s u c h b i a s " u n r e a s o n a b l e , " w e d o n o t m e a n t o

c o n f u s e i t w i t h w ha t m a y b e t e r m e d " s c i e n t i f i c b i a s . " T h i s

l a t t e r f o r m o f b i a s , w h i c h i s d e f i n i t e l y r e f u t a b l e , m a n i f e s t s

i t s e l f i n a w i l l f u l n e gl e c t o f t h e f a c t s . F o r e x a m p l e , a n a s t r o -

p h y s i c i s t w h o r e t a i n s t h e t h e o ri e s o f N e w t o n e v e n w h e n t he

e v i d e n c e c l e a r l y v i n d i c a t e s t h e th e o r i e s of E i n s t e i n , m a y b e

s a i d t o e x h i b i t s c i e nt i f i c b i a s . A s e c o n d t y p e o f b i a s - t h e

t h e m e o f t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r - i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r a n a r r o w

s p r e a d o f g o o d ( e g oi s m , r a c i a l i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m , e t c . ) . U n l i k e

s c i e n t i f i c b i a s , i t c a n n o t be f o r m a l l y d i s p r o v e d , a l t h ou g h

" m o r a l i n s i g h t , " b a s e d u p o n s y m p a t h y a n d i n t u i t i v e u n d e r-

s t a n d i n g , c a n b e b r o u g h t t o be a r a g a i n s t i t . T h e t w o t y p e s o f

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 9 5

b i a s a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . A m a n w h o h a s a m o r a l

b i a s a g a i n s t N e g r o e s, f o r e x a m p l e , i s v e r y a p t t o be s c i e n t i f i -

c a l l y b i a s e d a g a i n s t t he e v i d e n c e a d d u c e d i n t h e i r f a v o r ; a n d

vice versa . I n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , w e a r e m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d

w i t h m o r a l , r a t h er t h a n sc i e n t i f i c , b i a s ; b u t t h e t w o a r e s o

f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r m i n g l e d t h a t w e s h a l l p a y s o m e a t t e n t i o n t o

b o t h t y p e s .

J u s t a s t h e r e a r e p e o p l e w h o r ef u s e t o r e n o u nc e t h e i r s c i -

e n t i f i c b i a s e s , s o t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f

p e o p l e w h o , i n s p i t e o f e v e r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n , w i l l c l i n g t o t he i r

m o r a l bi a s e s . T h i s d i s a g r e e m en t d o e s n ot i n v a l i d a t e a u n i -

v e r s a l i s t i c s t a n d a r d o f v a l u es . I t i s l i k e w i s e i m p o s s i b l e t o

o b t a i n u n a n i m i t y o f o p i n i o n i n p h y s i c s , b i o l o g y , m a t h e -

m a t i c s , l o g i c , o r a n y o t h e r b r a n c h o f h u m a n t h o u g ht . E v e n

t h e m o s t u l t i m a t e p r i n c i p l e s i n t h e s e sc i e n c e s a r e s u b j e c t t o

a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s p u t e . T h e i n e x p e r t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a v e l i t t l e

o r n o i n s i g h t i n t o t he r e a s o n s f o r m a n y o f t h e b a s i c p r i n -

c i p l e s . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t he i d e a l o f s c i e n t i f i c t r u th

a n d o b j e c t i v i t y h a s t o b e a b a n d o n ed . W h a t f i n a l l y d e c i d es i s

t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e m o s t e x p e r t a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e o f t h e

s c i e n t i s t s .

A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s i n t he s p h e r e o f v a l u e s . T h e r e

w i l l a l w a y s b e u n m o r a l a n d n o n m o r a l i n d i v i d u a l s ; there will

b e m e n o f p r e j u d i c e , m e n o f i l l w i l l , a n d m e n w i t h m o r a l

b l i n d s p o t s . O n t h e o t he r h a n d , t h e r e a r e a c e r t a i n n u m b e r

o f p e r s o n s w h o a r e g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s e t h i c a l a u t h o r i -

t i e s . T h e y a r e g i f t e d w i t h a s p e c i a l m o r a l s e n s i t i v e n e s s a n d

b r e a d t h of v i s i o n , a n d t h e y g r a d u a l l y w i n a r e p u t a t i o n f o r

t h e i r s u p e r i o r i n s i g h t . M e n l i k e B u d d h a , S o c r a t e s , J e s u s ,

E p i c t e t u s, C o n f u c i u s , L a o - t z u , S t . T h o m a s , a n d S p i n o z a a r e

r e c o g n i z e d a s h a v i n g u n u su a l l y p u r e m o t i v e s , u n b i a s e d o u t -

l o o k , a n d k e e n e t h i c a l i n s i g h t ; a n d t h ey e v e n t u a l l y w i n t h e

n a m e s o f s a i n t s a n d s a g e s . N o w n o o n e c a n s t u d y t h e o p i n i o n s

o f t h e s e m e n wi t h o u t d i s c o v e r i n g a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e m e a s u r e

o f a g r e e m e n t i n t h ei r e t h i c a l o u t l o o k . S u c h m e n a g r e e u p o n

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96 NO COMPROMISEt h e w i d e s t c o m m u n i t y o f g o o d : t h e y n o t o n l y r e c o g n i z e t h a t

t h e r e a r e m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n s , b u t t u r n a w a y f r o m t h e r e s t r i c -

t i v e m o r a l i t y o f t r i b a l i s m a n d c a s t e , a n d t h e m u lt i p l e f o r m s

o f i n t o l e r a n c e a n d e x c l u s i o n . They em phasize the common

l i f e o f w h i c h a l l m e n a r e m e m b er s . T h i s u n i v e r s a l i s t e t h i c s

c a n n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d by f o r m a l p r o o f , y e t i t h a s t h e p r e s t i g e

o f t h e s u p r e m e m o r a l s a g e s t o r e c o m m e n d i t . T h i s i s t h e t y p e

o f e t h i c s w hi c h a l o n e c a n l a y c l a i m t o i m p a r t i a l i t y .

J u s t a s th e i d e a l o f o bj e c t i v e t r u th i s a r e g ul a t i v e p r i n c i p l e

i n t h e f i e l d o f s c i e n c e , s o t h e i d e a l o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y i s a

r e g u la t i v e p r i n c i p l e i n t h e f i e l d o f e t h i c s . I f a n a t i on di s r e-

g a r d s t he c l a i m s o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y , t h e n i t b e c o m e s, a s S t .

A u g u s t i n e s a i d , n o t h i n g b u t a l a r g e r o b b e r b a n d . F r o m t h i s

s t a n d p o i n t w e c a n c r i t i c i z e F a s c i s t m o r a l i t y , s i n c e i t i s d e f i -

n i t e l y b i a s e d .

2 . N a t i o n a li s t i c B i a s

T h e F a s c i s t s ' a b a n d o n m e n t o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y i s d i s -

p l a y e d i n t h e i r h y p e r n a t i o n a l i s m . T h e N a z i P a r t y Y e a r B o o k

f o r 1 9 3 8 , f o r e x a m p l e , d e f i n e s " r i g h t " a s " w h a t e v e r p r o f i t s

the [National Socialist] movement a nd therewith Ger-

m a n y . " 9 I n t h e s a m e s p i r i t , R o s e n b e rg h a s s a i d t h a t " n a -

t i o n a l h o n o r " i s " t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e o n t h i s e a r t h . " 1 0 H i t l e r

d e s c r i b e s t he " e n d " of f o r e i g n p o l i c y a s " e x c l u s i v e l y e n -

c o u r a g e m e n t o f o u r o w n n a t i o n a l i t y , " a n d d e c l a r e s t h a t n o

" h u m a n i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s " m u s t b e a l l o w e d t o i n t r u d e . 1 1

P r o f e s s o r O t t o K o e l l r e u t t e r , o n e o f t h e c h i e f N a z i t h e o r i s t s ,

h a s d e c l a r e d :

I n e v e r y c a s e , t h e f u n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e i n t h e p r e s en t - d a y

w o r ld o f S t a t e s i s t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e st s o f i n d i v i d u a l S t a t e s

a l w a y s p r e c e d e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s, t h a t t h e n a t i o n [ V o l k ]

c o m e s b e f o r e h u m a n i t y .1 2

S u c h d e c l a r a t i o n s a p p a r e n t l y m e a n t h a t m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n s

s t o p s h o r t a t t h e na t i o n ' s b o u n d a r i e s .

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 9 7

I f w e t u rn t o F a s c i s t I t a l y w e f i n d m u c h t h e s a m e o u t l o o k .

" I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m , " d e c l a r e s M u s s o l i n i , i s f i t o n ly f o r a " s n o b -

b i s h i m b e c i l i t y , " a n d a t b o t t o m i s a n " a b s u r d f a b l e ." "The

g r e a t m a s s e s , " h e t h i n k s , " d o n ot e s c a p e n o r c a n t h e y , a n d i t

i s t h e b e s t o f f o r t u n e th a t t h e y c a n n o t e s c a p e , t h e i n s u p p r e s -

s i b l e d a t u m o f r a c e a n d n a t i o n . " 1 3 T h e g l o r y o f t h e n a t i o n

b e c o m e s t h e n e w e x c l u s i v e " m y t h " t o w h i c h , i t i s s a i d , a l l

o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e s u bo r d i n a t e . M u s s o li n i d e p i c t s "t h e

r e t u r n o f t h e C a e s a r s " a s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a l f o r F a s c i s t

I t a l y :

M y i d e a s a r e c l e a r , m y o r d e rs a r e p r e c i s e . A s i n th e w e l l -

o r d e r e d a n d p o w e r f u l d a y s o f t h e F i r s t E m p i r e , R o m e m u s t

a g a i n b e c o m e t h e m a r v e l o f t h e w o rl d . 1 4

T h e J a p a n e s e a r e s i m i l a r l y t a u g h t b y t h e i r p a t r i o t i c m i l i -

t a r i s ts t ha t " J a p a n i s t he o nl y d i v i n e la n d . " O n e o f t h ei r i n -

t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s h a s d e c l a r e d :

T h e c e n te r of t h i s w or l d i s J a p a n . F r o m t h i s c e n t e r w e m u st

e x p a n d t h e G r e a t S p i r i t t h r ou g h o u t t h e w or l d . . . . T h e e x p a n -

s i o n o f J a p a n t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d a n d t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e

e n t i r e w o r l d i n t o t h e L a n d o f t h e G o d s i s t h e u r g e n t b u s i n e ss o f

t h e p r e s e n t , a n d a g a i n , i t i s o u r e t e r n a l a n d u n c h a n g i n g o b j e c t . 1 5

I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h a t t h e s up e r p a t r i o t s a r e a l s o t h e

warma kers .

T h e m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e x t r e m e n a t i o n a l i s m a r e f o r m u -

l a t e d b y C a r l S c h m i t t , a l e a d i n g N a z i p o l i t i c a l t h e or i s t . H i s

b o o k , Der BegrifJ des Politischen, b e g i n s w i t h t h e d e c l a r a -

t i o n :

T h e e ss e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n i s th a t b e t w e e n f r i e n d and

f o e . I t g i v e s t o h u m a n a c t i o n s a n d m o t i v e s t he i r p o l i t i c a l s i g -

n i f i c a n c e . A l l p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s a n d m o t i v e s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k

u l t i m a t e ly t o t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n . ' 6

T h e s p h e r e of p o l i t i c s , h e g o e s on t o s a y , i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h

t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n f r i e n d a n d f o e , j u s t a s e t h i c s i s c o n -

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98 NO COMPROMISEcerned with good and evil, esthetics with beauty a nd ugli-

ness, and econom ics with utility a nd disutility. The "friend-

foe" contrast represents an "absolute category ," upon which

depends the whole existence of the politica l order .

The consequences of this doctrine are q uite exp licitly

s t a t e d :

A world in which the possibility of wa r were completely put

aside, and had vanished, a world finally pa cified, would be a

w o r ld w i t h o u t t h e di s t i n c t i o n o f f r i e n d a n d f o e , a n d t h e r e f o r e i t

w o u l d b e a w o r l d w i t h o u t p o l i t i c s . . . . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e w i l l

b e , a s l o n g a s a n y S t a t e s t i l l e x i s t s , s e v e r a l S t a t e s ; a nd a World

S t a t e , c o m p r i s i n g t h e to t a l i t y o f h u m a n b e i n g s , i s a n i m p o s s i b i l -

i ty . T h e p o l i t i c a l d o m a i n i s a p l u r i v e r s e , n o t a u n i v e r s e . 1 7

In exp laining what he means by a "foe," Schmitt insists that

an a rbitrator m ust not be allowed to m eddle in crucial dis-

putes :

The foe . . . i s , e x i s t e n ti a l l y , s o m e b o dy e l s e , a n a l i e n , w i t h

w h o m i n t h e e x t r e m e c a s e , c o n f l i c t s j e o p a r d i s i n g e x i s t e n c e a r e

p o s s i b l e. C o n f l i c t s o f t h i s k i n d c a n n e i t h e r b e de c i d e d a c c o r d -

ing to a previously arranged genera l norm, nor with the help

o f a " n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i n g , " a n d t h e r e f o r e , i m p a r t i a l t h i r d p e r s o n .

A third person can not answer the question whether the "most

e x t r e m e " c a s e i s g i v e n , n o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t b e c o m e s n e c e s -

sary as the most extrem e mea ns, in order to defend and pre-

s e r v e o n e ' s i n t e g ri t y . The third person ma y p resent himself as

c r i t i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c , n e u tr a l , a n d m a y g i v e h i s a l i e n j u d gm e n t h i d -

d e n b e ne a t h s i m i l a r v e i l s . . . . B u t i n t h e e x t r e m e c a s e o f c o n -

f l i c t , o n l y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c a n d e c i d e a m o n g t h e m s el v e s ; e s p e -

c i a l l y , i s e a c h o f t h e m a l o ne a b l e t o de c i d e i n t h e c o n c r e t e c a s e

whether the alien antagonist threatens his own existence, and

t h e r e f o r e w h e t h e r t h e f o e m u s t b e f o u g h t o r g u a r d e d a g a i n s t i n

o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e l i f e . 1 8

Translated into political terms, this mea ns that the na-

tionalistic State is the one a nd only judge of when and how

and whom to fight. Since any exp ansionist program m ay be

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY9 9

d e c l a r e d a c o n d i t i o n o f s u r v i v a l , t h e w a y i s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e

a m o r a l e x e r c i s e o f f o r c e . T h e d o c t r i n e o f u n l i m i t e d n a t i o n a l

s o v e r e i g n t y h a s n e v e r b e e n s t a t e d m o r e c l e a r l y.

T h e F a s c i s t s a r e n o t s l o w t o e m b ra c e t h i s v i e w . H i t l e r h a s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t r i g h t i s o n l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e b r u t e s tr e n g t h

o f a n a t i o n :

T h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s p o s s i b l e f o r a p e o p l e i l l e g a l l y t o u s u r p

s o i l d o e s n ot i n v o l v e a h i g h e r d u t y t o a c k n o w l e dg e t h i s f a c t

f o r e v e r . T h e f a c t o n l y p r o v e s t h e s t r en g t h o f t h e u s u r p e r s a n d

t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e u s u r p e d . A n d i n t h a t s t re n gt h a l o ne li e s

r i g h t . 1 9

M u s s o l i n i l i k e w i s e a s s e r t s , " R i g h t , u n l e s s a c c o m p a n i e d b y

f o r c e , i s a v a i n w o r d . " 2 0 L i k e S c h m i t t h e r e f u s e s t o l i m i t

n a t i o n a l s o v e re i g n t y b y c o l l e c t i v e a g r e e m e n t o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a r b i t r a t i o n : " C o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y , " h e d e c l a r e s , " h a s n e v e r

e x i s t e d , d o e s n o t e x i s t , w i l l n e v e r e x i s t . A v i r i l e p e o p l e b r i n g s

a b o u t i t s o w n c o l l e c t i v e s e c u r i t y o n i t s f r o n t i e r s a n d r e f u s e s

t o e n t r u s t i t s d e s t i n y i n t o t h e u n c e r t a i n h a n d s o f t h i r d

p a r t i e s . "21

S c h m i t t ' s t h e or y m i g h t b e d i s m i s s e d a s m e r e l y a n i n t e l l e c -

t u a l c u r i o s i t y i f i t d i d n o t ex p r e s s t h e a c t u a l p o l i c y o f t h e

F a s c i s t S t a t e s . T h e y h a v e r e f u s e d t o s u p p o r t a n o r d e r o f i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l r i g h t , a n d h a v e i n s i s t e d u p o n u nl i m i t e d n a t i o n a l i s t i c

a u t o n o m y i n a w o r l d s e e t h i n g w i t h c o n f l i c t . S u c h a c o n se r v a -

t i v e B r i t i s h s t a t e s m a n a s L o r d C e c i l , w i n n e r o f t h e 1 937N o b e l p e a c e p r i z e , h a s p o i n t e d o u t :

F r o m e v e r y s i d e w e h e a r o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b e i n g m a d e b y

d i p l o m a t i c e n v o y s f r o m t ho s e tw o c o u n tr i e s [ I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y ]

t o S t a t e a f t e r S t a t e b e g g i n g t h e m t o l ea v e t h e L e a g u e . . . . I t i s

t o b e ob s e r v e d t h a t t h i s c a m p a i g n i s n o t c a r r i e d o u t a g a i n s t a n y

p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i s i o n o f t h e C o v e n a n t , b u t a g a i n s t t he w h o le c o n -

c e p t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o na l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e a c e . . . . The

w h o l e t e n o r o f G e r m a n a n d I t a l i a n p o l i c y i s h o st i l e t o a n y i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l a u t h or i t y . "

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100 NO COMPROMISEI n s p i t e o f F a s c i s t a t t i t u d e s, t h e m o r a l o r de r i s w o r ld - w i d e .

R i g h t a n d j u s t i c e a r e n o t b o un d e d b y a n a t i o n ' s f r o n t i e r s ,

a n d t h e h e a d o f a g r e a t S t a t e o w e s d u ti e s t o a l l m a n k i n d ,

e s p e c i a l l y t h e d u t y t o a v o i d a n e w W o r l d W a r . T h e F a s c i s t

t e n d en c y t o r e n o un c e i n t e r na t i o n a l o b l i g a t i o n s h a s o m i n o u s

i m p l i c a t i o n s .

3 . R a c i a l B i a s

I n t e n s e n a t i o n a l i s m i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o r a c i a l b i a s . When

n a t i o n s e n g a g e i n w a r , t h e y u s u a l l y b e g i n b y d e n o u n c i n g t h e

r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i r e ne m i e s . During the World

W a r , r a c i a l h a t r e d t r em e n d ou s ly a g g r a v a t e d n a t i o n a l i s ti c f e r -

v o r . E v e n i n p r e s en t - d a y A m e r i c a , w e h e a r a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t

" u n d e s i r a b l e a l i e n s , " a n d w e a r e s o m e t i m e s t o l d t h a t t h e

" A n g l o - S a x o n s " r ep r e s e n t t h e on l y t r u e n a t i o n a l i d e a l s . I n

N a z i G e r m a n y , t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e n a t i o n h a v e b e e n i d e n t i -

f i e d w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e d o m i n a n t r a c e , a n d J e w s h a v e

b e e n d e n i e d t h e r i g h t s o f n a t i o n a l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , n a t i o n

a n d r a c e c a n b e d i s t i n gu i s h e d, a n d r a c i a l b i a s c a n b e s t u di e d

i n i t s o w n r i g h t .

M a n y t e r r i b l e d e ed s h a v e b e e n i n s p i r e d b y r a c e h a t r e d .

Animosity a gainst the black and y ellow races has been

u t i l i z e d b y t h e a p o l o g i s t s f o r ru t h l es s i m p e r i a l i s m . A n t i -

S e m i t i s m , e s p e c i a l l y i n G e r m a n y a n d C e n t r a l E u r o p e , h a s

b e c o m e e x t r e m e l y p r e v a l e n t . I n A m e r i c a , c o l o r e d p e o p l e

h a v e b e e n d e n i e d m o s t o f t h e r i g h t s a n d p r e r o g a t i v e s o f

c i t i z e n sh i p , a n d t h e g r e a t er p r o p o r t i o n o f o u r l y n c h i n g s h a v e

b e e n d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t N e g r o e s . O u r n e ws p a p e r s a r e f u l l of

i n c i d e n t s of r a c i a l c o n f l i c t . I t w o u l d b e a b s u r d , t h e r e f o r e , t o

s u p p o s e t h a t r a c e h a t r e d i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e F a s c i s t c o u n tr i e s .

I n f a c t , u n ti l r e c e n t l y t h e re h a s b e e n l es s r a c i a l b i a s i n

F a s c i s t I t a l y t h a n i n m o s t o f t h e n on - F a s c i s t n a t i o n s . M u s s o -

l i n i h a s e v e n s c o f f e d a t t h e r a c i a l c h a u v i n i s t s :

O f c o u r s e t h e r e a r e n o p u r e r a c e s l e f t ; n o t e v e n t h e J e w s h a v e

k e p t t h e i r b l o o d u n m i n g l e d . S u c c e s s f u l c r o s s i n gs h a v e o f t e n p r o -

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 1 0 1

moted the energy and the beauty of a nation . R a c e l I t i s a f e e l -

i n g , n o t a r e a l i t y ; n i n e ty - f i v e p er c e nt , a t l e a st , i s a f e e li n g . N o t h -

i n g w i l l e v e r m a k e m e b e l i e v e t h a t b i o l o g i c a l l y p u r e r a c e s c a n

b e s h o w n t o e x i s t t o d a y . . . . N a t i o n a l p r i d e h a s n o n e e d o f t h e

d e l i r i u m o f r a c e 2 3

Unfortunately, this attitude of tolerance has not prevailed .

Prejudice against bla ck-skins was utilized by the Fa scists to

drum up supp ort for the Ethiopian Wa r . S i n c e H i t le r ' s a c -

cession to power, moreover, anti-Semitism am ong Italians ha s

been increa sing. There are so few Jews in Italy -some 4 0 , 0 0 0 ,

it is said-that it has been imp ossible to use them as the na-

tional scapegoats ; but Italian politicians have sometimes

found anti-Jewish bias a useful weapon . For ex am ple, Signor

Roberto Fa rinacci, mem ber of the Fa scist Grand Council,

and one of the chief spokesmen of the Government, has

charged tha t the English have been corrupted by the Jews :

The system of deliberate lying is the moral heritage of the

English people, but in the present-day journalism of G reat

B r i t a i n t h e a c u t e p e r f i d y o f t h e J e w i s h m e nt a l i t y i s a d d e d t o t h e

n a t i o n a l h y p o c r i s y , r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e A n gl i c a n e d u c a t i o n 2 4

On J uly 1 4 , 1938, a group of Fa scist professors, under the

protection of the Ministry of Popular Culture, issued a mani-

festo on racialism and a nti-Semitism simila r to the pro-

nouncements of the Nazis . Even Mussolini, with chara cter-

istic lack of principle, is now enforcing the very policy he

once decried as "the delirium of race . "25

Anti-Semitism is likewise encouraged in Fa scist Spain . The

ABC, o f f i c i a l o r g a n o f F r a n c o , p u b l i s h e d i n S e v i l l e , s a i d o n

December 2 0 , 1937 :

Against whom are we fighting? Against a secret comm ittee of

I s r a e l i t e s w h i c h g o v e r n s J e w s a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d . . . . The brute

w h o d e c a p i t a t e s w o o d e n s a i n t s i n C a s t i l e , E x t r e m a d u r a o r A n d a -

l u s i a i s m e r e l y o b e y i n g t h e r e l i g i o u s i m p u l s e s o f a S a m u e l o r a

Levi who app ears so worldly in London, Pa ris, or New York

a n d s e e k s d i s t r a c t i o n f r o m h i s b u s i n e s s i n R o t a r i a n l u n c h e o n s 2 6

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102 NO COMPROMISEW h e n P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t e x p r e s s e d h i s h o r r o r a t t h e a n t i -

J e w i s h p o g r o m s i n G e r m a n y , h e w a s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e Voz d e

E s p a n a , t h e I n s u r g e n t n e w s p a p e r o f S a n S e b a s t i a n , a s o n e

" w h o r e c e n t l y p o s e d i n s o m e s o r t o f t o g a o f m a s o n i c m u m -

mery and who groa ned in chorus with Quakeresses, Mor-

m o n s , a n d a t h e i s t i c J e w s o v e r t h e s m a s h i n g o f c r o c k e r y i n

B e r l i n . " 2 7 S u c h s e n t i m e n t s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d f r e q u e n t l y

i n F r a n c o ' s S p a i n .

Everybody knows that H itler's program is based upon

r a c i a l p r i d e ; b u t i t i s w o r t h w h i l e e x a m i n i n g t h e m o r a l i m -

p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s p r e v a l en t f o r m o f b i a s . T h e N a z i s a n n o u n c e

t h a t m o r a l s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d b e w h o l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y r a c i a l

c o n si d e ra t i o n s . W r i t i n g i n t h e N a t i o n a ls o z i a l i s t i sc h e M o n a t s-

h e f t e , t h e c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l o r g a n o f t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t ,

A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g d e c l a r e s :

M o r a l v a l u e s d e p e n d o nl y u p o n o u r i n t e n t i o n o f s a f e g u a r d -

i n g t h e e t e r na l e x i s t e n c e o f o u r p e o p l e . T h i s m e a n s . . . we

d e s i r e t h e a s s u r a n c e o f t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e nu m b e r o f p r o l i f i c ,

h e re d i t a r i l y s o u nd f a m i l i e s , f a m i l i e s o f r a c i a l v a l u e t o t h e G e r -

m a n p e o p l e 2 8

I n h i s M y t h o f t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y , R o s e n b e r g l i k e w i s e

c o n c l u d e s t h a t " t h e r a c e - s o u l i s t h e mea sure of all our

t h o u g h t s , . . . t h e f i n a l c r i t e r i o n o f o u r v a l u e s . " 2 9 C a r l

S c h m i t t , w h o s e " f r i e n d - e n e m y " t h e o r y w e h a v e a l r e a d y e x -

a m i n e d , m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l l m o ra l i t y i s r e la t i v e t o r a c i a l d i f -

f e r e n c e s :

W e k n o w n o t on l y i n t u i t i v e l y b u t t h r ou g h s t ri c t e s t s c i e n t i f i c

i n s i g h t , t h a t a l l j u s t i c e i s t h e j u s t i c e o f a c e r t a i n f o l k . A s o u n d

t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o n l y t h e p e r s o n w h o s e

c h a r a c t e r a n d a t t i t u d e a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y h i s k i n d , and who

h e l p s t o s h a p e t h e c o m m o n m o r e s , a n d w h o a c t u a l l y b e l o n gs t o

t h e c o m m u n i t y , i s a b l e t o s e e f a c t s i n t h e r i g h t w a y , a n d t o f o r m

v a l i d i m p r e s s i o n s o f h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h i n g s . I n t h e d e ep e s t

c o r e o f h i s f e e l i n g s , a n d i n t h e sm a l l e s t f i b r e o f h i s b r a i n t i s s u e ,

m a n s t a n d s w i t h i n t he c o n f i n e s o f h i s f o l k a n d r a c e . . . . An

a l i e n m a y b e a s c r i t i c a l a s h e w a n t s t o b e , h e m a y b e i n t e l l i g e n t

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 103

i n h i s e n d e a v o r , h e m a y r e a d b o o k s a n d w r i t e t h e m , b u t h e

t h i n k s a n d u n d e r s t a n d s th i n g s d i f f e r e n t l y b e c a u s e h e b e l o n gs t o

a d i f f e r e n t k i n d , a n d h e r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e e x i s t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s

o f h i s o w n k i n d i n e v e r y d e c i s i v e t h o u gh t . T h i s i s t h e o b j e c t i v e

r e a l i t y o f " o bj e c t i v i t y . " 3 0

N o o n e w i l l d en y t h a t t h e r e i s t r u t h i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t ; o u r

t h i n k i n g i s c o n d i t i o n e d b y o ur e n v i r o nm e n t a n d ra c i a l a f f i l i a -

t i o n s . E v e r y s c i e n t i s t a d m i t s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r a c i a l f a c t o r s ,

b u t e v e ry s c i e n t i s t a n d e v e r y o b j e c t i v e m o r a l i s t s e e k s t o a v o i d

t h e d i s to r t i o n s o f r a c i a l b i a s . A s o p p o s e d t o t h e N a z i p o s i -

t i o n , w e w o u l d c o n t e nd t h a t " o b j e c t i v i t y " s t i l l h a s a m e a n i n g .

A m a n i s n o t m e r e l y a G e r m a n , a F r e n c h m a n , o r a J e w , b u t

a citizen of the world and a member of the entire human

r a c e .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o s u c h u n i v e r s a l i s t i c outlook has pre-

v a i l e d : " t h e d e li r i u m o f r a c e " h a s b e e n c a r r i e d t o p a t h o l og i -

c a l e x t r e m e s . H i t l e r ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y b r i s t l e s w i t h t h e m o s t

e x t r e m e e x p r e s s i o n s o f r a c e h a t r e d , a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s h a v e

e c h o e d h i s s e n t i m e n t s . In a sp eech at the Nurnberg Pa rty

Congress, September, 1937, Herr Goebbels, the powerful

M i n i s t e r o f P r o p a g a n d a , " d e s c r i b e d " t h e J e w :

T h i s i s t h e w o rl d e n em y , t h e d e s t r oy e r o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e p a r a -

s i t e a m o n g n a t i o n s , t h e s o n o f c h a o s , t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f e v i l , t h e

g e r m o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e p l a s t i c d e m o n o f t h e de c a y o f h u -

m a n i t y . 3 1

At the same Congress, Rosenberg "exposed" the "Jewish

p l o t " a g a i n s t c i v i l i z a t i o n . Purporting to read from a book

written by an American Jew, he uncovered the remarkable

p l a n s o f " J e w r y " :

L i f e w o u l d oo z e f r o m t h e p e o p l e s o f E u r o p e i n s t r e a m s o f s u p -

p u r a t e d b l o o d , t h r o u g h m o u t h , e y e s a n d p o r e s . O n l y s uc k l i n g s

a n d i l l i t er a t es w ou l d b e s p a r e d - e v e r y t h i n g e ls e wi l l m a k e o f

M o s c o w a n d P e t r o g r a d a h o r r i b l e g r a v e y a r d . H e [ t h e a v e n g i n g

J e w ] w i l l m a k e a c r y i n g w i l d e r ne s s of P o l a n d a n d t h e U k r a i n e ,

a n d a l l t h e w o m e n w i l l b e r a p e d b e f o r e t h e y a r e m u r d e r e d a s a

r e m i n d e r o f w h a t w a s d o n e a g a i n s t a d e f e n c e l e ss p e o p l e i n t h e i r

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104 NO COMPROMISEm i d s t . T h e d o c k s o f D a n z i g w i l l g u sh w i t h p u t r e f i e d b l o o d . O f

B e l g i u m a n d G e r m a n y h e w i l l m a k e s u c h a s l a u g h t e r h o u s e t h a t

i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o b u i l d n e w a n d h i g h e r d i k e s a r o u n d H o l -

l a n d . H e w i l l s w e e p t h r o u g h F r a n c e l i k e f i r e t h r o u g h a c o r n -

f i e l d .3 2

A n y o n e w h o c o u l d c i t e s u c h f r i g h t f u l d r i v e l a s a n i n d i c a t i o n

o f t h e J e w i s h " m e n a c e " i s s u r e l y u n b a l a n c e d , i f n o t m a d . Y e t

a t t h i s C o n g r e s s , R o s e n b e r g r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t a

p r i z e o f o n e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d m a r k s f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o

G e r m a n c u l t u r e a n d e n l i g h t e n m e n t ! E x c i t e d b y s u c h p r o p a -

g a n d a , m a n y o t he r N a z i o f f i c i a l s h a v e b e e n g u i l t y o f t h e m os t

i n t e m p e r a t e u t t e r a n c e s . For exa mp le, Deputy " G a u l e i t e r "

H o l z , i n a p u b l i c a d d r es s i n O c t o b e r, 1 9 3 6 , s w e e t ly d e c l a r e d :

" I f a l l J e w s t h ro u g h ou t t h e w o rl d w e r e t o b e s la i n i n a s i n g l e

n i g h t i t w o u l d b e t h e ho l i e s t f e s t i v e d a y i n t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y

o f t h e w o r l d . "33

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f G e r m a n A n t i - S e m i t i s m a r e s o m e t i m e s

c o m i c b u t m o r e of t e n t r a g i c . I n t h e f o r m er c a t e g o r y i s a s e r i e s

o f d e c r e e s i s s ue d i n c e r t a i n G e r m a n v i l l a g e s . T he se ed i c t s a r e

m e a n t t o p r o t e c t t h e v i l l a g e c a t t l e f r o m t he J e w i s h t a i n t . A

t y p i c a l d e c r e e , a s p u b l i s h e d i n a B a v a r i a n n e w s p a p e r , 3 4 r e a d s

a s f o l l o w s :

PUBLIC NOTICE

TOWN OF KOENIGSDORFF o r r e g u l a t i n g m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y b u l l a n d f o r

p r e v e n t i n g d a n g e r o f e p i d e m i c , i t i s d e c r e e d :

i . C o w s a n d o x e n d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y p u r c h a s e d f r o m J e w s

a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y b u l l .

2 . C o w s a n d o x e n t h a t h a v e b e e n s t a b l e d w i t h c a t t l e p u r -

c h a s e d f r o m J e w s m u s t b e p l a c e d u n d e r o b s e r v a t i o n f o r

o n e y e a r .

3 . T h i s d e c r e e g o e s i n t o e f f e c t , b e g i n n i n g O c t o b e r 1, 1 9 3 5 .

K o e n i g s d o r f , S e p t e m b e r 28, 1 9 3 5THE MAYOR OF TOWN OF KOENIGSDORF .

( S i g n e d ) ERNST SCHREYER, Head Mayor

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 105

Such regulations are laughable, but we cannot laugh when

we consider the effect of a nti-Jewish prej udices upon huma n

beings . A vast number of Jews have been economicallyruined and subjected to ex trem e insult and inj ury . By law,

moreover, a p erson is accounted a non-Aryan, a nd is roughly

classed as a Jew, if but one of his grandpa rents was Jewish .

W h a t h a s h a p p e n e d i n G e r m a n y i s i n d i ca t e d i n t h e r e p o r t

by James G. McDonald, appointed by the League of Na-t i o n s a s H i g h C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r G e r m a n r e fug e e s . In a letter

of December 27, 1935, to the Secretary General of theLeague, Mr. McDonald declared :

Relentlessly the Jews and "non-Arya ns" are excluded from a ll

public offices, from the exercise of the liberal p rofessions, and

from a ny p art in the cultural a nd intellectual life of G ermany .

Ostracized from social rela tions with "Aryans," they are sub-

jected to every kind of humilia tion . Neither sex nor age ex empts

them from discrimina tion . E v e n t h e J e w i s h a n d " n o n - Ar y a n "

children do not escap e cruel forms of segrega tion and p ersecu-

tion . In pa rty p ublications, directly sp onsored by the govern-

ment, "Aryan" children are stirred to hate the Jews a nd the

Christian "non-Arya ns," to spy upon them a nd to attack them,

and to incite their own parents to extirpa te the Jews altogether .

It is being m ade increa singly difficult for Jews and "non-Arya ns"

in Germa ny to sustain life . Condemned to segregation within

the four corners of the legal and socia l Ghetto, which ha s now

closed upon them, they a re increasingly p revented from earning

their living. Indeed, more than ha lf of the Jews remaining in

Germ any have already been deprived of their livelihood . . . . In

no field of economic activity is there a ny security whatsoever3 5

Since Mr. McD onald's letter was written, conditions have

grown steadily worse . In an article p ublished in the conserva-

tive London Times, June 18, 1938, the co ndition s in Austria

since the Anschluss are described :

In Vienna a nd Austria no vestige of decency or humanity has

checked the will to destroy, a nd there has been an unbroken orgy

of Jew-baiti ng such as Europe ha s not known since the darkest

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l o b NO COMPROMISEd a y s o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s . . . . N o t a d a y s t i l l p a s s e s w i t h o ut i t s

toll of arrests and suic ides .

E v e n t h e s e t e r ri b l e a c t s o f p e r s e c u t i o n w e r e e x c e e d e d b y t h e

s a v a g e b e s t i a l i t y o f t h e a n t i - S e m i t i c r i o t s a n d d e m o n s tr a t i o n s

i n N o v e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 . T h i s w a v e o f t e r ro r i s m w a s i n " r e t a l i a -

t i o n " f o r t h e m u rd e r o f E r n s t v o m R a t h , a s e c r e t a r y o f t h e

G e r m a n e m b a s s y i n P a r i s , b y a s e v e n t e e n - y e a r - o l d P o l i s h J e w ,

H e r s c h e l G r y n s z p a n , w h o h a d b r o o d e d o v e r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n

o f h i s f a m i l y i n G e r m a n y . U s i n g a s a n e x c u s e t h e a c t o f t h i s

s i n g l e e m b i t t er e d y o u t h , t h e N a z i s s u b j e c t e d o v e r a h a l f -

m i l l i o n h u m a n b e i n g s t o m e r c i l e s s a b u s e . T h e y b u r n e d s y n a -

g o g u es , l o o t e d s h o p s , i n v a d e d h o m e s, a n d b e a t , i m p r i s o n e d ,

o r k i l l e d t h ou s a n d s o f v i c t i m s . A f t e r t h e s e r i o t s h a d s u b si d e d ,

t h e J e w s w e r e f o r c e d t o r e p a i r t h e d a m a g e s c a u s e d b y t h e i r

e n e m i e s , a n d t o h a n d o v e r t h e i r r e h a b i l i t a t e d b u s i n e s s e s t a b -

l i s h m e n t s t o t h e " A r y a n s . " A f i n e o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly f o u r h u n-

d r e d m i l l i o n d o l l a r s - r o ug h l y h a l f o f t h e r e m a i n i n g w e a l t h

of the Jews-was ex torted from them ; and new laws were

p a s s e d b a n n i n g t h e m f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y e c o n o m i c a n d c u l -

t u ra l a c t i v i t y . P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t v o i c e d t h e s e n t i m e n t o f

d e c e n t p e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e w h e n he d e c l a r e d : " I m y s e l f c o u l d

s c a r c e l y b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h t h i n g s c o u l d o c c u r i n a t w e n t i e t h

c e n t ur y c i v i l i z a t i o n . "36

M o s t o f t h e C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s h a v e p o w e r f u l

a n t i - S e m i t i c m o v e m e n t s , o f t e n t i m e s N a z i i n c o n t r o l , a n d

e v e n D e n m a r k , B e l g i u m , a n d H o l l a n d h a v e n o t b e e n a l t o -

g e t h e r s p a r e d . T h e c o n t a g i o n h a s s p r e a d t o E n g l a n d , w h e r e

O s w a l d M o s l e y a n d h i s F a s c i s t c o l l e a g u e s h a v e b e e n s t i r r i n g

u p a n t i - J e w i s h p r e j u d i c e . S i m i l a r l y i n A m e r i c a , r a c i a l i n to l e r-

a n c e i s b e i n g c u l t i v a t e d b y F a s c i s t a n d li k e - m i n d e d g r ou p s .

R a c i a l p r e j u d i c e h a s be e n r a t i o n a l i z e d i n G e r m a n y b y a n

e l a b o r a t e m y t h o f " A r y a n " o r " N o r d i c " s u p e r i o r i t y . Many

i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s m y t h .

G o b i n e a u , C h a m b e r l a i n , a n d R o s e n b e r g h a v e p r o b a b l y b e e n

m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l .

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 107

C o u n t A r t h ur d e G o b i n e a u , a F r e n c h n o b l em a n , f u r n i s he d

t h e f i r s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y a s b a s e d

u p o n r a c e . H i s f a m o u s T r e a t i s e o n t h e I n e q u a l i t y o f H u m a n

R a c e s , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 5 5 , s o o n g a i n e d a f o l l o w i n g a m o n g t h e

" a r i s t o c r a t s " o f E u r o p e . H e w a s a l s o t h e a u t h o r o f n u m e r o us

o t h e r w o r k s - n o v e l s , p l a y s , t r a v e l b o ok s , c r i t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

a r t i c l e s - w h i c h r e f l e c t h i s r a c i a l t h e o ri e s . A b r i l l i a n t a n d

v e r s a t i l e m a n , h e b e c a m e f a m o u s a s a d i p l o m a t , a n a r t i s t , a n d

a t h i n k e r . I n 1 8 7 6 h e m e t W a g n e r i n I t a l y , a n d t h e t w o b e-

c a m e f a s t f r i e n ds . T h e c o m p o s e r , i m p r e s s e d b y G o b i n e a u ' s

r a c i a l t h e or i e s , d i d m u c h t o p o p u l a r i z e t h e m i n G e r m a n y .

( T h i s i s o n e re a s o n w hy t h e N a z i s r e g a r d W a g n e r a s a p r e -

c u r s o r o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m . ) T h e m y t h w a s t h u s t r a n s m i t t e d

t o W a g n e r ' s s o n - i n - l a w , H o u st o n S t e w a r t C h a m b e r l a i n , w h o

r e f o r m u l a t e d i t t o s u i t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f G e r m a n i m -

p e r i a l i s m .

G o b i n e a u s t a r t s w i t h a d i v i s i o n o f m a n k i n d i n t o w h i t e ,

y e l l o w, a n d b l a c k . T h e w h i t e r a c e w a s o r i g i n a l l y p u r e A r y a n ,

t h o ug h i t h a s s u f f e r e d f r o m r a c e p o l l u t i o n . T h i s r a c e i s v a s t l y

s u p e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r t w o :

Su c h is the lesson of history . I t s h o w s u s t h a t a l l c i v i l i z a t i o n s

d e r i v e f r o m t h e w h i t e r a c e , t h a t n o n e c a n e x i s t w i t h o u t i t s h e l p ,

a n d t h a t a s o c i e t y i s g r e a t a n d b r i l l i a n t o n l y s o f a r a s i t p r e s e r v e s

t h e b l o o d of t h e n o b l e g r o u p t h a t c r e a t e d i t . 3 7

B u t a t t h i s p o i n t , G o b i n e a u m a k e s t he s u rp r i s i n g a d m i s s i o n

t h a t a l l a r t i s t i c g e n i u s i s t h e r e s ul t o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w ee n

b l a c k s a n d w h i t e s . " T h e p o i s o n o f m i x t u r e , " i n f a c t , h a s p r o -

d u c e d n o t o nl y a r t , b u t s u c h o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d e c a -

d e n c e a s c o m m e r c e a n d d e m o c r a c y !

I n t e r m i x t u r e i s l e a d i n g t o a p r o g r es s i v e d e g e n er a t i o n o f

t h e w h i t e r a c e , a n d h e n c e t o a d e c a y o f c u l t u r e . T h e J e w s ,

w e a r e t o ld , a r e b a s i c a l l y N e g r o i d , a n d t he y h a v e c o n t a m i -

n a t e d t h e e n ti r e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e M e d i t e r ra n e a n a r e a . A l l

o f t h e L a t i n p e o p l e s - t h e F r e n c h , I t a l i a n , S p a n i s h , a n d P o r -

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i o 8 NO COMPROMISEt u g u e s e - h a v e b e e n c o r r u p t e d b y S e m i t i c b l o o d . T h e r e a r e a

f e w A r y a n s l e f t i n F r a n c e , a n d G o b i n e a u c o u n t s h i m s e l f o n e ;

b u t i n g e n er a l r a c e p o l l ut i o n i s s a i d t o b e c o n t i n ui n g a p a c e .

J u s t a s t h e b l a c k s h a v e p o i s o n e d E u r o p e , s o t h e y e l l o w ra c e

p o i s o n s t h e w h i t e s w h e n e v e r t h e y i n t e r m a r r y . S i n c e t hi s c o n -

t a m i n a t i o n i s b o u n d t o o c c u r , c i v i l i z a t i o n i s d o o m e d .

T h e N a z i s h a v e b e e n u na b l e t o a c c e p t c e r t a i n e l e m en t s i n

t h e C o u n t' s t e a c h i n g . T h e y a r e h a r d l y p r ep a r e d t o a d m i t t h a t

a l l " N o r d i c " a r t i s d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a N e g r o i d t a i n t l

B e i n g s u p e r p a t r i o t i c , t h e y c a n n o t a g r e e wi t h G o b i n e a u t h a t

p a t r i o t i s m i s a s e r v i l e i n v e n ti o n o f t h e J e w s . T h e y h a v e a l s o

r e j e c t e d h i s t h e o ry o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e d e c a y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ,

w h i c h t h e y h o p e t o a r r e s t b y e u g e n i c m e a s u r e s . S i n c e G e r -

m a n y ' s a l l i a n c e w i t h J a p a n , t h e y a r e no t s o i n c l i n e d a s h e to

s t r e s s t h e " y e l l o w p e r i l . " T h e r e i s e v e n a s c h o o l o f N a z i

thought which contends that the Ja pa nese are Nordic!

O t h e r w i s e t h e y a g r e e w i t h t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f G o b i n e a u ' s

t h e o r y .

T h e C o u n t ' s i d e a s , a s w e h a v e r e m a r k e d , w e r e w e l c o m e d

by Houston Stewart Cha mberla in. Although Chamberlain

w a s b o r n i n E n g l a n d , h e e l e c t e d G e r m a n y a s h i s F a t h e r l a n d

a n d b e c a m e a n i n t e n s e p a t r i o t . H e e n j o y e d t he s p e c i a l e st e e m

o f K a i s e r W i l h e l m I I , w h o s e re i g n h e c o m p a r e d t o a " r i s i n g

morning . " H i s m o s t f a m o u s b o o k , The Foundations of the

Nineteenth Century, w a s p e r s o n a l l y e n d o r s e d b y W i l h e l m .

A c c o r d i n g t o G e n e r a l v o n B i l l o w , t h e K a i s e r u se d t o r e a d

l o n g p a s s a g e s t o l a d i e s o f t h e c o u r t u nt i l t h e y f e l l a s l e e p .

C h a m b e r l a i n s u r v i v e d t h e W o r l d W a r , w h i c h h e h a d h e l p e d

t o p r e p a r e , a n d i n t h e p o s t w a r p e r i o d w i t n e s s e d t h e r i s e o f

H i t l e r i s m . H e g r e e t e d t h e n e w m o v e m e n t w i t h r e a l e n t h u s i -

asm . O n e o f h i s l a s t c o m p o s i t i o n s w a s a l e t te r t o t h e F i i h r e r ,

p r a i s i n g h i s p r o g r a m a n d l e a d e r s h i p . 3 8 The Nazis in turn

h a v e t a k e n C h a m b e r l a i n t o t h e i r h e a r t s, a n d h a v e e x t r a v a -

g a n t l y p r a i s e d h i m .

H i s c o n c e p t o f r a c e i s n e b u l o us ; h e d i s c o u n t s th e p h y s i c a l

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 109

m a r k s o f r a c e , a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e f e e l i n g o f " c o h e s i v e n e ss "

a s a n i n s t i n c t i v e s i g n o f r a c e . He uses the term "Germa n

r a c e " t o i n c l u d e n o t o n l y t h e T e u t o n s b u t o t h e r E u r o p e a n

p e o p l e s s u c h a s t h e p r i m i t i v e S l a v s a n d C e l t s ; b u t h e t h i n k s

t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d C e l t s a n d S l a v s o f t o d a y h a v e d e g e ne r a t e d

a s a r e s u l t of r a c i a l i n t e rm i x t u r e . Only the Teutons rema in

a s t h e r e l a t i v e l y p u r e b e a r e r s o f G e r m a n b l o o d .

H e a n n o u n c e s t h a t a l l t h e g r e a t c u l t u r a l p e r i o d s o f m o d e r n

h i s t o r y a r e d u e t o m e n o f G e r m a n r a c e :

This German for 1500 y e a r s h a s b e e n t h e v i t a l , t h e o n l y

c r e a t i v e f o r c e o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d c u l t u re . E u r o p e , w h i c h

t o d a y e m b r a c e s t h e w or l d , h a s b e e n h i s a c h i e v e m e n t ; a n a c h i e v e-

m e n t w h i c h h e c o m p l e t e d d e s p i t e t h e r a c i a l c h a o s a n d e v e n

a g a i n s t i t . W h e r e v e r h e w e n t , t h e r e g r e w u p - a s l o n g a s h e r e -

m a i n e d p u r e f r o m b a s t a r d i z a t i o n - m i g h t y p e o p l e s , a n d p l e n t i f u l

w e r e t h e f l o w e r s o f g e n i u s ; b u t w h e r e h e m i x e d w i t h n o n - G e r -

m a n i c m a j o r i t i e s , h e p e r i s h e d a n d w i t h h i m d i s a p p e a r e d t h e

v i t a l f o r c e o f l i f e .3 9

The fantastic lengths to which Cham berlain carried his

t h e o r y m a y b e i l l u s t ra t e d b y h i s r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e gr e a t m e n

o f I t a l y :

T h a t D a n t e , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s a G e r m a n o f p u r e l i n e a g e , c a n

s c a r c e l y b e d o u b t e d a n y l o n g e r . . . . A l l t h e f a m o u s I t a l i a n n o -

b i l i t y a r e o f G e r m a n d e s c e n t , a n d t h e e v i d e n c e w i l l u n do u b te d l y

s h o w t ha t t h e a r t i s t i c a n d i n t e l l ec t u a l a b i l i t y o f t h i s p e o p l e w a s

o f G e r m a n o r i g i n . 4 0

I n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t s a n d t hi n k e r s m a y b e e x c e p t i o n s , h e t h i n k s ,

b u t a t l e a s t t h e " t o t a l p h e n o m e n on " a n d " c r e a t i v e f o r c e " o f

I t a l i a n c u l t ur e i s r ea l l y G e r m a n i c .

T h e G e r m a n s , w e a r e t o l d, a r e a l o r d l y r a c e , t o w h o m i t i s

n a t u r a l t o b e f r e e . C h a m b e r l a i n q u o t e s w i t h a p p r o v a l A r i s -

t o t l e' s f a m o u s r e m a r k i n d e f e n s e o f s l a v e r y : " S o m e p e o p l e a r e

f r e e b y n a t u r e , o t h e r s a r e b o r n s l a v e s . " T h e g e n u i n e s l a v e s ,

h e c o n t e n d s, a r e t h o s e of " i n f e r i o r " r a c e , s u c h a s t h e N e g r o e s ,

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110 NO COMPROMISEthe Semites, and the Chinese . Altogether different are the

"Aryans" :

Phy sically as well as m entally the Arya ns surpa ss all other

human beings ; therefore, rightfully they are (a s the Stagirite

say s) the overlords of the world41

Hence the Germans, as the purest representatives of theAryans, deserve to rule the entire ea rth .

Despite the defeat of Germany in the World War, Cham-berlain continued to nourish the dream of Germany's im-perial mission . In one of his postwa r utterances, he a dopts

the theory of Fichte, tha t the Germa n language is vastly su-

perior to a ny other tongue . It is Germa ny's duty to im pose

this language upon the world rather than to a llow English to

g a in world- wide currenc y :

Hence it is dire necessity that the G erman language,-and not

English-shall become the language of the world . If the English

language should be victorious, the culture of ma nkind is doomed

to perish . The moral decay of England has revealed itself in a

t e r r i b l e m e a sur e s i n c e t h e W o r l d W a r : m endacity, brutality,

ruthlessness, boasting, com bined with lack of dignity, la ck of

uprightness, rectitude, and ma nliness : tha t is a sorrowful p icture .

. . . Therefore, the Germa n, and with him things German, mustwin; a nd if the German has won-today or in a hundred yea rs,

the "must" remains the sam e-there is no task so importa nt as

t h i s : the Germa n language is to be relentlessly im posed upon the

world . Everywhere, even am ong the hundreds of thousands of

people com prising foreign races there are some of outstanding

ability and mentality ; without a knowledge of the German la n-

guage, they rem ain ex cluded from the highest culture 42

What "the highest culture" means for Chamberlain is made

abundantly clear : he is utterly opposed to liberal and demo-

cratic ideals . A great future awa its Germ any if she will only

toss aside all democratic ideals :

G er m a n y - a nd I a m fir m l y conv inced of it- within two cen-

turies ma y get to the point where it will govern the whole earth

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 111

( i n p a r t b y p o l i t i c a l m e a n s , a n d i n p a r t , i n d i r e c t l y , t h r o ug h l a n -

g u a g e , m e t h o d s , c u l t u re ) i f - y e s , i f l - i t i s p o s s i b l e s o o n t o e n t e r

u p o n " t h e n ew c o u r s e , " t h a t i s t o s a y , i f t h e n a t i o n b r e a k s c o m -

p l e t e l y w i t h A n g l o - A m e r i c a n m e t h o d s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d w i t h

t h e S t a t e - d e s t r o y i n g i d e a l s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n4 3

The ideas of Chamberlain have been championed by Al-

f r e d R o s e n b e r g , w h o s e My th of the Twentieth Century is t h e

o f f i c i a l h a n d b o o k o f t h e N a z i r a c i a l c r e e d . R o s e n b e r g , l i k e

s o m e o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s o f p a n - G e r m a n i s m , w a s b o r n o u t s i d e

Germany . A s a n u m b er o f w r i t e r s h a v e r em a r k e d , i t i s i n d e e d

c u r i o u s h o w m u c h h a s b e e n c o n t r i b u t e d t o N a z i r a c i a l i s m b y

m e n e i t h e r o f a d i f f e r e n t r a c e o r of a d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t y : b y

Gobineau, a Frenchman ; b y C h a m b e r l a i n , a n A n g l o - S c o t c h -

m a n ; b y H i t l e r , a n A u s t r i a n ; a n d b y R o s e n b er g , a B a l t , w h o ,

u n t i l t h e W o r l d W a r , w a s a R u s s i a n s u b j e c t . O n e w o u l d e x -

p e c t t h a t f r o m s u c h v a r i e d s o u r c e s wo u l d sp r i n g a c o s m o p o l i -

t a n c r e e d , i n s t ea d o f a d o c t r i n e o f r a c i a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t i c

i n t o l e r a n c e .

R o s e n be r g ' s g r e a t e st c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e r a c i a l M y t h i s h i s

i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e " N o r d i c s " m u s t h a v e a p e c u l i a r r e l i g i o n

and m orality of their own . R e s e rv i n g h i s s t r i c t l y r e l i g i o u s

i d e a s u n t i l a l a t e r c h a p t e r , w e s h a l l m e re l y s k e t c h h i s " r a c i a l "

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f " G e r m a n m o r a l i t y ." Like Gobineau and

C h a m b e r l a i n , h e r e g a r d s d e m o c r a t i c a n d h u m a n i t a r i a n p r i n -

c i p l e s a s t h e c r e a t i o n s o f d e g e n e ra t e m o n g r e ls . I n t h i s r e s p e c t ,

he sharply opposes the Christian emphasis upon love and

p i t y . A l t h o u g h h e r e g a r d s C h r i s t a s r e a l l y a N o r d i c i n d i s -

g u i s e , h e b e li e v e s t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s h a v e c o m p l e t e l y d i s -

t o r t e d t h e h e r o i c p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e f o u n d e r . The youth of

G e r m a n y , h e c o n t e n d s , c a n n o t b e c o n t e n t w i t h s u c h a s l a v e

m o r a l i t y :

T h e y o u n g g e n e r a t i o n h a s n o o t h e r w i s h t h a n t o c o n t e m p l a t e

t h e g r ea t p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e f o u n d e r o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n h i s r e a l

g r e a t ne s s w i t ho u t t he f a l s i f y i n g a d d i t i o n s of J e w i s h f a n a t i c s l i k e

M a t t h ew , o r m a t e ri a l i s t i c R a b b i s l i k e P a u l , o r A f r i c a n j u r i s t s

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112 NO COMPROMISEl i k e T e r t u l l i a n , o r s p i n e l e s s m o n g r e ls l i k e A u g u s t i n e . . . . Y o u t h

a s p i r e s t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e w o r l d a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y f r o m t h e

s t a n d p o i n t o f i t s o w n n a t u r e a n d o f G e r m a n i c v a l u e s .4 4

T h e c o u r a g e o f t h e G e r m a n , w e a r e t o l d , s t a n d s i n u t t e r c o n -

t r a s t t o " t h e c o w a r d i c e o f t h e A p o s t l e s . " " T o u s , " d e c l a r e s

R o s e n b e r g , " e v e n s u c h a f r i g h t f u l f i g u r e a s H a g e n s e e m s t o

b e f a r g r e a t e r t h a n , f o r e x a m p l e , P e t e r , ` t h e r o c k . ' H a g e n

t h r o w s a w a y h i s h o n o r i n s e r v i c e t o h i s k i n g , a n d u l t i m a t e l y

d i e s f o r h i s f a i l u r e , s t i l l a p r o u d a n d u n b ro k e n m a n . " O n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , " t h e t a l k a t i v e P e t e r r e n o u n c e d h i s L o r d o n t h e

f i r s t o c c a s i o n , " a n d h i s o n l y s h o w o f h e r o i s m i s " o v e r s ha d -

o w e d b y h i s s u b s e q u e n t l i e s . I n v a i n , t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e

C h u r c h t r i e s t o m a k e a h e r o o f P e t e r . "45

T h e g e n u i n e N o r d i c m a n , b e i n g a t r u e n o b l e m a n a n d w a r -

r i o r , i s i m m u n e t o t he p u s i l l a n i m o u s i d e a l s o f J e w i s h C h r i s -

t i a n i t y :

I f w a r w e r e c o n d u c t e d br u t a l l y , i t w a s t h e f i r s t p r e m i s e o f t h e

N o r d i c m a n t o a c k n o w l e d g e h i s d e e d s . T h i s f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n si -

b i l i t y , d e m a n d e d f r o m e v e r y s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , w a s t h e m o s t

e f f e c t i v e d e f e n se a g a i n s t t h e p e r v a s i v e e t h i c a l m o ra s s o f h y p o c r i t i -

c a l e v a l u a t i o n , w h i c h t h r o u g h o u t W e s t e r n h i s t o r y h a s o v e r -

w h e l m e d u s w i t h i n i m i c a l t e m p t a t i o n s i n t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f

h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m . A t t i m e s i t c a l l e d i t s el f d e m o c r a c y , a t t i m e s

s o c i a l p i t y , a t t i m e s l ov e a n d h u m i l i t y . B u t t h e p e r s o n a l h o n o r

o f t h e N o r d i c m a n d e m a n d e d c o u r a g e a n d s e l f - c o n t r o l . 4 6

N o w " a l l h e r o i s m g r o u p s i t s e l f a r o u n d a h i g h e s t v a l u e , a n d

t h i s v a l u e h a s a l w a y s b e e n t h e i d e a o f s p i r i t u a l h o n o r ." To

realize what honor means, the youth of Germa ny should

s t u d y t h e G e r m a n i c h e r o e s o f t h e p a s t , s u c h a s O d i n , S i e g -

f r i e d , T h e o d o r i c , F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t , a n d B i s m a r c k . The

r o m a n t i c T i t a n i s m o f t h e W a g n e r i a n l e g e n d s l i v e s a g a i n i n

t h e p a g e s o f R o s e n b e r g .

T o w a r d m e n o f l e s s e r b r e e d , o u r a u t h o r h a s a n a t t i t u d e

r a n g i n g f r o m c o n d e s c e n s i o n t o t h e s h e e r e s t c o n t e m p t . The

I t a l i a n s s t i l l h a v e s o m e g o o d b l o o d f l o w i n g i n t h e i r v e i n s ,

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 113

s i n c e t h e G o t h i c k i n g , T h e o d o r i c t h e G r e a t , s e t t l e d w i t h

t h o us a n d s o f G o t h i c f a m i l i e s i n I t a l y , a n d t h i s b lo o d h a s b ee n

t r a n s m i t t e d t o M u s s o l i n i ' s c o u n t r y m e n. B u t i n F r a n c e " t h e

N o r d i c r a c e p o w e r , i f n o t b r o k e n c o m p l e t e l y , w a s a t l e a s t

weakened tremendously . T h e c l a s s i c a l F r a n c e s h o w s on l y i n -

t e l l i g e n c e w i t h o u t n o b l e n e ss . " T h e r e h a s b e e n " a d e s t r uc t i o n

o f c h a r a c t e r , " w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r t h e r i s e o f F r e n c h d e m o c -

r a c y 4 7 A s f o r t h e J e w s , t h e i r b a s e n e s s i s i n e x p r e s s i b l e .

T h e a c h i e v e m e n t s w h i c h l i b e r a l s r e g a r d a s t h e m o s t p r o -

g r e s s i v e i n m o d e r n h i s t o r y a r e d e n o u n c e d b y R o s e n b e r g a s

t h e p r o d u c t s o f r a c i a l d ec a d e n c e . D e m o c r a c y , h u m a n i t a r i a n -

i s m , i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m , p a c i f i s m , a n d f e m i n i n e e m a n c i p a t i o n

a r e t h e a l a r m i n g s y m p t o m s o f r a c e p o l l u t i o n . " M a n ' s i n n e r

l i f e b e c a m e d e f o r m e d w h e n i n t h e w e a k h o u r s o f h i s f a t e a n

a l i e n m o t i v e w a s h e l d b e f o r e h i s e y e s : t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e

w o r l d , h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m , a n d t h e c u l t u r e o f m a n k i n d . "48

T h e R u s s i a n e x p e r i m e n t i s s i m i l a r l y t h e r e s u l t o f r a c i a l

d e c a y :

T h e d om i n a t i o n o f B o l s h e v i s m w a s o n l y p o s s i b l e w i t h a p e o -

p l e s i c k i n r a c e a n d b o d y a n d s o u l, a p e o p l e w h i c h w a s n o t a b l e

t o d e c i d e i n f a v o r o f h o n o r , b u t o n l y i n f a v o r o f b l o o d l e s s

" l o v e . " 4 9

A s o p p o s e d t o C h r i s t i a n , l i b e r a l , a n d s o c i a l i s t i d e a l s , R o s e n -

b e r g a d v a n c e s " a h a r d a n d h a r s h d e m a n d " :

U n t i l t o d a y , t h e i d e a o f a s o - c a l l e d h u m a n i t y w a s b o u n d u p

w i t h p i t y f o r a l l o f t h e si c k , t h e w ea k , t h e de c a y i n g , a n d t h e d e-

c a y e d . W e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s , h o w e v e r , c o m b i n e t h e i d e a o f h u -

m a n i t y w i t h t h e s p i r i t u a l l y h e a l t h y , t h e s t r o n g , a n d t h e c o u r a -

g e o u s . W e k n o w t h a t t he d o c t r i n e o f h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m t r i e d t o

c o u n t e r a c t t h e s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s o f n a t u r e , a n d t h a t c o n s e -

q u e n t l y n a t u r e t a k e s v e n g e a n c e , a n d w i l l d e s t r oy a l l d e m o c r a t i c

a n d o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s o n c e a n d f o r a l l . s o

T h u s r a c i a l b i a s i s u s e d t o r e i n f o r c e a c r u d e n a t u r a l i s t i c

e t h i c s .

The foregoing brief summ ary of the ideas of Gobineau,

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114 NO COMPROMISEC h a m b e r l a i n , a n d R o s e n b e r g w i l l p e r h a p s s u f f i c e t o i n d i c a t e

t h e m o r a l t e m p e r o f t h e N a z i r a c i a l t h e o r i e s . N o d o ub t i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o f i n d a s o m e w h a t m o r e t e m p e r a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f

t h e G e r m a n r a c i a l c r e e d , a s i n W e r n e r S o m b a r t ' s Deutscher

Sozialism us . 5 1 B u t t h e N a z i l e a d e r s a r e n o t i n c l i n e d t o b e

temperate .

T h e i r t h e o r y o f r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d b y

many competent writers . 5 2T h e c o n s e n s u s o f e x p e r t o p i n i o n

a g r e e s w i t h t h e e m i n e n t B r i t i s h b i o l o g i s t , J u l i a n H u x l e y ,

w h o h a s d e c l a r e d :

I t i s a s h o c k i n g s t o r y t he w a y t h e s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d i s b ei n g

p r o s t i t u t e d t o p e r p e t u a t e t h e A r y a n m y t h . O f c o u r s e , e v e ry o n e

k n o w s t h er e i s n o s u c h t hi n g a s a n A r y a n r a c e , b u t e v e n i f s u c h

a r a c e e x i s t e d m o r e t ha n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e

w o u l d b e n o n - A r y a n s , i n c l u d i n g H i t l e r h i m s e l f . 5 3

T h e t e r m " A r y a n " w a s o r i g i n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d b y p h i l o l o g i s t s

t o d e s i g n a t e a g r o u p o f r e l a t e d l a n g u a g e s . A n u m b e r o f w r i t -

e r s t h e r e u p o n i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n a s i n g l e

p a r e n t l a n g u a g e , a n d a s s u m e d t h a t t h i s l a n g u a g e m u s t h a v e

been spoken by a single race, which they designated the

" A r y a n r a c e . " But there are no written records of this hy po-

thetical language, and there is no record of the kind of people

who spoke it . N o o n e r e a l l y k n o w s t h e c o l o r of t h e i r h a i r o r

s k i n , t h e s h a p e o f t h e i r h e a d s , t h e p l a c e o f t h e i r o r i g i n , o r i n

f a c t a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e m . The assumption that they must

h a v e b e e n r a c i a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s i s v e r y s h a k y : i t h a s b e e n

a r b i t r a r i l y s u p p o s e d t h a t a s i n g l e r a c e m u s t h a v e u s e d t h e

"Aryan" language ; b u t w e a r e a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h t he f a c t t h a t

a s i n g l e l a n g u a g e i s o f t e n s p o k e n b y p e o p l e s o f m i x e d r a c e

o r b y v a r i o u s r a c e s .

E v e n i f t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l A r y a n r a c e o n c e ex i s t e d , i t ex i s t s

n o l o n g e r . T h e G e r m a n s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s a s i n g l e " r a c e , "

y e t e v e n th e l ea d i n g N a z i a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , H a n s G i i n t h e r , a d -

mits that the Germa n people represent a m ixture of many

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 1 1 5

r a c i a l e l e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g ( i n G u n t h e r ' s t e r m i n o l o g y ) N o r -

d i c , D i n a r i c , E a s t er n , F a l i c , W e s t e rn , a n d S u d e ti c . T h e e m i -

n e n t a n t h ro p o l o g i s t , F r a n z B o a s , h a s p o i n t e d ou t :

I t i s a f i c t i o n t o sp e a k o f a G e r m a n r a c e . W e s h o u l d r a t h e r

a s k w h a t t y p e s o f p h y s i c a l b u i l d a r e r e p r e s e nt e d a m o n g t he G e r -

m ans . H e r e w e en c o u n t er a c o m p l e t e l a c k o f u n i t y . B l o n de s wi t h

l o n g h e a d s i n t h e N o r t h , d a r k e r p e o p l e w i t h s h o r t h e a d s i n t h e

S o u t h ; b r o a d f a c e s h e r e , n a r r o w o n es t h e r e ; n o s e s t u r n e d u p a n d

a q u i l i n e , t h e g e n e r a l b u i l d t a l l a n d s h o r t , b r oa d a n d s l i g h t .

T h e r e i s n o " G e r m a n r a c e " ; t h e r e a r e o n ly l o c a l t y p e s w h i c h a r e

v e r y d i f f e r e nt o n e f r o m a n o t he r , e a c h o f w h i c h c o m p r i s e s i n d i -

v i d u a l s o f d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o t h a t r e p r e s e nt a t i v e s o f a l l

t h e s e t y p e s m a y b e f o u n d i n a n y p a r t o f G e r m a n y a n d o f t h e

n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s . T h e E a s t G e r m a n i s c l o s e r t o hi s P o l i s h

n e i g h b o r t ha n t o t h e F r i s i a n ; t h e T y r o l e s e s h o w s m o re s i m i l a r i t y

t o t h e E a s t A l p i n e S l a v t h a n t o th e N o r t h G e r m a n s , t h e R h i n e -

l a n d e r m o r e t o t h e n e i g h b o r i n g F r e n c h m a n t h a n t o t h e G e r m a n

i n m o r e d i s t a n t p a r t s . 5 4

B u t e v e n i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e t h a t t h e re w a s a n o r i g -

i n a l A r y a n r a c e , a n d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t - d a y G e r m a n s c o n s t i t u t e

a homogeneous race which has preserved the Aryan blood,

t h e r e w o u l d b e n o g r o u n d f o r c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e G e r m a n s

a r e s u p e r i o r b y r e a s o n o f t h e s e f a c t s . A v a i l a b l e e v i d e nc e p r o -

v i d e s n o b a s i s f o r t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n r a c e s a r e i n -

n a t e l y a n d u n a l t e r a b l y s u p e r i o r . T . R. G a r t h , a r e p u t a b l e

s c i e n t i s t , h a s a s s e m b l ed t h e e v i d e n c e a s t o m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e en r a c e s , a n d h a s r e a c h e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t n o e s s e n-

t i a l i n n a t e d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d . 5 5 K a r l P e a r s o n , t h e

f a m o u s B r i t i s h b i o l o g i s t , h a s p a i n s t a k i n g l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e

r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n m en t a l t r a i t s a n d t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

e m p h a s i z e d i n r a c i a l t h e o r i e s : t h e f o rm o f t h e h ea d , t h e c o lo r

o f t h e h a i r , a n d t h e f o r m o f t h e n o s e . H e i s u n a b l e t o d i s -

c o v e r a n y c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n t a l q u a l i t i e s a n d t h e s e

p h y s i c a l tr a i t s . 6 6 Boas ha s even disproven the supp osed im-

m u t a b i l i t y o f t h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s o f r a c e . H e h a s s h o w n t h a t

t h e u n m i x e d d e s c e n d a n t s o f i m m i g r a n t s u n d e r w e n t a m a r k e d

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116 NO COMPROMISEp h y s i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e-

s c e n d a n t s o f s h o rt - h e a d e d o r i e nt a l J e w s , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y

c r o s s b r e e d i n g , b e c a m e l o n g e r - h e a d e d , a n d t h e lo n g - h e a d e d

S i c i l i a n s b ec a m e sh o r t er - h e a d e d . 5 7 M a n y e x c e l l en t s c h o l a r s

c o n t e n d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e c u l t u r a l l e v e l s o f

v a r i o u s r a c e s m a y b e e x p l a i n e d o n h i s t o r i c a l a n d e n v i r o n -

m e n t a l g r o u n d s w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o s u p p o s e d i n n a t e d i f f e r -

e n c es i n c a p a c i t y . 5 8

T h e c l o s e s t u d e nt o f h i s t o r y , i n f a c t , w i l l f i n d i t i m p o s s i b l e

t o a d m i t t h a t c u l t u r a l a c h i e v e m e n t s a r e m a i n l y t h e r e su l t o f

i n n a t e b i o l og i c a l f a c t o r s , s u c h a s r a c e . In t e r ms o f c i v i l i z a t i o n

a n d l i f e - h a b i t s , t h e r e h a s b e e n a n i m m e n s e c h a n g e s i n c e t h e

d a w n o f h i s t o r y , b u t t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e o f g r e a t c h a n g e i n

t h e b i o l o g i c a l e q u i p m e n t o f m a n i n t h i s s a m e p e r i o d . We

a c t v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m c a v e m e n , b u t w e a r e n ot b u i l t s o

v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e m . W h e n c o n di t i o n s a r e f a v o r a b l e ,

t h e r e i s a t r e m e n d o u s o u t b u r s t o f h u m a n c r e a t i v i t y i n a s h o r t

p e r i o d o f t i m e : a s i n A n c i e n t A t h en s i n t h e t i m e o f P e r i c l e s ,

o r F l o r e nc e i n t h e t i m e o f L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i , o r L o n d o n i n

t h e t i m e o f Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h . B u t t h er e i s n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t

h u m a n b e i n g s a r e c h a n g e d i n t h e i r b a s i c h e r e di t a r y n a t u r e s

a t s u c h p e r i o d s o f g r e a t c u l t u r a l a c h i e v e m e n t . H e n c e i t w o u l d

s e e m t h a t c h a n g e s i n c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e l a r g e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f

r a c i a l o r b i o l o gi c a l a l t e r a t i o ns .

S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s a r e r e a c h e d b y t h e a n t h r o p o l og i s t s.

T h e y p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e r e i s a n i m m e n s e d i v e r s i t y o f c u l t u r e

w i t h i n a s i n g l e r a c e . A m o n g t h e N e g r o e s , o r A m e r i c a n I n -

d i a n s , o r S e m i t e s , o r s o - c a l l e d N o r d i c s , m a y b e f o u n d a t r e -

m e n d ou s v a r i e t y o f b e h a v i o r a n d c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y . Under

f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , a r a c e m a y a c h i e v e a v e r y h i g h c u l t u ra l

l e v e l , b u t u n d e r u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e v e r y s a m e r a c e

m a y a t t a i n t o o n l y a l o w l ev e l . M a n ' s n a t u r e , w i t h o u t u n d e r -

g o i n g b i o l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h a s b e e n m o l d e d t o a g r e a t

n u m b e r of c o n t r a s t i n g m o de s o f e x p r e s s i o n . T h e s e f a c t s h a v e

d r i v e n m o s t a n t h r o p o l og i s t s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e d e c i s i v e f a c -

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 117

f o r i n d e t er m i n i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n i s n o t ra c i a l

s t o c k , b u t h i s t o r i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . To

s p e a k o f t h e i n n a t e su p e r i o r i t y o r i n f e r i o r i t y o f r a c e s i s r e -

g a r d e d a s u n s c i e n t i f i c .

E v e n i f t h e F a s c i s t s c o u l d p r o v e t ha t c e r t a i n r a c e s a r e i n -

n a t e l y i n f e r i o r , t h e y w o u l d n o t t h e r e b y b e j u s t i f i e d i n p e r s e -

c u t i n g t h e s e r a c i a l g r o u p s . M o r o n s a r e o b v i o u s l y i n f e r i o r

m e n t a l l y t o o r d i n a r y a d u l t s , b u t t h i s f a c t d o e s n o t j u s ti f y c r u -

e l t y t o w a r d s t h e m . W e a r e n o t e v e n j u s t i f i e d i n b ei n g u nn e c -

e s s a r i l y c r u e l t o w a r d s a n i m a l s . T h e t e r r i b l e m a l t r e a t m e n t o f

J e w s , N e g r o es , a n d o t h er r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s , h o w e v e r i n f e r i o r

they m ight be, would likewise be morally unjustifiable .

T h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o b e s u s p i c i o u s o f d o c t r i n e s w h i c h

l e a d m e n t o e m p l o y w h i p s , c l u b s , l y n c h r o p e s , K l a n r o b e s ,

a n d s i m i l a r d e v i c e s .

T h e p l a i n t r u t h i s t h a t p e o p l e e m b r a c e t h e " s c i e n c e " o f

r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e o f v a r i o u s u l t e r i o r m o t i v e s .

T h e r a c i a l m y t h f l a t t e r s th e p r i d e o f t h e " s u p e r i o r r a c e " ; i t i s

u s e d to e x c u s e t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c o l o n i a l p e o p l e s a n d r a c i a l

m i n o r i t i e s ; i t p r o v i d e s t h e d e f e n d e rs o f t h e e c o n o m i c s t a t u s

quo w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y s c a p e g o a t s , w h o a r e b l a m e d f o r t h e

s t a r v a t i o n a n d m i s e r y w h i c h t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m p r o d u c e s ; i t

p e r m i t s a s e r i e s o f c h e a p v i c t o r i e s , w o n b y d e f e a t i n g s u c h

h e l p l e s s " e n e m i e s " a s t h e J e w s , a n d t h u s a d d s t o t h e s e l f -

e s t ee m o f t h e r a c i a l m a j o r i t y; i t e n c o u r a g es a n e x c e s s i v e b e l -

ligerency towards other races beyond the borders of the

n a t i o n .

I n H i t l e r ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y , t h e r e i s a f a t a l l y e a s y t r a n s i t i o n

f r o m t h e p a s s a g e s i n w h i c h h e c e l e b r a t e s G e r m a n r a c i a l s u p e -

r i o r i t y , t o s u c h o m i n o u s o u t b u r s ts a s t h e f o l l o w i n g :

I f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e ( V o l k ) i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

h a d a c h i e v e d t h a t h e r d l i k e u n i t y , a s o t h e r p e o p l e s h a v e , t h e n t h e

G e r m a n R e i c h w o u l d t o d a y b e t h e l o r d o f t h e e a r t h . W o r l d

h i s t o ry m i g h t t h en h a v e t a k e n a d i f f e r e n t c o u rs e , a n d p e r h a p s

i n t h a t e v e n t t h e g o a l m i g h t h a v e b e e n r ea c h e d , w h i c h t o d a y s o

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1 1 8 NO COMPROMISEm a n y b l i n d p a c i f i s t s h o p e t o a t t a i n b y m o u r n i n g a n d w e e p i n g :

a p e a c e s u p p o r t e d n o t by t h e p a l m - w a v i n g o f t ea r f u l , p a c i f i s t

w a i l i n g - w o m e n , b u t e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e v i c t o r i o u s s w o r d o f a

l o r d ly p e o p l e , c o n q u e r i n g t h e w or l d i n t h e s e rv i c e o f a h i g h e r

c ulture . s a

A n y o n e w h o d o u bt s t h a t r a c i a l i s m i s i n h e r e n t l y d a n g e r o u s

s h o u l d p o n d er t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n .

4 . A n t i f e m i n i n e B i a s

I n a d d i t i o n t o r a c i a l a n i m u s , t h e r e i s a s e c o n d f o r m of b i a s

b a s e d up o n c o n g en i t a l d i f f e r e nc e s . T h i s i s t h e a n c i e n t a n d

i n v e t e r a t e p r e j u d i c e o f m e n a g a i n s t w o m e n . T h e r e s u l t h a s

b e e n o n e o f t h e b a s i c f o r m s o f h u m a n t y r a n n y : t h e m i n d s

and bodies of half the huma n race ha ve been kept in

bondage .

D u r i n g t he l a s t f i f t y y e a r s , t h i s t y r a n n y h a s b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y

c h a l l e n g e d . A f t e r h e r o i c a n d p r o t r a c t e d s t r ug g l e s , w o m e n

h a v e w on th e el e m e nt a r y r i g h t s o f f r e e h u m a n be i n g s . T h e

o l d c o n c e p t i o n , t h a t w o m a n ' s r o l e i s t o o b e y t h e m a n a n d

m i n d t h e b a b y , h a s b e c o m e u n a c c e p t a b l e t o li b e r a l m i n d s . I t

i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a w o m a n c a n n o t b e a g o o d w i f e a n d m o t h e r

w i t h o u t b e i n g a f r e e a n d c u l t i v a t e d p e r s o n . Women are

c r o w d i n g i n t o t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d a r e d e m o ns t r a t i n g t h a t

b o t h h a l v e s o f t h e h u m a n r a c e a r e c a p a b l e o f g r e a t a c h i e v e -

ment . S u c h w o m e n a s M y r a H e s s , S i g r i d U n d s e t , V i r g i n i a

W o o l f , E d n a M i l l a y , M a r i e L a u r e n c i n , M a d a m e C u r i e , a n d

J a n e A d d a m s h a v e b e c o m e f a m o u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . A

t r e m e n d o u s c h a n g e h a s o c c u r r e d s i n c e I b s e n s h o c k e d t h e

w o r l d w i t h h i s D o l l ' s Ho use-a c h a n g e w h i c h h a s i n v o l v e d

d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m s o f a d j u s t m e n t , b u t a l s o g r ea t e r d i g n i t y a n d

h a p p i n e ss f o r m i l l i o n s .

I n G e r m a n y , t h e g a i n s b e f o r e t h e a d v e n t o f H i t l e r w e r e e s-

p e c i a l l y i m p r e s s i v e . The Weima r constitution prescribed

i d e n t i c a l c i v i l r i g h t s f o r me n a n d w o m en . A s a r e s ul t , m o r e

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 119

w o m e n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p u b l i c l i f e a s o f f i c i a l s o f t h e g ov e r n -

m e n t t h a n i n e i t h e r A m e r i c a o r G r e a t B r i t a i n . T h e r e w a s a n

imm ense increase in the number of women attending the

u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n s . " B a r r i e rs

w h i c h i t w o u l d a p p a r e n t l y t a k e c e n t u r i e s t o d e s t ro y s u d d e n l y

d i s a p p e a r e d . "60

T h e s e g a i n s h a v e n o w b e e n s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e a n c i e n t p r e j u -

d i c e s . T h e F a s c i s t s h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y r e v i v e d t h e c u l t o f

t h e " t h r e e K ' s " - K i n d e r , K i r c h e , K i r c h e , C h i l d r e n , C h u r c h ,

K i t c h e n - a n d h a v e t r i e d t o f o r c e w o m e n b a c k i n t o t h i s l i m -

i t e d sp h e r e . H i t l e r h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t " t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f w o m -

a n ' s e q u a l i t y i s a p r o d u c t o f d e c a d e n t J e w i s h i n t e ll e c t u a l i s m , "

a n d h a s c o n t r a s t e d h i s o w n p r o g r a m w i t h t h e l i b e r a l p o l i c y

t o w a r d s w o m e n ' s r i g h t s :

L i b e r a l i s m h a s a l a r g e n u m be r o f p o i n t s f o r w o m e n ' s e q u a l i t y .

The Nazi program has but one : t h i s i s t h e c h i l d . While man

m a k e s h i s su p r e m e s a c r i f i c e o n t h e f i e l d o f b a t t l e, w o m a n f i g h t s

h e r s u p r e m e b a t t l e f o r h e r n a t i o n w h e n s h e g i v e s l i f e t o a c h i l d . 6 1

H i t l e r ' s a t t i t u d e i s a l s o r e v e a l ed i n h i s r e m a r k s a b o u t f e m i -

n i n e e d u c a t i o n : p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g , h e d e c l a r e s , s ho u l d r e c e i v e

t h e m o s t s t r e s s , s p i r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s h o u l d b e s e c o n d a r y ,

a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l i m p r o v e m e n t i s w or t h y o f t h e l ea s t e m p h a s i s .

T h e u n a l t e r a b l e a i m o f s u c h e d u c a t i o n , h e a n n o u n c e s , i s t o

prepa re women for motherhood . 8 2 The narrowness of Hit-

l e r ' s o u t l oo k i s a g a i n b e t r a y e d i n h i s b o a s t t o a n a u d i e n c e o f

women at the Nurnberg Party Congress (September, 1936) :

You ask me what I have done for the women of Germ any .

W e l l , m y a n s w e r i s t h i s - t h a t i n m y n e w a r m y I h a v e p r o v i d e d

y o u w i t h t h e f i n e s t f a t h e r s o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e w h ol e w o r l d ; t h a t

i s w h a t I h a v e d o n e f o r t h e w o m e n o f G e r m a n y . 0 3

I n o b e d i e n c e t o t h e F i i h r e r , t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s i m p o s e d

s e v e r e r e s tr i c t i o n s u p o n t h e e n t r a n c e o f w o m e n i n t o t h e p r o -

f e s s i o n s a n d p u b li c l i f e . B y l a w o f D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 3 3 , t h e

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1 2 0 NO COMPROMISEn u m b e r o f w o m e n p e r m i t t e d u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e s w a s r e s t r i c t e d

t o t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l . 6 4 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p r o c e s s o f

s e n d i n g w o m e n "b a c k t o t h e h o m e " h a s b e e n a f a i l u r e; t h e

n u m b e r of w o m e n w o r k e r s i n i n d u s t r y h a s r i s e n f r o m 4 , 7 0 0 , -

o o o i n 19 3 3 t o 6 , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n A u g u s t , 1 9 3 8 . 6 5 M o r e j o b s h a v e

b e e n a v a i l a b l e a s a r e s ul t o f t h e c o u n tr y ' s i n f l a t i o n i s t e c o n -

o m y , a n d w o m e n h a v e b e e n f o r c e d b y p o v e r t y i n t o t h e m o r e

m e n i a l o f t h e se e m p l o y m e n t s . T h e e f f e c t o f N a z i p r o h i b i t i o n s

h a s b e e n , n o t t o r e s t o r e w o m e n t o t h e h o m e , b u t t o r e s t r i c t

t h e i r o p p o r t un i t i e s i n d e s i r a b l e f i e l d s o f a c t i v i t y .

T h e t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s h a s b e e n e x -

p r e s s l y f o r m u l a t e d b y A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g . H e i n s i s t s u p o n t he

s h a r p a n d f r u i t f u l c o n t ra s t b e t w e en m a n a n d w o m a n . L i f e , h e

d e c l a r e s , i s b a s e d u p o n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p o l a r i t y o f m a s c u -

l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e . T h i s " s e x u a l p o l a r i t y " c r e a t e s " o r g a n i c

t e n si o n s " w h i c h a r e " t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n y c r e a t i v e a c t i o n . "

H e n c e " i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e a t t e m p t s t o e q u a l i z e t h e s e x u a l l y

c o n d i t i o n e d t en s i o n s m u s t ne c e s s a r i l y r e s u l t i n a d i m i n u t i o n

o f t h e c r e a t i v e f o r c e s . " W o m a n ' s n a t u r e i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d

" t h e p l a n t - l i k e a n d t h e s u b j e c t i v e " ; s h e i s " l y r i c a l " b u t n ot

" a r c h i t e c t o n i c . " M a n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , " a p p r o a c h e s t h e

w o rl d a n d l i f e a s a n i n v en t or , a s a s y n th e si z i n g a r c h i t e c t . " B u t

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , " t h e w o m a n , b e c a u s e o f ` t h e m o v e m e n t o f

e m a n c i p a t i o n , ' b e c a m e n o t a r c h i t e c t o ni c , b u t p u r el y i n t e l l ec -

t u a l ( a n A m a z o n ) o r p u r el y e r o ti c ( a s s e x u a l l y e m a n c i p a t e d ) . "

A n d m a n , d e s e r t i n g h i s o w n a r c h i t e c t o n i c a n d c r e a t i v e f u n c -

t i o n , " b e g a n t o p r a y t o t h e f a l s e g od s o f h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m ,

p a c i f i s m , a n d e m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m s l a v e r y . "

T h e r e m e d y f o r t h i s s a d c o n d i t i o n i s t o u n de r s t a n d w o m -

a n ' s n a t u r e a n d t o r e s t or e t h e d u a l i t y o f t h e s e x e s . I t i s n e c e s -

s a r y t o r e a l i z e t h a t " t h e w om e n o f a l l r a c e s a n d o f a l l t i m e s

l a c k t h e p o w e r o f c r e a t i v e s y n t h e s i s a n d i n t u i t i o n. " H e n c e

A r i s t o t l e w a s q u i t e r i g h t w h en h e d e c l a r e d t h a t " a w o m a n

a l w a y s r e m a i n s a w o m a n b ec a u s e o f a c e r t a i n i n c a p a c i t y . " I n -

d e e d , " a l l t h e d e ep e r t h i n k e r s h a v e h e l d t h i s v i e w , a s a s e l f -

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 121

evident conseq uence of life itself, that ma n in all fields of

exp loration, invention a nd construction is superior to thewoman . "

Women should not be a llowed to da bble in political a f-

f a i r s . Social and politica l institutions are entirely "the result

of ma nly will and m anly creativeness," and "the enduring in-

fluence of women upon the Sta te can only mea n the begin-

ning of a n obvious decline ." Hence "the wo ma n sh all h ave

all opp ortunities to develop her ca pa city, b ut this m uch m ust

be clear : judge, soldier, statesma n, the ma n must be and must

remain." In denying women a right to participa te in politics,

Rosenberg is more impartial than might appear at f i r s t

glance, since he also withholds this right from most m en!

The right to the secret ballot shall be ta ken away from wom-

en? Yes!-and it shall also be ta ken away from the men . A peo-

ple's State shall ha ve no decisions made by anonym ous ma sses

of men a nd women, but only through responsible p ersonality . 6 6

Mussolini's ideas a bout women a re very simila r . He asserts

that "wom en exert no influence on strong men," a nd thinks

they are doomed by their inferiority to p lay a secondary role :

Woman must play a pa ssive part . S h e i s a n a l y t i c a l , n o t s y n t h e t -

i c a l . During all the centuries of civilization ha s there ever been

a wom an a rchitect? Ask her to build you a mere hut, not even

a temple ; she ca nnot do it. She ha s no sense for a rchitecture,

which is the synthesis of all the arts ; that is a sy mbol of her

destiny. My notion of woma n's role in the State is utterly op -

posed to feminism . Of course I do not want women to b e slaves,

but if here in Italy I pro posed to give our wom en votes, they

would laugh me to scorn . As far as political life is concerned,

they do not count here . 6 7

App arently it has not occurred to Mussolini that wom an's

"deficiencies" may be the result of environmental rather than

of congenital factors .

The Fa scists, however, do glorify one fem ale function,

nam ely, childbearing . Despite frequent comp laints that their

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1 2 2 NO COMPROMISEt e r ri t o r i e s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r p o p u l a t e d, t h e y h a v e u t i l i z e d a

g r e a t d e a l o f p r o p a g a n d a a n d e x p e n d e d l a r ge s u m s i n e c o -

n o m i c b o u n t i e s t o st i m u l a t e t h e bi r t h r a t e . T h i s c a m p a i g n i s

n o t w i t h o u t i t s u l t e r i o r m o t i v e s . M u s s ol i n i h a s r e c e n t l y e x -

p l a i n e d to a n a u d i e n c e o f I t a l i a n e c c l e s i a s t i c s t h a t t h e "m o r e

b a b i e s " c a m p a i g n i s e s s e nt i a l t o I t a l y ' s m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h . T h e

s i x t y b i s h o p s a n d t w o t h ou s a n d p r i e s t s w h o c o n g r e g a t e d u p o n

t h i s o c c a s i o n w e r e re c e i v e d b y t h e D u c e ' s b o d y g u a r d w i t h a

s a l u t e o f u p l i f t e d d a g g e r s . M u s so l i n i t o ld h i s g u es t s :

O n l y b i g f a m i l i e s y i e l d t h e bi g b a t t a l i o n s , w i t h ou t w hi c h v i c -

t o r i e s a r e n o t w o n . I t is the duty of Italy , a C atholi c nation, to

b e a b u lw a r k o f C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n b y h e r i n t r i n s i c s t r e n g t h

a n d b y h e r h i g h b i r t h - r a t e . ° 8

T h e p r i e s t s, w h e n a s k e d t o a s s i s t ( a d e l i c a t e t a s k l ) , a r e s a i d

t o h a v e b r ok e n i n t o a p p l a u s e . I n a s i m i l a r p a t r i o ti c v e i n , H i t -

l e r r e m a r k e d t o t h e a s s e m b l e d w o m e n a t a N u r n b e r g P a r t y

C o n g r e ss ( S e p t e m b e r , 19 3 6 ) : " Y o u m u s t p r o d u c e m o r e y o u n g

c h i l d r e n w h o w i l l b e a s g o o d s o l di e r s f o r G e r m a n y a s t h e i r

f a t h e r s . " s s

F a s c i s m i s e s s en t i a l l y a m a s c u l i n e c r e e d ; i t s e m p h a s i s i s

u p o n " m a n l y h e r o i s m " a n d m a r t i a l v i r t u e s . B u t t h e g r ea t e s t

i n s u l t i s t o i m p o s e t h e se i d e a l s u p o n w o m e n , a n d t o a s k t h e m

t o b r e e d s o l d i e r s f o r f u t u r e c a r n a g e i n m a n - m a d e w a r s . How

f a r b r e e d i n g t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

a m o n g c e r t a i n F a s c i s t gr o u p s i s i n d i c a t e d b y a n a r t i c l e i n

Schwarze Corps, t h e p e r i o d i c a l o f H i t l e r ' s B l a c k G u a r d . T h e

w r i t e r i n s i s t s t h a t m a r r i a g e m u s t be j u d g e d f r o m a " n a t i o n a l

a n d e t h i c a l " p o i n t o f v i e w , a n d d i s m i s s e s t h e u s ua l " c o n s i d e r -

a t i o n f o r t he p e r s on a l h a p p i n e s s of t h e m a r r i ed c o u p l e . " A

s t e r i l e m a r r i a g e , i t i s c o n t e n d e d , s h o u l d b e d i s s o l v e d e v e n i f

t h e h u s b a n d a n d w i f e a r e p e r f e c t l y h a p p y . S u c h a u n i o n i s of

n o s e r v i c e t o t h e N a z i S t a t e , a n d s h o ul d b e r ep l a c e d b y a

f e c u n d m a r r i a g e .

T h e sa m e a r t i c l e sh a r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e tw e e n m a s c u l i n e

a n d f e m i n i n e a d u l t e r y :

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 123

V i e w e d a c c o r d i n g t o o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g o f m a r -

r i a g e , t h e i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s of a m a n a r e s o m e t hi n g q u i t e d i f f e r e nt

f r o m t h o s e o f a w o m a n . T h e o u t l o o k o n t h i s m a t t e r h a s b e e n

o b s c u r e d f o r u s b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i m p u l s e w hi c h b r i n g s t h e

t w o s e x e s t o g e t he r h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e s e x u a l i m p u l s e i n t h e c a s e

o f b o t h o f t h e m , s o t h a t t h e s a m e t e r m i s e m p l o y e d f o r t w o

t h i n g s f u n d a m e n ta l l y d i f f e r e n t , t h u s v i e w i n g t h e m a s c u l i n e a n d

f e m i n i n e i m p u l s e a s i d e nt i c a l . I t i s h i g h t i m e w e p u r g e d o u r

G e r m a n l i f e o f t h i s c o n c e p t i o n - a c o n c e p t i o n f o r w h i c h t h e

C h u r c h i s m a i n l y r e s p o ns i b l e . A d u l t e r y o n t h e p a r t o f a m a n ,

i s , - b o t h f r o m t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w a n d f r o m t h a t o f

t h e o b j e c t o f m a r r i a g e - s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m a d u l t e r y o n

t h e p a r t o f a w o m a n . 7 0

T h e s e r e m a r k s d o n o t r e f l e c t t h e o p i n i o n o f a l l p e o p l e w h o

c a l l t he m s e l v es N a z i s ; b u t t h e y d o i n d i c a t e t h e c o m m o n F a s -

c i s t t e n d e n c y t o e m b r a c e a d o u b l e s t a n d a r d .

W e d o n o t m e a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s h a v e c o n t r i b -

u t e d n o t h i n g c o n s tr u c t i v e t o f a m i l y l i f e . D o ub t l es s t h er e i s

m u c h t o b e s a i d f o r t h e i r p r a c t i c e o f c o m p e n s a t i n g a n d h o n -

oring motherhood . T h e p r o p e r r e a r i n g o f c h i l d r e n r e q u i r e s a

g r e a t d e a l o f t o i l a n d i n t e l li g e n c e ; a n d n o t a s k i s m o r e i m -

p o r t a n t t o s o c i e t y . H e n c e m o t h e r s d e s e r v e a s u b s t a n t i a l r e -

ward ; the democra tic countries would do well to p rovide

e v e n m o r e a s s i s t a n c e t o p a r e n t s t h a n t he F a s c i s t s h a v e g i v e n .

N e i t h e r t h e n a t i o n n o r t h e w o r l d i s w e l l s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , b y

a p o l i c y w h i c h i m p r e s s e s w o m e n i n t o t h e s e r v i c e o f m i l i t a r y

a m b i t i o n s , a n d d e n i e s t h e m e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y a n d t h e

b a s i c m e a n s t o s el f - r e a l i z a t i o n . Even in democracies, many

f o r m s o f s e x u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c o n t i n u e , b u t t h e t r e n d h a s

b e e n t o w a r d s g r e a t e r f r e e d o m a n d j u s t i c e f o r w o m e n . Under

F a s c i s m t h i s t r e n d i s r e v e r s e d .

5 . Class Bias and Huma n Selfishness

I t i s t h e b oa s t o f t h e F a s c i s t s t ha t t h e y h a v e e l i m i n a t e d c l a s s

b i a s . T h e y d e c l a r e t h a t t h e y h a v e s u b s t i t u t e d, i n p l a c e o f c l a s s

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124 NO COMPROMISEd i v i s i o n s a n d c o n f l i c t s , t h e g r e a t e r u ni t y o f t h e n a t i o n . R o s e n-

b e r g , f o r e x a m p l e , p o i n t s o u t t h a t M a y D a y , w h i c h h a s b e e n

t h e tr a d i t i o n a l o c c a s i o n f o r r a d i c a l d e m o ns t r a t i o n s , h a s n o w

b e c o m e t h e d a y o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d g o o d w i l l :

T h e f i r s t o f M a y i s t h e d a y o f t h e b r ot h e r ho o d o f t h e p e o p l e ,

a d a y t o t r a n s c e n d a l l b a r r i e r s , w h e n o n e m a n s h a k e s h a n d s w i t h

a n o t h e r, i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t o v e r a n d a b o v e c e r t a i n a p p e a r -

a n c e s i n t h e d a i l y l i f e , a n d s o m e di f f e r e nc e s o f f e e l i n g a n d

t h o u g ht , t h e r e e x i s t s a s i n g l e l a r g e r u n i t , w h i c h a l l o f u s m u s t

s e r v e : Germany . 7 1

Mussolini has, on numerous occasions, e x p r e s s e d s i m i l a r

v i e w s . H e b o a s t s o f a n e w " e c o n o m i c " a n d " p o l i t i c a l d i s c i -

p l i n e . . . w h i c h i s o v e r a n d a b o v e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s ts , b i n d -

i n g a l l t o g e t h e r i n a c o m m o n f a i t h . " 7 2 Oswald Mosley has

p r o m i s e d t o el i m i n a t e c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m s i n G r e a t B r i t a i n :

F u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l e x i s t a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e nc e o f

f u n c t i o n , b u t d i f f e r e n c e s of s o c i a l c l a s s e s w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d . T h e y

a r i s e f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i n p r e s e n t so c i e t y t h e f e w c a n l i v e i n i d l e -

n e s s a s a m a s t e r c l a s s u p o n t h e p r o du c t i o n o f t h e m a n y . U n d e r

F a s c i s m a l l w i l l s e r v e i n v a r y i n g m a n n e r a n d d e g r e e th e n a t i o n

t o w h i c h a l l a r e r e s p o n s i b l e . 7 3

S i m i l a r l y L a w r en c e D e n n i s h a s p r e d i c t e d t h e e nd o f c l a s s c o n -

f l i c t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a r e s u l t of " t h e c o m i n g A m e r i -

c a n F a s c i s m . "7 4

I f w e c o m p a r e t h e s e f i n e w o r d s w i t h t h e r e a l i t y , w e s o o n

b e c o m e a w a r e o f a r e m a r k a b l e d i s c r e p a n c y . Fa scism pretends

to elimina te class hatreds but has actually intensified them .

B y m e a n s o f r e p r e s si o n , t h e m o r e o b v i o u s s i g n s o f c l a s s s t r u g-

g l e h a v e i n d e e d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d . M a n y h e a d s h a v e b e e n s p l i t

a n d m u c h c a s t o r o i l h a s b e e n f o r c e d d o w n a n t i - F a s c i s t t hr o a t s

b e f o r e t h i s " p e a c e " c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d . B u t s u c h m e a s u r e s d o

n o t p r o d u c e a s p i r i t o f l o v e a n d h u m a n b r o t h e r h o o d . When

e n o u g h o p p o n e n t s a r e d e a d o r a r e t h r o w n i n t o p r i s o n , s h o o t -

i n g a n d c l u b b i n g t e m p o r a r i l y s u b s i d e b u t h a t r e d d o e s n o t .

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 125

S u r e l y f e w m e n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d h a v e b e e n s o i n -

t e n s e l y h a t e d a s M u s s o l i n i a n d H i t l e r .

T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f c l a s s b i a s i s i n d e e d a c o n s u m m a t i o n t o

b e d e s i r e d . T h e w a y t o a c h i e v e i t , h o w e v e r , i s n o t b y r u t h l es s

r e p r e s s i o n , b u t b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l j u s -

t i c e . C l a s s b i a s w i l l e n d o n l y w h e n a c l a s s l e s s s o c i e t y i s

a c h i e v e d . So long as some men enjoy luxury while others

s t a r v e , s o l o n g a s t h e r e i s e n f o r c e d s c a r c i t y f o r t h e s a k e o f

p r o f i t s , t h e r e w i l l b e s m o l de r i n g h a t r e d s a n d s o m e t i m e s o p e n

v i o l en c e . T h e p l a i n f a c t i s t h a t t he e x i s t i n g s oc i e t y i m p e l s

m e n t o h a t e a n d e v e n t o k i l l e a c h o t h e r . U n t i l t h i s f a c t i s

c o u r a g e o u s l y f a c e d , a n d a d e q u a t e s t e p s a r e t a k e n t o r e m o v e

t h e c a u s e s , t h e r e w i l l b e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e e v i l s w h i c h

F a s c i s m p r e t e n d s t o c u r e .

T h e e m p t i n e s s o f t h e F a s c i s t b o a s t s i s d i s c l o s ed b y P r o f e s -

s o r C a r l T . S c h m i d t o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E c o n o m i c s , C o l u m -

b i a U n i v e r s i t y . I n a r e c e n t b oo k , f u l l o f s t a t i s t i c s a n d f a c t u a l

e v i d e n c e g a i n e d f r o m f i r s t h a n d s t u d y i n I t a l y , P r o f e s s o r

S c h m i d t c o n c l u d e s :

I t i s c o n s t a n t l y s u g g e s t e d th a t t h e h i s t o r y o f m o d e r n I t a l y b e -

f o r e t h e " M a r c h o n R o m e " i s i g n o b l e, h u m i l i a t i n g , e m p t y , w h i l e

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s ha p p e n e d s i n c e 1922 i s b r i l l i a n t , g l o r i o u s,

u n r i v a l e d el s e w h e r e . Y e t , b e n e a t h a l l t h e d ra m a t i c s p e e c h e s , b e -

n e a t h t h e s ti r r i n g s t r a i n s o f " G i o v i n e z z a , " p e r si s t s t h i s h o r ri f y -

i n g n o t e o f d i s c o r d : U n d e r F a s c i s m t h e w o r k i n g m a s s e s l i v e , a n d

m u s t li v e , i n m a t e r i a l a n d s p i r i t u a l p o v e r t y .7 5

P r o f e s s o r S a l v e m i n i , i n h i s r e c e n t b o o k , Italian F ascism,

r e a c h e s t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n . 7 6 H e m a i n t a i n s t ha t t h e c o r p o r a -

t i o n s a r e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e b i g g e s t m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s t s , a n d

t h a t t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a r e s a c r i f i c e d t h e i n t e r e s t s n o t on l y o f

t h e l a b o r er s b u t a l s o o f t h e s m a l l e r b u s i n e s s m e n . H i s a r g u-

m e n t i s s u p p o r t e d b y s t a t i s t i c s a n d o t h er c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e t o

i n d i c a t e t h a t b o t h i n d u s t r i a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s h a v e

s u f f e r e d v e r y s e v e r e l y u n de r F a s c i s m . P r o f e s s o r S a l v e m i n i , o f

c o u r s e , i s a n e n e m y o f t h e s y s t e m h e de s c r i b e s ; b u t a s a d i s -

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126 NO COMPROMISEt i n g u i s h ed h i s t o r i a n a n d s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t , h e h a s p r e s en t e d a

w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d a r g u m e n t t h a t m e r i t s r e s p e c t .

T h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e s o m e w h a t b e t t e r i n

Germany ; b u t t h e d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s o f l a b o r h a v e b e e n d e -

s t r o y e d . D e s p i t e t h e S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m , m e n o f

g r e a t w e a l t h , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r e m p l o y e e s , h a v e n o t d e -

c l i n e d i n p o w e r . I n h i s a u t h o r i t a t i v e b oo k o n N a z i G e r m a n y ,

P r o f e s s o r S t e p h e n H . R o b e rt s o f t h e h i s t o ry d e p a r t m e nt , U n i -

v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y , c o n c l u d es :

. . . H i t l e r h a s d o n e n o t h i n g t o b r e a k t h e p o w e r o f t h e b i g i n d u s -

t r i a l c o m b i n e s . I n d e e d , o n e o f t h e st r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f h i s f o u r

y e a r s o f p o w e r h a s b e e n t h e r i s e o f s u p e r - t r u s t s i n t h e h e a v y i n -

d u s tr i e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e T h y s s e n a n d F l i c k i n t e r e st s . T h e l a r g e

i n d u s t ri a l i s t s h a v e s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e r i s e o f H i t l e r i s m j u s t a s

l i t t l e a s h a v e t h e J u n k e r s . 7 7

I n S p a i n , t h e a l l i a n c e o f t h e F a s c i s t s w i t h t he g r ea t l a n d -

l o r d s a n d i n d u s tr i a l i s t s s h o u l d d i s p e l a n y p o s s i b l e i l l u s i o n a s

t o w h i c h s i d e , i n t h e e v e n t of c l a s s c o n f l i c t , F a s c i s m c h o o se s t o

s u p p o r t . E v e n i n t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i v e s o f g r e a t w e a l t h , s u c h a s t h e E n g l i s h " C l i v e d e n s e t" a n d

the American Liberty League, have been sympa thetic to-

w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l F a s c i s m , a n d h a v e m a t e r i a l l y a i d e d i t .

T h e w e a l t h y h a v e e x h i b i t e d a b i a s t o w a r d s F a s c i s m , j u s t a s

F a s c i s m h a s e x h i b i t e d a b i a s t o w a r ds t h e w e a l t hy .

W e h a v e h e a r d a g o o d d e a l a b o u t t h e " s o c i a l i s t i c " t r e n d s

u n d e r F a s c i s t r u l e, b u t t h e s e c o l l e c t i v i s t i c t e n d e nc i e s h a v e n o t

b e e n m o ti v a t e d b y t h e i d e a l o f a n e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y . We

c a n n o w s e e t h a t a c o l l e c t i v i s t i c o r d e r c a r r i e s n o v a l u e i n i t -

s e l f , a n d t h a t i t c a n b e u t i l i z e d f o r t y r a n n i c a l a n d m i l i t a r i s t i c

p u r p o s e s . S o c i e t y d o e s n e e d t o b e o r g a n i z e d , b u t n o t e v e r y

t y p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e . A l t h o u g h p a r t l y c o l l e c t i v i s -

t i c , F a s c i s m h a s d o n e l i t t l e o r n o th i n g e q u i t a b l y t o r e d i s t r i b -

u t e w e a l t h a n d p o w e r . I t i s m i s l e a d i n g t o a p p l y t h e t e rm " s o -

c i a l i s m " t o a s y s t e m w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e o f

w h a t m o s t S o c i a l i s t s h a v e d e s i r ed .

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 127

T h e c l a s s b i a s m a n i f e s t e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s i s r e l a t e d t o th e

e x t r e m e l y c o m m o n b i a s o f h u m a n s e l f i s h n e s s . A t f i r s t g l a n c e ,

s e l f i s h n es s a p p e a r s t o b e a n i n v e t e r a t e h u m a n t r a i t , q u i t e u n -

r e l a t e d t o c l a s s d i v i s i o n s . E v e r y m a n i s i n t h e e go c e n t ri c p r e -

dicament : h e l i v e s w i t h i n h i s o w n s k i n , r e g a r d s t h e w o r l d

f r o m h i s o w n p o i n t o f v i e w , e x p e r i e n c e s h i s o w n v a l u e s d i -

r e c t l y a n d i m m e d i a t e l y . H e n c e h e t e n d s t o c h o o s e h i s o w n

g o o d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e g r e a t e r g o o d o f o t h e r s . E g o i s t i c

b i a s i s d i f f i c u l t to e s c a p e ; y e t s a c r i f i c e i s n o t u n k n ow n i n h u -

m a n l i f e , a n d s y m p a t h y i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f o u r e x i s t e n c e .

F a r f r o m s e l f i s h n e s s b e i n g a n u n a l t e r a b l e f e a t u r e o f h u m a n

n a t u r e , t h e i n t e ns i t y o f e g o i s m a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t i s a f u n c t i o n

o f s p e c i f i c s o c i a l c o n d i ti o n s .

S o c i e t i e s i n w h i c h t h e r e i s f a r l e s s s e lf i s h n e s s a c t u a l l y e x i s t ;

anthropologists have described various comm unal tribes

w h i c h p r o d u c e r e l a t i v e l y a l t r u i s t i c h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e A r a -

p e s h t r i b e o f N e w G u i n e a , f o r e x a m p l e , l i v e s i n a h a r s h n a t -

u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o p r o m o t e a c o m -

p e t i t i v e s p i r i t , b u t t h e t r i b a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e c u l t i v a t e d

q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e t e m p e r a m e n t . D r . M a r g a r e t M e a d p o i n t s

o u t t h a t " t h e s y s t e m i s r u n u p o n t e n e t s o f h a p p y c o o p e r a -

t i o n "

T h e g r e a t a d v e n t u r e i s t o p r o d u c e f o o d - f o r o t h er s t o e a t. M e n

p l a n t t h a t o t h e r s m a y f e a s t o n t h e i r y a m s , f a t t e n p i g s f o r o t h e r s ,

h u n t t h a t o t he r s m a y e a t m e a t - f o r t h e g r e a t e s t c r i m e o f a l l i s t o

e a t o n e ' s o w n k i l l . I f b y c h a n c e o n e ' s y a m c r o p i s v e r y l a r g e , on e

i s p e r m i t t e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y t o g i v e a s p e c i a l c e r e m o n y i n

w h i c h a l l o f t h e s u r p l u s y a m s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o m m u n i t y

a s s e e d - f r o m w h i c h o n e m a y n e v e r e a t a g a i n - i n r e t u r n f o r

v o l u n t a r y g i f t s o f o t h e r t h i n g s . . . . T h e w h o l e c o n c e p t i o n o f

h u m a n n a t u r e i s s t r o n g l y i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h a t o f t h o s e c u l t u r e s

w h i c h c o n c e i v e m e n a s w o r k i n g m o s t w i l l i n g l y f o r s e l f - c e n t e r e d

e n d s . . . . A l a c k o f s e l f - i n t e r e st a n d a l a c k o f a g g r e s s i v e c o m p e t i -

t i v e n e s s h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u ti o n a l i z e d t h r o ug h o ut t h e w h o l e [ A r a -

p e s h ] c u l t u r e . 7 8

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128 NO COMPROMISEJ u d g i n g f r o m s u c h a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , t h e s e l f i s h n e s s

m a n i f e s t e d u n d e r o u r p r e s e n t so c i a l o r d e r i s b y n o m e a n s i n -

e v i t a b l e .

S i n c e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of e x c l u s i v e p e r so n a l g a i n i s c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c o f o u r s o c i e t y , t h e r e i s n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u b s t a n t i a l l y

r e d u c i n g h u m a n s e l f i s h n e s s u n l e s s t h e b a s i c s o c i a l a n d e c o -

n o m i c c a u s e s a r e r e m o v e d . T h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f u n s el f i s h p e r -

s o n a l i t i e s w o u ld a p p e a r t o d e p e n d la r g e l y u p o n t h e e s t a b l i s h -

m e n t o f a m o r e c o o p e r a t i v e e c o n o m y , c o r r e s p o n d i n g , u p o n a

f a r h i g h e r le v e l o f t e c h n i q u e a n d r e s o u r c e s , t o s u c h c o o p e r a -

t i v e s o c i e t i e s a s t h a t o f t he A r a p e s h . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e r e

i s a m i g h t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t t o r e f o r m a n d u l t i m a t e l y

t o s u p p l a n t t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m o f " d e v i l t a k e t h e h i n d m o s t . "

A l r e a d y o u r e c o n o m i c s y s t e m i s r i p e f o r c h a n g e , b u t t h e

t r a n s i t i o n i s b l o c k e d b y t h o s e w h o u p h o l d u n j u s t p r i v i l e g e .

S u r e l y t h e g r e a t e st s i n g l e b a r r i e r t o r ef o r m i s F a s c i s m a n d o r -

g a n i z e d r e a c t i o n i n g e n e r a l . S o l o n g a s th e s e f o r c e s a r e i n

p o w e r , t h e p r e d a t o r y a n d a c q u i s i t i v e f e a t u r e s o f o u r s y s t e m

w i l l c o n t i n u e t o m a k e h e a d w a y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f m u t u a l a i d .

T h e c l a s s b i a s a n d t h e a n t i h u m a n i t a r i a n e t hi c s o f F a s c i s m

s t r e n g t he n t h e g r i p o f h u m a n s e l f i s h n e s s .

6 . R e t r i b ut i v e B i a s

I n a n a g e o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l w a r f a r e , w e

c a n e x p e c t t o w i t n e s s a r e v i v a l o f h a t r e d a n d c r u e l t y . T h e d e -

s i r e f o r r e tr i b u t i o n h a s a g a i n f l a r e d u p l i k e a f a s t s p r e a d i n g

f i r e . S o m e t i m e s t h i s i m p u l s e a s s u m e s a m o r e p a t h o l o g i c a l

f o r m , a n d m e n d e l i g ht i n m a l i c i o u s c r u e l t y . This i s surely the

m o s t v i c i o u s t y p e o f b i a s ; i t l o w e r s m a n t o t h e s t a t u s o f a

b e a s t o f p r e y . I t h a s d i s to r te d t he s y s te m o f j u s t i c e s i n c e t he

d a w n o f h i s t o r y a n d i s w o r k i n g g r e a t m i s c h i e f t o d a y .

R e t r i b u t i v e b i a s h a s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y f l o u r i s h e d u n d e r F a s -

c i s m . H i t l e r' s o w n b o o k f a i r l y b r i s t l e s w i t h r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e

i d e a t h a t h i s e n e m i e s s h o u l d be m a d e t o s u f f e r . T h i s p o i n t o f

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 129

v i e w h a s c o m e t o d o m i n a t e t h e e n t i r e N a z i r e g i m e . Dr . F r a n k ,

t h e M i n i s t e r o f j u s t i c e , h a s b o a s t e d , " W e s h a l l h o u n d t h e

c r i m i n a l u n t i l h e l e a r n s t o t r e m b l e . " 7 9 His conception of

" j u s t i c e " i s i l l u s tr a t e d b y h i s t r e a t m e n t o f a r e p u t a b l e J e w i s h

l a w y e r , a m a n b y t h e n a m e o f S t r a u s s , w h o h a d e a r l i e r w o n a

l a w s u i t d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t h i m . F o r t h i s " c r i m e , " F r a n k h a d t h e

l a w y e r a r re s t ed . A s D r . K u r t R o s e n f e l d , t h e f o r m e r P r u s s i a n

M i n i s t er o f j u s t i c e , h a s r e l a t e d :

S t r a u s s w a s t h e n b e a t e n , d e p r i v e d o f h i s s h o e s a n d l e d , t o t h e

m o c k e r y o f t h e c r o w d s , t h r o u g h t h e s t re e t s o f M u n i c h , b e a r i n g

t h i s s i g n a r o u n d h i s n e c k : " I w i l l n e v e r c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e

N a z i s a g a i n . " H e w a s t h e n m u r d e re d i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p

a t D a c h a u . F r a n k ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s m u r de r i s s o c l e a r t h a t

f i f t y B a v a r i a n j u r i s t s s e n t h i m t h e n o t i c e o f D r . S t r a u s s ' s d e a t h

w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n : " Y o u r m u r d e r , M r . F r a n k ! " 8 0

U n d e r t h e e n l i g h t e n e d l e a d e r s h i p o f F r a n k a n d h i s c o l -

l e a g u e s , t h er e h a s b e e n a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s a l o f p o l i c y s i n c e t h e

days of the Weimar Republic . T h e h u m a n e o f f i c i a l s o f t h e

f o r m e r r e g i m e h a v e b e e n d i s m i s s e d . A n o f f i c i a l i n t h e M o a b i t

P r i s o n , n a m e d M o r i t z , o f f e r e d s o m e r e s i s t a n c e t o the new

methods . A c c u s e d o f f r i e n d l i n e s s a n d e x c e s s i v e l e n i e n c y t o -

w a r d s t h e p r i s o n e r s , h e b o ld l y d e f e n d e d h i m s e l f i n c o u r t , a n d

c r i t i c i z e d t h e N a z i p e n a l s y s t e m a n d t h e m e th o d s of t h e S e c r e t

P o l i c e a n d t h e S c h u t z s t a f f e l ( t h e N a z i G u a r d s ) . T h e t r i a l

e n d e d a t e l e v e n o ' c l o c k o n O c t o b e r 2 1 , 1 9 3 7 . A t t h r e e o' c l o c k

o n t h e sa m e d a y h e w a s f o u n d d e a d i n h i s c e l l .8 1

F r a n k ' s c h i e f a s s i s t a nt , D r . R o l a n d F r i e s l er , h a s s e t f o r t h

t h e N a z i c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t i c e i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n o f f i -

c i a l r e p o r t o n p e n a l l a w r e f o r m :

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e G e r m a n c o n c e p t i o n , t h e d e a d m a n a c c u s e s

t h e p e r j u r e r w h o a p p r o a c h e s h i m t h r o u g h t h e b l ee d i n g o p e n i n g

o f h i s w o u n d s , f o r t h e m u r d e r e d o n e s h r i e k s f o r v e n g e a n c e . A n d

t h e i n n er j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r v e n g e a n c e l i e s i n t h e c r y f o r e x p i a t i o n ,

f o r t h e e x p i a t i o n w h i c h t h e g ui l t o f O e d i p u s , t h e g u i l t of t h e

N i b e l u n g en , w h i c h e v e r y g u i l t d e m a n d s . 8 2

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130 NO COMPROMISEI n a n o t he r o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t , D r . F r i e s l e r ha s a g a i n a f f i r m e d

t h a t " g u i l t d e m a n d s e x p i a t i o n " :

I t m a y n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e t h i s b y r e a s o n i n g . I t i s n o t

n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h i t b y p h i l o s o p h y . T h e d e m a n d f o r e x p i a -

t i o n l i v e s i n u s , a n d t h a t i s e n o u g h . P e n a l l a w i s f i g h t i n g l a w ,

t h e o b j e c t o f w h i c h i s n o t t o d o b a t t l e w i t h t h e en e m y b u t t o

d e s t r o y h i m . 8 3

A n o t h e r N a z i a u t h o r i t y h a s s t a t e d :

O u r p e n a l l a w m u s t o n c e m o r e b e c o m e penal law . T h e i d e a o f

r e t r i b u t i o n m u s t a g a i n b e c o m e d e c i s i v e , a n d t h e w o r d " te r r o r i z a -

t i o n " m u s t a g a i n b e c o m e , I m i g h t s a y , " r e sp e c t a b l e . " 8 4

T h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s o f l e g a l v e n g e a n c e h a v e l e d t o a t h o r -

o u g h r e n o v a t i o n o f p e n a l p r o c e d u r e . " P r i s o n s e n t e n c e s , " t h e

n e w r e gu l a t i o n s s t a t e , " s h a l l t a k e p l a c e u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s

t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s h a l l f e e l h i s i m p r i s o n m e n t i s a d e f i n i t e

s o u r c e o f d i s c o m f o r t . T h e p u r p o s e o f i m p r i s o n m e n t i s t o p u n -

i s h t h e p r i s o n e r f o r hi s c r i m e . " 8 5 A g r e a t d e a l o f c r u e l t y h a s

r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s . E v e n i f w e d i s c o u n t s u c h a

l e f t - w i n g r e p o r t o f N a z i t o r t u r e m e t h o d s a s K a r l B i l l i n g e r ' s

Fa therland, t h e re a r e s u f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t i o n s o f r e t r i b u t i v e t a c -

t i c s f r o m c o n s e rv a t i v e s o u r c e s . S 6

W h a t m a k e s t h e s y s t e m e s p e c i a l l y c r u e l i s t h e a r b i t r a r y

m e t h o d i n w h i c h " j u s t i c e " m a y b e e x e c u t e d . T h e c o n c e p t i o n

o f reasoned p r i n c i p l e s o f l a w h a s b e e n l a r g e l y a b a n d o n e d .

F o r e x a m p l e , w e f i n d D r . H e l m u t N i c o l a i , t h e p r i n c i p a l e x -

p o n e n t o f t h e N a z i l e g a l t h e o r y , p r o p o u n d i n g t h e d o c t r i n e

t h a t l a w i s a s p o n t a n e o u s e m a n a t i o n o f t h e r a c e - s o u l , a n d t h e

p u r e A r y a n k n o w s i n s t i n c t i v e l y w h a t t h e l a w s h o u l d r e q u i r e :

T h e m a n o f p u r e r a c e d e c i d e s c o r r ec t l y - a r t l e s s ly , s u r e l y , a n d

i n s t i n c t i v e l y . T h e m i x e d p e r s o n m u s t c h o o s e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s

p o s s i b i l i t i e s . H e l a c k s f i r m f e e l i n g a n d s i n g l en e s s o f c o n s c i e n c e .

H e d o e s n o t f e e l w h a t i s g o o d a n d w h a t i s e v i l ; he must f irst de-

c i d e . 8 7

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 131

D r . N i c o l a i p r o c e e d s to c o n t r a s t th e f o r m a l i s m o f t h e R o m a n

l a w w i t h t h e b e l l i g e r e n t a n d f l e x i b l e c o d e o f t h e " T e u to n s . "

W h e n l a w i s c o n c e i v e d i n t h i s s p i r i t , i t i s l i a b l e t o wh i m s i c a l

a n d a r bi t r a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s .

A n o t h er s t r a n g e ex a m p l e o f F a s c i s t l e ga l t h e o r y i s s u p p l i e d

b y t h e p r o m i n e n t N a z i l a w y e r a n d o f f i c i a l , H e r m a n n S c h r o e r ,

i n a s p e e c h b e f o r e t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t L a w S o c i e t y i n

Cologne on May 10, 1 9 3 8 . " T h e a p p r o v a l o f c a p i t a l p u n i s h -

m e n t , " h e a n n o u n c e d , " i s a N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t d o g m a ." The

a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s p e n a l t y a n d o t h e r l e ga l p u n i s h m en t s , h o w-

e v e r , i s s a i d t o b e g o v e r n e d b y t h e N a z i n a t i o n a l i s t i c a n d

r a c i a l c o nc e p t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c r i m e o f a t t a c k i n g t h e

S t a t e m e ri t s d e a t h . O t h e r w i s e t h e p e n a l t y i s t o d e p e n d u p o n

r a c i a l c o n s i d er a t i o n s :

F o r , w i t h t h e O l d G e r m a n s , t h o s e w h o w e r e r a c i a l l y s o u n d

w e r e n o t p u n i s h e d w i t h d e a t h , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r g u i l t , w h i l e t h e

r a c i a l l y d e g e ne r a t e w e r e d e s t ro y e d . . . . T h e t r a g e d y o f A r y a n

l a w b e g i n s w i t h t h e i n t r od u c t i o n o f M o s a i c c o n c e p t i o n s i n t o t h e

G e r m a n i c p e n a l c o d e . . . . O n c e a g a i n N a t i o na l - S o c i a l i s t p e na l

l a w , h o w e v e r , h a s r e g a i n e d t h e r i g h t p a t h . I n t h e f u t u r e a h o m i -

c i d e s h a l l o n l y b e t r e a t e d a s m u r d e r , a n d p u n i s h e d b y t h e d e a t h

p e n a l t y , w h e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p a r t i c u l a r l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e f e a -

t u r e s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r e m e d i t a t e d a n d n o n - p r e m e d i -

t a t e d h o m i c i d e h a s b e en d r o p p e d . I n i t s p l a c e t h e r e h a s b e e n re -

v i v e d t h e a n c i e n t G e r m a n i c r a c i a l - b i o l o gi c a l p r i n c i p l e . 8 8

A c r i m i n a l , i n o t h er w o r ds , i s a p t t o e s c a p e w i t h a l i g h t p e n -

a l t y i f h e i s a n a p p r o v ed N a z i , b u t t he " r a c i a l l y d e g e n er a t e "

a r e t o b e t r e a t e d w i t h u t m o s t s e v e r i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d i s -

t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r e m e d i t a t e d a n d u n p r e m e d i t a t e d a c t s i s

n o l o n g e r a d m i s s i b l e ; y e t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s i n d i s p e n s a b le f o r

t h e j u s t a n d h u m a n e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s . I m p a r t i a l j u s t i c e i s n o t t o b e e x p e c t e d f r o m m e n w ho

a d h e r e t o t hi s p o i n t o f v i e w .

J u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e , m o r e o v e r , m a y b e e n t i r e l y s e t a s i d e .

T h e r i g h t o f h a b e a s c o r p u s , w h i c h i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o h u m a n

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132 NO COMPROMISEl i b e r t y , h a s b e e n a b o l i s h e d ; a n d c o u r t d e c i s i o n s c a n b e f r e e l y

d i s r e g a r d e d . T h e c a s e o f P a s t o r N i e m o l l e r , l e a d e r o f t h e

C h u r c h o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e N a z i r e g i m e , i s a n o t o r i o u s i n st a n c e

o f t h e s e ex t r a j u d i c i a l m e t h od s . A f t e r a s e c r e t t r i a l e n d i n g

March 2 , 1 9 3 8 , h e w a s r e l e a s ed b y t h e c o u r t, h a v i n g a l r e a d y

s e r v e d t h e p r i s o n t e r m t o w h i c h h e w a s s e n t e n c e d . Y e t h e wa s

i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e n i n t o c u s t o d y o n c e a g a i n b y t h e G e s t a p o

( s e c r e t p o l i c e ) a n d c o n f i n e d t o S a c h s e n h a u s e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n

camp . H e h a s b e e n k e p t i n a n i n d i v i d u a l c e l l , a n d h a s n o t

b e e n a l l o w e d t o s p e a k e i t h e r t o t h e p r i s o n e r s o r t o t h e g u a r d s .

U n t i l t h e e n d o f N o v e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 , h e w a s r e f u s e d a l l r e a d i n g

m a t e r i a l e x c e p t t h e B i b l e , a h y m n b o o k , a n d t h e d a i l y i s s u e

o f t h e N a z i n e w s p a p e r , t h e V o l k i s c h e r B e o b a c h t e r . The only

w r i t i n g p e r m i t t e d w a s a l e t t e r t w i c e a m o n t h t o h i s f a m i l y .

S i n c e N o v e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 , h e h a s b e e n t r e a t e d w i t h e v e n g r e a t e r

r i g o r . H e i s n o w i n s t r i c t e st s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e nt , f o r b i d d e n

t o w r i t e o r r ec e i v e l e t t e r s, a n d d e ni e d c o n t a c t w i t h h i s w i f e

a n d r e l a t i v e s w h o u s ed t o v i s i t h i m a t r a r e i n t e r v a l s . N o l e s s

t h a n f o r t y - n i n e d e le g a t i o n s , r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s c l a s s e s i n

t h e c o m m u n i t y , h a v e c a l l e d u p o n t h e C h u r c h M i n i s t r y a n d

t h e M i n i s t r y o f j u s ti c e t o a s k f o r h i s r e l ea s e ; a n d a p p e a l s ha v e

b e e n s e n t t o H i t l e r , p e r s o n a l l y . T h e G e s t a p o h a s d e m a n d e d

a t t h e p r i c e o f r e l e a s e t h a t h e si g n a s t a t e m e n t a c c e p t i n g

e x p u l s i o n f r o m h i s o wn p a r i s h a n d c o n g r e ga t i o n . A l t h o ug h

h i s h e a l t h h a s b e e n s h a t t e re d b y h i s i l l e g a l d e t e n t i o n , t h e i n -

d o m i t a b l e c l e r g y m a n h a s r e f u s e d t o c o m p l y .

A n o t h e r f a m o u s c a s e i s t h a t o f H e r r C a r l v o n O s s i e t z k y ,

t h e G e r m a n p a c i f i s t a n d e d i t o r wh o w a s a w a r d e d t h e N o b e l

P e a c e Pr i z e i n 19 3 6 . H e w a s a r r e s te d b y t h e N a z i s i m m e d i -

a t e l y a f t e r th e R e i c h s t a g f i r e , b e i n g f i r s t i m p r i s o n e d i n B e r l i n

a n d a f t e r w a r d s r e m o v e d t o t h e S o n n e n b u r g c o n c e n t r a t i o n

c a m p a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t o a n o t h e r c a m p . S o g r ea t l y d i d h e

s u f f e r f r o m i l l t r ea t m e n t t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s f i n a l l y h a d t o

t r a n s f e r h i m t o a p o l i c e h o s p i t a l . H e f i n a l l y d i e d i n M a y ,

1 9 3 8 , f r o m t h e t u b e rc u l o s i s w h i c h h e c o n t r a c t e d . A t n o t i m e

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 133

d u r i n g h i s y e a r s o f d e t e n t i o n b y t h e N a z i s w e r e a n y c h a r g e s

b r o u g h t a g a i n s t h i m , a n d n o o n e h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t h e w a s

g u i l t y o f a n y " c r i m e " e x c e p t t h a t o f s u p p o r t i n g t h e L e a g u e

o f N a t i o n s a n d a d v o c a t i n g u n i v e r s a l d i s a r m a m e n t a n d c o l l e c -

t i v e s e c u r i t y .

L e g a l p r o c e d u r e i s t h u s d i s r e g a r d e d w h en i t s u i t s t h e N a z i

p u r p o s e . T h e H o w a r d L e a g u e f o r P e n a l R e f o r m , i n a r e p o r t

t o t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s , h a s p o i n t e d o ut t h a t t h e a c t i o n o f

t h e G e r m a n p o l i c e i s f r e e f r o m j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l , a n d i n d i -

v i d u a l s m a y b e k e p t i n p r i s o n o r t o r t u r e d w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e

t o l e g a l p r o c e s s . s s M a n y c a s e s o f i n j u s t i c e a n d b r ut a l i t y h a v e

been reported in such reputable newspapers as the Man-

c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n .

G e n e r a l G o r i n g , t h e o r i g i n a l N a z i o r g a n i z e r o f t h e P r u s -

s i a n p o l i c e , h a s r e v e a l e d th e n a t u r e o f h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s :

I g a v e s t r i c t o r d e r s a n d d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e p o l i c e s h o u l d d e -

v o t e a l l t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o t h e r u t h l e s s e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f s u b v e r s i v e

e l e m e n t s . . . . W h o e v e r d i d h i s d u t y i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e S t a t e ,

w h o e v e r o b e y e d m y o r d e r s , a n d t o o k s e v e r e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t

t h e S t a t e ' s e n e m i e s , w h o e v e r r u th l e s sl y m a d e u s e o f h i s r e v o l v e r

w h e n a t t a c k e d , c o u l d b e c e r t a i n o f p r o t ec t i o n . W h o e v e r o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d w a s a c o w a r d a n d a v o i d e d a f i g h t a n d l o o k e d t h e

o t h e r w a y , w h o e v e r h e s i t a t e d t o m a k e u s e o f h i s w e a p o n s , w o u l d

h a v e t o c o u n t o n b ei n g t h r o w n o u t b y m e a t t h e e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e

moment . I d e c l a r e d t h en , b e f o r e t h o u sa n d s o f m y f e l l o w - c o u n t r y -

m e n , t h a t e v e r y b u l l e t f i r e d f r o m t h e b a r r e l of a p o l i c e p i s t o l w a s

m y b u l l e t . I f y o u c a l l t h a t m u r d er , t h e n I a m t h e m u rd e r er s o

G o r i n g a d m i t s t h a t " t h e r e w e re s o m e c a s e s o f b r u t a l i t y , " b u t

i n s i s t s t ha t t h e J e w i s h a n d M a r x i s t m e n a c e h a s b e e n c h e c k e d .

P o l i c e b r ut a l i t y i s e x c u s e d i f i t i s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a m i n o r i t y

r a c e , o r a g a i n s t m en w h o ha v e a p o l i t i c a l v i e w p o i n t di f f e r e nt

from General Goring .

W i t h t h e r e v i v a l o f d u e l i n g , e x t r a l e g a l m e t h o d s o f a t t a i n -

i n g " j u s t i c e " h a v e e x t e n d e d i n t o p r i v a t e l i f e . Announcing

t h a t s w o r d p r a c t i c e i s t o b e m a d e c o m p u l s o r y i n t h e u n i v e r -

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134 NO COMPROMISEs i t i e s , t h e V o l k i s c h e r B e o b a c h t e r , H i t l e r ' s o w n n e w sp a p e r , d e -

c l a r e d o n A p r i l 5, 1 937 :

S o o n , w h e n w e h e a r a g a i n t h e w o r d s o f c o m m a n d f o r t h e d u e l

i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d s e a t s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g , a n d t h e a r m s

c l a s h a g a i n , w e s h a l l k n o w t h a t t h i s b o di l y e x e r c i s e t h a t b e l o n g s

e q u a l l y t o t h e w h o l e na t i o n , i s n o l o n ge r a c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n a s

f o r m e r l y . A n d e v e r y w h e r e , w h e n a m a n c h a l l e n g e s t he o f f e n d e r

o f h i s h o n o r , t h e r e wi l l n o l o n g er b e a n y s u c h t h i n g a s a c a -

d e m i c p r i v i l e g e , b u t o nl y t h e m a n l y s e t t li n g o f a n o f f e n c e a g a i n s t

h o n o r f o r e v e r y F o l k - C o m r a d e t r a i n e d t o a r m s91

On March 17, 1937, the Nazi Students' Association an-

nounced that beginning with the summ er term it would be

c o m p u l s o r y f o r a l l s t u d e n t m e m b e r s t o g i v e " u n c o n d i t i o n a l

s a t i s f a c t i o n " b y m e a n s o f a d u e l i n q u e st i o n s a f f e c t i n g t h e i r

h o n o r 9 2 I t h a s o n c e m o r e b e c o m e a m a r k o f h o n o r t o b e a r a

s a b e r w o u n d a n d t o b e a b l e t o b o a s t t h a t t h e e n e m y h a s r e -

c e i v e d a d e e p e r c u t . I n t h e a r m y , t h e c o d e i s gr i m m e r t h a n i n

t h e u ni v e r s i t i e s . F e w d u e l s t a k e p l a c e , b u t t he y a r e l i k e l y t o

p r o v e f a t a l .

T h e s y s t e m o f j u s t i c e i n I t a l y i s m i l d e r t h a n i n G e r m a n y ,

b u t t h e b a s i c t r e n d h a s b e e n t h e s a m e . D r . G i o v a n n i N o v el l i ,

t h e D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l o f P e n a l a n d C o r r e c t i v e I n s t i t u t i o n s ,

h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e p e n a l l a w m u s t " i n t i m i d a t e " a n d " c a s t i -

g a t e " t he c r i m i n a l . T h e i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e , D r . N o v e l l i

t h i n k s , i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f r e t r i b u t i o n a n d

h e n c e m u s t b e r e j e c t e d 9 3 As Dr . G i u l i a B a t t a g li n i , e d i t o r of

a n I t a l i a n j o u r n a l o f p e n o l o g y , h a s p o i n t e d o u t , " t h e n e w

c o d e d e c i d e d l y i n c l i n e s t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f f a u l t a n d p u n -

ishment . " 9 4 This obviously m eans that "bad m en" are ma de

t o s u f f e r . J u d i c i a l s a f e g u a r d s , m o r e o v e r , a r e f r e q u e n t l y s e t

a s i d e . Men may be "interned" by the police without even

a p r e l i m i n a r y h e a r i n g , i n t e r r og a t i o n , o r i n d i c t m e n t , a n d m a y

b e k e p t i n c o n f i n e m e n t i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h o u t l e ga l p r o c e s s . I n

1 9 3 1 , a c c o r d i n g t o a n o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t , t h e r e w e r e 7 8 , 0 0 4

p e o p l e s o c o n f i n e d ; a nd on Decem ber 31, 1934, there were

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 135

3 6 , 6 2 6 m a l e a n d 2 , 9 4 5 f e m a l e p r i s o n e r s i n s u c h c u s t o d y . U n -

d e r I t a l i a n F a s c i s m , t h er e h a s i n d e e d be e n a f l a r e u p o f c r u e l

a n d a r b i t r a r y m e t h o d s o f p u n i s h m e n t , a n d o f e x t r a l e g a l p u n i -

t i v e a c t i o n . 9 5

T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f " j u s t i c e " u n d e r F r a n c o ' s r u l e i n

S p a i n h a s b e e n d i s t i n g ui s h e d b y i t s t e r r o ri s t i c e x t r e m e s . T h e

g r e a t C a t h o l i c w r i t e r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r , M i g u e l U n a m u n o , o b -

s e r v e d th e s e c r u e l p r a c t i c e s w i t h g r a v e m i s g i v i n g s . A l t h o u g h

h e a t f i r s t f a v o r e d t h e I n s u r g e n t c a u s e , h e s o on c h a n g e d h i s

a t t i t u d e a n d i s s u e d a f e r v i d d e n u n c i a t i o n :

I a m t e r r i f i e d b y t h e v i o l e nc e , t h e s a d i s m , t h e i n c o n c e i v a b l e

c r u e l ty o f t h i s c i v i l w a r a s i t a p p e a r s f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l i s t s i d e .

A l l t h e h o r r o rs w h i c h h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o m e a s h a v i n g b e e n

c o m m i t t e d b y t h e " R e d s " - a n d i n w h i c h I b y n o m e a n s b e l i e v e

- a r e p a l e t r i f l e s c o m p a r e d t o t h e c r u e l t y , t h e s y s t e m a t i c a n d o r -

g a n i z e d s a d i s m w h i c h e v e r y d a y h e re a c c o m p a n i e s t h e e x e c u t i o n

o f t h e m o s t h o ne s t a n d i n n o c e n t p e o p l e , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r

p a r t y l a b e l, s i m p l y b e c a u s e t he y a r e l i b e r a l a n d R e p u b l i c a n. A n d

n o t e w e l l th a t t h e s e b r u t a l i t i e s a r e n o t h e re a q u e s t i o n o f i n d i -

v i d u a l t e r r o r i s t a c t i o n , b u t r e s u lt f r o m c o l l e c t i v e o r d e rs g i v e n b y

t h e G e n e ra l S t a f f , w h i c h c a l l s i t s e lf n a t i o n a l . A l l t h e s e c r i m e s

a r e c o m m i t t e d i n c o l d b l o o d , i n r e s p o n s e t o th e s l o g a n i m p l i e d

b y t h e d o u b l e - e d g e d c r y o f t h i s i n s a n e g e n e r a l w h o c a l l s h i m s e l f

M i l l a n A st r a y : " D e a t h t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d l o n g l i v e d e a t h ! "96

N o t l o n g a f t e r w r i t i n g t h e s e p a s s i o n a t e w o r d s , t h e a g e d w r i t e r

d i e d .

A d d i t i o n a l t e s t i m o n y o f t h e s a m e t e n o r i s s u p p l i e d b y A n -

t o n i o R u i z V i l a p l a n a , f o r m e r l y D e a n a n d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e

C o l l eg e o f C o m m i s s i o n e rs o f J u s t i c e i n B u r g o s ( t h e c a p i t a l o f

N a t i o n a l i s t S p a i n ) , w h o h a s w r i t t e n a h o r r i f y i n g a c c o u n t o f

h i s e x p e r i e nc e s a s a n o f f i c i a l 9 7 C a l l e d u p o n b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s

t o c e r t i f y t h e d ea t h s o f p e o p l e e x e c u t ed i n h i s d i s t r i c t , he

f o u n d n u m e r o u s bo d i e s i n t h e w o o d s a n d d i t c h e s i n t h e v i c i n -

i t y o f B u r g o s . T h e s e p e o p l e , h e t e l l s u s , w e r e k i l l e d b y n o

m e r e u n a u t h o r i z e d e x t r e m i s t s : g o v e r n m e nt a l o f f i c i a l s h a n d e d

o v e r t h ei r v i c t i m s t o t h e s q u a d s o f e x e c u t i o n e rs . M a n y o f t h e

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136 NO COMPROMISEb o d i e s w e r e h o r r i b l y b e a t e n a n d d i s f i g u r e d , a n d e x e c u t i o n s

o c c u r r e d w i t h o u t t r i a l s u p o n s l i g h t g r o u n d s o f c o m p l a i n t . I t

i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e re p o r t s a r e e x a g g e r a t e d , b u t u n f o r t u-

n a t e l y t h e r e i s m u c h e v i d e n c e f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s o f t h e v i n -

d i c t i v e n a t u r e of F r a n c o ' s " j u s t i c e " b o t h b e f o r e a n d si n c e t h e

c e s s a t i o n of t h e C i v i l W a r . D o u b t l e s s t h e L o y a l i s t s w e r e a l s o

g u i l t y o f e x c e s s e s , b u t t h e a u t h o ri t i e s o f t h e f o r m e r R e p u b l i -

c a n g o v e r n m e nt , a t a n y r a t e , r e p e a t e d l y v o i c e d d i s a p p r o v a l o f

p o p u l a r v i o l e n c e .9 8

I t h a s b e e n c u s t om a r y t o b o a s t t h a t w e ha v e l e f t t h e " d a r k

a g e s " f a r b e h i n d ; but when we consider the way Jews are

bloodily beaten and pogromized, when we hear about the

c u r r e n t u s e o f k n o u t a n d c a s t o r o i l a n d l y n c h r o p e , w h e n w e

r e f l e c t u p o n t h e b l o o d p u r g e s a n d t h e m a s s e x e c u t i o n s a n d

t h e o p e n b o m b i n g o f c i t i e s , w e h a v e e v e r y r e a s o n t o i n q u i r e

i n t o t he q u a l i t y o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n . The Howard League for

P e n a l R e f o r m p o i n t s o u t :

N o o n e w ho e x a m i n e s t he e v i d e n c e c a n d o u b t t h a t , a c t u a l l y ,

t h e u s e o f t o r t u r e i s m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t o d a y t h a n i t w a s a h a l f

c e n t u r y a g o . T h e e v i l i s n o t e x t i n c t b u t i s g r o w i n g . 9 9

H u m a n m a l e v o l e n c e d i e s h a r d , a n d r i g h t n o w i t s h o w s e v e r y

s i g n o f r ej u v e n a t i o n .

B o t h i n w a r a n d i n " p e a c e , " t h e F a s c i s t s b ea r t h e m a j o r r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e r e v i v a l o f s a d i s m a n d b e a s t l i n e s s . We

m u s t n o t f o r g e t , h o w ev e r , t h a t e v e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w e

h a v e o u r c h a i n g a n g s a n d l y n c h i n g s a n d t o r t u r e s . T h e s e a r e

n o t o n l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e i n t h e m s e l v e s , b u t m a y b e t h e s e e d s

o f F a s c i s m .

7 . Esthetic Bias

A n o t h e r t y p e o f p r e j u d i c e w h i c h i s t y p i c a l o f F a s c i s m c a n

b e t e r m e d " e s t h e t i c b i a s . " A b i a s e d a c t i s o n e i n w h i c h a l l t h e

v a l u e s i n v o l v e d a r e not s e e n s t e a d i l y a n d c o m p l e t e l y ; t h e

m i n d i s c o n t ro l l e d by t h e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY1 37

t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d h e n c e c h o o s e s a l e s s e r g o o d o r a p o s i t i v e

e v i l i n p l a c e o f a g r e a t e r g o o d . S u c h a n a c t o c c u r s w h en a p e r -

s o n i s m i s l e d b y s u p e r f i c i a l e s t h e ti c g l i t t e r . U s i n g b i a s i n a

b r o a d s e n s e , w e c a n s a y t h a t a c t s o f t h i s s o r t a r e b i a s e d i n

f a v o r o f t h e e s t h e ti c a s p e c t s o f e x i s t e n c e .

T h e s p e c t a c u l a r a n d c e r e m o n i a l s i d e o f l i f e h a s c o u n t l e s s

e s t h et i c a p p e a l s . W e a l l h a v e a t a s t e f o r t he v i v i d a n d t he d ra -

m a t i c . I n s e ei n g a p l a y , f o r e x a m p l e , w e e n j oy a v i v a c i o u s

a n d d a s h i n g v i l l a i n , a l t h o ug h h e b r i n g s g r ea t h a r m t o t h e

o t he r c h a r a c t e rs . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , w e a r e a b l e t o e n j o y t h e

v i l l a i n w i t h a g o o d c o n s c i e n c e , s i n c e w e k n o w t h a t i t i s o n l y a

p l a y . B u t t h e s ta g e v i e w o f l i f e t e n d s t o i n f l u e n c e u s e v e n i n

r e a l l i f e . M a n y a b a d p u b l i c s e r v a n t ha s s u c c e e d e d i n p o l i t i c s

b e c a u s e h e h a s b ee n a p i c t u r e s q u e c h a r a c t e r . O n e r e a s on w h y

H u e y L o n g c o u l d g a i n h i s i m m e n s e p o w e r i s t h a t h e g r i p p e d

t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n . F o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s , t h e E n g li s h

p e o p l e r e t a i n t h e i r k i n g ; t h e y l o v e t h e p a r a d e o f r o y a l t y e v e n

t h o u g h H i s M a j e s t y h a s l i t t l e p o w e r . T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o r e -

g r e t s u c h e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e s u n l e s s m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n t e r e s t s

a r e s a c r i f i c e d .

A n e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f e s t h et i c b i a s i s p r o v i d e d b y F a s -

c i s m . " T h e w or k i n g m a s s e s, " H i t l e r h a s d i s d a i n f u l l y o b s e r v e d,

" w a n t o n l y b r e a d a n d c i r c u s e s , t h e y h a v e n o u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

a n y k i n d o f i d e a l . "1 0 0 T h e F i i h r e r m a y n o t a l w a y s f u r n i s h t h e

b r e a d , b u t h e c e r t a i n l y s u p p l i e s t h e c i r c u s e s . L i k e w i s e M u s s o -

l i n i c a n t r u t h f u l l y b o a s t t h a t h i s r e g i m e h a s r e s t o r e d " c o l o r "

t o p u b li c l i f e . - 0 1

F a s c i s m i s s p e c t a c u l a r . T h e " h e r o i c " a t t i t u d e s , t h e d ra m a t i c

" t h r e a t s , " th e g i g a n t i c m i l i t a r y r e v i e w s , t h e f e r v i d n a t i o n a l i s -

t i c m y t h s , t h e c a m p a i g n s f o r i m p e r i a l i s t i c e x p a n s i o n , se r v e t o

c a p t i v a t e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e d i c t a t o r s t h e m s e lv e s a r e e x -

c e s s i v e l y r o m a n t i c i z e d : n o m o v i e s t a r s h a v e e v e r h a d s u c h

a s s i d u o u s p r e s s a g e n t s . N o h e r o o f t h e p a s t h a s e v e r b e e n

g r e e te d b y s o m a n y c l i c k i n g h e e l s , s o m a n y a r m s r a i s e d i n

s a l u t e , s o m a n y t h r o a t s h o a r s e w i t h s h o u t i n g . C o u n t l e s s a i r -

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138 NO COMPROMISEp l a n e s f i l l t h e h e a v e n s ; d r a m a t i c c o m m a n d s e c h o t o t h e s k i e s .

H i t l e r i s a c o n s c i o u s m a s t e r o f t h e a r t o f m a s s s u g g es t i o n .

A s h i s a u t ob i o g r a p h y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s , h e k n o w s th e v a l u e o f

m y t h s , s y m b o l s , a t m o s p h e r e , a n d e m o t i o n a l i s t i c r h e t o r i c . He

l o v e s t h e g r a n d g e s t u r e , t h e s w i f t a n d d r a m a t i c a c t . What

c o u l d b e m o r e t h r i l l i n g t h a n t h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e R h i n e -

l a n d , o r t h e s e i z u re o f A u s t ri a , o r t h e g i g a n t i c m o b i l i z a t i o n

a n d d e s p e r a t e c r i s i s o f S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 ? A s t h e i n t r e p i d

F i i h r e r s t a k e d e v e r y t h i n g u p o n t h e s e b o l d a n d d e f i a n t v e n -

t u r e s , t h e w o r l d t r e m b l e d u p o n t h e v e r g e o f t h e g r e a t e s t w a r

i n h i s t o r y . I n p r o s a i c d e m o c r a c i e s l i k e F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d ,

t h e s t a t e s m e n b a c k d o w n u n d r a m a t i c a l l y b e f o r e t h e s e g r a n d

e x p l o i t s , a n d H i t l e r g et s r e a d y f o r a n o t h er f l i n g . T h u s l i f e i s

o n e g r a n d r o u n d o f t h r i l l s : t h e R e i c h s t a g f i r e , t h e blood

p u r g e , t h e J e w i s h p o g r o m s , t h e t e r ro r , t h e sp e c t a c u l a r p a r t y

c o n g r e ss e s , t h e f a n f a r e o f m i l i t a r i s m . I t s e e m s t h a t o n l y a n -

o t h e r W o r l d W a r c a n s l a k e t h e t h i r s t f o r m e l o d r a m a .

M u s s o l i n i i s l i k e w i s e a m a r v e l o u s s h o w m a n . A f r i e n d of t h e

p r e s e n t w r i t e r , P r o f e s s o r A n g e lo P e l l e g ri n i , h a s r e m a r k e d :

W e I t a l i a n s a r e d r a m a t i c b y t e m p e r a m e n t a n y w a y . And how

s u p e r b l y M u s s o l i n i h a s s u c c e e d e d i n i n f l a t i n g o u r e g o a n d d r a m a -

t i z i n g o u r p e r s on a l i t y ! I t a l y , t h e l a n d o f n o i s y o p e r a a n d p o m -

p o u s t e n o rs , w h e r e e v e ry o n e , c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i s a n

a c t o r a n d w he r e e v e ry d e t a i l o f l i f e i s e l a b o r a t e l y d r a m a t i z e d !

I t a l y , t h e l a n d o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s p o m p a n d s h ow , t h e s ea t o f p a p a l

s p l e n d or ! T h a t i s t h e I t a l y o f t h e a v e r a g e I t a l i a n b e f o r e w h om

M u s s o l i n i s t r u t s w i t h i m p e c c a b l e s k i l l . W h e n h e a n n o u n c e s ( a s

h e d i d t o t h e C h a m b e r o f D e p u t i e s o n M a y 2 6 , 1 9 2 7 ) w i t h a c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c g r i m a c e , a f o r w a r d th r u st o f t h e c h e st , a n d a c l a m p i n g

o f t h e j a w s t h a t h i s s u c c e s s o r i s n o t y e t b or n - w h a t a s u p e r b a p -

p e a l t o t h e d r a m a t i c I t a l i a n ! W h e n h e se n d s hi s b l a c k - s h i r t e d

l e g i o n s t o c o n q u e r E t h i o p i a , i n d e f i a n c e o f a w o r l d ( G r e a t

B r i t a i n i n p a r t i c u l a r ) t o o e n g r os s e d i n h ol d i n g o n to w h a t i t

h a s i n i t s b a g t o g o t o t h e r es c u e o f t h e C o n q u e r i n g L i o n o f

J u d a h , w h a t s u p e r b sh o w m a n sh i p i n i n t e r na t i o n a l p o l i t i c s ! A n d

a s q u a d r o n o f p l a n e s a c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c t o s t e a l t h e sh o w a t t h e

C h i c a g o W o r l d F a i r l T h a t i s t h e w o r k o f a n i m p r e s a r i o . D e f i a n t ,

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MORAL BIAS AND OBJECTIVITY 1 3 9

d r a m a t i c , s h r e w d , u n s c r u p u l o u s , M u s s o l i n i m a k e s t h e w o r l d s i t

u p a n d t a k e n o t i c e ( 102

M o s t p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n a p o v e r ty - s t r i c k e n l a n d su c h a s

I t a l y , l e a d m o n o t o no u s l i v e s d ef i c i e n t i n g l a m o u r a n d a c h i e v e -

ment . T h e y n a t u r a l l y t u r n t o p h a n t a s y a s a m e a n s o f e s c a p e ;

t h e y y e a r n f o r t h r i l l s t o v a r y t h e d u l l r o u n d of e x i s t e n c e ; t h e y

e n j o y r u l e r s w h o i n f l a t e t h e i r e g o a n d k e e p t h e i r c o u n t r y i n

t h e w o r l d' s h e a d l i n e s . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f p e o p l e t h a t

h a v e b e e n d e e p l y h u m i l i a t e d , a s t h e G e r m a n s w e r e b y t h e

l o s s o f t h e W a r a n d t h e t e r m s o f t h e V e r s a i l l e s T r ea t y . A l -

t h o u gh I t a l y w a s t e c h n i c a l l y o n e o f t h e v i c t o r s , t he P e a c e S e t -

t l e m e n t a l s o d i s a p p o i n t e d t he I t a l i a n s . T h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ' s

d e m a n d s f o r a s h a r e o f t h e s p o i l s o f w a r w e r e br u s h e d a s i d e .

O r l a n d o , q u i t t i n g t h e C o n f e r e nc e i n t e a r s , w a s a s y m b o l o f

t h e h u m i l i a t i o n o f I t a l y . R i g h t l y o r w r o n g l y , e v e r y I t a l i a n

w a s m a d e t o f e e l t h a t h i s c o u n t r y h a d b e e n s c u r v i l y t r e a t e d .

B o t h t h e G e r m a n a n d t h e I t a l i a n p e o p l e w e r e h e n c e f o r t h

e a g e r t o f i n d s o m e w a y o f r e h a b i l i t a t i n g t h ei r n a t i o n a l s e l f -

r e s p e c t , a n d F a s c i s m p r o v i d e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y . B y c o n t r i b u t-

i n g t h e i r c h e a p m e l o d r a m a , M u s s o l i n i a n d H i t l e r u n q u e s -

t i o n a b l y h a v e b r o u g h t c o l o r a n d a s e n s e o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o

j a d e d l i v e s .

Y e t w e m u s t n o t o v e r l o o k t h e d a n g e r s i n t h i s f o r m o f e n -

t e r t a i n m e n t . Mr . J u l i e n B e n d a h a s r em a r k e d t h a t " a r t i s t i c

s e n s i b i l i t y i s f a r m o r e g r a t i f i e d b y a s y s t e m w h i c h t e n ds t o

t h e r ea l i z a t i o n o f f o r c e a n d g r a n d e u r t h a n b y a s y s t e m w h i c h

t e n d s to t h e e st a b l i s h m e n t o f j u s t i c e , f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f

a r t i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t y i s t h e l o v e o f c o n c r e t e r e a l i t i e s a n d t he r e -

p u g n a n c e f o r a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t i o n s a n d c o n c e p t i o n s o f p u r e

r e a s o n , t h e m od e l o f w h i c h i s t h e i d e a o f j u s t i c e . " 1 0 3 E s t h e t i c

b i a s c a n t h e r e f o r e b e v e r y d a n g e r o u s : a t l e a s t i f L o r d A c t o n

w a s r i g h t i n s a y i n g t h a t " a b s o l u t e p o w e r c o r r u p t s . . . a b s o -

l u t e l y . " T h e d i f f i c u l t y i s p a r t l y t h a t t he d i c t a t o r s a r e a p t t o b e

t h e d u p e s o f t h e i r o w n i m a g i n a t i o n s . S u r r o u n de d b y f l a t t e r -

e r s , a n d d re a m i n g o f c o n q u e s t s , t h ey a r e l i k e l y t o f a l l v i c t i m s

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140 NO COMPROMISEt o t h e i r o w n d e l u s i o n s o f g r a n d e u r . A s I w r i t e t h e s e w o r ds , a

W o r l d W a r i s s t i l l i n t h e o f f i n g , b u t t h e c h o i c e s e e m s t o l i e

w i t h t w o w o u l d - b e C a e s a r s .

T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o su p p o s e t h a t a n i m o s i t i e s w i l l d i s s i -

p a t e , a n d t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s w i l l s o m e d a y r e l i n q u i s h t h e i r

p r e j u d i c e s . F a s c i s m m u s t b u i l d i t s e l f u p o n v a r i o u s f o r m s o f

b i a s . I t c a n n o t a f f o r d t o be s c i e n ti f i c , i m p a r t i a l , j u s t ; i t w o u ld

t h e r e b y p r e p a r e i t s o w n f u n e r a l . I t c a n f l o u r i s h on l y i f h u m a n

b e i n g s a r e d i v i d e d a g a i n s t ea c h o t h er - i n g a n g s , c l a s s e s , n a -

t i o n s , r a c e s , c r e e d s . I f G e n t i l e d o es n o t h a t e J e w , i f w h i t e d o e s

n o t ex p l o i t b l a c k , i f m a n d o es n o t op p r e s s w o m a n , i f c l a s s i s

n o t a r r a y e d a g a i n s t c l a s s a n d c r e e d a g a i n s t c r e e d , i f m e n ' s

s y m p a t h i e s a r e n o t be n u m b e d a n d c o n f u s e d b y s e l f i s h n e s s ,

r e t r i b u ti v e b i a s , a n d e s t he t i c g l i t t e r , F a s c i s m i s u n t hi n k a b l e ;

a n d d i c t a t o r s h i p b e c o m e s a r e l i c o f t h e p a s t .

H u m a n b e i n g s m u s t p a y a h e a v y p r i c e f o r t h e i r b i a s e s l

H a t r e d p e r p e t u a t e s t h e c r u e l t y o f m a n t o w a r d s m a n . P r e j u -

d i c e d i v i d e s m e n w h o s h o u l d b e a b l e t o w o r k t o g e t h e r i n

p e a c e a n d a m i t y f o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d . T h e p r i c e o f b i a s i s

m i s e r y a n d v i o l e n c e .

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VFORCE OR CONSENT?

The cre a tion of the world-s a id P l a to-is the victor y of p ersu a sion

over force. The worth of men consists in their liability to p ersuasion .

They can p ersuade and ca n be persuaded by the disclosure of alterna -

tives, the better and the worse . Civilization is the maintena nce of social

order, by its own inherent persuasiveness as embodying the nobler

alternative.-ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD 1

i . T h e U r g e n c y o f t h e P r o b l e m

IN TH E l a s t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w e h a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h F a s -

c i s t a n t i - i n t e l le c t u a l i s m a n d b i a s . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e i d e a l s

o f s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y a n d m o r a l i m p a r t i a l i t y a r e s a c r i f i c e d

t o a p a s s i o n a t e c h a u v i n i s m . T h e p r o g ra m o f s c i e n t i f i c h u m a n -

i s m i s d i s c a r d e d : i t i s n o l o n g e r a c c o u n t ed d e s i r a b l e t o p u r s u e

t h e m a x i m u m g o o d w i t h t h e f u l l f o r c e o f h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e .

A n i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s r e v o l t a g a i n s t r e a s o n i s

t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m e t h o d s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f p e r s u a -

s i o n . S o l o n g a s m e n e n t e r t a i n t h e i d e a l o f o b j e c t i v i t y a n d

i m p a r t i a l i t y , t h e y w i l l p r o b a b l y c o m p o s e t h ei r m a j o r d i f f e r -

e n c e s b y d e b a t e a n d c o n c i l i a t i o n ; b u t a s s o o n a s t h e y a b a n -

d o n t h i s i d e a l , t h e a r b i t r a m e n t o f f o r c e t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r

c o u r t s , p a r l i a m e n t s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a g u e s . When men

c e a s e t o r e a s o n th e y b e g i n t o f i g h t . W e m i g h t o b s er v e t h i s

f a c t w i t h i n d i f f e r e n c e i f t h e v e r y s t r u c t ur e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n w e r e

n o t a t s t a k e . S i m p l e p r u d e nc e d e m a n d s t ha t t h e b i t t e r f a c t s

b e f a c e d .

T h e n e e d o f r e d u c i n g t h e u s e o f f o r c e h a s n e v e r b e e n

g r e a t e r t h a n a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , d i c -

t a t o r s h i p s h a v e b r u t a l l y s e i z e d p o w e r . T h e n a t i o n s a r e e n -

g a g e d i n a m a d a r m a m e n t s r a c e w h i c h d w a r f s t h e o n e w h i c h

c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e W o r l d W a r . D u r i n g t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s , t h e

I t a l i a n - E t h i o p i a n W a r , t h e J a p a n e s e - C h i n e se W a r s , a n d t he

S p a n i s h W a r h a v e e x a c t e d a f r i g h t f u l to l l of d e a t h a n d d e -

141

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14. 2NO COMPROMISE

s tr uc t i on . H a r d l y a w e e k p a s s e s w i t h o u t a n e w " i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c r i s i s . " D e s p i t e t h e a l l e g e d p o s t p o n e m en t o f w a r i n t h e M u -

n i c h S e t t l em e n t , t h e t hr e a t o f a g i g a n t i c c a t a s t r o p h e w or s e t ha n

a n y t h i n g i n t h e p a s t c o n f r o n t s t h e st a t e s m e n i n e v e r y c o u n t r y .

E v e n a s m a t t e r s no w s t a n d , t h e p r e s e n t c e n t ur y i s i n c o m -

p a r a b l y t h e m o s t b l o o d y t h a t t h e w o r l d h a s s e e n . I n t h e m o st

c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u r v e y o f w a r e v e r m a d e , t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e

s u f f i c i e n t ly g r i m to a p p a l l a n y c i v i l i z e d m i n d . T h i s s u rv e y o f

t h e m a g n i t u d e o f w a r f r o m t h e y e a r s 11oo t o 1 9 2 5 h a s e n -

a b l e d i t s a u t h o r , P i t i r i m A . S o r o k i n , t o r ea c h t h e f o l l o wi n g

g e n er a l i z a t i o n :

I f n o w w e t a k e t h e r e la t i v e i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e c a s u a l t i e s , p r o b -

a b l y t h e mo s t i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n o f w a r , t h e y t e l l d e f i n i t e l y a n d

u n e q u i v o c a b l y t h a t t h e c u r s e o r p r i v i l e g e t o b e t h e m o s t d e v a s -

t a t i n g o r m o s t b l o o d y w a r c e n t u r y b e l o n g s t o t h e t w e n t i e t h ; i n

one quarter century it imp osed upon the p opulation a "blood

t r i b u t e " f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t i m p o s e d b y a n y o f t h e w h o l e c e n -

turies comp ared . 2

T h e s e f i g u r e s a r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e to t a l p o p u l a t i o n i n e a c h

c e n t u r y . I f w e t a k e t h e a b s o l u t e f i g u r e s , " t h e l o ss e s o f 1 go 1-

192 5 are little less than a ll the losses for all the prev ious cen-

t u r i e s t a k e n t o g e t h er . " 3 S o r o k i n t r a c e s m u c h o f t h i s d e s tr u c -

t i v e n e s s t o t he h e l li s h e f f i c i e n c y o f s u c h m o d e r n w e a p o n s a s

t a n k s , m a c h i n e g u ns , b i g B e r t h a s , a i r p l a n e s , a n d p o i s o n g a s .

A s a r e s u l t o f " p r o g r e s s " i n l e t h a l i n s t r u m e n t s , " t h e l o s s e s i n

t h e W o r l d W a r a m o u n t e d t o 3 o a n d 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e a r m y ,

i n s t e a d o f 1 , 2 , a n d 5 p e r c e n t a s i n t h e w a r s o f t h e p a s t . " 4

N o t o n l y a r e m o r e p e o p l e b e i n g k i l l e d , b u t t h e y a r e b e i n g

k i l l e d i n a n i n c r e a s i n g ly f r i g h t f u l m a n ne r . I n t he s p r i n g o f

1 9 3 7 , W e b b M i l l e r , E u r o p e a n n e w s m a n a g e r o f t h e U n i t e d

P r e s s a n d a v e t e r a n w a r c o r r e s p o n d e nt , d e c l a r e d : " I n t h e la s t

t w e nt y - o n e y e a r s I h a v e s e e n s o m et h i n g o f s i x w a r s , b u t n o n e,

n o t e v e n t h e W o r l d W a r , w a s s o g h a s t l y a n d h o r r i b l e a s t h e

o n e n o w i n p r o g r e s s i n S p a i n . "sT h e m e t ho d o f " t o t a l i t a r i a n

w a r f a r e " - r u t h l e s s s l a u g h t e r o f n o t o n l y c o m b a t a n t s b u t c i v i l -

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 4 3

i a n s - i s f a s t b e c o m i n g t h e r u le . I t i s i m p o s si b l e t o p r e di c t h o w

f a r t h i s t e nd e n c y w i l l g o .

T h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a v a s t n e w w a r i s r e n d e r e d gr e a t e r b y t h e

p r e v a l e n t d i s r e g a r d o f t h e p r o m i s e s e x c h a n g e d be t w e e n n a -

t i o n s . A l a r g e n u m be r o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n t e rn a t i o n a l

t r e a t i e s s i g n e d s i n c e t h e W o r l d W a r h a v e b e e n v i o l a t e d . T h e

v i c t o r s i n t h e W a r b r o k e t h ei r p r o m i s e t o c a r r y o u t u ni v e r s a l

d i s a r m a m e n t , a n d t h i s b r e a c h o f f a i t h p r o v i d e d H i t l er w i t h

a n e x c u s e f o r tr e a t y b r ea k i n g . T h e V e r s a i l l e s T r e a t y w a s

a g a i n v i o l a t e d b y G e r m a n y ' s i n t r o du c t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l c o n -

s c r i p t i o n i n M a r c h , 1 9 3 5 , a n d t h e m i l i t a r y r e oc c u p a t i o n o f

t h e R h i n e l a n d i n M a r c h , 1 9 3 6 . The Lea gue Covenant ha s

b e e n b r o k e n by t h e J a p a n e s e i n v a s i o n o f M a n c h u r i a , t h e wa r

b e t w ee n B o l i v i a a n d P a r a g u a y , a n d t he I t a l i a n a s s a u l t up o n

E t h i o p i a . T h e l a t t er a t t a c k a l s o v i o l a t ed a t r e a t y o f a m i t y a n d

c o n c i l i a t i o n c o n c l u d e d b e t we e n I t a l y a n d E t h i o p i a o n A u -

g u s t 2 , 1 9 2 8 , a n d r e a f f i r m e d o n S e p t e m be r 2 9 , . 1 9 3 4 . The

treaty of St . G e r m a i n , l i m i t i n g th e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f A u s tr i a ,

a n d t h e t r e a t y o f T r i a n o n , r e d u c i n g t h e a r m y o f H u n g a r y ,

h a v e b o t h b e e n f l o u t e d w i t h t h e c o n n i v a n c e o f I t a l y . The

L o c a r n o T r e a t i e s c o l l a p s e d w i t h t h e r e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e

Rhineland . The Spanish Non-Intervention Agreement has

b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o t h e m o s t f l a g r a n t a n d c y n i c a l v i o l a t i o n s .

T h e K e l l o g g - B r i a n d P a c t f o r t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f w a r h a s

b e e n t ra m p l e d u n d e r f o o t b y t h e G e r m a n a n d I t a l i a n a r m i e s

i n v a d i n g S p a i n , a n d t h e J a p a n e s e a r m i e s i n v a d i n g C h i n a .

T h e N i n e P o w e r T r e a t y g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d

t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y o f C h i n a h a s l i k e w i s e b ee n v i o l a t e d b y

t h e J a p a n e s e a g g re s s i o n . A t r ea t y s i g n e d by t h e N a z i s i n J u l y ,

1 9 3 6 , g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e p o li t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d t e rr i t o r i a l

i n t e g r i t y o f A u s t r i a , w a s o b l i t e r a t e d w h e n t h a t c o u n t r y w a s

f o r c i b l y a n n e x e d b y G e r m a n y i n M a r c h , 1 9 3 8 . D u ri n g th e

g r e a t c r i s i s o f S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 3 8 , H i t l e r e v i n c e d n o t t h e s l i g ht -

e s t r e sp e c t f o r t h e ex i s t i n g T r ea t y o f A r b i t r a t i o n w i t h C z e c h o -

s l o v a k i a n o r f o r t he K e l l o gg - B r i a n d P a c t t o w h i c h G e r m a n y

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1 4 4 NO COMPROMISEw a s a si g n a t or y ; a n d e v e n F r a n c e b r o k e h e r a g r e e m e n t t o p r o -

t e c t C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , a n d E n g l a n d d i s r e g a r d e d he r o b li g a t i o n s

under the League Covenant . B y s e i z i n g C z e c h os l ov a k i a i n

M a r c h , 1 9 3 9 , H i t l e r de m o l i s h e d t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t h e h a d

e x t o r t ed a t M u n i c h . T h e r e s u l t o f t h e s e n um e r o u s t r e a t y v i o -

l a t i o n s h a s b e e n p r o f o u n d ly t o s h a k e t h e c o n f i d e n c e o f a l l

g o v e r n m e n t s i n t h e v a l i d i t y o f t r e a t i e s a n d t h us t o i n t e n si f y

t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a r c h y . N e w a g r e e m e n ts a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y

h a r d t o r e a c h b e c a u s e o l d o n e s h a v e b e e n b ro k e n . T h e m o s t

p e a c e - l o v i n g n a t i o n s a r e c o m p e l l e d t o r e l y i n c r e a s i n g l y u p o n

t h e t h re a t o f f o r c e r a t h e r t ha n u p o n n e g o t i a t i o n .

O t h e r f o r m s of v i o l e n c e i n a d d i t i o n t o w a r h a v e b e e n i n -

c r e a s i n g . T h e re h a s b e e n a s t a r t l i n g n u m b er o f p o l i t i c a l m u r -

d e r s . T h e f a s h i o n w a s s e t b y t h e m u r d e r o f M a t t e o t t i , t h e

a n t i - F a s c i s t l e a d e r , w h o w a s b r u t a l l y b e a t e n a n d k i l l e d s o o n

a f t e r M u s s o l i n i a t t a i n e d p o w er . 6 The Ruma nian P remier,

D u c a , w a s m u r d e r e d b y t h e I r o n G u a r d i n 1 9 3 3 . I n A u s tr i a ,

C h a n c e l l o r D o l l f u s s w a s m u r d e r e d . B a r t h o u a n d t h e p r o -

F r e n c h k i n g o f J u g o s la v i a w e r e m u r de r e d by t h e F a s c i s t o r -

g a n i z a t i o n , " U s t a c h i , " i n 1 9 3 4 . T h e r e w e r e p o l i t i c a l m u r d e r s

i n c o n ne c t i o n w i t h t h e S t a v i s k y s c a n d a l i n F r a n c e . D u r i n g

H i t l e r ' s b l o od p u r g e o f J u n e , 1 9 3 4 , s e v e ra l h u n d r ed p o l i t i c a l

e n e m i e s w e r e m u r d e r e d . ? T h e m u r d e r i n 1 9 3 4 o f K i r o v , h i g h

R u s s i a n o f f i c i a l , a n d o th e r a c t s o f h om i c i d e a n d wr e c k i n g a p -

p e a r t o h a v e be e n p a r t s o f a c o n s p i r a c y o f R u s s i a n o p p o s i -

t i o n i s t s a n d F a s c i s t s e c r e t a g e n t s t o sl a u g h t e r a v e r y l a r g e

number of p eople . " I n J u n e, 1 9 3 7 , C a r l o R o ss e ll i , f a m o us

a n t i - F a s c i s t j o u r n a l i s t , a n d h i s b r o th e r N e l l o R o s s e l l i w e r e

m u r d e r e d u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s wh i c h p o i n t u n m i s t a k a b l y t o

F a s c i s t a t t a c k . 9 M a n y l e s s e r i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e b e e n el i m i n a t e d

i n a t i d e o f v i o l e n c e .

T h e r e h a v e a l s o b e e n n u m e r o u s a c t s o f v i o l e n c e i n c o n -

n e c t i o n w i t h s t r i k e s a n d r i o t s . A n e x a m p l e i s t h e ma s s a c r e ,

u n r es e r v e dl y d e n o u n c e d b y t h e S e n a t e C i v i l L i b e r ti e s C o m -

m i t t e e a n d o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i n g b o d i e s , o f t e n w o r k e r s i n

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 145

Chicago on Memorial D ay, 1937 . This same committee has

r e v e a l e d t h a t m o r e t ha n a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ' w o r t h o f t e a r a n d

nausea gas has been bought in two and one-half years by

p r i v a t e i n d u st r y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V i e w e d a s a w h o l e , t h e

f i n d i n g s o f t h e c o m m i t t ee t e l l a n a p p a l l i n g s t o r y o f v i o l en c e

a n d F a s c i s t t r e n ds . T h e l y n c h i n g s i n t h e S o u t h w i t h t h e o c -

c a s i o n a l c o n n i v a n c e o f o f f i c i a l s , t h e b e a t i n g s a n d m u r d e r s

p e r p e t r a t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s h a r e c r o p p e r s t r i k e s , t h e r e i g n

o f t e r r o r i n H e r r i n a n d o t h e r A m e r i c a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s ,

a r e e x a m p l e s o f v i o l e n c e s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h h a s a c c o m -

p a n i e d t h e r i s e a n d r e i g n o f F a s c i s m i n E u r o p e . We have

every reason to be a pp rehensive of the development of

" s q u a d r i s t " t a c t i c s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . "It can hap pen

h e r e . "

2 . The Philosophy of Violence

A m o n g t h e m a i n f o r e r u n n e r s o f t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f v i o -

l e n c e a r e M a c h i a v e l l i , S o r e l , N i e t z s c h e , a n d P a r e t o .

There are many indications that Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527) h a s i n f l u e n c e d M u s s o l i n i . I l D u c e h a s t o l d h o w

l i e f i r s t a b s o r be d The Prince :

M y f a t h e r u s e d t o r e a d t h e bo o k a l o u d i n t h e e v e n i n g s , w h e n

w e w e r e w a r m i n g o u r s e l v e s b e s i d e t h e s m i t h y f i r e a n d w e r e

d r i n k i n g t h e v i n o r d i n a i r e p r o d u c e d f r o m o u r o w n v i n e y a r d . I t

m a d e a d e e p i m p r e s s i o n o n m e . W h e n , a t t h e a g e o f f o r t y , I r e a d

M a c h i a v e l l i o n c e a g a i n , t h e e f f e c t w a s r e i n f o r c e d . 1 0

T h e F a s c i s t p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e , a p p a r e n t l y r e c o g n i z i n g t h e

M a c h i a v e l l i a n c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p r e s e n t r e g i m e , h a s i s s u e d a

de luxe e d i t i o n o f t h e F l o r e n t i n e ' s w o r k s , a p p r o p r i a t e l y

d e d i c a t e d t o t h e D u c e ; a n d M u s s o l i n i h i m s e l f h a s w r i t t e n a n

a p p r e c i a t i v e p r e f a c e t o a F r e n c h e d i t i o n o f The Prince .

F i n a l l y , w h e n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a i n 1924 o f f e r e d t o

c o n f e r u p o n h i m a n h o n o r a r y D o c t o r ' s D e g r e e , h e s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e h o n o r b e p o s t p o n e d u n t i l h e s u b m i t t e d a " t h e s i s "

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146 NO COMPROMISEo n M a c h i a v e l l i t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e t h e s i s w a s

never completed, but a brief Introduction was published in

Mussolini's newspa per, Gerarchia . The degree, of course,

w a s t h e n e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y c o n f e r r e d b y t h e u n i v e r s i t y .

I n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n , M u s s o l i n i i n d i c a t e s t h a t M a c h i a v e l l i ' s

a r g u m e n t i s a s f r e s h t o d a y a s w h e n i t w a s c o n c e i v e d :

I t m a y b e a s k e d w h a t t he r e i s s t i l l li v i n g i n The Prince a f t e r

t h e s e f o u r c e n t u r i e s ; w h e t h e r t h e c o u n s e l s g i v e n b y M a c h i a v e l l i

c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y b e o f a n y u s e t o t he r u l e r s o f m o d e r n S t a t e s .

. . . I a f f i r m t h a t t he d o c t r i n e o f M a c h i a v e l l i i s m o r e l i v i n g t o d a y

t h a n i t w a s f o u r c e n t u r i e s a g o , b e c a u s e , i f t h e e x t e rn a l a s p e c t s o f

o u r l i f e a r e g r e a t l y c h a n g e d , n o p r o f o u n d m o di f i c a t i o n s a r e p e r -

c e p t i b l e i n t h e m e r i t s of i n d i v i d u a l s o r o f r a c e s . "

Mussolini quotes from Machiavelli's Discourses to show that

i t s a u t h o r h e l d a v e r y p e s s i m i s t i c v i e w o f t h e " m e r i t s " o f h u -

ma n beings :

A s i s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a l l t h o s e w h o r e a s o n r eg a r d i n g c i v i l l i f e ,

a n d a s a l l h i s t o r i e s a r e f u l l o f e x a m p l e s t o i l l u s tr a t e , i t i s n e c e s -

s a r y f o r h i m w h o h a s t h e d i r e c t i n g o f a R e p u b l i c a n d w h o h a s

t h e o r d e r i n g o f i t s l a w s t o p r e s u p p o s e a l l m e n t o b e ba d a n d t o

e x p l o i t t h e e v i l q u a l i t i e s i n t h e i r m i n d s w h e n e v e r s u i t a b l e o c c a -

s i o n o f f e r s . . . . M e n n e v e r e f f e c t g o o d a c t i o n s s a v e f r o m n e c e s s i t y ;

b u t w h e r e f r e e d o m a b o u n d s , a n d w h e r e l i c e n c e c a n c o m e a b o u t ,

e v e r y t h i n g i s f i l l e d i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h c o n f u s i o n a n d d i s o r d e r . 1 2

This doctrine of the basic corruption of m an, declares Il

Duce, is "not incidental but fundam ental in Machiavelli's

m i nd . . . . I t r e p r e s en t s s a j u s t i f i e d a n d s o r r o wf u l c o n v i c t i o n .

. . . Much time has p assed since then, but if I were allowed

to judge my fellows and my compa triots, I could not atten-

u a t e i n t h e l e a s t M a c h i a v e l l i ' s v e r d i c t . I m i g h t e v e n w i s h t o

go further than he . "13

Thus holding his fellow men in contem pt, the F ascist

D i c t a t o r i n t h e s a m e e s s a y r e v e a l s h i s l o w o p i n i o n o f g o v e r n -

ment by p opular consent . " T o s p e a k o f a s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e , "

h e d e c l a r e s , " i s t o u t t e r a t r a g i c j e s t ." Among the pa ssages

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FORCE OR CONSENT?1 47

which he quotes from Machiavelli is the following recom-

m end a tion to use force r a ther th a n the de m ocr a tic m ethods

of persuasion :

Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they a re

ungrateful, fickle, false, cowa rds, covetous, and as long as y ou

succeed they ar e yours entirely ; they will offer you their blood,

prop erty, life and children, as is said a bove, when the need is far

distant ; but when it app roaches they turn against you . And that

prince, who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected

other pre cautions, is ruined . . . . Men have less scruple in offend-

ing one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is pre-

served by the link of obligation which, owing to the ba seness of

men, is broken at every opp ortunity for their advantage ; but fear

preserves you by dread of p unishment which never fails . ' 4

There can be no doubt that modern dictators, like theirRenaissa nce forerunners, have a cted upon the ba sis of these

principles .

A nother p a ss a ge which Mussolini quotes with ev ident de-

light is even more unequivocal in its a dvocacy of a violent

dictatorship . After declaring that those rulers who "useforce" succeed much better than those who "use prayers,"

M a chiavelli concludes :

Hence it is that a ll arm ed prophets ha ve conquered, and the

unarmed ones have been destroyed. Besides the reasons men-

tioned, the nature of the peop le is variable, a nd whilst it is easy

to persuade them, it is difficult to fix them in that p ersuasion .

And thus it i s necessary to take such mea sures that, when they

believe no longer, it may be possible to ma ke them believe by

force . If Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, a nd Romulus had been unarmed

they could not ha ve enforced their constitutions for long. ' s

Mussolini declares that Ma chiavelli, in addressing his ad-

vice to "the Prince, " has in mind the authority of the Sta te,

which he wishes to exalt above all other forces . In this re-

spect, the "thesis" continues, his principles a re the sam e as

those a dv a nced b y Il Duce hi m self in the ess a y , " F orce a nd

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1 4 8 NO COMPROMISEConsent" (in which l i b e r t y i s compared t o a "decayed

c o r p s e " ) :

I n M a c h i a v e l l i ' s t ho u g h t , t h e a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n P r i n c e a n d

p e o p l e , S t a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l , i s o f c e n t ra l i m p o r t a n c e . T h a t

w h i c h h a s b e e n l a b e l le d u ti l i t a r i a n i s m , p r a g m a t i s m , c y n i c i s m ,

M a c h i a v e l l i a n i s m , i s s u e s l o g i c a l l y f r o m t hi s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . T h e

w o r d " P r i n c e " i s s y n on y m o u s w i t h th e w or d " S t a t e . " I n M a c hi a -

v e l l i ' s d o c t r i n e t h e P r i n c e i s t h e S t a t e . W h i l e i n d i v i d u a l s , d r i v e n

b y t h e i r o w n s el f i s h i n t e r e s ts , t e n d t o s o c i a l a n a r c h y , t h e S t a t e

r e p r e s e n t s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a l i m i t a t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l

t e n d s c o n t i n u o u s l y t o e v a d e . H e t e nd s to d i s re g a r d l a w s , e sc a p e

t a x e s , a n d a v o i d w a r . F e w i n d e e d a r e th e h er o e s a n d s a i n t s w h o

s a c r i f i c e s e l f u p o n t he a l t a r o f t h e S t a t e . A l l o t h e r s a r e i n a

c o n d i t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e v o l t a g a i n s t th e S t a t e . 1 6

Mussolini hails Machiavelli as one who combated these

anarchic and disintegrative tendencies, and who did not

h e s i t a t e to a d v o c a t e f o r c e a s a m e a n s o f a c h i e v i n g s o c i a l c o -

h e s i o n . I n d e e d , M a c h i a v e l l i d i d e x a l t t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m -

m u n i t y a s w e l l - n i g h a m o r a l a b s o l u t e . R e l i g i o n a n d m o r a l i t y

a r e r e g a r d e d a s m e r e i n s t r u m e n t s o f S t a t e . A n y m e a n s , e v e n

e x t r e m e t r e a c h e r y a n d v i o l e n c e , a r e p r a i s e d i f t h e y c o n t r i b -

u t e to p o l i t i c a l u n i t y i n a t i m e o f c r i s i s .

M a c h i a v e l l i ' s a d v i c e t o t h e P r i n c e , t h a t h e s h o u l d c o m -

b i n e t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e f o x w i t h t h e c o u r a g e o f t h e l i o n ,

a l m o s t s u m s u p t h e m o r a l o u t l o o k o f M u s s o l i n i . The num-

b e r o f t r e a t i e s a n d p r o m i s e s w h i c h h e a n d h i s g o v e r n m e n t

h a v e b r o k e n c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e f o x . He

h a s i s s u e d , i n h o n o r o f t h e l i o n , a c o i n w i t h t h e m o t t o ,

"Meglio un giorno un leone the cento a nni una pecora "

( B e t t e r a l i o n f o r a d a y t h a n a s h e e p f o r a c e n t u ry ) .

A m o r e r e c e n t t h i n k e r t h a n M a c h i a v e l l i w h o a l s o e m u l a t e s

t h e l i o n ' s f e r o c i t y i s t h e P r u s s i a n h i s t o r i a n , H e i n r i c h v o n

T r e i t s c h k e ( 1 8 3 4 - 1 8 9 6 ) . H i s i n f l u e n c e u p o n I t a l i a n F a s c i s m

h a s b e e n n e g l i g i b l e , b u t h e h a s b e e n r e a d a n d f r e q u e n t l y

q u o t e d b y N a z i t h e o r i s t s . H i s o u t s t a n di n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s

t h e i n t e n s i t y o f h i s n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m i l i t a r i s t i c a r d o r . He

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 4 9

t a u g h t t h a t t h e S t a t e w a s f o u n d e d u p o n f o r c e ( a j u d g m e n t

w h i c h i s p a r t l y tr u e) ; t h a t i t s l a w s m u st b e m a i n t a i n e d a t a l l

c o s t s ; t h a t t h e p o o r s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b e s u b j u g a t e d t o

t h e r i c h ; a n d t h a t m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y i s t h e t e s t o f n a t i o n a l

g r e a t n e s s . " W a r , " h e s a i d , " m u s t b e t a k e n a s p a r t o f t h e

d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d o r d e r . " 1 7 A s a f r i e n d o f B i s m a r c k , a

p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e R e i c h s t a g , a n d t h e R o y a l H i s t o -

r i a n o f P r u s s i a , h e w a s a m a n o f i n f l u e n c e i n h i s o w n l i f e -

t i m e ; a n d h e i s r e m e m b e r e d t o d a y b y s u c h N a z i s p o k e s m e n

a s W a l t h e r D a r r e a n d A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g .

A f a r m o r e g i f t e d t h i n k e r , F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e ( 1 8 4 4 -

l g o o ) , h a s u nq u e s t i o n a b l y i n f l u e n c e d F a s c i s m . T h i s p r o f o u n d

m a n f a s c i n a t e d t h e y o u t h f u l M u s s o l i n i . T he la t te r p u bl i sh ed ,

a s e a r l y a s 1 9 o 8 , a n e s s a y , " T h e P h i l o s o p h y o f F o r c e , "

w h i c h i s c h i e f l y d e v o t e d to N i e t z s c h e ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e

" W i l l t o P o w e r . " I n t h i s e s s a y , M u s so l i n i s t a t e s t ha t N i e t z sc h e

i s t h e " m o s t ex t r a o r d i n a r y m i n d o f t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e

l a s t c e n t u ry , " a n d t h a t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e " s u p e r m a n " i s a

" g r e a t c r e a t i o n . " 1 8 A d m i r a t i o n f o r N i e t z s c h e i s a l s o e x p r e s s ed

i n I l D u c e ' s m o r e r e c e n t u t te r a n c e s . L i k e w i s e A l f r e d R o s e n-

b e r g , s p i r i t u a l m e n t o r o f t h e N a z i s , d e c l a r e s t h a t G e r m a n

F a s c i s m " s ee s i n N i e t z s c h e a c r i t i q u e a k i n t o i t s el f , " a n d h e

l i s t s t h e p o e t - p h i l o s o p h e r a s o n e o f " t h o s e p e r s o n a l i t i e s " t o

w h o m N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m " i s v i t a l l y a n d d i r e c t l y b ou n d . "1 9

C e r t a i n e l e m e n t s i n N i e t z s c h e ' s o u t l o o k a r e q u i t e o p p o s e d

t o F a s c i s m . F a r f r o m c h a m p i o n i n g a r a c i a l o r n a t i o na l i s t i c

c h a u v i n i s m , h e i n s i s t s u p o n t h e v i r t u e o f b e i n g a " g o o d E u -

r o p e a n , " a n d e v e n a d v o c a t e s t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n o f n a t i o n s .

H e d e s p i s e s t he n a m e o f p a t r i o t , a n d d e n o u n c e s W a g n e r f o r

h i s n a r ro w r a c e p r e j ud i c e . H e c a l l s t h e S t a t e a " c o l d m on -

s t e r " a n d w i s h e s t o c u r b i t . A l t h o u g h h e p r a i s e s w a r a n d c o n -

f l i c t a s a m o r a l t o n i c , h e i s i n c l i n e d t o di s l i k e t h e G e r m a n

m i l i t a r i s m o f h i s ti m e . H e w o u l d h a v e n o t h i n g b u t c o n t e m p t

f o r t h e " i d e a l i s m " t o b e f o u n d i n F a s c i s t l i t e r a t u re . B u t

t h e r e a r e o t he r d o c t r i n e s w h i c h f i n d t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n

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150 NO COMPROMISEF a s c i s m : h i s c e l e b r a t i o n o f " t h e w i l l t o p o w e r " a s t h e v i t a l

p r i n c i p l e i n n a t u r e a n d l i f e , h i s d e s i r e t o s u b st i t u t e a n e l i t e

o f m a s t e r f u l m en i n p l a c e o f d e m oc r a c y , a n d h i s g l o ri f i c a -

tion of violence as a mea ns of subjugating the common

" h e r d . "

H e r e g a r d s t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e o f o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y a s

h a v i n g b e e n r e a r e d u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f s a v a g e a c t s o f

a g g r e ss i o n . T h e p r i m i t i v e w a r l o r d s es t a b l i s h ed a d i v i s i o n o f

s o c i e t y i n t o m a s te r s a n d sl a v e s . E a c h o f t h es e c l a s s es h a s

c r e a t e d i t s o w n m o r a l c o d e . T h e s l a v e s h a v e f o r m u l a t e d a

C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y o f l o v e , h u m i l i t y , a n d r e s i g n a t i o n . The

m a s t e r s h a v e c r e a t e d a w a r l i k e e t h i c s o f p r i d e , s t r e n gt h , a n d

t r a g i c g l o ry . T h i s t e n s i o n a n d e q u i l i b r i u m o f f o r c e s c o n -

s t i t u t e t h e tr u e h e a l t h o f s o c i e t y a n d t h e d y n a m i s m b e h i n d

a l l so c i a l a d v a n c e . T h e m o d e r n w o r l d h a s s u f f e r e d f r o m a n

a s c e n d a n c y o f t h e s l a v e m o r a l i t y ; democracy and Chris-

t i a n i t y h a v e h e l d t h e m a s t e rs i n t h r a l l . T h e e l i t e m u s t b r e a k

t h i s b o n d a g e ; t h e y m u s t e m u l a t e t h ei r p r i m i t i v e f o r b ea r s ,

a n d n o t s hr i n k f r o m a c t s o f v i o l e n c e . " W a r a n d c o u r a g e , "

t h e y s h o u l d re a l i z e , " h a v e d o n e m o r e g r e a t t h i n g s t h a n c h a r -

i t y . " 2 0 A g r e a t r e s u r ge n c e o f t h e m a s t e r c l a s s a w a i t s i t s r e a l -

i z a t i o n o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e .

N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g t h a n N i e t z s c h e ' s

contempt for the comm on "herd . " " T h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f

m e n , " h e d e c l a r e s, " h a v e n o r i g h t t o l i v e , a n d a r e o n l y a

m i s f o r t u n e to t h e i r h i g h e r f e l l o w s . " 2 1 S i n c e " m e d i o c r e p e o -

p l e a r e j o i n i n g h a n d s i n o r d er t o m a k e t h e m s el v e s m a s t e r s

. . . i t i s n e c e ss a r y f o r higher m e n t o d e c l a r e w a r u p o n t h e

m a s s e s ! " 2 2 O u r d e c a y i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n c a n b e r e n o v a t e d o n l y

b y a d i v i s i o n o f m a n k i n d i n t o m a s t e r s a n d s l a v e s : " s o t h a t

a t l a s t , b e s i d e i t s n e w a n d s u bl i m e p r o d u c t , s l a v e r y ( f o r t h i s

m u s t b e t h e e n d o f E u r o p e a n d e m o c r a c y ) , t h a t h i g h e r s p e c i e s

o f r u l i n g a n d C a e s a r i a n s p i r i t s m i g h t a l s o b e p r o d u c e d ,

w h i c h w o u l d s t a n d u p o n i t , h o l d t o i t , a n d w o u l d el e v a t e

t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h i t . " 2 3 N i e t z s c h e d o e s n o t s h r i n k f r o m

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 151

the conclusion that a great sacrifice is required to renovate

s o c i e t y :

The ma gnitude of a "progress" is gauged by the greatness of

t h e s a c r i f i c e i t r e q u i r e s : h u m a n i t y a s a m a s s s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e p r o s -

perity of the one stronger species of Man-that would be a

p r o g r e s s . 2 4

T h i s k i n d o f i d e a l c a n s l a y i t s t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s .

Certain of the idea s of Nietzsche are ingeniously devel-

oped a nd ap plied in the theories of Georges Sorel, who is

the philosopher of violence p a r excellence . Among the pas-

sages which he q uotes with ap proval from Nietzsche are the

following :

T h e k n i g h t ly a r i s t o c r a t i c " v a l u e s " a r e b a s e d on a c a r e f u l c u l t

o f t h e p h y s i c a l , o n a f l o w e r i n g , r i c h , a n d e v e n e f f e r v e s c i n g h e a l t h -

i n e s s , t h a t g o e s c o n s i d e r a b l y b e y o n d wh a t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r m a i n -

t a i n i n g l i f e , o n w a r , a d v e n t u r e , t h e c h a s e , t h e d a n c e , t h e t o u r ne y

- o n e v e r y t h i n g , i n f a c t , w h i c h i s c o n t a i n e d i n s t r o n g , f r e e a n d

j o y o u s a c t i o n . . . .

T h i s a u d a c i t y o f a r i s t o c r a t i c r a c e s , m a d , a b s u r d, a n d s p a s m o d i c

. . . t h e i r n o nc h a l a n c e a n d c o n t e m p t f o r s a f e t y , l i f e , a n d c o m f o r t ,

t h e i r a w f u l j o y a n d i n t e n s e d e l i g h t i n a l l d e s tr u c t i o n , i n a l l t h e

e c s t a s i e s o f v i c t o r y a n d c r u e l t y . . . .

The magnificent blonde brute, avidly ram pa nt for spoil and

v i c t o r y . . .2 5

In quoting these passages, Sorel lea ves no doubt in the mind

of the reader that he would like to revive these "Homeric

v a l u e s . "26

Beyond q uestion, he has been influential in the develop-

ment of Italia n Fa scism. Professor Megaro has shown that as

e a r l y a s 1 9 0 8 , Mussolini responded enthusiastica lly to the

leading doctrines advanced in Reflections on Violence : p a r -

ticularly to Sorel's "passionate hatred of reformist, parlia-

m e n t a r y s o c i a l i s m a n d h i s p a s s i o n a t e l o v e o f v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l

s t r u g g l e . " Y e t i n 1910-1912 Mussolini ceased to praise, and

instead atta cked Sorel . The Frenchm an b y this time had

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152 NO COMPROMISEa b a n d o n e d h i s s y n d i c a l i s t i d e a l s , a n d h a d f l i r t e d w i t h t h e

r e a c t i o n a r y a n d a n t i p r o l e t a r i a n f o r c e s o f t h e Action Fra n-

c a i s e ; w h e r e up o n M u s s o l i n i , a s a n a d v o c a t e o f " r e d " v i o l e n c e ,

s c a t h i n g ly a s s a i l e d S o re l ' s " so m e rs a u l ts . " A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t ,

Il Duce himself went through the same kind of gyrations

w h e n h e b e c a m e a F a s c i s t , a n d m a n y r a d i c a l s a n d s y n d i c a l i s t s

f o l lo w e d su i t . M e g a r o p o i n t s o u t :

J u d g i n g by t h e a l m o s t wh o l e sa l e p a s s a g e o f I t a l i a n e x - s y n d i -

c a l i s t s a n d ex - S o r e li a n s t o F a s c i s m , S o r e l ' s s y n d i c a l i s m w a s n o t h -

i n g b u t a m o v e m e n t of r e a c t i o n . I n 1911, M u s s o li n i c l e a r l y s a w

h o w c e r t a i n d e f o r m a t i o n s o f s y n d i c a l i s m w o u l d c a u s e i t t o en d

u p i n a " t he i s t i c , p a t r i o t ee r i n g , na t i o n a l i s t i c , a n t i - s o c i a l i s t c a r i c a -

t u r e . " T h i s i s a n a c u t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t w a s t o b e k n o w n a s

F a s c i s m . 2 7

Whether there was a decisive Sorelian influence upon

Mussolini ma y be q uestioned . H e s t a t e d i n a n i n t e r v i e w i n

1 9 2 6 , i t i s t r u e , t h a t h e o w e d m o re t o S o r e l t h a n t o a n y o t h e r

t h i n k e r ; b u t a s M e g a r o s h o w s , h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n t e m p e r a -

m e n t a l l y i n c l i n e d t o e m b r a c e s i m i l a r o p i n i o n s e v e n i f h e

h a d n o t r e a d S o r e l ' s b o o k s . I n a n y e v e n t , w e c a n f i n d i n

t h e s e v o l u m e s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f c e r t a i n d o c t r i n e s w h i c h F a s -

c i s m s h a r e s .

S o r e l ' s a d v o c a c y o f v i o l e n c e i s c l o s el y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h re e

o t h e r a r t i c l e s o f h i s c r e e d : h i s p e s s i m i s m , h i s a n t i d e m oc r a c y ,

a n d h i s a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . A s t h e t i tl e o f o ne o f h i s b oo k s ,

Les Illusions du Progres, i m p l i e s , h e s ha r p l y a t t a c k s t h e b e -

l i e f i n p r o g r e s s . I n a l l h i s w o r k s , h e d e p i c t s o r d i n a r y h u m a n

n a t u r e a s m e a n a n d i n s i p i d ; b u t h i s p e s s i m i s m i s b e l li g e r e n t

r a t h e r t h a n r e s i g n e d . F r o m t h i s m i l i t a n t p e s s i m i s m s p r i n g s

t h e b el i e f t h a t t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f h u m a n l i f e i s a n e c e s s a r y

b u t n o t a n e a s y t a s k . I t r e q u i r es a r e a l u p r o o t i n g o f m a n ' s

n a t u r e , a n d h e n c e h e r o i c v i r t u e s . N o t h i n g s h o r t o f c a t a -

s t r op h i c e v e n ts c a n j a r m e n o u t o f t h e i r h a b i t u a l m e d i o c r i t y .

The regeneration of man depends, not upon a mild class

c o n f l i c t , b u t up o n a v i o l e n t c l a s s w a r .

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 53

S i n c e S o r e l t h i n k s l i t t l e o f h i s f e l l o w b e i n g s , h e do e s n o t

t r u s t t o t h e o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i o n s o f d e m o c r a c y . A m i n o r i t y

m u s t a s s u m e a c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p , a n d d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e r i g m a -

r o l e o f p a r l i a m e n t . I n f a c t , S o r e l i s m o r e i n t e re s t ed i n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f e x c e p t i o n a l t r a i t s i n a n e w e l i t e t h a n h e i s

i n t h e d e t a i l s o f a n e w e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l o r d e r w h i c h

w i l l b r i n g c o m f o r t t o t h e m a s s e s . P e a c e a n d d e m o c r a c y l u l l

m e n i n t o s t u p e f a c t i o n ; t h e v i o l e n t c l a s h o f e n e m i e s i s n e c e s -

s a r y t o s t i n g m e n i n t o h er o i c a c t i v i t y . " I t i s t o v i o l e n c e t h a t

S o c i a l i s m o w e s t h o s e h i g h e t h i c a l v a l u e s b y m e a n s o f w h i c h

i t b r i n g s s a l v a t i o n to the modern world . " 2 8

R e a s o n , h e t h i n k s , i s n o t t h e s o u r c e o f h e r o i s m :

W h e n w o rk i n g - c l a s s c i r c l e s a r e r e a s o n a b l e . . . t h e r e i s n o m o r e

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r h e r o i s m t h a n w h e n a g r i c u l t ur a l s y n d i c a t e s d i s -

c u s s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p r i c e o f g u a n o w i t h m a n u r e m e r c h a n t s .

. . . L o f t y m o r a l c o n v i c t i o n s . . . n e v e r d e p e n d o n r e a s o n i n g o r

o n a n y e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l , b u t on a s t a t e o f w a r

i n w h i c h m e n v o l u n ta r i l y p a r t i c i p a t e a n d w h i c h f i n d s e x p r e s -

s i o n i n w e l l - d e f i n e d m y t h s .2 9

By myths he means dynamic illusions. The intimate union

o f f o r c e a n d f r a u d w h i c h i s t h u s a d v o c a t e d i s a h a r b i n g e r o f

t h e p r a c t i c e s o f F a s c i s m .

A m o n g S o r e l ' s f r i e n d s a n d a d m i r e r s w a s a n o t h e r p r e c u r s o r

of Fascism, Vilfredo Pareto, whom we have considered at

length in Chap ter III . H e l i k e w i s e a t t a c k s t h e b e l i e f i n

p r o g r e s s , a n d a d v o c a t e s t h e u s e o f m y t h s a n d v i o l e n c e i n t h e

i n t e r e s t s o f t h e e l i t e . T h e " s u b j e c t - c l a s s , " h e c o m p l a i n s i n

o n e p a s s a g e , " h a v e r e c o u r s e . . . t o s e nt i m e n t s o f a s c e t i c i s m , "

a n d c o n d e m n " r e s i s t a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s

i n t h e n a m e o f s o c i a l i t y , p i t y , a n d r e p u g na n c e t o s u f f e r i n g s

i n o t h e r s . " P a c i f i s t s a d d t o t h es e s e nt i m e n t s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f

t h e " ho r ro r s o f w a r . " " I t w a s t h e s ur p a s s i n g m e r i t o f G e o r ge s

S o r e l , " h e c o n t i n u e s , " t h a t i n h i s Reflexions sur la violence

h e t h r e w a l l s u c h f a t u i t i e s o v e r b o a r d t o a s c e n d t o t h e a l t i -

t u d e s o f s c i e n c e . " 3 0 H o w f a r P a r e t o h i m s e l f i s w i l l i n g t o

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1 5 4 NO COMPROMISE" a s c e n d " i n t h e sa m e d i r e c t i o n i s r e v e a l e d i n a p a s s a g e i n

w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n f l i c t b e t we e n h u m a n i t a r i a n s a n d

m e n o f f o r c e . I f t h e l a t t e r " k i l l l a r g e n u m b e r s o f h u m a n i -

t a r i a n s , " h e r e m a r k s v e r y s w e e t l y , " t h e y a r e p e r f o r m i n g a

u s e f u l p u b l i c s e r v i c e , s o m e t h i n g l i k e r i d d i n g t h e c o u n t r y o f

a b a n e f u l a n i m a l p e s t . " 3 1 T h e p r a i s e o f v i o l e n c e i s a n i n t e -

g r a l p a r t o f P a r e t o ' s t h e o r y .

We have now shown that there are a number of fa mous

t h i n k e r s i n W e s t e r n t h o u g ht w h o e x a l t t h e e x t r e m e u s e o f

f o r c e . T o t h i s l i s t m i g h t b e a d d e d o t h e r s , s u c h a s C h a m b e r -

l a i n , S p e n g l e r, B l a n q u i , M a u r r a s , a n d B a r r e s , a l l o f w h o m

h a v e h a d a s h a r e i n p r e p a r i n g t h e w o r ld f o r F a s c i s m . The

w r i t e r s w h o h a v e e x e r c i s e d t h e g r ea t e s t i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e

F a s c i s t s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y e i t h e r h a v e b e e n b e l li c o s e i n t e m -

p e r , o r ha v e m a i n t a i n e d d oc t r i n e s , s u c h a s ra c i a l c h a u v i n -

i s m , w h i c h b e g e t c o n f l i c t . W h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e f e r o c i t y

o f s u c h t h e o r i e s , a n d t h e i r g r e a t i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e h u m a n

r a c e , w e a r e a l m o s t t e m p t e d t o a g r e e w i t h A n a t o l e F r a n c e ,

" M a n m a y b e d e f i n e d a s a n a n i m a l w i t h a m u s k e t . "

T h e a r g u m e n t s a s s u m e v a r i o u s f o r m s : V i o l e nc e i s a m o r a l

t o n i c a n d p u r g a t i v e . V i o l e nc e i s a m e a n s o f c r ea t i n g or p r e -

s e r v i n g a n o b l e e l i t e . V i o l e n c e i s n e e d e d t o de v e l o p h e r o e s ,

t o a c h i e v e h o n o r , t o a t t a i n g l o r y . O r m o re p r o s a i c a l l y , v i o -

l e n c e i s a c o n s t a n t n e c e s s i t y b e c a u s e o f t h e d e p r a v i t y o f

m en . ( N o t h i n g i s s a i d a b o u t t h e d e p r a v i t y o f t h e m e n w h o

u s e v i o l e n c e . )

A l l o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e m y t h s w h i c h c o n c e a l t h e m a t e -

r i a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e a g g r e s s o r s : t h e a p p e a l o f t h e i r o n m i n e s

o f S p a i n , t h e c o t t o n f i e l d s of E t h i o p i a , t h e r i c h w h e a t l a n d s

a n d o i l f i e l d s o f t h e U k r a i n e , t h e v a s t a n d u n e x p l o i t e d r e -

s o u r c e s of C h i n a , t h e c h e a p l a b o r a n d r a w m a t e r i a l s o f t h e

" c o l o n i e s . " T h e l u r e o f E m p i r e , t h e f e v e r i s h s e a r c h f o r m a r -

k e t s , t h e p r e s s u re o f e x p a n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n , t h e d e sp e r a t e

e x t r e m i t i e s o f c a p i t a l i s m i n d e c l i n e . . .

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FORCE OR CONSENT?1 55

3 . H o w t h e F a s c i s t s P r a i s e V i o l e n c e

The imm ediate precursors of Italia n Fascism were the

" F u t u r i s t s ." Led by F . T . M a r i n e t t i , t h i s g r o u p n o t o n l y

p r o d u c e d w o r k s o f a r t b r i s t l i n g w i t h " d y n a m i s m , " b u t f o r -

m u l a t e d a p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m b a s e d u p o n m i l i t a r i s t i c c h a u -

v i n i s m a n d t h e r e j e c t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y . A t t h e f i r s t o p p o r -

t u n i t y M a r i n e t t i b e c a m e a F a s c i s t , a n d i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s

of the movement was as prominent as Mussolini . A l t h o u g h

Futurism and its leader have now receded into the back-

g r o u n d , t h e e x t r a v a g a n c e s w h i c h t h e y w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d h a v e

helped to determine the moral temp er of Fa scism . The

n a t u r e o f t h e s e o u t p o u r i n g s m a y b e j u d g e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w -

i n g e x a m p l e s :

W h o c a n d e n y t h a t a s t r o n g m a n b r e a t h e s m u c h m o r e f r e e l y ,

e a t s m u c h b e t t e r a n d s l e e p s m u c h m o r e s o u n d l y a f t e r h a v i n g

s l a p p e d a n d k n o c k e d d o w n a n e n e m y ? W h o c a n d e n y t h a t t h e

w o r d m a n a n d t h e w o r d f i g h t e r a r e s y n o n y m o u s ? H e n c e w e c o n -

c l u d e t h a t w h e n we s p e a k o f w a r i t i s t h e b e t te r p a r t o f o u r

b l o o d, t h e f u t u r i s t p a r t t h a t s p e a k s i n u s .

. . . V i o l e n c e h a s t o d a y b e c o m e t h e b e s t c o n d i t i o n o f r e a l h e a l t h

f o r a p e o p l e . O r d er , p a c i f i c i s m , m o de r a t i o n, t h e d i p l o m a t i c a n d

r e f o r m i s t s p i r i t , a r e t h e y n o t p e r h a p s a r t e r i o - s c l e r o s i s , o l d a g e

a n d d e a t h ? . . . F o r t o t h e p r e s e n t e s th e t i c s o f f i l t h y l u c r e w e o p -

p o s e - a n d l e t i t c o m e , l e t i t c o m e - a n e s t he t i c s o f v i o l e nc e a n d

b l o o d l 32

T h e s e " m y s t i c s o f a c t i o n , " a s t h e F u t u r i s t s c a l l e d t h e m -

s e l v e s , r e p r e s en t a m o r e i n s a n e p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n a n y o f f i -

c i a l p r o n o un c e m e n t s o f t h e F a s c i s t o f f i c i a l s . When Marinetti

declares, "We admit but one hygiene for the world-War,"

he has reached the reductio ad a bsurdum o f b e l li g e r e n c y ,

a n d M u s s o l i n i i s t o o s h r e w d t o f o l l o w s u i t .

Y e t a b s u r d i t y i s a m a t t e r o f d e g r e es ; a nd the members of

s o m e f u t u r e a n d h a p p i e r g e n e r a t i o n m a y l o o k b a c k u p o n t h e

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1 5 6 NO COMPROMISEa n n a l s o f o u r t i m e , a n d s m i l e i n c r e d ul o u sl y a n d a l i t t l e s a d l y

w h e n t he y r e a d t h e t r a g i c f o l l y e x p r e s s e d i n s o m e o f M u s -

s o l i n i ' s u t t e r a n c e s . A l l m e n m a y s o m e d a y r e a l i z e t h e t er r i b l e

a b s u r d i t y o f h i s d e c l a r a t i o n : " W a r a l o n e b r i n g s u p t o i t s

h i g h e s t t e n s i o n a l l h u m a n e n e r g y a n d p u t s t h e s t a m p o f

n o b i l i t y u p o n t h e p e o p l e s w h o h a v e t h e c o u r a g e t o m e e t

i t . " 3 3 E q u a l l y a b s u r d i s h i s f u r t h e r a s s e r ti o n : " W a r i s t o m a n

a s m a t e r n i t y i s t o w o m a n . . . . I d o n o t b el i e v e i n p e r p e t u a l

p e a c e ; . . i t d e p r e s s e s a n d n e g a t i v e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l v i r t u e s

o f m a n w h i c h o n l y i n b l o o d y e f f o r t r e v e a l t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e

f u l l l i g h t o f t h e s u n . " 3 4

S u c h w a r m o n g e r i n g , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i s n o t m e re t w a d d l e ,

b u t a d i r e t h re a t t o c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h e E t h i o p i a n s a n d t h e

S p a n i a r d s a l r e a d y u n d e rs t a n d t h e d i s a s t e r w h i c h i m p e n d s .

I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e a r m a m e n t s r a c e i s b e c o m i n g e v e r m o re

d e v a s t a t i n g . "The corner-stone of our doctrine and our

s p i r i t , " M u s s o l i n i t o l d 1o o , o o o S i c i l i a n s i n a n a d d r e ss o n

August 1 1, 1 9 3 7 , " i s a n e v e r m o r e i n t e n se p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e

I t a l i a n p e o p l e f o r m i l i t a r y l i f e . "35

I t m a y b e o b j e c t e d t h a t M u s s o l i n i s o m e t i m e s s p e a k s i n

v e r y p a c i f i c t e rm s . T h i s i s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y t r u e . " I a m m o r e

t h a n e v e r c o n v i n c e d , " h e h a s d e c l a r e d , " t h a t t o d i s t u r b t h e

pea ce of Europe m eans to bring a bout the collapse of

Europe . '' 3 6

B u t t h e re i s a d i s q u i e t i n g d u p l i c i t y i n t h e F a s c i s t

p o l i c i e s . T h e r e m a r k j u s t q u o t e d w a s u t t e r e d o n t h e e v e -

n i n g o f t h e f a l l o f A d d i s A b a b a , a n d n o t lo n g b e f o r e t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m i l i t a r y a d v e n tu r e i n S p a i n . We cannot

l i g h t l y p u t o u t o f o u r m i n d s t h e i m a g e o f I t a l i a n a i r p l a n e s

d r o p p i n g t h e i r d e a d l y f r e i g h t u p o n B a r c e l o n a a n d M a d r i d .

Nor can we be greatly reassured by the form in which

M u s s o l i n i o f f e r s p e a c e , a s i n a s p e e c h a t B o l o g na : " I h o l d o ut

a g r e a t o l i v e b r a n c h t o t h e w o rl d . T h i s o l i v e b r a n c h s p r i n g s

f r o m a n i m m e n s e f o r e s t o f e i g h t m i l l i o n b a y o n e t s , w e l l -

s h a r p e n e d a n d t h r u s t f r o m i n t r e p i d y o u n g h e a r t s . "3 7 0n at

l e a s t s e v e n o c c a s i o n s s i n c e 1 9 2 9 M u s s o l i n i h a s s o l e m n l y a n -

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 57

n o u n c e d t ha t I t a l y h a s n o f u r t h e r t er r i t o r i a l a m b i t i o n s , y e t

t h e s e a s s u r a n c e s h a v e n o t h a m p e r e d h i s e x p a n s i o n i s t p r o g r a m

i n t h e s l i g h t e s t d e g r e e . W e w o u ld l i k e t o b e li e v e i n F a s c i s m ' s

d e v o t i o n t o p e a c e , b u t o b s ta c l e s a r e p u t i n o u r w a y .

W e d o n o t m e a n t o a s s e r t t h a t H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i a r e

a l w a y s h y p o c r i t i c a l w h e n t h e y s p e a k o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f

p e a c e . N o d o u b t t h e y w o u l d l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d t o

o f f e r n o r e s i s t a n c e , s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d a c h i e v e t h e i r e n t i r e

program without war . B u t m e n w h o d o n o t d i r e c t l y d e s i r e

w a r m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s d e s i r e c e r t a i n o t h e r t h i n g s s o m u c h

t h a t t h e y a r e w i l l i n g t o r es o r t to w a r i f t h e y c a n n o t a c h i e v e

t h e i r e n d s b y a l t e r n a t i v e m e a n s . T h i s i s t he si t u a t i o n wh i c h

h a s p l u n g e d I t a l y i n t o w a r a g a i n s t E t hi o p i a , J a p a n i n t o w a r

against China, and Germany a nd Italy into an undeclared

w a r a g a i n s t L o y a l i s t S p a i n . T h e F a s c i s t s ' b e l l i c o s e p h i l o s -

o p h y r e c o n c i l e s t h e m t h e m o r e r e a d i l y t o t h e " n e c e s s i t y " o f

war .

M u s s o l i n i ' s t a s t e s a r e r e v e a l e d no t o n l y b y h i s f o r e i g n , b u t

a l s o b y h i s d o m e st i c , p o l i c i e s . I n r e f e r r i n g t o a n a t t a c k o n

t h e o p p o s i t i o n n e w s p a p e r , l ' A v a n t i , which was destroyed,

a m i d b l o o d s h e d , b y t h e F a s c i s t s q u a d r i s t s j u s t b e f o r e t h e

March on Rome, Mussolini addressed these words to his

f o l l o w e r s :

H e r e w a s t he r e a l M i l a n e s e F a s c i s m. N o t t h e p e t t y v i o l e n c e o f

i n d i v i d u a l s , s p o r a d i c a n d o f t e n i n e f f e c t u a l , b u t t h e gr a n d , b e a u t i -

f u l , i n e x o r a b l e v i o l e nc e o f t h e d e c i s i v e h o u r s . 3 8

I t i s t r u e t h a t h e h a s a l s o s a i d , " F a s c i s t v i o l e n c e m u s t b e

e q u i t a b l e , r a t i o n a l , a n d s u r g i c a l , " a n d h a s e v e n a n n o u n c e d

t h a t i t i s a n " u n w e l c o m e n e c e s s i t y . " 3 9 But what he rega rds

a s a " n e c e s si t y " i s i n d i c a t e d b y h i s f u r t h er s t a t e m e nt :

I d e c l a r e t h a t m y d e s i r e i s t o g o v er n , i f p o s s i b l e , w i t h c o n -

s e n t o f t h e m a j o r i t y ; b u t , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n , t o f o s t e r , a n d t o

s t r e n g th e n t h a t c o n s e n t, I w i l l u s e a l l t h e f o r c e a t m y d i s p o s a l .

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1 5 8 NO COMPROMISEF o r i t m a y h a p p e n t h a t f o r c e m a y b r i n g a b o ut c o n s e n t , a n d i f

t h a t f a i l s , t he r e i s a l w a y s f or c e . W i t h r e g a r d t o a l l t h e r e q u i r e -

m e n t s o f g o v e r n m e n t , e v e n t h e m o s t s e v e r e , w e s h a l l o f f e r t h i s

dilemm a : a c c e p t i n t h e sp i r i t o f p a t r i o t i s m , o r s u bm i t . T h i s i s

m y c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e S t a t e a n d o f t h e a r t o f g o v e r n i n g t he n a -

tion 40

T h i s " a r t " h a s i n c l u d e d s u c h p r a c t i c e s a s th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

o f t e r r i b l e o v e r d o s es o f c a s t o r o i l , a n d t h e c r u e l i m p r i s o n -

m e n t a n d e v e n t h e m u r d e r o f d i s s e n t e r s .

T h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n t o w a r d s v i o l en c e i s n o t a r e c e n t a c q u i s i -

t i o n . M u s s o li n i h a s a b a n d o n e d a l m o st a l l t h e p r i n c i p l e s of

h i s p r e - F a s c i s t r a d i c a l i s m , b u t i n o n e r e sp e c t h e h a s b e e n

t h o r o u g h l y c o n s i s t e n t : f r o m e a r l y m a n h o o d u n t i l t h e p r e s -

e n t , h e h a s d i s p l a y e d a n e x t r e m e l ov e o f b l o o d s h ed a n d e x -

p l o s i v e s . I n n u m e r o u s q u o t a t i o n s c i t e d i n M e g a r o ' s t h o r -

oughly documented biogra phy , Mussolini harp s upon the

b e a u t y a n d n e c e s s i t y o f v i o l e n c e . T h i s b i o g r a p h e r c o n c l u d e s

t h a t w h a t e v er M u s s o l i n i ' s " a l l e g e d s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e , S o c i a l i s m

o r F a s c i s m , h e h a s a l w a y s b e e n c e r t a i n t h a t ' i t i s b l o od w h i c h

g i v e s m o v e m e n t t o t h e r e s o u n d i n g w h e e l o f h i s t o r y . ' " 41T h e a t t i t u d e o f H i t l e r t o wa r d v i o l e n c e i s n o t v e r y d i f f e r -

e n t . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 5, 1 9 3 0 , w h i l e t es t i f y i n g a t a s u p r e m e

c o u r t t ri a l o f c e r t a i n a r m y o f f i c e r s c h a r g e d wi t h t r e a s o na b l e

a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e N a z i i n t e r e s t , H i t l e r p r o m i s e d t h a t t he

h e a d s o f h i s e n e m i e s w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y r o l l i n t h e d u s t 4 2 The

s u b s e q u e n t r e c o r d o f e v e n t s h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s w a s

n o i d le t hr e a t . G o r i n g , w h o d i r e c t e d t h e e a r l y p h a s e s o f t h e

t e r r o r , h a s e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y s t a t e d : " I t w i l l a l w a y s r e m a i n

H i t l e r ' s g r e a t e s t m e r i t t h a t h e d i d n o t b r i d g e o v e r t h e g u l f

b e t w e e n P r o l e t a r i a t a n d B o u r g e o i s i e , b u t f i l l e d i t i n b y h u rl -

i n g b o t h M a r x i s m a n d B o u r g eo i s p a r t i e s i n t o t he a b y s s . "43

T h e a b y s s , a s e v e r y o n e k n o w s , w a s f i l l e d i n w i t h a g o o d m a n y

d e a d b o d i e s .

E v e n i n c h i l d h o o d , H i t l e r ' s t e m p e r a m e n t w a s b e l l i c o s e .

" W h i l e s t i l l a b o y , I w a s n o p a c i f i s t , " h e w r o te i n h i s a u t o -

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 159

b i o g r a p h y , " a n d a l l e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s t o w a r d s t h a t e n d

came to naught . " 4 4 I n a n o t he r p a s s a g e , h e r e v e a l s h i s b o y i s h

t a s t e i n r e a d i n g :

W h i l e g o i n g t h r o ug h t h e l i b r a r y o f m y f a t h e r , I f o u n d se v e r a l

b o o k s o f a m i l i t a r y n a t u r e . A m o n g t h e m w a s a p o p u l a r a c c o u n t

o f t h e F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n W a r o f 1 8 7 0 - 7 1 . Two volumes of an

i l l u s t r a t e d m a g a z i n e o f t h e s e y e a r s n o w b e c a m e m y f a v o r i t e r e a d -

i n g m a t t e r . A f t e r a s h o r t t i m e t h e h e r oi c f i g h t h a d b e c o m e m y

g r e a t e s t i n n e r ex p e r i e n c e . From that time onward, I became

m o r e a n d m o r e e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h d e a l t i n

s o m e w a y o r o t h e r w i t h w a r o r m i l i t a r y l i f e.4 5

I n a n o t h e r p a r t o f h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y h e r e l a t e s :

T h e B o e r W a r s t ru c k m e l i k e a b ol t of l i g h tn i n g . D a y b y d a y

I a n x i o u s l y w a i t e d f o r t h e ne w s p a p e r s a n d s w a l l o w ed t e l eg r a m s

a n d r e p o r t s, a n d w a s h a p p y t o b e , a t l e a s t f r o m a f a r , a w i t n e ss

t o t h i s h e r o i c s t r u g g l e . 4 6

The opportunity came a t last in 1914 when he was old

e n o u g h t o f i g h t . H e g r e e t e d t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r w i t h a l -

m o s t h y s t e ri c a l j o y :

T h e h o u r s o f t h a t t i m e s e e m e d t o a b s o l v e m e f r o m t h e a n g r y

f e e l i n g s o f m y y o u t h . E v e n t o d a y I a m n o t a s h a m e d t o s a y t h a t

I s a n k t o m y k n e e s , o v e r c o m e b y t u r b u l e n t e n t h u s i a s m , a n d

t h a n k e d h e a v e n w i t h a l l m y h e a r t t h a t i t h a d g i v e n m e t h e f o r -

t u n e t o l i v e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d. 4 7

L e s t a n y o n e s u p p o s e t h a t t h i s m a r t i a l a r d o r h a d s u b s i d e d

s i n c e t h e W a r , H i t l e r e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e i n j u s t i c e o f t h e

T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s h a s p r o v i d e d a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y " t o

i n f u r i a t e t h e n a t i o n a l p a s s i o n t o t he h i g h e s t p i t c h . " 4 8 Once

t h i s T e u to n i c f u r y i s a r o u se d , a c t i o n w i l l n o t b e f a r d i s t a n t :

" W h e n p r o p a g a n d a h a s f i l l e d a w h o l e p e o p l e w i t h a n i d e a ,

o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n , w i t h a h a n d f u l o f m e n , d r a w t h e c o n s e -

quences . " 49W h a t t h e se c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e H i t l e r i n d i c a t e s w i t h a m a z i n g

f r a n k n e s s . He a nnounces that a ll those who are of Germa n

b l o o d a r e t o b e u n i t e d i n o n e G e r m a n R e i c h . A g r e a t m a n y

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16o NO COMPROMISEG e r m a n s a r e t o b e f o u n d i n A u s t r i a , S w i t z e r l a n d , P o l a n d ,

A l s a c e - L o r r a i n e , R u s s i a , S c h l e s w i g ( D e n m a r k ) , E u p e n - M a l -

m e d y ( B e l g i u m ) , S o u t h T i r o l ( I t a l y ) , Y u g o s l a v i a , E s t h o n i a ,

and H ungary . T h e r e i s t hu s a v a s t f i e l d f o r ra c i a l A n s c h l u s s ,

and Hitler, in annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia, has

o n l y b e g u n t o c a r r y o u t h i s p r o g r a m .

W a r i s t h r e a t e n e d e v e n w h e n t h e r e a r e n o G e r m a n s t o b e

annexed . H i t l e r c a l l s F r a n c e t h e " i r r e c o n c i l a b l e , m o r t a l

enemy of the German people," and declares "that Germany

i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n ( V e r n i c h t u n g ) o f F r a n c e , s e e s on l y a m e a n s

f i n a l l y t o g i v e o u r p e o p l e a n o t h e r a r e a f o r p o s s i b l e e x p a n -

s i o n . " 8 0 H e a l s o t h r e a t e n s e a s t e r n a g g r e s s i o n : " W e w i l l s t o p

the endless migrations of Germans towards the south and

west of Europe, and direct our eyes towards soil in the

e a s t . " 5 1 He specifically mentions Russia and the border

s t a t e s o f t he B a l t i c a s a f f o r d i n g a n a t t r a c t i v e f i e l d f o r t e r ri -

t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n .

His ultimate am bition, it app ears, is to ma ke Germa ny

" t h e s u p r e m e l o r d o f t h e e a r t h . " R e a l p e a c e , h e a n n o u n c e s ,

c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d b y " t h e G e r m a n c o n q u e s t o f t h e w o r l d . "

T h e " p a c i f i s t - h u m a n i t a r i a n i d e a m a y p e r h a p s b e v e r y g o o d

a f t e r t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n c o n q u e r e d a n d s u b j u g a t e d b y t h e

h i g h e s t t y p e o f m a n , " b u t t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e " m u s t b e r e -

solved to make war in order that pa cifism may be estab-

l i s h e d . " 52

T h e p o l i c i e s a n d m e t h o d s w h i c h H i t l e r p r o p o s e s t o a d o p t

a r e n o m o r e r e a s s u r i n g t h a n h i s a n n o u n c e d o b j e c t i v e s . B e -

f o r e t h e o u t b r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t m u s t p r e -

p a r e t h e s w o r d o f w a r :

T o f o r g e t h i s s w o rd i s t h e t a s k o f t h e i n t e r na l p o l i t i c i a l l e a d e r -

s h i p o f a p e o p l e ; t o s a f e g u a r d t h e f o rg i n g a n d t o f i n d a r m e d

a l l i e s i s t h e t a s k o f t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y . 5 3

W e a r e t o l d th a t " a n a l l i a n c e w h i c h d o e s n o t i n c l u d e i n i t s

a i m t h e i n t e n t i o n t o m a k e w a r i s s e n s e l e s s a n d w o r t hl e s s . "54

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 161

When war begins, it must be waged with utmost rigor .

"Huma nitarianism . . . c o n s i s t s i n t h e s h o r t n e s s o f t h e

p r o c e s s , " a n d t h e r e f o r e " t h e s ev e r e s t ( d i e s c h a r f s t e ) methods

of combat a re the most humanitarian . " 5 5 Throughout his

book, he proclaims "the eternal p rivilege of force and

s t r e n g t h . "

Unquestionably Mein Kamp f must be used with extreme

c a u t i o n a s a g u i d e t o H i t l e r' s a c t u a l p o l i c y s i n c e h i s a d v e n t

t o o f f i c e . Some m en will talk like mora l desperadoes when

t h e y a r e s t i l l p o w e r l e s s , b u t w i l l l o s e m u c h o f t h e i r f e r o c i t y

w h e n p o w e r i s w i t h i n t h e i r g r a s p . H i t l e r i s p e r f e c t l y c a p a b l e

o f m o d e r a t i n g b o t h h i s l a n g u a g e a n d a c t i o n s w h e n i t s u i t s

h i s p u r p o s es . N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e p a c i f i c i n t o n e t h a n t h e

f o l l o w i n g c l e a r s t a t e m e n t f r o m H i t l e r ' s s p e e c h b e f o r e t h e

R e i c h s t a g , M a y 1 7 , 1 9 3 3 :

N o n e w E u r o p e a n w a r w o u l d b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o i m p r o v e t h e

u n sa t i s f a c t o ry c o n di t i o n s of t h e p r e se n t da y . O n t h e c o nt r a ry , t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f v i o l e n c e o f a n y k i n d i n E u r o p e c o u ld n o t c r ea t e

a m o r e f a v o u ra b l e p o l i t i c a l o r e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n t ha n t h a t w h i c h

e x i s t s t o d a y . . . . T h e o u t b r ea k o f s u c h i n f i n i t e m a d n e s s wo u l d

n e c e s s a r i l y c a u s e t he c o l l a p s e o f t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

o r d e r . 5 6

T h e n e a r e s t t h a t H i t l e r h a s e v e r c o m e t o a r e t r a c t i o n o f

h i s b o o k , w h i c h o b v i o u s l y c o n t r a d i c t s s u c h a s t a t e m e n t a s

t h e o n e j u s t q u o t e d , w a s i n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h a F r e n c h j o u r -

n a l i s t o n F e b r u a r y 2 1 , 1 9 3 6 . A t t h i s t i m e , h e w a s s e e k i n g t o

p r e v e n t t h e r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e F r a n c o - S o v i e t p a c t , a n d h a s -

t e n e d t o a s s u r e t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e t h a t t h e i r c o n t e m p l a t e d

d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e w a s u n n e c e s s a r y . Up on being asked by

h i s i n t e r v i e w e r a b o u t t h e t h r e a t s a g a i n s t F r a n c e w h i c h a p -

p e a r i n Mein Kam pf, t h e F i i h r e r r e p l i e d :

W h e n I w r o t e t hi s b o o k , I w a s i n p r i s o n . I t w a s t h e t i m e w h e n

t h e F r e n c h t r o o p s w e r e o c c u p y i n g t h e R u h r . I t w a s a t t h e m o -

m e n t o f g r e a t e s t t e n s i o n b e t w e e n o u r t w o c o u n t r i e s . . . . Y e s , w e

w e r e en e m i e s , a n d I s t o o d f o r m y o w n c o u n t r y , a s i s f i t t i n g ,

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162 NO COMPROMISEa g a i n s t y o u r s ; j u s t a s I s t o o d f o r m y c o u n t r y f o r f o u r a n d a h a l f

y e a r s i n t h e t r en c h e s . I s h o u ld d e s p i s e m y s e l f i f I w e r e n o t f i r s t

o f a l l a G e r m a n i n t h e m o m en t o f c o n f l i c t . Y o u w a n t m e t o c o r -

r e c t m y b o o k , l i k e a m a n o f l e t te r s b r i n gi n g o u t a n e w a n d r e -

v i s e d e d i t i o n o f m y w o r k s . B u t I a m n o t a m a n o f l e t t e rs . I a m a

p o l i ti c i a n . I u n d e r t a k e m y c o r r e c t i o n s i n m y f o r e i g n p o l i c y ,

w h i c h a i m s a t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h F r a n c e . I f I s u c c e ed i n

b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e F r a n c o - G e r m a n r a p p r o c h e m e n t , t h a t w i l l

b e a c o r r ec t i o n w h i c h w i l l b e w o r th y t o b e m a d e . I e n t e r m y c o r -

r e c t i o n i n t h e g r e a t b o o k o f h i s t o r y l57

A s s o o n a s t h e F r a n c o - S o v i e t P a c t w a s r a t i f i e d , h o w e v e r , t he

F i i h r e r a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e t r e a t y c r e a t e d " a n e w s i t u a t i o n "

much less acceptable to Germany . There have been recent

r e p o r t s t h a t H i t l e r i s w r i t i n g a n e w b o o k , b u t Mein Kamp f

w i l l p r o b a b l y r e m a i n a s a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f N a z i

p r i n c i p l e s .

T h e d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g H i t le r ' s p a c i f i c s t a t e m e nt s a n d

p a r t i a l r e tr a c t i o n s a t t h e i r f a c e v a l u e i s t ha t , i n a l l p r o b a -

b i l i t y , h e i s m e r el y i n d u l g i n g i n t a c t i c a l l i e s . H i s p r o f e s s i o n s

o f p e a c e f u l i n t e n t h a v e n o t p r e v e n t e d h i m f r o m r u s h i n g s o l -

d i e r s a n d m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s t o a i d F r a n c o , s e i z i n g A u s t r i a a t

t h e r i s k o f w a r , a n d t h r e a t e n i n g t o p l u n g e t he w o r l d i n t o w a r

d u r i n g th e C z e c h o s l ov a k i a n c r i s e s . The Germ an government

h a s b r o k e n s o m a n y p r o m i s e s t h a t i t s s t a t e m e n t s m u s t b e t a k e n

w i t h a g r a i n o f s a l t . A s e a r l y a s M a r c h 7 , 1 9 3 6 , H i t l e r d ec l a r e d

i n t h e R e i c h s t a g : " . . . I b e l i e v e t h a t t o d a y I c a n l o o k u p o n

t h e s t r ug g l e f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f G e r m a n e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s

a s n o w c o n c l u d e d . . . . I n E u r o p e w e h a v e n o t er r i t o r i a l c l a i m s

t o p u t f o r w a r d . "5 8 S i m i l a r d i s c l a i m e r s o f e x p a n s i o n i s t a m b i -

t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s ( J a n u a r y 3 0 , 1 9 3 4 ;May 21, 1 9 3 5 ; M a r c h i i a n d 12, 1 9 3 8 , e t c . ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

t h e r e i s m u c h t o j u s t i f y t h e o p i n i o n e x p r e s s e d b y S i r A r c h i b a l d

S i n c l a i r , t h e l e a d e r o f t h e L i b e r a l p a r t y i n t h e H o u s e of C o m -

mons, who declared on October 3, 1938, in the course of

d e b a t i n g t h e M u n i c h s e t t l e m e n t : " T w o s o u r c e s o f e n l i g h t e n -

m e n t I h a v e f o u n d a b o u t H i t l e r ' s i n t e n t i o n s - h i s s p e e c h e s

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 6 3

a nd M ei n Ka m p f . I p r e f e r Mein Kamp f b e c a u s e i t h a s n e v e r

l e t m e d o w n . " 6 9 I n t h i s b o o k , H i t l e r h i m s e l f d e f e n d s d e c e p -

t i o n a s a n i n s t ru m e n t of n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , a n d s t a t e s t ha t t h e

N a z i s s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l n o t t o a r o u se t o o m u c h s u s p i c i o n :

" B y h o wl i n g a g a i n s t f i v e o r t e n S t a t e s . . . w e a r e sa c r i f i c i n g

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c q u i r i n g s t r e n g t h b y m e a n s o f a l l i a n c e s

f o r t h e f i n a l s t r u g g l e . " 6 0

H i s f r i g h t f u l b o o k , m o r e o v e r , i s s t i l l b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d i n

v a s t q u a n t i t i e s t o t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e . A b o u t f o u r m i l l i o n

c o p i e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n s o l d , a n d n e w l y m a r r i e d c o u p l e s

a r e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d w i t h f r e e c o p i e s ( w i t h w h a t e f f e c t u p o n

t h e b i r t h r a t e h a s n o t b e e n r e v e a l e d ) . I f H i t l e r r ea l l y w a n t s

p e a c e , n o t m e re l y t e m p o r a r y b u t perma nent p e a c e , h e s h o u ld

e m p h a t i c a l l y r e n o u n c e M e in K a m p f a n d c e a s e t o p r o m o t e

i t s c i r c u l a t i o n . H e s h o u l d m a k e h i s f o l l o w e r s r e a l i z e t h a t

t h e i r j i n g o i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s a r e o p p o s e d , i f s u c h b e t he c a s e , t o

t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e N a z i r e g i m e . H e a n d h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s

s h o u ld n o t s o lo v e t o a p p e a r i n m i l i t a r y g a r b , o r s t a g e s o

m a n y g i g a n t i c m i l i t a r y r e v i e w s . H e s h o u l d s e e t o i t t h a t t h e

s t a t e - c o n t r o l l ed p r e s s a n d p r o p a g a n d a a g e n c i e s e n d i m m e -

d i a t e l y t h e i r c a m p a i g n t o f i l l t h e so u l s of y o u n g p e op l e w i t h

m a r t i a l a r d or . H e s h o u l d c h e c k t h e e x p r e s s i o n s , w h i c h r e -

sound throughout Germ any , of alm ost hysterical hatred

a g a i n s t R u s s i a . H e s h o u l d b e w i l l i n g t o s i g n n o n - a g g r e s s i o n

p a c t s w i t h a n y n a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a l l t h e c o u nt r i e s t o t h e ea s t .

H e s h o u l d n ot v i o l a t e a s o l e m n i n t e rn a t i o n a l a g r e e m en t , a s

i n t h e c a s e o f t h e S p a n i s h N o n - I n t e r v e n t i o n P a c t , w h i c h h i s

o w n r e p r es e nt a t i v e s i gn e d . H e s h o u l d n e v e r h a v e p e r m i t t e d

G e r m a n y ' s m i l i t a r y a s s a u l t u p o n t h e l e g a l g o v e r n m e n t o f

S p a i n , a n d s h o u ld p r o m p t l y r e n o u n c e t h e t h r e a t o f s i m i l a r

a c t i o n a g a i n s t o t h e r n a t i o n s i m p l i e d i n t h e d a n g e r o u s l y

worded "Anti-Comm unist" Accord .6 1 He should b e n o t o n l y

ready but anxious that Germa ny disarm in concert with

o t h e r g r e a t P o w e r s . H e s h ou l d be o n ly t o o r ea d y t o a c c e p t ,

r a t h e r t h a n t o b r u sh a s i d e a s i n f a c t h e h a s d o n e , P r e s i d e n t

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164 NO COMPROMISER o o se v el t ' s p r o p o s a l ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 9 ) o f a t e n- t o - t we n ty - f i v e - y e a r

e r a o f p e a c e t o b e g u a r a n t e e d b y o v e r t h i r t y n a t i o n s . S u c h

a c t i o n s a n d p o l i c i e s a s t h e s e r e c o m m e n d e d w o u l d a l o n e b e

c o n s i s t en t w i t h h i s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t " t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v i o -

l e n c e o f a n y k i n d i n E u r o p e " i s t o b e d e p l o r e d . B u t H i t l e r

p u r s u e s a d i f f e r e nt c o u r s e , a n d i t i s n o t s u rp r i s i n g t h a t h e i s

r e g a r d e d w i t h s u s p i c i o n .

I f w e t u r n f r o m H i t l e r t o h i s l i e u t e n a n t s a n d f o l l o w e r s ,

w e f i n d t h a t t h e y t o o a p p e a r t o b e a n i m a t e d b y m i l i t a r i s t i c

i d e a l s . A N a z i o r g a n b o a s t s : " A t r u l y n e w s p i r i t p r e v a i l s i n

Germany ; e v e n t h e a s h - c a n s s t a n d a t a t t e n t i o n ! " 6 2 Rosen-

b e r g d e c l a r e s : " W e a c k n o w l e d g e t h e o l d s a y i n g t h a t c o m b a t

( K a m p f ) i s t h e f a t h e r o f a l l t h i n g s , n o t o n l y a s a n e m p t y

f o r m u l a , b u t a s t h e c o n t e n t o f o u r l i v e s . " 8 3 Darre announces :

" T h e f u t u r e o f o u r p e o p l e d e p e n d s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t u p o n

t h e s p e c i a l r e g a r d f o r s o l di e r l y v i r t u e s . " 6 4 A s e m i - o f f i c i a l

N a z i j o u r n a l , t h e N a t i on a l s o z i a l i s t i s c h e M o n a t s h e f t e , p ro -

c l a i m s t h e d u t y o f y o u t h : " T h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t p e o p l e ' s

y o u t h a f f i r m s b a t t l e , a n d s u bm i t s t o t he c a r r y i n g o f a r m s a s

t h e o bv i o u s f o u n d a t i o n s o f a l l p e o p l e ' s l a b o r . " 6 5 H i t l e r ' s o l d

f r i e n d a n d h o n o r e d c o m p a t r i o t , t h e l a t e G e n e r a l L u d e n d o r f f ,

w r o t e a b o o k i n w h i c h h e e x p o u n d e d t h e t h e o r y o f t h e f u -

t u r e "t o t a l i t a r i a n w a r , " t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f w h i c h i s t h a t

every resource of a belligerent nation must be comm an-

d e e r e d , a n d n o t e v e n e n e m y n o n c o m b a t a n t s a r e t o b e s p a r e d . 6 6

O n e o f t h e f o r e m o s t m i l i t a r y t h e o r i s t s i n G e r m a n y , E w a l d

B a n s e , w h o w a s a p p o i n t e d P r o f e s s o r o f M i l i t a r y S c i e n c e b y

the Nazi Government, has described the conditions for

a c h i e v i n g n a t i o n a l g r e a t n e ss :

I d e a s a n d w o r k s a n d a r m i e s m u s t m a r c h a n d f i g h t a n d d i e b e -

f o r e t h e v a s t a n d s p l e n d i d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Th i r d R e i c h r i s e s

f r o m t h e g r o u n d o f t h e w e s t e rn w o r l d . I d e a s a n d w o r k a n d m i l i -

t a r y s e r v i c e m u s t g o h a n d i n h a n d i n f u t u re , i f c u l t u r e i s t o s u r-

v i v e , i n d u st r y t o f l o u r i s h , a n d t h e S t a t e t o m a i n t a i n i t s e lf . 6 7

T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e m a s s o f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e

l o v e p e a c e ; b u t t h e r e c a n a l s o b e n o d o u bt t h a t t h e p r e s e n t

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 165

" l e a d e r s " o f G e r m a n y a r e b e t r a y i n g t h e s e p e a c e f u l a s p i r a -

t i o n s b y w o r d a n d d e e d .

T h e " l e a d e r s " p l e a d b y w a y o f e x t e n u a t i o n t h a t G e r m a n y

h a s b e e n u n j u s t l y t r e a t e d . N o o n e c a n d e n y t h a t t h i s i s t r u e .

S o m e o f t h e t e r m s o f t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s w er e i n f a m o u s ,

although not so infamous as the German-made treaties of

Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest, and the more recent Munich

p a c t . T h e A l l i e s , i n a n y e v e n t , w e r e p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

t h e r i s e o f H i t l e r , w h o s e a i m t o e r a d i c a t e t h e T r e a t y w a s

imm ensely popular a mong his fellow countrymen . R i g h t l y

o r w r o n g l y , a v a s t n u m b e r o f G e r m a n s s h a r e d t h e v i e w p o i n t

e x p r e s s e d b y O s w a l d S p e n g l e r i n a s p e e c h o f F e b r u a r y , 1 9 2 4 :

W e h a v e n o t o n l y b e c o m e m i s e r a b l e , w e h a v e a l s o l o s t o u r

honor. T h e r i g h t w h i c h i s g r a n t e d t o ev e r y m a n a n d e v e r y s m a l l

n a t i o n , t o p r o t e c t i t s e l f w i t h t h e w e a p o n i n i t s h a n d , h a s b e e n

t a k e n f r o m u s . W e n o l o n g er b e l o n g t o t h e g r o u p o f i n d e p e n d e n t

n a t i o n s . W e h a v e b e c o m e t he m e r e o b j e c t o f t h e w i l l , t h e ha t r e d ,

a n d t h e ra p a c i t y o f o t h e r s68

C e r t a i n l y i t i s t r u e t h a t F r a n c e , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t E n g -

l a n d , p u r s u e d f o r y e a r s a p o l i c y o f k e e p i n g G e r m a n y c r u s h e d

a n d p r o s t r a t e . The whole world needs to take reckoning of

what has happ ened ; there is scarcely a na tion which should

n o t s e a r c h i t s c o n s c i e n c e .

B u t a f t e r a d m i t t i n g t h e s e f a c t s , w e m u s t s t i l l c o n s i d e r th e

q u e s t i o n : H a s n o t H i t l e r a p p e a l e d t o t h e i n j u s t i c e s o f V e r -

s a i l l e s t o e x c u s e a p o l i c y w h i c h h a s g o n e q u i t e a s f a r w r o ng

or even much farther wrong in another direction? Can we

f a i l t o s e e t h a t t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t - i t s e l f a v i c t i m o f

p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n - i s v i o l a t i n g t h e j u s t c l a i m s o f o t h e r p e o -

p l e s t o h um a n e q u a l i t y b y i t s a b s ur d r a c i a l t h e or i e s , i t s e x -

t r e m e p e r s ec u t i o n o f t h e J e w s , a n d i t s p r o g r a m o f m i l i t a r i s -

t i c e x p a n s i o n ? C a n w e f a i l t o r ec o g n i z e t h a t t he w a r l i k e a c t s

a n d u t t e r a n c e s o f G e r m a n y ' s r u l e r s h a v e b r o u g h t t h e n a t i o n

t o t h e v e r y b r i n k o f d o o m ? H a s n o t t h e e n t i r e w o r l d c o m e

t o a s o r r y p a s s w h e n t h e l i v e s o f m i l l i o n s o f h u m a n b e i n g s

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166 NO COMPROMISEdepend upon the whims of a pparently irresponsible jingoes?

Even aside from the question of war, the Nazi attitude

t o w a r d v i o l e n c e i s f a r f r o m r e a s s u r i n g . P e r h a p s t h i s a t t i t u d e

ma y be judged from the remarks of high officials concern-

i n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f l y n c h i n g . No members of the Nazi ruling

class app ear to be more highly regarded than Da rre and

Rosenberg; h e n c e t h e i r v i e w s m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s r e p r e s e n t -

a t i v e . Da rre's attitude toward lynching and other forms of

v i o l e n c e i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e :

S o m e r e a d e r s w i l l p e r h a p s c o n s i d e r i t a s i g n o f b r u t a l i t y t h a t

i n e a r l i e r t i m e s t h e c o w a r d a n d t h e p e r s o n u n a b l e t o f i g h t w e r e

k i l l e d. B u t i f a p e o p l e c a n a s s e r t i t se l f o n l y t h ro u g h a n a f f i r m a -

t i o n o f v i o l e n c e , i t m u s t s u b o rd i n a t e a l l i t s f e e l i n g s t o t h i s n e c e s -

s i t y . A s l o n g a s t h e s p i r i t o f o u r a r m y w a s h e a l t h y , t h e p r i n c i p l e

t h a t c o w a r d s s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t b e f o r e a c o u r t m a r t i a l w a s e n -

f o r c e d . A n y p e r s o n w h o i s i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s m e a s u r e

c o n s t i t u t e s a m i l i t a r y i n v e n t i o n s h o u l d s t u d y t h e l y n c h l a w s o f

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e h a r d n e c e s s i t i e s a n d t h e i n s e c u r i t i e s o f

l i f e m a d e i t n e c e s s a r y t o e x t e r m i n a t e , w i t h o u t se n t i m e n t a l i t y , a l l

t h e u n f i t . 6 9

R o s e n b e r g a l s o r e f e r s t o p r a c t i c e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s :

A n e g r o i s n o t a l l o w e d to t r a v e l i n t h e c o m p a n y o f a w h i t e p e r -

s o n ; m u c h l e s s i s h e p e r m i t t e d t o i n t e r m a r r y . I f a n e g r o ra p e s a

w h i t e w o m a n h e w i l l b e l y n c h e d . T h i s i s n o t " n i c e " b u t i t c o n -

s t i t u t e s t h e on l y p o s s i b l e c o r r ec t i v e o f a p r a c t i c e i n i m i c a l t o na -

t u r e , w h i c h s p r a n g i n t o b e i n g a t a t i m e w h e n t h e w o r l d b e g a n

t o b e p o i s o n e d b y f r e e m a s o n s a n d h u m a n i t a r i a n s . 7 0

When the high officials of the State thus condone lawless

v i o l e n c e , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a n t i - S e m i t i s m a n d o t h e r

f o r m s o f c o l l e c t i v e h a t r e d f i n d a p a t h o l o g i c a l o r e v e n m u r -

derous expression .

4 . How the Fa scists Practice Violence

Many accounts have appeared of the brutalities practiced

i n t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s . S o m e o f t h e r e p o r t s a r e p r e j u d i c e d ,

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 167

some are exa ggerated ; but where there is so much smoke,

t h e r e i s b o u n d t o b e s o m e f i r e . T h e m o s t m o d e r a t e o b s e r v e r s

h a v e b e e n r e p e l l e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f F a s c i s t v i o l e n c e . F or

exa mp le, Professor Henri Lichtenberger, writing a book

w h i c h h a s b e e n p r a i s e d b y c o n s e r v a t i v e s f o r i t s o b j e c t i v i t y

a n d r e s t r a i n t , i s " t r e m e n d o u s l y s h o c k e d " b y t h e " t e r r o r i s m "

a nd " c a l c u la t e d v i o l e n c e " o f t h e N a z i s . 7 1 I f t h e I t a l i a n r e c -

o r d i s s o m e w h a t b e t t e r , i t i s a t l e a s t u n e n v i a b l e .

T h e F a s c i s t s ' p o l i c i e s t o w a r d f o r e i g n p e o p l e s h a v e a l s o

been marked by brutality . The conquest of Ethiopia has

b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y M u s s o l i n i a n d t h e I t a l i a n p r e s s a s t h e

t r i u m p h o f c i v i l i z a t i o n o v e r s a v a g e r y . Y e t t he ge n er a l m a ss a -

c r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f A d d i s A b a b a a f t e r t h e a t t e m p t e d

assassination of Marshal Graziani has forced some well-

i n f o r m e d p e r s o n s t o q u e s t i o n t h e m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d b y t h e

a n g e ls o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . The events following the attem pted

a s s a s s i n a t i o n a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e Manchester Guardian :

E v e r y A b y s s i n i a n m a n w a s s h o t on s i g h t , a n d t h o se [ F a s c i s t s ]

w h o d i d n o t h a v e r i f l e s m a d e u s e o f c l u b s a n d o t h e r w e a p o n s .

T h o u s a n d s o f n a t i v e h o u s e s w e r e t he n s e t o n f i r e , a n d a s t h e i n -

h a b i t a n t s t r i e d t o f l e e f o r s a f e t y t h e y w e r e s h ot o r c l u b b e d t o

d e a t h . I n s o m e c a s e s n o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w a s m a d e b e t we e n m e n

a n d w o m e n , a n d m a n y w o m e n w e r e k i l l e d . B y t h e t i m e t hi s o r g y

w a s f i n i s h e d t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e c a p i t a l w a s i n r u i n s ; w h a t

h a d b e e n l e f t f r o m t h e d i s o r d e r s o f t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r w a s d e -

t r o y e d . 7 2

T h i s r e p r i s a l w a s d i r e c t e d m a i n l y a g a i n s t p e r s o n s w h o w e r e

e n t i r e l y i n n o c e n t ; t h e f e w w o u l d - b e a s s a s s i n s r e m a i n e d u n -

i d e n t i f i e d . Other methods employed in subduing Ethiopia-

s u c h a s t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f p o i s o n g a s - h a v e f o r c e d m a n y

p e r s o n s to q u e s t i o n t h e wo r t h of F a s c i s t " c i v i l i z a t i o n . "

T h e S p a n i s h W a r h a s l i k e w i s e a r o u s e d d i s t u r b i n g r e f l e c -

t i o n s i n e v e r y s e ns i t i v e m i n d . A s i n g l e i n c i d e n t i n t h i s w a r

w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e d e p t h t o w h i c h m o d e r n f i g h t i n g m a y s i n k .

T h e d es t r u c t i o n o f t h e li t t l e c i t y o f G u e r ni c a , a n h i s t o r i c a n d

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1 6 8 NO COMPROMISEr e l i g i o us s h r i n e of t h e B a s q u e p e o p l e , h a s a s i g n i f i c a n c e f a r

g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i m m e d i a t e t r a g e d y , a l t h o u g h hu n d r e d s o f

n o n c o m b a t a n t s w e r e s l a u g h t e r e d . T h e e v e n t i s s y m b o l i c , i t

i s a w a r n i n g t o a l l c o u n t r i e s .

T h e F a s c i s t s c a n n o t e v a d e r es p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s d e ed .

G e n e r a l F r a n c o , t h e I n s u r ge n t c o m m a n d e r , h a s d e c l a r e d i n

u n e q u i v o c a l l a n g u a g e t h a t h i s o b j e c t i v e h a s b e e n t o e st a b -

l i s h a F a s c i s t S t a t e . T h e f l y e r s w h o d r o p p e d t h e b o m b s w e r e

m a i n l y , i f n o t e x c l u s i v e ly , N a z i a c e s f l y i n g i n G e r m a n p l a n es.73

A t t h e t i m e o f i t s d e s t r u c t i o n , G u e r n i c a h a d a p o p u l a t i o n

o f s e v e n t h o u s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s a n d t h r e e t h ou s a n d r e f u g e e s .

T h e s e w e r e n o t s o l d i e r s b u t n o n c o m b a t a n t s . N o o r d i n a r y

m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e w a s i n v o l v e d : t h e t o w n w a s n o t n e a r t h e

f i g h t i n g l i n e s ; a n e a r - b y f a c t o r y p r o d u c i n g w a r m a t e r i a l r e -

ma ined unscathed . A p p a r e n t l y t h e s o l e p u r p o s e of t h e o n -

s l a u g h t w a s t o d e m or a l i z e t h e B a s q u e p o p u l a t i o n .

E v e r y t h i n g w a s m a n a g e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . T h e t i m e c h o s e n

w a s t h e m i d d l e o f a n A p r i l a f t e r n o o n o n m a r k e t d a y , w h e n

t h e t o wn w a s f u l l o f p e a s a n t s . S m a l l p a r t i e s o f l i g h t a i r p l a n e s

a t f i r s t f l e w o v e r h e a d , d r o p p i n g f i f t y - p o u n d b o m b s a n d

m a c h i n e - g u n n i n g t h e i n h a b i t a n t s a s t he y r a n f o r c o v e r . T h e n

" a h e a v y d r u m m i n g o f e n g i n e s w a s h e a r d t o t h e e a s t , " a n d

t h e l a r g e b o m b e r s a p p e a r e d . T he y dr o p p e d f i f t y - a n d on e -

hundred-pound bombs, a nd "great torp edoes weighing a

t h o u s a n d . " T h e p l a n e s " c h o s e t he i r s e c t o r s i n o r d e r l y f a s h i o n .

A f t e r t h e e x p l o s i v e b o m b s c a m e t h e i n c e n d i a r y b o m b s , t u b e s

o f t w o p o u n d s , l o n g a s y o u r f o r e a r m , g l i s t e n i n g s i l v e r f r o m

t h e i r a l u m i n u m a n d e l e k t r o n c a s i n g s . . . . T h e s e f e l l m a n y

a t a t i m e , f o r t h e y w e r e d r op p e d t w e nt y - f o u r t o g et h e r o n a

s p i n n i n g r o d . " 7 4 S o o n t h e w h o l e t o wn w a s i n f l a m e s .

A n e y e w i t n e s s , F a t h e r A l b e r t o O n a i n d a , D e a n o f t h e C a -

t h e d ra l o f V a l l a d o l i d , h a s s u p p l i e d a v i v i d a c c o u n t o f t h e

e f f e c t o f t h e s e e v e n t s u p o n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s :

I w a s i n B i l b a o w h e n t h e B a s q u e G o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d t o

e v a c u a t e G u e r n i c a , w h e re I h a d f r i e n d s a n d r e l a t i o n s . I a r r i v e d

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 16q

at G uernica on April 26 at 4 :40 P .M . I had ha rdly left the carwhen the bombardment began. The peop le were terrified . They

fled, aba ndoning their livestock in the ma rket-pla ce . T h e b o m -

bardm ent lasted until 7 :45 P .m . During that tim e five minutes

did not elapse without the sky being black with Germa n aero-

planes .

T h e m e t h o d o f a t t a c k wa s a l w a y s t h e s a m e . First there was

ma chine-gun fire, then ordinary bom bs, and finally incendia ry .

The pla nes descended very low, the m achine-gun fire tearing up

the woods and roa ds, in whose gutters, huddled together, lay old

men, women and children . Before long it was impossible to see

as fa r as 50o m etres owing to the smoke occasioned by the bom-bardment.

Fire enveloped the whole city . Screams of lam entation were

heard everywhere and the p eople, filled with terror, knelt, lift-

ing their hands to heaven as if to imp lore divine protection .

The p l a nes descended to 20o metres, letting loose a terrible

machine-gun fire. I reached m y car a nd just had time to take

refuge in a sma ll group of oaks . I have not heard of any inhabit-

ants who survived am ong the ill a nd wounded in the hospita ls .

The first hours of the night presented a terrib le specta cle of

men a nd women in the woods outside the city searching for their

fam ilies and friends . Most of the corp ses were riddled with bul-

l e t s .

As a Ca tholic priest, I state tha t no worse outrage could be

inflicted on religion than the Te D eums to be sung to the g lory

o f F r a n c o a n d M o l a i n t h e S a n t a M a r i a C hur c h a t G u e r n i ca ,

which was m iraculously sa ved by the heroism of firemen from

Bilbao .7 5

T h e b o m b a r d m e n t o f t h e c i t y w a s a t f i r s t d e n i e d b y G e n -

eral Franco, and newspapers throughout Germany published

the lie th a t Guernic a w a s destro y ed b y "R ed incendi a ries . "

When the Insurgents were at last forced halfway to admit

the bombardment, they dismissed it as "a comparativelyminor event . "

7 sThe event was indeed not exceptional, since

noncombatants have been ruthlessly slain upon many other

occ a sions in the S p a nish conflict . H os p it a ls, schools, mu-

seums, and public buildings have been mercilessly bom-barded . R ows of work ers' dwellings h av e cr a shed down u p on

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170 NO COMPROMISEt h e h e a d s o f t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s . Bombs have been showered

i n t o c o u r t y a r d s w h e r e c h i l d r e n w e r e a t p l a y . Women caught

w a i t i n g i n l o n g q u e u es f o r f o o d r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n p i t i l e s s l y

s l a u g h t e r e d .

I n B a r c e l o n a , f o r e x a m p l e , d u r i n g t e n d a y s o f a e r i a l b o m -

b a r d m e n t i n M a r c h , 1 9 3 8 , 8 1 5 p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d , a n d 2,200

were wounded . T h e a i r r a i d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e C a t a l o n i a n

g o v e r n m e n t , d e s t r o y e d t h e I n d u s t r i a l S c h o o l , t h e S c h o o l o f

Engineering, the Professiona l Institute for Women, the

6 , o o o - v o l u m e l i b r a r y o f t h e C u l t u r a l I n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e w o rl d -

r e n o w n e d c o l l e c t i o n o f r a r e e d i t i o n s m a d e b y G u s t a u G i l i ,

a g r o u p o f n e w s c h o o l s w i t h a c a p a c i t y f o r 3 , 0 0 0 p u p i l s , a n d

thousands of homes . In addition to bombardments, there

h a v e b e e n m a s s e x e c u t i o n s of d e f e n s e l es s c i t i z e n s , a s a t B a d a -

j o z : "Eighteen hundred men-there were women, too-were

mowed down there in some twelve hours . " 77But the bombing of Guernica, a lthough not excep tional

i n i t s h o r r o r , d o es f u r n i s h a v e r y c l e a r e x a m p l e o f t h e m e t h -

o d s o f " t ot a l i t a r i a n w a r f a r e . " A n E p i s c o p a l i a n m i n i s t e r , t h e

C a n o n o f M a n c h e s t e r , P e t e r G r e e n , h a s w r i t t e n a t h o u g h t f u l

l e t t e r c o n c e r n i n g t h i s e v e n t t o t h e Manchester Guardian :

S i r , - A m a n m a y s a y w h a t h e li k e s a b o u t t h e G u e r n i c a h o rr o r ,

h e m a y p i l e a d j e c t i v e o n a d j e c t i v e a n d s e nt e n c e o n se n t e n c e , a n d

w h e n he h a s f i l l e d a c o l u m n a n d a h a l f h e w i l l h a v e s a i d n o t h i n g

b a d e n o u g h f o r t h i s a w f u l m a s s a c r e o f i n n o c e n t n on c o m b a t a n t s .

B u t i t c o u l d a l l h a v e b e en e x p r e s s ed i n f o u r w or d s : " T h i s i s m o d-

e r n w a r . " T h e o b j e c t o f m o d e r n w a r i s n o t t o d e f e a t o r e v e n t o

d e s t r o y a r m i e s i n t h e f i e l d . T h e o b j e c t o f m o d e r n w a r i s t o d e -

s t r o y t h e ma c h i n e r y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e a n d s o t o d e m o r a l i z e t h e c i v i l

p o p u l a t i o n a s t o b r e a k t h e n a t i o n ' s w i l l t o w a r a n d p u t a n e n d

t o w a r - r e s i s t a n c e .

I f a E u r op e a n w a r c o m e s, a s s e e ms a l l t o o l i k e l y , t h e s c e n e s i n

G u e r n i c a w i l l b e r e p e a t e d i n e v e r y b i g t o w n i n E u r o p e . I m a y

l i v e t o s e e a l l c e n t r a l M a n c h e s t e r i n f l a m e s a n d t h e c r o w d s t h a t

p a s s o u t o f C e n t r a l a n d L o n d o n R o a d S t a t i o n s e v e r y m o r n i n g

f l e e i n g f r o m m a c h i n e - g u n s f i r i n g f r o m l ow - f l y i n g a e r o p l a n e s . T h e

c r i m i n a l s t o d a y a r e n o t t h e le a d e r s of a r m y , n a v y , a n d a i r f o r c e ,

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FORCE OR CONSENT 171

b u t t he p o l i t i c i a n s i n e v e r y c o u n t r y w h o c o n c e a l t h e se f a c t s f r o m

t h e m a n i n t h e s t r e e t . 7 8

T h e l e t te r o f C a n o n G r e e n a c c u r a t e l y d e p i c t s t h e h o rr i b l e

d e s o l a t i o n w h i c h m a y e v e n t u a l l y t h r e a t e n , i n t h i s a g e o f

t r a n s o c e a n i c f l i g h t s , t h e c i t i e s n o t on l y o f E u r o p e b u t o f

America . A l t h o ug h a t r o c i t i e s a r e c o m m i t t e d b y b o t h s i d e s

in every m odern war, the methods which the Canon here

d e sc r i b e s a r e e s p e c i a l l y c h a r a c t e ri s t i c o f t h e F a s c i s t s . 7 9

T h e b o m b i n g o f C h i n e s e c i t i e s b y J a p a n , a n e a r - F a s c i s t

p o w e r , h a s r e p e a t e d t h e p a t t e r n s u p p l i e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s i n

S p a i n . E a r l y i n t h e w a r t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t w a r ne d t h e

J a p a n e s e : " I t i s o n e o f t h e o l d e s t a n d b e s t - e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s

o f i n t e rn a t i o n a l l a w t h a t d i r e c t o r d e l i b e r a t e a t t a c k s o n n o n -

c o m b a t a n t s a r e a b s o l u t e l y p r o h i b i t e d w h e t h e r i n s i d e o r o u t -

s i d e t h e a r e a i n w h i c h h o s ti l i t i e s a r e t a k i n g p l a c e . " 8 0 B u t

d i p l o m a t i c w a r n i n g b y B r i t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o t

p r e v e n t e d t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e s e " b e s t - e s t a b l i s h e d r u le s . "

Shangha i, Ha nkow, Nanking, and other cities have been

c r u e l l y b o m b a r d e d . A f t e r a n a t t a c k o n H a n k o w w h i c h k i l l e d

o n e t h o u s a n d n on c o m b a t a n t s , t h e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r ep o r t e d :

N o t a s o l d i e r w a s i n j u r e d n or w a s a n y i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y o b -

j e c t i v e d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s e r i e s o f r a i d s . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e b o m b -

i n g s t h e r e w a s n o t a s o l d i e r w i t h i n m i l e s o f H a n k o w . T h e a r -

s e n a l s . . . w e r e a t l e a s t f o u r m i l e s f r o m w h e r e t h e b o m b s

r a i n e d . 8 1

I n b o t h t h e O r i e n t a n d t h e O c c i d e n t , t h e m e th o d s o f t o t a l i -

t a r i a n w a r f a r e a r e b e i n g t e s t e d .

T h e e x t r e m e s t o w h i c h t h e F a s c i s t s m i g h t g o i n a v a s t n e w

c o n f l i c t a r e s u g ge s t e d i n a n a r t i c l e o n g er m w a r f a r e w h i c h

a p p e a r e d i n t h e D e u t s c h e W e h r , a p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n o f t h e

G e r m a n m i l i t a r y c l a s s . T h i s a r t i c l e t h or o u g h l y a n d c o l d -

b l o od e d l y a n a l y z e s t h e m i l i t a r y e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f g e r m s o f

s p o t t e d t y p h u s , y e l l o w f e v e r , t y p h o i d , d y s e n t e r y , s m a l l p o x ,

c h o l e r a , a n d b u b o n i c p l a g u e . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e g e r m s f r o m

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172 NO COMPROMISEa i r p l a n e s i s s a i d t o b e t h e b e s t m e t h o d, f o r t h e b a c t e r i a w h e n

t h u s s p r e a d n o t o n l y a t t a c k h u m a n b e i n g s d i r e c t l y , b u t i n -

f e c t w a t e r, f o o d s tu f f s , a n d a n i m a l s . " I t i s t o b e p r e s u m e d , "

t h e a r t i c l e d e c l a r e s , " t h a t a t t e m p t s t o s p r e a d g e r m s w i l l n o t

b e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t r o op s i n t h e f i e l d b u t a g a i n s t th e c i v i l i a n

p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e r e m o t e r e n e m y t e r r i t o r y . T o u s e i t a g a i n s t

s o l d i e rs w o u l d e n t a i l g r e a t d a n g e r s t o t h e a t t a c k i n g t r o o p s . " 8 2

T h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s t h a t u n h y g i e n i c a n d o v e r c r o w d e d d i s -

t r i c t s w o ul d p r o v i d e t h e b es t t a r g e t s f o r l a u n c h i n g e p i d e m i c s .

T h i s a r t i c l e , c i t i n g a n I t a l i a n a u t h o r i t y a n d a p p e a r i n g i n

a G e r m a n j o u r n a l , i n d i c a t e s t h a t p l a n s a r e b e i n g m a d e f o r a

n e w w a r w h i c h w i l l o u t s t r i p i n h o r r o r a n y t h i n g i n t h e p a s t .

M i l i t a r y e x p e r t s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t s u c h m e t h o d s c a n -

n o t b e a p p l i e d i n t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e , a n d t h e y d i s c o u n t

t h e f a n t a s t i c s t o r i e s n o w c u r r e n t a s t o t h e p r e s e n t e f f e c t i v e -

n e s s o f g a s , a e r i a l , a n d ba c t e r i a l w a r f a r e . I f b a r b a r i c t r en d s,

h o w e v e r , a r e n o t c h e c k e d w h i l e t h e r e i s y e t t i m e , t h e i n s t r u -

m e n t s o f f r i g h t f u l n e s s m a y eventually b e c o m e a l l t h a t t h e y

h a v e b e e n i m a g i n e d a s b e i n g . A s t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s h a s d e c l a r e d :

P e r h a p s w e f o r e s e e a t i m e w h e n m e n , e x u l t a n t i n t h e t e c h -

n i q u e o f h o m i c i d e , w i l l r a g e s o h o t l y o v e r t h e w o r ld t h a t e v e r y

p r e c i o u s t hi n g w i l l b e i n d a n g e r , e v e ry b o o k a n d p i c t u r e a n d

h a r m o n y , e v e r y t r e a s u r e g a r n e r e d t h r o u g h m i l l e n n i u m s , t h e

s m a l l , t h e d e l i c a t e , t h e d e f e n s e l e ss - a l l w i l l b e l o s t o r w r e c k e d o r

u t t e r l y d e s t r o y e d . . . . I f t h o s e d a y s c o m e t h e re w i l l b e n o s a f e t y o f

a r m s , n o h e l p f r o m a u t h o r i t y , n o a n s w e r i n s c i e n c e . T h e s t o r m

w i l l r a g e t i l l e v e r y f l o w e r o f c u l t u r e i s t r a m p l e d a n d a l l h u m a n

b e i n g s a r e l e v e le d i n a v a s t c h a o s . 8 3

5 . Criticism of the F ascist Policy Toward Violence

T h e F a s c i s t s , o f c o u r s e , d o no t s i m p l y e n c o u r a g e v i o l e n c e .

N o g o v e r n m e n t, F a s c i s t o r o t h e r wi s e , c a n p e r m i t l a w l e s s c o -

ercion to go a bsolutely unchecked . Such a policy would

m e a n h o p e l e s s a n a r c h y . T h e F a s c i s t s m ust h a v e s o m e w a y s o f

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 73

l i m i t i n g t h e r e i g n o f f o r c e . They claim, indeed, to have

e l i m i n a t e d " c l a s s w a r " w i t h i n t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s , a n d t o

have prevented violent revolution throughout Europe .

" A d o l f H i t l e r b y h i s v i c t o r y , " d e c l a r e s R o s e n b e r g , " s a v e d

Germa ny from Com munism and the whole world from a

b l o o d y c h a o s . " 8 4 D e s p i t e s u c h a s s e rt i o n s , t h e F a s c i s t p o l i c y

i s a d i s m a l f a i l u re . I t i s w o r t h w h i l e t o e n u m e r a t e t h e r e a -

s o n s w h y F a s c i s m o f f e r s n o r e a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f

v i o l e n c e .

1 . T h e F a s c i s t s h a v e r o m a n t i c i z e d v i o l e n c e , a n d h a v e t h u s

m a d e i t a t t r a c t i v e . " D e m o c r a c y h a s d e s t r o y e d t h e ` s t y l e ' o f

t h e I t a l i a n p e o p l e , " M u s s o l i n i h a s de c l a r e d , b u t F a s c i s m r e -

s t o r e s " t h e c h a r a c t e r , t h e c o l o u r , t h e f o r c e , t h e p i c t u r e s q u e ,

the unexpected, the mystic." This return of gla mour is

a c h i e v e d b y p l a y i n g o n a l l t h e st r i n g s , i n c l u d i n g v i o l e n c e . 8 5

M i l i t a r i s m , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s b e e n a l m o s t c o n s t a n t l y o n

p a r a d e . M a r t i a l e n t h u s i a s m h a s b e e n k i n d l e d i n t h e y o u n g

b y d ri l l, s o ng , a n d f a bl e ; t h e m i l i t a r y h e r oe s o f t h e p a s t a n d

p r e s e n t h a v e b e e n o s t e n t a t i o u s l y h o n o r e d .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e g r i m r e a l i t i e s o f m o d e r n w a r f a r e a r e

u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r o m a n t i c i l l u s i o n s b r e d b y t h e s e

methods . "War," as Robert Bridges declares, "has fallen

from a trumpeting, vain glory to a crying shame ." What

c o u n t s i n a c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t s i s n o t s o m u c h h e r o i s m a s t h e

s o u l l e s s , m e c h a n i z e d e f f i c i e n c y o f l e t h a l i n s t r u m e n t s . The

world's foremost authority on military methods, Captain

L i d d e l l H a r t , h a s w r i t t e n :

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e W a r i n S p a i n i s s y m p t o m a t i c o f t h e

g e n e r a l t r e n d o f m o d e r n w a r f a r e . T h i s s e r v e s t o b lo w a w a y s e n t i -

m e n t a l v a p o u r i n gs a b o u t t h e h e r oi c v i r t u e s o f w a r , u t i l i s e d b y

m i l i t a r i s t i c n a t i o n s i n g en e r a t i n g a w a r l i k e s p i r i t a m o n g t he i r

p e o p l e . I t c a n n o l o n g e r be c l a i m e d t h a t w a r i s , i n c o m m o n se n s e,

a n y t e s t o f a p e o p l e ' s f i t n e s s . O r e v e n o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h .

T h e m o s t v i r i l e a n d u n i t e d p e o p l e w o u l d n o t b e a b l e t o w i t h -

s t a n d a n o t he r , o r e v e n a m e r e p a r t y , i n f e r i o r t o i t i n a l l n a t u r a l

q u a l i t i e s i f t h e l a t te r h a d s o m e de c i s i v e l y s u p e r i o r t e c h n i c a l a p -

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 17 5

r a r i l y a v e r t c l a s s c o n f l i c t , b u t t h e f i n a l r e s u lt i s t o i n c r e a s e

a n d i n t e n s i f y v i o l e n c e .

3 .T h e F a s c i s t s r e f u s e t o e m p l o y t h e m e t h o d s o f p e r s u a -

s i o n , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y m u s t f a l l b a c k u p o n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e

o f f o r c e . I n t e r n a t i o na l c o n f l i c t s c a n o n l y b e p e a c e f u l l y a d j u -

d i c a t e d i f n a t i o n s s u bm i t t o t h e m e t h o ds o f l a w a n d n e g o t i a -

t i o n ; y e t t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s h a v e n o t b e e n a l t o g e t h e r

t r u e t o t he i r w o r d , a n d t h e F a s c i s t p o w e r s h a v e b e e n t ea r i n g

u p o n e t r e a t y a f t e r a n o t h e r . T h e y h a v e b r o k e n p a s t p l e d g e s ,

a n d r e j e c t t h e m e a n s t o r e a c h n e w , a m i c a b l e a g r e e m e n t s . A s

a r e s u lt , t h e i n st i t u t i o n s o f c o n c i l i a t i o n c r u m b le : w a r f o l-

l o w s w a r - i n E t h i o p i a , S p a i n , C h i n a . . . .

E v e n i n i t s d o m e s t i c p o l i c y , F a s c i s m r e j e c t s c o n c i l i a t o r y

methods : p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n i s s u p p r e s s e d a n d p a r l i a m e n -

t a r y g o v e r n m e n t i s a b o l i s h e d . T h i s r e f u s a l t o s ub m i t t o d i s -

c u s s i o n i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e r e v o l t a g a i n s t r e a s o n .

V i o l e n c e i s i n e v i t a b l e w h e n m e n t h i n k l i k e I t a l o B a l b o , w h o

w r i t e s i n h i s d i a r y :

H o w c a n o n e r e c o n c i l e t h e t he o r y o f v i o l e n c e w i t h l i b e r a l p r i n -

c i p l e s ? A n d a b o v e a l l , ho w c a n o n e p r a c t i c e v i o l e n c e a n d p r e a c h

r e s p e c t f o r a l l o p i n i o n s ? T h e t r u t h i s o n e . W h o b e l i e v e s th a t h e

p o s s e s se s i t m u s t d e f e n d i t w i t h h i s l i f e . A n d w h o e v e r d o e s n o t

b e l i e v e t h a t h e p o s s e s se s t h e t r u t h i n h i m s e l f , a b s o l u t e a n d

u n i q u e , c a n n o t be a F a s c i s t , t h a t i s t o s a y , b e c o n t e m p t u o u s o f

d e a t h . I a m s o s u r e o f d w e l l i n g i n t h e t r u t h t h a t I c a n n o t u n d e r -

s t a n d h o w i t i s p o s s i b l e n o t t o b e a F a s c i s t . W h e n I s p e a k i n p u b -

l i c I m a k e n o e f f o r t w h a t ev e r . I t i s a s t h o ug h I w e r e s p e a k i n g t o

m y s e l f . . . . I t a p p e a r s t o m e a b s u r d t ha t o t h e r s d o n o t t h i n k l i k e

m e . 8 7

W h e n m e n r e a c h t h i s d e g r e e o f d o g m a t i s m , t h e y a r e n o t s u b -

j e c t t o p e r s u a s i o n , a n d i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y c a n p e r s u a d e

o t h e r s . Y e t p e r s u a s i o n i s t h e o n l y r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o f o r c e .

T h e r e i s c o n s e q u e n t l y a s i n i s t e r i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e r e m a r k

of Alfred Rosenberg : "Only a Socrates could preach the

i n s a n e d o c t r i n e t h a t v i r t u e c a n b e t a u g h t , b e t a u g h t t o a l l

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176 NO COMPROMISEhuma n beings . " 8 8 I f v i r t ue cannot b e t a u g h t, i f m e n ' s m i n d s

a r e i n s u l a t e d a g a i n s t p e r s u a s i o n , t h e r e i s n o c h a n c e t o p r e -

v e n t t h e v i o l e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f m i l l i o n s a n d m i l l i o n s o f

huma n beings .

4 . The Fa scists have repressed social conflicts, and in so

doing have merely agg ravated the problem of averting strife .

T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c w a y s o f d e a l i n g w i t h v i o l e n c e . O n e i s t o

r e m o v e t h e p o v e r t y , i n j u s t i c e , a n d c l a s h o f m a j o r i n t e r e s t s

w h i c h i m p e l m e n t o f i g h t ; t h i s i s t h e m e t h o d of e s t a b l i s h i n g

genuine social harmony . I t m e a n s n o t h i n g s h o r t o f a p r o -

f o u n d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i e t y - t h e e v e n t u a l a b o l i t i o n o f

e x p l o i t a t i o n ; b u t i t i s t h e o n l y r e a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m .

The other way is ruthlessly to suppress those movements

w h i c h t h r e a t e n t h e r e g i m e o f p r i v i l e g e ; t h i s i s t h e m e t h o d

o f r e p r e s s i o n , a n d i s n o s o lu t i o n a t a l l . A p o w e r f u l di c t a t o r -

s h i p m a y e s t a b l i s h " o rd e r " by s u c h a p o l i c y , b u t t h e e f f e c t i s

c e r t a i n l y n o t t o a c h i e v e a r e a l h a r m o n y . R e p r e s s i o n s i m p l y

d r i v e s t h e c o n f l i c t u n d e r gr o u n d , w h e re t h e f o r c e s o f o p p o s i -

tion slowly ga ther force for a more violent and deadly

s t r u g g l e .

T h e F a s c i s t s e m p l o y t h e m e t h o d o f r e p r e s s i o n . They have

i m m e n s e l y s t r e n g t he n e d t h e c o e r c i v e p o w e r o f t h e S t a t e , a n d

h a v e v i o l e n t ly s u p p r e s s e d c i v i l l i b e r t y , p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n ,

and autonomous labor unionism . B u t i t i s n o t a l w a y s r e c o g -

n i z e d t h a t t h e f a m o u s " C o r p o r a t e S t a t e " r e p r e s e n t s n o t h -

i n g b u t r e p r e s s i o n . The corporative system has been de-

s c r i b e d i n t h e m o s t f e t c h i n g t e r m s . T h e l e a d e r o f t h e B r i t i s h

U n i o n o f F a s c i s t s , S i r O s w a l d M o s l e y , p a i n t s t h i s a t t ra c t i v e

p i c t u re :

C l a s s w a r w i l l b e e l i m i n a t e d b y p e r m a n e nt m a c h i n e r y o f g o v -

e r n m e n t f o r r e c o n c i l i n g t h e c l a s h o f c l a s s i n t e r e s t s i n a n e q u i -

t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p r o c e e d s o f i n d u s t r y . W a g e q u e s t i o n s

w i l l n o t b e l e f t t o t h e d o g f i g h t o f c l a s s w a r , b u t w i l l b e s e t t l e d

b y i m p a r t i a l a r b i t r a t i o n of S t a t e m a c h i n e r y ; e x i s t i n g o r ga n i z a -

t i o n s s u c h a s t r a d e u n i o n s a n d e m p l o y e r s ' f e d e r a t i o n s w i l l b e

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1 7 8 NO COMPROMISEc h i n e . T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s b e l i e t h e F a s c i s t s ' b o a s t t h a t t h e y

a r e p r e v e n ti n g r e v o l u t i o n . T h e t r u t h i s t h a t t h ey a r e m a k -

i n g r e v o l u t i o n i n e v i t a b l e . R e v o l u t i o n b r e a k s o u t w h en t h e r e

h a s b e e n a n i n t o l e r a b l e p i l i n g u p o f c u l t u r a l l a g s , b e c a u s e

o f t h e t y r a n n i c a l i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e e st a b l i s h e d o rd e r . T h e r e

h a s n e v e r b e e n a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n w h e r e t h e r e h a s b e e n n o

t y r a n n y . T h e r e w a s t y r a n n y i n E n g l a n d b e f o r e t h e r e v o l t o f

C r o m w e l l , t h e r e w a s t y r a n n y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e f o r e

t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n , t h e re w a s t y r a n n y i n F r a n c e b e -

f o r e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , a n d t h e r e w a s t y r a n n y i n R u s -

s i a b e f o r e t h e r ev o l u t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t s . T h e m o s t c e r t a i n

w a y t o p r e c i p i t a t e a v i o l e n t re v o l u ti o n i s t o i n t e ns i f y F a s c i s t

r e p r e s s i o n . W h e n t h e p o o r a n d d o w n t r o d d e n a r e d e n i e d a l l

d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s a n d c i v i l l i b e r ti e s , t h e s p e c t e r o f r e v o l u -

t i o n b e g i n s t o h a u n t t h e l a n d o f t h e t y r a n t s . We have not

y e t s e e n a n y o f t h e g r e a t F a s c i s t p o w e r s c r a s h a m i d t h e d e s -

p e r a t e r e v o l t o f t h e m a s s e s , b u t w h e n t h e t i m e c o m e s , w e

s h a l l w i t n e s s a f i e r c e a n d t r e m e n d o us s t r u g g l e . T y r a n n y c a n

p o s t p o n e t h e c o n f l i c t , b u t t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e p r e s si o n , t h e

m o r e t er r i f i c w i l l b e t he f i n a l e x p l o s i o n . The continued

s p r e a d o f F a s c i s m a n d t h e f a l l o f t h e r e m a i n i n g d e m o c r a c i e s

w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y f o r c e u p o n t h e w o r l d t h e m o s t b i t t e r a n d

b l o o d y w a r o f l i b e r a t i o n t h a t t h i s e a r t h h a s e v e r e x p e -

r i e n c e d .

W e w h o l i v e i n t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s , a n d w h o w i s h

t o a c h i e v e j u s t i c e w i t h a m i n i m u m o f v i o l e n c e , s h o u l d d o

e v e r y t h i n g i n o u r p o w e r t o k e e p o p e n t h e c h a n n e l s o f p e a c e -

f u l r e f o r m . W e s h o u ld s e e to i t t h a t c i v i l r i g h t s a r e j e a l o u s l y

g u a r d e d a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o w o u l d e i t h e r d e s tr o y o r d i s t o r t

t h e m i n t h e i n t er e s t s o f s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e . W e s h o u ld p r o t e c t

a n d e x t e n d a l l t h e t ra d i t i o n a l l i b e r t i e s o f a d e m o c r a t i c p e o -

p l e : f r e e d o m o f t h o u g h t , f r e e d o m i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f b e l i e f ,

f r e e d o m o f a s s e m b l y , u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , a n d u n i v e r s a l f r e e

e d u c a t i o n . We should unswervingly m ainta in the right

p e a c e f u l l y t o s t ri k e a n d t o p i c k e t , a n d t h e r i g h t o f w o r k e r s

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18o NO COMPROMISEI t a l y , a n d J a p a n h a v e a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d a g r e a t d e a l o f n e w

t e r r i t o r y .

The argument has a number of fatal defects . F i r s t , t he

a d v a n t a g e s t o b e g a i n e d f r o m t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f c o l o n i e s a r e

n o t s o g r e a t a s m i g h t b e s u p p o s e d . I t a l y i s f i n d i n g E t h i o p i a ,

m u c h o f w h i c h i s s t i l l u n su b d u e d, a n e x t r e m e l y c o s t l y a c q u i -

s i t i o n , a n d h a s n o t p r o f i t e d g r e a t l y f r o m h e r o t h e r A f r i c a n

p o s s e s s i o n s . Jap an's control of the immense area of Man-

c h u k u o h a s n o t r e d u c e d t h e t e r r i b l e p o v e r ty o f t h e J a p a n e s e

peasant and proletariat, nor forestalled a new and very

c o s t l y w a r o f c o n q u e s t . The government of the Reich de-

c l a r e s t h a t t h e w e l f a r e o f G e r m a n y n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e r e t u r n

o f h e r f o r m e r c o l o n i e s ; but the rema rkable prewar ex pa n-

sion of German industry did not depend upon these col-

o n i e s :

A s t o m a r k e t s : I n t he y e a r s p r e c e d i n g th e wa r , G e r m a n y ' s i m -

p o r t s a m o u n t e d t o $ 2 , ' 7 5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , o f w h i c h t h e G e r m a n c o l o -

n i e s c o n t r i b u t e d l e s s t h a n $ 1 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 o r a b o u t o n e h a l f o f 1% .

O f G e r m a n y ' s e x p o r t s , t h e c o l o n i e s c o n s u m e d s e v e n t e n t h s o f

i% . A s t o e m i g r a t i o n : W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f p a r t s o f f o r m e r

G e r m a n E a s t A f r i c a , t h e R e i c h ' s f o r m e r A f r i c a n p o s s es s i o n s a r e

n o t s u i t e d f o r w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t . F u r t h e rm o r e , a t t h e o u t b re a k

o f t h e W o r l d W a r , o n l y 2 3 , 0 0 0 G e r m a n s w e r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u gh -

o u t a l l o f G e r m a n y ' s c o l o n i e s . s4

I m p e r i a l i s t i c i n t e r e s t s u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s m a y g a i n

by conquest, but the common people seldom if ever gain .

T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f e m p i r e h a v e b e e n g r o s s l y e x a g g e r a t e d .

T h e e c o n o m i c p l i g h t o f t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s i s p r i m a r i l y

the result of tremendous expenditure for armaments, in-

t e n se c a p i t a l i s t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n , a n d f e v e r i s h e c o n o m i c n a t i o n -

alism which strangles world trade . Genuine welfare a nd

p r o s p e r i t y a r e n o t t o b e a c h i e v e d b y t h e s e m e t h o d s , a n d a r e

n o t d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s f o r w h i c h t h e F a s -

c i s t s y e a r n . A s N o r m a n A n g e l l p o i n t s o u t :

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 181

It is a suggestive fact that some of the most p rosperous States

of the world-those, that is, which have evolved the highest stand-

ard of living and of civilization-are a mong the least self-suffi-

c i e n t ; while those a bounding in natural resources, like some of

the Central and South American nations, ha ve an extremely low

standa rd of living and an unstable civilization . C o m p a r e the

standard of living and civilization in the Swiss Republic, one of

the least self-sufficient States of the world, with the standa rd of

certain South American republics, which have im mea surably

greater resources and com e very m uch nearer to com plete self-

s u f f i c i e n c y . Compa re the standard in the Scandinavian and Bal-

tic nations-Norway , Sweden, Denma rk, Finland-with that of

some of their larger and more powerful neighbors . These coun-

tries are deficient in some of the m ost vital of m aterials ; t h e i r

soil is in large part poor . Yet they do not feverishl y build up

their military power, nor m ake threatening demands for "out-

lets"-and do not seem to need them . They clamor for no "place

in the sun," but they are prosp erous, highly civilized and stable . 9 5

The policie s of these democra tic countries, which cultivate

international good will a nd organize cooperative enterprises,

are surely more sensible than those of the Fa scist powers,

which comp lain of overpop ulation and ina dequate resources,

yet do everything p ossible to stimulate the birth rate a nd

alm ost nothing to elimina te poverty .

Second, the staggering burden of prepa ring for war, the

terrific economic stra in of fina ncing it, a nd the frightful suf-

fering involved in waging it are a heavy price to pa y for

whatever gains can be achieved by these methods . The wars

in Ethiopia, Spa in, and China have proved to be tremen-

dous drains upon the a ggressors, and a s yet the opp osing

forces are by no mea ns subdued . The policy of m ilitaristic

imp erialism ca n hardly fa il eventually to p rovoke a new

world war, just as the War of 1914 was caused by imp erialis-

tic rivalry and the accomp any ing arms race . 9 6 Unq uestion-

ably the problem of equitably a llocating territory and nat-

ural r esources is a serious one, but it ca n only be solved by

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182 NO COMPROMISEt h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t h e

c u r b i n g o f i m p e r i a l i s t i c g r e e d . T h e w a y o f p e a c e f u l c o o p e r a -

t i o n ha s n e ve r be e n t r i e d ; s u r e l y i t c o u l d n o t p r o v e m or e

o f a f i a s c o t h a n t h e o p p o s i t e m e t h o d .

T h i r d , t h e a r g u m e n t i s b a s e d u p o n a n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e

i m p e r i a l i s t i c s c h e m e of t h i n g s . I t i s a s s u me d t ha t c e r t a i n

r a c e s s h o u l d e x p l o i t o t h e r s . T h e t r o u b l e w i t h t h i s a s s u m p -

t i o n i s t h a t i t i n v o l v e s f a r t o o li t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e

" h a v e - n o t s " i n t h e s u b j u g a t e d c o u n t r i e s . W h e n th e I t a l i a n

g o v e rn m e n t br i n g s c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e E t h i o p i a n s b y d r o p -

p i n g b o m b s a n d s p r e a d i n g p o i s o n g a s , i t i s v e r y q u e s t i o n a b l e

i f e v e n t h e s u r v i v i n g n a t i v e s a r e t h e g a i n e r s . B y i m p l i c a t i o n ,

t h e a r g u m en t e x c u s e s t h e i m p e r i a l i s m o f G r e a t B r i t a i n , t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t i c p o w e r s , y e t e v e r y i n -

f o r m e d p e r s o n k n o w s t h a t s u c h i m p e r i a l i s m h a s i n v o l v e d

f r i g h t f u l a b u s es . A n d r e G i d e ' s Travels in the Congo c o n -

t a i n s a r e c o r d ( w h i c h m a y b e d up l i c a t e d f r o m m a n y s o u rc e s )

o f t h e t e r ri b l e b r ut a l i t y p r a c t i c e d b y " d e m oc r a t i c " i m p e r i a l -

i s m . T h e F a s c i s t s , w i t h t h ei r r a c i a l c h a u v i n i s m a n d d i c t a -

t o r i a l r u l e , a r e n o t a p t t o i m p r o v e u p o n t h e p a s t . N o r i s i t

l i k e l y t h a t t h e s u b j e c t p e o p l e s w i l l r e m a i n p a s s i v e u n d e r

i m p e r i a l i s t i c d i c t a t o r sh i p s . A l r e a d y t h e r ev o l t o f t h e " ba c k -

w a r d r a c e s , " a s i n I n d i a a n d C h i n a , i s g a t h e r i n g f o r c e , a n d

t h e r e w i l l b e m a j o r a n d p r o t r a c t e d s t r u g g l e s .

F o u r t h , t h e F a s c i s t s a r e u n w i l l i n g t o f o l l o w ou t t h e i r

a r g um e nt t o i t s lo g i c a l c o n c lu s i on . T h e i r c o n t en t i o n i s b a s e d

u p o n t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t h e " h a v e s " s h o u l d d i v i d e w i t h t h e

" h a v e - n o t s . " B u t i f t h i s p r i n c i p l e w er e t a k e n s e ri o u s l y i t

w o u l d me a n a p r o f o u n d s oc i a l r e v o l u t i o n w hi c h t h e F a s c i s t s

w o u l d b e t he f i r s t t o r e j e c t . Those who r e a l l y l a c k a r e t he

p o o r i n e v e r y c o u n t r y . Y e t M u s s o l i n i , H i t l e r, a n d t h e J a p a -

n e s e m i l i t a r i s t s h a v e n o i n t e n t i o n o f f o r c i n g t h e r i c h p e o p l e

t o d i v i d e t h e i r we a l t h a m o ng t he p o o r . T h e y h a v e n o t h i n g

b u t a b u s e t o h e a p u p o n t h e genuine S o c i a l i s t s w h o b el i e v e

i n a b a s i c r e d i s t ri b u t i o n o f w e a l t h a n d a d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n

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FORCE OR CONSENT? 1 8 3

o f i n d u s t ry . A p p a r e n tl y t h e " h a v e - n o t s" w h i c h t h e F a s c i s t s

w i s h t o a i d a r e t he " p o o r " m i l l i o n a i r e s i n G e r m a n y , I t a l y ,

a n d J a p a n , a n d n o t th e p o o r w o rk e r s w h o f i g h t t h e w a r s a n d

p a y f o r t h e m .

F i f t h , g r e a t n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s w i l l n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e t t e r

a c o u n t r y s o l o n g a s i t i s b a d l y g o v e r n e d . C z a r i s t R u ss i a w a s

n e a r l y t h e r i c h e s t c o u n t r y i n t h e w o r ld i n n a t u r a l w e a l t h ,

b u t a l m o s t t h e p o o r es t i n s o c i a l w e l f a r e a n d l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s .

C h i n a h a s u n e x a m p l e d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , b u t no c o u n t r y h a s

h a d m o r e p o v e r t y . S p a i n i s t h e r i c h e s t c o u n t r y o f W e s t e rn

E u r o p e i n u n d e v e l o p e d r e s o u r c e s a n d o n c e p o s s e s s e d m a n y

c o l o n i e s , b u t t h i s h a s n o t p r e v e n t ed t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e f r o m

r e m a i n i n g p o o r a n d d r e a d f u l l y o p p r e s s e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f

c e n t u r i e s . M a n y p e o p l e w o u l d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r u l e o f

t h e F a s c i s t s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y e n l i g h t e n ed t o m a k e a n y b e t t e r us e

o f n e w t e r r i t o r y a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . U n t i l t h ey c h a n g e

t h e i r ta c t i c s , w h a t m o ra l c l a i m c a n t h e y a d v a n c e f o r a l a r g e r

s h a r e o f t h e e a r t h ? C a n s u c h a q u e s t i o n b e r e so l v e d b y t h e

a r b i t r a m e n t o f f o r c e ? D o e s no t a n a t i o n , b y w a g i n g a n a g -

g r e s s i v e w a r , r e l i n q u i s h w h a t e v e r m o r a l r i g h t t o e x p a n d s h e

m i g h t o t h e r w i s e p o s s e s s ?

S u r e l y i t i s b e t t e r to r e n o u nc e t h e e n t i r e s i c k e n i n g b u s i -

n e s s of i m p e r i a l i s t i c a g g r a n d i z e m e n t a n d w a r s of c o n q u e st .

T h e p r o b le m o f a c h i e v i n g l a s t i n g p e a c e c a n n o t b e r e so l v e d

b y v i n d i c t i v e n e s s o n t he s i d e e i t h e r o f t h e F a s c i s t s o r o f t h e

a n t i - F a s c i s t s . I t i s h i g h t i m e t o t r y a n e w m e t h o d .

Any new settlem ent, however, should be within the

f r a m e w o r k o f a g e n e ra l E u r o p e a n o r W o r l d p a c t , a n d s h ou l d

n o t b e a t t h e c o st o f s a c r i f i c i n g i s o l a t e d d e m o c r a t i c n a t i o n s ,

a s S p a i n a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k i a h a v e b e e n s a c r i f i c e d , t o t h e

m e r c y o f F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s a n d wa r m a k e r s . U l t i m a t e l y , w a r c a n

b e e n d e d o n l y b y i n t e r na t i o n a l e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n

w h i c h w i l l s e c u r e t o a l l p e o p l e s a b e tt e r w a y o f l i f e t h a n d i c -

t a t o r s h i p a n d i m p e r i a l i s t i c a g g r e s s i o n c a n p o s s i b l y o bt a i n .

N o t o n l y t h e F a s c i s t s , b u t a l l t h e p e o p l e o f t h e e a r t h ,

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184 NO COMPROMISEshould ponder the words of a b r a ve German poet, E rnst

Wiechert, whose moving appeal to the youth of Germanyhas been suppressed by the Nazi Government :

. . . It ma y well be that a nation ceases to distinguish between

right and wrong a nd that it considers every battle to be right .

Such a peop le, however, stands already on the level of heavy

decline and its doom is alrea dy sealed . It ma y still win gladia-

torial renown and set up in fits a sort of ethics which we may call

"boxer's ethics," but for such a p eople the sca les are a lready

weighted and on every wa ll ap pea rs the hand which writes with

l e t t e r s o f f i r e . 9 7

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VITHE THEORY OF THE ELITE

S o c r a t e s su m m e d u p h i s w i s d o m i n t h e p h r a s e , " B e i n t e l l i g e n t ; act

c r i t i c a l l y ." And Jesus, likewise pondering on huma n action, sa id to his

followers, "Be kind ."-ALEXANDER MEIKLEJOHN 1

i . A r i s t o c r a c y , D e m o c r a c y , T i m o c r a c y

THE s p e l l o f t h e m y t h a n d t h e f o r c e o f a r m s b r o u g h t t h e

F a s c i s t s to p o w e r , a n d s uc h s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n a s t h e y r e c e i v e

i s d og m a t i c a n d mi l i t a r i s t i c i n c h a r a c t e r . L i k e t h e r u l i n g

c l a s s o f a n c i e n t S p a r t a , t h e n e w " l e a d e r s" a r e m e n w h o ex -

h i b i t t h e s o ld i e r ' s c a s t o f m i n d . W e c a n a c c o r d i n g l y d i s -

t i n g u i s h m e m b e r s o f t h i s e l i t e n o t o n l y f r o m t h e d e m o c r a t s

b u t a l s o f r o m t r u e i n t e l l e c t u a l a r i s t o c r a t s . T h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y

o f t h e e l i t e w i l l b e m o r e i n t e l l i g i b l e i f w e c o n t r a s t i t w i t h

t h e s e a l t e rn a t i v e i d e a l s .

T h e b a s i c t h e o r y o f a r i s t o c r a c y w a s e x p r e s s e d m o r e t ha n

t w o t h ou s a n d y e a r s a g o b y S o c r a t e s . L i v i n g i n a p e r i o d o f

s o c i a l c r i s i s a n d t r a n s i t i o n , h e c o n t e n de d t h a t t h e b u s i n e ss o f

m a n i s n o t bl i n d l y t o f o l l o w c u s t o m b ut c r i t i c a l l y t o p u r s u e

t h e g o o d . H i s p o l i t i c a l t h e s i s wa s s i m p l e b u t c o n v i n c i n g :

t h o s e w h o know s h o u l d g o v e r n . I n a d v o c a t i ng " a r i s t oc r a c y , "

h e e m p l o y e d t h e t e r m i n i t s o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g - " g o v e r n m e n t

b y t h e b e s t . " H e m e a n t b y i t t h e r u l e o f t h e w i s e .

P l a t o d e v e l o p s t he S o c r a t i c i d e a l o f g o v e r n m e n t . T r u e j u s -

t i c e , h e c o n t e n d s , m u s t n ot b e c o n f u s e d w i t h e q u a l i t y . A

j u s t s o c i a l o r d e r i s o n e w h i c h w o r k s b e s t ; i t r e q u i r e s t h e

r i g h t a l l o c a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e o f f u n c t i o n . Men m ust be

t r a i n e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a t i o n s a n d s up p l i e d wi t h t a s k s

i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h th e i r c a p a c i t i e s . A l t h o u g h s k i l l i s n e e d e d

i n e v e r y s p h e r e o f l i f e , t h e e x p e r t m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e S t a t e

i s m o st es s en t i a l . T h i s i s t h e a r t o f a r t s : i t r e q u i r e s b o t h

m o r a l a n d t e c h n i c a l w i s d o m , a m e t i c u l o u s g r a s p o f d e t a i l s ,

185

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IN NO COMPROMISEa n d a m a g i s t e ri a l v i s i o n o f e nd s . S t a t e s m e n s h o ul d t h e re f o r e

b e m e n o f r a r e g i f t s a n d i n t e n s i v e e d u c a t i o n . T h e y s h o u l d

b e s e l ec t e d b y r i g o r o u s t e st s , a n d a d m i t t e d t o o f f i c e o n l y a f t e r

t h e y h a v e w o n h o n or s i n a n e l a b o r a t e s c h o o l i n g . T h e s e m e n

a r e t h e t r u e a r i s t o c r a t s - t h e p h i l o s o p h e r - k i n g s - w h o c a n

a l o n e b e sa f e l y e n t r us t e d wi t h a f f a i r s o f S t a t e . T h e r e c a n b e

n o r e s t f r o m s o c i a l t u r m o i l , n o e n d t o r e v o l ut i o n s a n d p o l i t i -

c a l s c a n d a l s , u n t i l m e n o f t h i s c a l i b e r a r e e l e v a t e d t o p o w er .

S o c r a t e s a n d P l a t o h a v e e n u nc i a t e d o n e of t h e p e r e n n i a l

i d e a l s o f h u m a n l i f e . Y e t i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a r i s t oc r a t i c

i d e a l - g o v e r n m e nt b y t h e b e s t - i s n o t s o e a s i l y r e a l i z e d i n

p r a c t i c e . W h o a r e t h e b es t , a n d w h a t c r i t e r i a s h a l l w e u s e

t o s e l e c t t h e m ? I s t h e r e a n y w a y t o f i n d o u t t h e be s t s o l o n g

a s s o m e p e o p l e a r e v e r y p o o r a n d s o m e a r e v e r y r i c h , s o

l o n g a s s o m e p e o p l e a r e f r e e a n d o t h e r s a r e e n s l a v e d ? I f a n

i n d i v i d u a l o r a g r o up o r a r a c e i s really s u p e r i o r , i t n e e d s o n l y

e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o v e i t s s u p e r i o ri t y . W i d e , a r t i f i -

c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l s wi t h i n t h e S t a t e p r e v e n t t h e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n

o f t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d , a n d h e n c e t h e e x h i b i t i o n a n d b e s t

u s e o f t a l e n t . E v e n i f a s y s t e m o f p r i v i l e g e d o e s so m e h o w

p r o c u r e t h e r u l e o f w i s e m e n , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e i f t h i s w i s -

d o m w i l l b e e x e r c i s e d f o r t h e g e n e r a l g o o d . T h e " a r i s t o c r a t s "

m a y t h i n k t h a t t h e y w i l l g i v e t h e c o m m o n m a n w h a t i s g o o d

f o r h i m , b u t t h e re i s v e r y l i t t l e e v i d e n c e i n h i s t o r y t o s u p -

p o r t t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n . T h e r u l e o f a m i n o r i t y h a s a l w a y s

b e e n r u l e for a m i n o r i t y . A s L a s k i h a s s a i d , " e x c l u s i o n f r o m

a s h a r e i n p o w e r i s a l s o e x c l u s i o n f r o m a s h a r e i n b e n e f i t . " 2

J u s t a s a r i s t oc r a c y e m p h a s i z e s m e n ' s d i f f e r e n c e s , s o d e m o c -

r a c y e m p h a s i z e s m e n ' s s i m i l a r i t i e s . The democrat need not

a f f i r m t h e o b v i o u sl y f a l s e p r o p o s i t i o n t ha t m e n a r e e q u a l

i n a l l a b i l i t i e s . H e d o e s i n s i s t , h o w e v e r , u p o n a c e r t a i n e q u a l -

i t y o f r i g h t s ; h e c o n t e nd s t h a t t h er e a r e c e r t a i n c l a i m s , l i b e r -

t i e s , a n d p r i v i l e g e s t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f w h i c h b y t h e a v e r a g e

m a n i s e s se n ti a l t o t he r ea l i z a t i o n o f h i s we l f a r e . I f g o o d b e

t h e c r i t e r i o n o f a c t i o n , e v e r y m a n h a s a r i g h t , w i t h d u e r e -

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 187

g a r d t o t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s , t o a c h i e v e h i s o w n w e l f a r e ;

a n d t h i s r i g h t i n v o l v e s a f a i r a n d e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s e l f -

r e a l i z a t i o n a n d h a p p i n e s s . T h e i n s i s t e n c e u p o n s u c h e q u a l -

i t y o f r i g h t s, a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f a c o m -

m o n h u m a n i t y , a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c a p p r o a c h

t o p o l i t i c s .

P e r h a p s t h e m o r a l e s s e n c e o f d e m o c r a c y m a y b e s u m m e d

u p i n t w o p r i n c i p l e s o f K a n t . F i r s t , ev e r y m a n i s a n e n d i n

h i m s e l f ; n o m a n i s a m e r e t o ol , t o b e ex p l o i t e d f o r th e b en e -

f it of others . I t i s i m m o r a l f o r a l e i s u r e c l a s s t o l i v e o f f t h e

s w ea t o f t he w or k e rs . S e c o n d , e v e r y m a n s h o u l d b e b o t h s u b -

j e c t a n d s o v er e i g n . A s s u b j e c t , h e m u s t e x h i b i t m o r a l r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y ; a s o c i a l r e t u rn i s t o b e d e m a n d e d o f a l l ; t h e r e

a r e t o b e n o p a r a s i t e s . A s s o v e r e i g n , h e s h o u l d h a v e a m e a s -

u r e o f f r e e d o m , a r i g h t to d e v e l op a n d e x e r c i s e h i s i n d i v i d -

u a l i t y , a r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e c o m -

munity .

Two other principles of Kant are fundam ental to the

d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l . " A l l a c t i o n s , " h e d e c l a r e s , " r e la t i n g t o t h e

r i g h t s o f o t h e r m e n a r e w r o n g , i f t h e m a x i m s f r o m w h i c h

t h e y f o l l o w a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p u b l i c i t y [ i . e . , p u b l i c e n -

l i g h t e n m e n t a n d n o t m e r e p r o p a g a n d a ] . " H e a l s o s t a t e s t he

c o n v e r s e : " A l l m a x i m s w h i c h r e q u i r e p u b l i c i t y , i n o r d e r

t h a t t h e y m a y n o t f a i l t o a t t a i n t h ei r e n d , a r e i n a g r e e m e n t

b o t h w i t h r i g h t a n d p o l i t i c s . " 3 K a n t t h u s m a k e s " p i t i l e s s

p u b l i c i t y " t h e t e st o f f a i r d ea l i n g . P r a c t i c e s t h a t c a n n o t st a n d

t h e l i g h t o f d a y , t h a t r e q u i r e s e c r e c y , d o u b l e - d e a l i n g , a n d

f a l s e h o o d, a r e i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y u n j u st a n d i m m o r a l . O n t h e

o t h er h a n d , p r a c t i c e s t h a t do d e m a n d t h e l i g h t , t h a t d e p e n d

u p o n o p e n d e a l i n g a n d i n f o r m e d p u b li c o p i n i o n , a r e i n a l l

l i k e l i h o o d f a i r a n d r i g h t . K a n t ' s r e c og n i ti o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l

a n d m o r a l v a l u e o f " p u b l i c i t y " i s e sp e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r

our own a ge . M y t h s , c h i c a n e r y , a n d d e c e i t f u l p r o p a g a n d a

h a v e b e c o m e t h e s ta p l e o f p o l i t i c s ; u n d e r F a s c i s m , e v e r y o r -

g a n o f o p i n i o n i s k e p t . E v e n i f p u b l i c s u p p o r t i s g a i n e d b y

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1 8 8 NO COMPROMISEs u c h m e t h o ds , t h e e f f e c t i s n o t t o c r e a t e a j u s t s o c i e t y n o r a

r e a l d e m o c r a c y .

A g a i n , w e c a n s a y t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y h a s f o r m u l a t e d t he

m o r a l b a s i s o f d e m o c r a c y . T h e i d e a l o f s h a r i n g , o f b r o t h e r -

h o o d, o f k i n d l i n e s s- t h e i d e a l o f a u n i v e r sa l i t y o f r i g h t s a n d

d u t i e s - i s a n e s s e nt i a l p a r t o f C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g . N o o n e c a n

r e a d t h e B e a t i t u d e s , t h e a d v i c e t o t h e r i c h y o u n g m a n , t h e

c o m m a n d , " L o v e t h y n e i g h b o r a s t h y s e l f , " t h e i n n u m e r a b l e

e x p r e s s i o n s o f f r i e n d l i n e s s a n d c o m p a s s i o n , t h e s t o r y o f t h e

a t t a c k u p o n s c r i b e s a n d m o n e y - c h a n g e r s a n d P h a r i s e e s , w i t h -

o u t b e c o m i n g a w a r e o f a p o w e r f u l c r e e d wh i c h i s o p p o s e d t o

e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d u n j us t p r i v i l e g e . W e m u s t n o t p r e s s t h i s

i n t er p r et a t i o n t o o f a r : t h e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e i s p r i m a r i l y a

r e l i g i o u s a n d m o ra l i d e a l r a t h e r t h a n a p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o -

nomic program . Y e t t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n S o c r a t e s a n d J e s u s

i s a s i g n i f i c a n t o n e . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e i s t h e i d e a l o f

e x p e r t c o n t r ol a n d sc i e n t i f i c c r i t i c i s m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

t h e re i s t h e i d e a l o f e q u a l i t y a n d s h a r i n g . B o t h o f t h e s e

i d e a l s h a v e b e e n r e e x p r e s s e d m a n y t i m e s , a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e

t o e x e r c i s e t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e u p o n h u m a n l i f e .

N o w t h e F a s c i s t s d o n o t a c c e p t e i t h e r t h e d e m o c r a t i c o r

t h e a r i s t oc r a t i c i d e a l . W e c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t s a y t h a t t h e y

u p h o l d t h e i d e a l o f e x p e r t c o n t r o l . T h e i r " r e v o l t a g a i n s t

r e a s o n " m a k e s i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r th e m t o l a y c l a i m t o i n t e l l ec -

t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y . N e i t h e r c a n w e s a y t h a t F a s c i s m i s d e m o -

c r a t i c . I t i s t r u e t h a t M u s s o li n i h a s s a i d , " T h e g r e a t es t a n d

m o s t g e n u i n e d e m o c r a c i e s w h i c h t h e w or l d k n o w s t o d a y a r e

t h e G e r m a n a n d t h e I t a l i a n . " 4 Y e t I f a n c y t h a t n o on e i s

r e a l l y t a k e n i n b y s u c h d e c l a r a t i o n s . T h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f

t h e e l i t e r e p r e se n t s a t h i r d a l t e rn a t i v e - t h e S p a r t a n i d e a l .

I n p l a c e o f d e m o c r a c y , t h e F a s c i s t s s u b s t i t u te " t h e p r i n -

c i p l e o f l e a d e r sh i p . " I n t h e f o r m u la o f H i t l e r , t h i s m e a n s

t h a t " t h e a u t h o r i t y o f e a c h l e a d e r r e a c h e s d o w n w a r d , a n d r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y r e a c h e s u p w a r d . " sW h a t s u c h a h i e r a r c h i c a l

s y s t e m i n v o l v e s , i n c o n t r a s t t o th e p a r l i a m e n t a r y m e t h o d s o f

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 189

l i b e r a l g ov e r n m en t , i s e x p l a i n e d b y H i t l e r ' s c h i e f a i d e , G e n -

eral Herma nn Goring :

T h e di s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k o f p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n i s m , i n c o n t r a s t to

t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l e a d e r s h i p , i s t h a t a u t h o r i t y i s g i v e n f r o m b e -

l o w u p w a r d s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m a b o v e d o w n w a r d s . T h a t i s

t o s a y , i n n u m e r a b l e p a r t i e s a n d t h e i r d e le g a t e s i m p o s e t h e i r a u -

t h o r i t y o n t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s t o o b e y

them . T h e g o v e r n m e n t i s t h e r e f o r e r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e s e p a r t i e s

a n d i s t h e p l a y t h i n g o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . B u t t h e l a w s o f N a t u r e

d e m a n d t h a t a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d f r o m a b o v e d o w n -

w a r d s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m b e l o w u p w a r d s. E a c h l e a d e r h a s

a u t h o r i t y a n d h e i s s u e s h i s o r d e r s t o o f f i c i a l s a n d f o l l o w e r s be -

low him . B u t h e i s r e s p o n s i b l e on l y t o h i s s u p e r i o r s , a n d t h e

l e a d e r a t t h e t o p i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e p e o p l e a s a w h o l e a n d t o

t h e i r f u t u re . I n t h e p a s t i t h a s o n l y b e e n b y v i r t u e of t h i s p r i n -

c i p l e t h a t a n y t h i n g h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d ; o n l y b y t h i s p r i n c i p l e

c o u l d n a t i o n s a r i s e a n d h i s t o r y b e m a d e . °

G o r i n g ' s a p p e a l t o " t h e l a w s o f N a t u r e " t o j u st i f y h i s p o s i -

t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f a u t h o r i t y i s f o r h i m n o

m e r e p o l i t i c a l e x p e d i e n t , b u t a u n i v e r s a l t r u t h . S u c h , i n -

d e e d , i s t h e f o r m i n w h i c h t h e d o c t r i n e i s e x p r e s s e d i n m a n y

a F a s c i s t b o o k . I n e q u a l i t y i s t h e p l a n o f n a t u r e , a n d m a n

d o e s w e l l t o c o n f o r m t o n a t u r e ' s p a t t e r n . I n t h i s f o r m , t h e

d o c t r i n e b e c o m e s t h e b a s i s o f o r g a n i z i n g n o t o n l y g o v e r n -

m e n t a n d i n d u s t r y , b u t t h e m o r a l l i f e a s w e l l .

T h e " n e e d o f a u t h o r i t y , o f d i r e c t i o n , a n d o f o r d e r " - a s

M u s s o l i n i p h r a s e s i t - i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e a n t i r a t i o n a l b i a s

o f F a s c i s t t h e o ry . I n d e f i n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f t h e F a s -

c i s t " e l i t e , " t h e p a r t y s p o k e s m e n h a v e s t r e s s e d " h e r o i s m "

a n d t h e w i l l t o m a s t e r y r a t h e r t h a n r e a s o n . " T h e F a s c i s t S t a t e

i s a n e m b o d i e d w i l l t o p o w e r, " d e c l a r e s M u s s o l i n i , r e c a l l i n g

t h e f a m o u s p h r a s e o f N i e t z s c h e . 7 S i m i l a r l y H i t le r , i n e x p l a i n -

i n g t o h i s p a r t y f o l l o w er s w h a t h e m e a n s b y " t h e e l i t e , " c i t e s

a s e x e m p l a r y t h e h i e ra r c h i c a l s t r u c t ur e o f t h e a r m y , a n i n s t i -

t u t i o n i n w h i c h f o r c e r a t h e r t h a n r e a s o n i s i n c a r n a t e d . 8

P l a t o h a d a n a m e f o r t h i s t y p e o f g o v e r n m e n t : h e c a l l e d

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190 NO COMPROMISEi t t h e " T i m o c r a t i c S t a t e . " T h e ba s i c p r i n c i p l e of t h i s S t a t e

i s t h e r u l e o f t h e " s p i r i t e d " r a t h e r t h a n t h e r u l e o f t h e

" w i s e . " S u c h a r e g i m e i s b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t e n c e , P l a t o s a i d ,

w h e n t h e m i l i t a r y c l a s s s e i z e s c o n t r o l o f t h e g o v e r nm e n t a n d

d e v e lo p s a t y p e o f s o c i a l o r d e r w h i c h s u i t s i t s o w n n a t u r e .

2 . Portrait of the Timocratic Ma n

P l a t o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m o c r a t i c m a n i s i l l u m i n a t i n g .

W h e r e a s t h e d e m o c r a t t e n d s t o e m p h a s i z e p l e a s u r e , a n d t h e

a r i s t o c r a t t o e m p h a s i z e w i s d o m , t h e t i m o c r a t s u b o r d i n a t e s

b o t h p l e a s u r e a n d t h o u g h t t o w i l l . He has "been schooled

n o t b y g e n t l e i n f l u e n c e s b u t b y f o r c e " :

S u c h a p e r s o n i s a p t t o b e r o u g h wi t h s l a v e s , u n l i k e t h e e du -

c a t e d m a n , w h o i s t o o p r o u d f o r t h a t ; a n d h e w i l l a l s o b e . . .

r e m a r k a b l y o b e d i e n t t o a u th o r i t y ; h e i s a l o v er o f p o w er a n d a

l o v e r o f h o n o u r ; c l a i m i n g t o b e a r u l e r , n o t b e c a u s e h e i s e l o -

q u e n t , o r o n a n y g r o u n d o f t h a t s o r t , b u t b e c a u s e h e i s a s o l d i e r

a n d h a s p e r f o r m e d f e a t s o f a r m s ; h e i s a l s o a l o v e r o f g y m n a s t i c

e x e r c i s e s a n d of t h e c h a s e .

F i n a l l y " h e h a s a p i e c e o f t h e a v a r i c i o u s n a t u r e i n h i m , a n d

i s n o t s i n g l e - m i n d e d t o w a r d s v i r t u e , h a v i n g l o s t h i s b e s t

g u a r d i a n [ P h i l o s o p h y ] . " 9 W h e n a p p l i e d t o F a s c i s m , t h i s d e -

s c r i p t i o n i s n o t s o w i d e o f t h e m a r k .

T h e i d e a l F a s c i s t , l i k e t h e S p a r t a n , i s e v e r r e a d y t o s a c r i -

f i c e p l e a s ur e . Fascism wants to be "great" and "dynamic"

r a t h e r t h a n " h a p p y . " I t " d e ni e s t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e e q u a t i o n ,

w e l l - b e i n g e q u a l s h a p p i n e s s , " s a y s M u s s o l i n i , a n d d i s c o v e r s

i t s " v a l u e " i n " a w i l l t o e x i s t a n d a w i l l t o p o w e r , a f i r m

f r o n t i n t h e f a c e o f t h e re a l i t y o f ` v i o l e n c e . ' " 1 0 A n I t a l i a n

F a s c i s t h a s r em a r k e d : " T h e t r u t h i s t h a t m a n w a s n o t b o r n t o

l i v e h a p p i l y , b u t t o w or k a n d t o su f f e r . " 1 1 G e n e r a l G o r i n g ,

w h o d i r e c t s G e r m a n y ' s e c o n o m i c p l a n n i n g , l i k e w i s e p r o p o s e s

n o l i f e o f e a s e a n d c o m f o r t , b u t s t e r n s u bo r d i n a t i o n t o m i l i -

tary demands :

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 1 9 1

I c a l l o n G e r m a n w o r k e r s to b e u nt i r i n g l y b u s y i n t h e i r f a c -

t o r i e s . I k n o w I d e m a n d m u c h o f t h e m - o v e r t i m e a n d s t i l l m o r e

o v e r t i m e . B u t t h e y h e l p c r e a t e t h e s wo r d o f t h e n a t i o n , a n d t h a t

i n i t s e l f i s t h e d e ep e s t i n n e r sa t i s f a c t i o n . 1 2

T h e e l i t e , o f c o u r s e , a r e t h o s e w h o w i e l d t h e s w o r d , r a t h e r

t h a n t h o s e w h o f o r g e i t ; b u t t h e y a l s o a r e e x p e c t e d t o d i s p l a y

a S p a r t a n i n di f f e r e nc e t o m er e p l e a s u r e . A s J u l i e n B e n d a h a s

r e m a r k e d , t h e F a s c i s t p o s i t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h N i e t z s c h e ' s

p r o c l a m a t i o n i n t h e Twilight of the Gods : "Sham e on the

i g n o b l e h a p p i n e s s t h a t i s t h e d r e a m o f g r o c e r y c l e r k s , C h r i s -

t i a n s , c o w s , w o m e n , E n g l i s h m e n , a n d a l l d e m o c r a t s ! " 13

A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t i m o c r a c y i s t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f

i n t e l l e c t t o w i l l . A g a i n t h e p a r a l l e l w i t h F a s c i s m i s i n d u b i -

t a b l e . T h e n e w e l i t e a r e e x p e c t e d t o a c t , e v e n a t t h e e x p e n s e

of p rudence . Although "duty" becomes the ideal for the

subordinates, a somewhat reckless "heroism" becomes the

i d e a l f o r t h e el i t e . M u s s o l i n i , q u o t i n g N i e t z s c h e , h a s d e -

c l a r e d : " A G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r s a y s , ` O n e m u s t l e a r n t o l i v e

d a n g e r o u s l y . ' I w a n t t h i s t o b e c o m e t h e m o t t o o f t h e y o u n g

F a s c i s t P a r t y . " 1 4 S i n c e d e m o c r a t i c c h e c k s h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d ,

h e r o i s m i s f r e e t o d i s p o r t i t s e l f . T h i s i s o n e r e a s o n wh y l i f e

i s l e s s s e c u r e s i n c e F a s c i s m h a s g a i n e d t h e a s c e n d a n c y .

L i k e t h e t i m o c r a t , t h e i d e a l F a s c i s t i s " a l o v e r o f g y m n a s -

t i c e x e r c i s e s . " M u s s ol i n i h a s c o m p e l l ed e v e n h i s h i g h o f f i c i a l s

t o p e r f o r m e x t r a o r d i n a r y f e a t s t o d e m o n s t ra t e t h e i r p h y s i c a l

f i t n e s s : t o l e a p t h r o u g h a f l a m i n g h o o p a n d t o j u m p o v e r a

f e n c e o f b a y o n e t s . H i t l e r h a s a n n o u n c e d : " I w a n t t h e G e r -

m a n b o y t o b e w e a t h e r - p r o o f , q u i c k a s a g r e y h o u n d , t o u g h a s

l e a t h e r , h a r d a s K r u p p s t e e l . " 1 5 The Nazi Minister of Edu-

c a t i o n , B e r n h a r d R u s t , u p o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e c o r n e r s t o n e

l a y i n g o f t h e F a c u l t y o f M i l i t a r y S c i e n c e , t h e f i r s t b u i l d i n g

o f t h e n e w B e r l i n U n i v e r s i t y , d e c l a r e d t h a t " i n t h e G e r -

m a n y o f t h e f u t u r e t h e a t h le t i c f i e l d . . . s h a l l n o t b e s e t u p

n e a r t h e h a l l o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , b u t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s s ha l l

g a t h e r a b o u t t h e a t h l e t i c f i e l d . "1 6

T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y t o r e-

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192 NO COMPROMISEverse the relationship advocated by Pla to and to copy the

Spartan system .

In identifying F ascism as a form of timocracy , I do not

me a n to suggest th at there are no si m il arities betweenPla to's aristocratic "republic" and the p resent Fascist r e -

gi mes . In the Platonic Utopia a s in Fascist Italy a nd Ger-

m a ny, authoritarian rule is maintained by a body of trained

fighters and by rigid censorship of a rt and education . i 7

There is even the suggestion, so fully ca rried out in the

actual p ractice of Fascism, that social my ths be invented to

induce the peop le to accep t their governing class . Yet there

is a wide gulf between Plato's usual em pha sis upon intelli-

gence and the Fascist emp hasis upon athleticism, "heroism,"

and obedience . The uncritical a dulation a ccorded the Fas-

cist chiefs is sharply opposed to the spirit of intellectual aris-

tocracy . Consider, for exam ple, the following statement from

a tex tbook selected by the Ministry of Education for the

Italia n secondary schools :

As the Catholic must have a blind belief in the Catholic fa ith

and obey the Catholic Church blindly, so the perfect Fascist must

believe absolutely in the principles of Fascism a nd obey the hier-

archica l heads to whom he owes allegia nce without reserve . R e -

ligious dogmas are not discussed because they are truths revealed

by God . Fa scist principles a re not discussed because they com e

from the m ind of a Genius : Benito Mussolini . 18

In the sam e spirit, General G oring has declared :

Everyone who knows the close inner bond between Hitler a nd

his men will understand that for us followers it is axiom atic that

the Leader must possess any quality attributed to him in its high-

est perfection . Just as the Roma n Catholic considers the Pope

infallible in all matters concerning religion and morals, so do we

National Socialists believe with the sam e inner conviction that

for us the Leader is in all politica l and other matters concerning

the national and social interests of the people simply infallible .

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THE THEORY OF THE 1LITE 193

H i t l e r ' s i n f a l l i b i l i t y , G o r i n g c o n t en d s, i s d u e t o " s o m e t hi n g

m y s t i c a l , i n e x p r e s s i b l e , a l m o s t i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w h i c h t h i s

u n i q u e m a n p o s s e s s es , a n d h e w h o c a n n o t f e e l i t i n s t i n c t i v e l y

w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o gr a s p i t a t a l l . " 1 s N o t h i n g i n t h e s e q u o -

t a t i o n s , o r i n t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f F a s c i s m , i m p l i e s a t r ue

i n t e l le c t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y .

W e c a n j u d g e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e F a s c i s t e l i t e b y t h e

m e t h o d s b e i n g a d o p t e d t o t r a i n l e a d e r s . In Germa ny, the

h i g h e r s c h o o l s a r e b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d , a n d s p e c i a l " l e a d e r

s c h o o l s " a r e b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d . I n a s t a t e m e n t o f F e b r u a r y

1 2 , 1 9 3 8 , E d u c a t i o n M i n i s t e r R u s t h a s d e f i n e d t h e g o a l o f

t h i s r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . "All education," he contends, "mea ns

t h e m o u l d i n g o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t h u m a n b e i n g s . I t i s q u i t e

d e f i n i t e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o ns o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t P a r t y

m u s t p e n e t r a t e a l l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n s p i r e i t f r o m w i t h i n . "

C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s c h o o l s m u s t r e c o g n i z e " t h e p r e e m i n e n c e

o f l i f e a n d a c t i o n o v e r a l l s y s t e m s o f e du c a t i o n ." The new

s c h o o l " p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e b o d y a n d c a p t u r e s t h e s o u l , a n d ,

both within and without the schoolroom, trains for com-

munity . " T h e a i m i s t o p r o d u c e a " n e w t y p e . . . o n t h e b a s i s

o f p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g " a n d p o l i t i c a l i n d oc t r i n a t i o n :

T h e n ew c o n c e p t i o n o f m a n k i n d , w h i c h i s a t t h e b a s e o f p o -

l i t i c a l p e d a g o g y , i s n o t t h e hu m a n i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e e d u c a t e d

i n d i v i d u a l , b u t t h e p o l i t i c a l b e i n g . I n t h e f o r ef r o n t o f p o l i t i c a l

p e d a g o g y a r e t h e c o n c e p t i o n s , " t y p e " a n d " f o r m a t i v e e d u c a t i o n , "

w h i c h a r e n e c e s sa r i l y r e l a t ed . " F o r m a t i v e e d u c a t i o n " i s t h e c o n -

c e p t i o n o f d i r e c t e d u c a t i o n b a s e d u p o n o u r o w n d o c t r i n e . " D i -

r e c t" h er e m ea n s : f r o m m a n t o m a n , e y e t o e y e . T h r ou g h d i r ec t

e d u c a t i o n o n e c h a r a c t e r d r a w s f o r t h a n o t h er c h a r a c t e r , t h e m od e l

o f t h e F i i h r e r a n d t h e c o m r a d e s c a l l s f o r t h t h e y o u n g e ne r g i e s .

. . . T h e n ew " t y p e , " w h i c h i m p a r t s c o n t e n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e t o o ur

e n t i r e ed u c a t i o n , i s . . . v a l i d o n l y f o r t h o s e wh o , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r

b i r t h , b e l on g t o t h i s c u r r e nt o f p o w e r . I t i s t h e "t y p e " w hi c h

p e r m i t s u s t o a n t i c i p a t e sp e c i f i c k i n d s o f c o n d u c t a n d a c t i o n . T h i s

d e t er m i n a t i o n o f t h e " t y p e " a n d o f e d uc a t i o n g e n e r a l ly b y a c -

t i v i t y , b y h u m a n b e i n g s a c t i n g w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y , i s t h e f o r e .

m o s t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f p o l i t i c a l p e d a g o g y . 2 0

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194 NO COMPROMISEI n S p a r t a , a l s o , t h e a i m w a s t o p r o d u c e a " t y p e " w h i c h c o u l d

be depended upon to manifest "specific kinds of conduct

a n d a c t i o n . " T h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n S p a r t a a n d N a z i G e r -

m a n y i s m o r e t h a n s u p e r f i c i a l .

V i g o r o u s s t e p s a r e b e i n g t a k e n t o c a r r y t h e s e i d e a l s i n t o

p r a c t i c e . The Labor Front and the Hitler Youth maintain

v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s f o r t r a i n i n g t h e l e a d e r c a s t e . There are

" l e a d e r s c h o o l s " i n P o t s d a m , B r u n s w i c k , E a s t P r u s s i a , B a -

v a r i a , a n d e l s e w h e r e . " N a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l e d uc a t i o n a l i n s t i -

t u t e s " h a v e b e e n o r g a n i z e d j o i n t l y b y t h e N a z i P a r t y a n d t h e

M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n . These schools a re conducted on a

m i l i t a r y b a s i s a n d t h e s t u d en t s w ea r a s p e c i a l u n i f o r m .

M o r e a m b i t i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e u n d e r w a y . T r a i n i n g f o r

" l e a d e r s h i p " i s t o b e g i n i n t h e s t u d e nt ' s t w e l f t h y e a r a t t h e

" A d o l f H i t l e r S c h o o l s , " o ne o f w h i c h i s b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d i n

e a c h o f t h e p a r t y d i s t r i c t s . W h e n t h e c a n d i d a t e s g r a d u a t e a t

t h e a g e o f e i g h t e e n , t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m l a b o r a n d

m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , a n d t o u n d e r t a k e f u r t h e r s t u d y u n d e r t h e

s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e p e r s o n n e l d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e p a r t y . The

l i k e l i e s t c a n d i d a t e s a r e t h e n s e le c t e d f o r f o u r m o r e y e a r s o f

t r a i n i n g a t a n " O r d e r S e t t l e m e n t, " w h i c h i s a s o r t o f m i l i -

t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l a c a d e m y . F i n a l l y , t h o s e w h o h a v e s h o w n

themselves most worthy will be sent to a supreme school

(Hohe Schule) . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n i s t o b e u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f A l f r e d R o s e n b e rg , t h e o f f i c i a l P a r t y " p h i l o s o p h e r. "

O n l y c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of t h e p l a n h a v e a s y e t b e e n re a l i z e d ;

y e t w e c a n j u d g e ` t h e i n t e n t a n d s p i r i t o f t h e p r o j e c t . The

o r i g i n a t o r o f t h e s c h e m e , D r . Robert Ley, ha s announced

t h a t t h e a s p i r a n t s a r e t o b e d e v e l o p e d i n t o " s o l d i e r s a n d

f a n a t i c a l p r e a c h e rs " o f t h e N a z i i d e a l . A German news organ

r e p o r t s :

T h e v a s t e du c a t i o n a l w o r k o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m w i l l b e o r -

g a n i z a t i o n a l l y c o m p l e t e d i n a b o u t t e n y e a r s . B u t i t w i l l o n ly b e

p r a c t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e a f t e r s e v en t e en y e a r s w h e n t he f i r s t p u p i l s

o f t h e A d o l f H i t l e r S c h o o l s w i l l h a v e c o m p l e t e d t h e e nt i r e p r e -

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 195

s c r i b e d c o u r s e . T h i s e l i t e a l o n e w i l l t h en d e c i d e G e r m a n y ' s d e s -

t i n y , f o r , a s D r . L e y s a y s , n o o n e i n t h e f u t u re w i l l b e a b l e t o

h o l d a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r ' s p o s i t i o n i n S t a t e o r P a r t y w h o h a s n o t

c o m p l e t e d t h i s c o u r s e . 2 1

D e s p i t e t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e x e c u t e t h e p l a n ,

e n o u g h st e p s h a v e b e e n t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e t h e t y p e o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n . A c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r t h e Manchester Guardian "found

l i t t l e " i n t h e p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l s " b u t d r i l l , s p o r t s , a n d t h e

s t u d y o f Mein Kamp f, w i t h f r e q u e n t l e c t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e

`L eader' of the school comments a t length on that work . "

This same writer visited one of the new higher schools

( " O r d e r S e t t l e m e n t s " ) . D i s c o v e r i n g t h e s a m e e m p h a s i s t h e r e

a s i n t h e p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k , h e w a s " a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e e m p t i -

n e s s o f t h e te a c h i n g . T h e m e n w e r e b e i n g d r i l l e d s y s t e m a t i -

c a l l y , t a u g h t h y m n s t o 'Blut and Boden' ( b l o o d a n d s o i l ) ,

a n d i n s t r u c t e d i n ` r a c i a l s c i e n c e ' a n d p a r t y d o g m a s . T h e l i -

b r a r y c o n t a i n e d n o t h i n g b u t N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t w o r k s , g e o g -

r a p h i e s , v o l u m e s o f s ta t i s t i c s , a n d e v e r y t h i n g th a t t r e a t s b y

w o r d o r p i c t u r e o f t h e p u r e G e r m a n r a c e . " A s h e d r o v e a w a y

i n h i s c a r , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n t h e a r d t h e t r a m p , t r a m p , o f

m a r c h i n g y o u t h s , a n d t h e w o r d s o f t h e i r e v e n s o n g :

U n d w e n n d i e H a n d g r a n a t e k r a c h t

D a s H e r z u n s i m L e i b e l a c h t -

( A n d w h e n t h e h a n d g r e n a d e e x p l o d e s

W e s h a k e w i t h h e a r t y l a u g h t e r . )22

I t a l y h a s n o t f o r m u l a t e d s u c h f a r - r e a c h i n g p l a n s t o t r a i n

t h e F a s c i s t e l i t e ; y e t s u c h t ra i n i n g a s t h e S t a t e d o es p r o v i d e

h a s a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s . A s L i d d e l l H a r t h a s w r i t t e n :

N o c o u n t ry c a r r i e s q u i t e s o f a r a s I t a l y t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e

" n a t i o n i n a r m s . " T h e m a l e c h i l d i s p u t i n u n i f o r m w h e n he i s

s c a r c e l y o u t o f t h e c r a d l e a n d m a y s t a y i n i t u n ti l h e i s p u t i n

t h e g r a v e - s i n c e t h e h a r d - w or k e d I t a l i a n p e a s a n t i s o f t e n n o t v e ry

l o n g l i v e d , e v e n a p a r t f r o m t h e r i s k s o f w a r .

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196 NO COMPROMISEA t s i x y e a r s o f a g e , t h e c h i l d i s i m p r e s s e d i n t o th e " B a l i l l a

del Lupa" (Wolf Cubs), where he is given a uniform, and

" t a u g h t t o m a r c h , t o w e a r g a s m a s k s , a n d c a r r y o u t a n t i - g a s

d r i l l , a n d t o i n u r e h i m s e l f t o l i f e u n d e r c a n v a s . " A t e i g h t

t h e y o u n g s te r j o i n s a r e g u l a r B a l i l l a c o r p s , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o

d r i l l u n t i l h e i s e i g h t e e n , w h e n t h e m i l i t a r y i n s t r u c t i o n b e -

c o m e s m o r e i n t e n s i v e . A t t w e n t y - o n e h e i s c o n s c r i p t e d . When

h e i s f i n a l l y r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e a r m y e i g h t e e n m o n t h s l a t e r ,

h e j o i n s t h e m i l i t a r y r e s e r v e s . H e i s t h e n f o r c e d t o d r i l l

p e r i o d i c a l l y u n t i l h e r e a c h e s t h e a g e o f f o r t y - f i v e ; e v e n s u b -

s e q u e nt l y h e i s e x p e c t e d t o a s s i s t i n c i v i l i a n m o b i l i z a t i o n i n

event of war . " T h e I t a l i a n P r e s s , " r e m a r k s L i d d e l l H a r t ,

" w a s u n u s u a l l y a c c u r a t e w h e n i t a p p l a u d e d t h i s i n t r o d u c -

t i o n o f l i f e - s e r v i c e w i t h t h e r em a r k t h a t h i s t o ry h a s n o p a r a l -

l e l f o r su c h n a t i o n - w i d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n . "23

T h e a r m y p r o v i d e s M u s s o l i n i w i t h h i s i d e a l o f d i c t a t o r -

s hi p . " F o r m y p a r t , " h e h a s a s s er t e d, " I p r e f e r f i f t y t h o u s a n d

r i f l e s t o f i v e m i l l i o n v o t e s . " 2 4 H e c o n c e i v e s h i m s e lf a s a m i l i -

t a r y c o m m a n d e r , w i t h u n c o n d i t i o n a l o r d e r s t o e n f o r c e u p o n

h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s . I n h i s f a m o u s e le c t i o n sp e e c h a t t h e P a la z z o

V e n e z i a , J a n u a r y 2 8 , 1 9 3 4 , h e a n n o u n c e d :

I a l w a y s h a v e r e g a r d e d m y s e l f a s a s o l di e r w h o h a s h i s c o m -

m a n d , h i s a b s o l u t e c o m m a n d w h i c h u n d e r a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s h e

h a s to ex ecute ; i t i s a h o l y c o m m a n d , a n d I w i l l r e m a i n t r u e to

i t u n c o n di t i o n a l l y . G o v e r n i n g i s a q u e s t i o n o f t h e w i l l . I f o n e h a s

t h e w i l l , o n e w i l l r em a i n i n p o w e r . 2 5

I n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s , h e m a k e s e v e n m o r e p l a i n t h a t h e h i m -

s e l f i s s u e s t h e or d e r s , a n d t h a t F a s c i s m m u s t h a v e a h i e r a r -

c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e li k e t h a t o f t h e a r m y . 2 6 I n t h e s a m e s p i r i t ,

H i t l e r h a s d e c l a r e d :

T h e r e m u s t b e n o m a j o r i t y m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s , b u t m e r e l y a

b o d y o f r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n s , a n d t h e w or d " c o u n c i l " w i l l r e v e r t

t o i t s a n c i e n t m e a n i n g . E v e r y m a n s h a l l h a v e c o u nc i l l o r s a t hi s

s i d e , b u t t h e decision s h a l l b e m a d e b y t h e o n e M a n . 2 7

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 197

T o o d e c a d e n t t o c r e a t e l i v e f o r m s o f i t s o w n , F a s c i s m r e -

t a i n s t h e e m p t y s h e ll s o f d e m o c r a c y . I t h a s i t s " c o u r t s , " " e l e c -

t i o n s , " " p l e b i s c i t e s , " a n d " l a b o r o rg a n i z a t i o n s . " T h e r e a r e

" c o u r t s , " b ut n o r i g h t o f h a b e a s c o r p u s , n o j u d g es e x e m p t

f r o m p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u re , n o c o m p e l l i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r

p o l i c e a n d h i g h e r o f f i c i a l s . T h e r e a r e " l a b o r f r o n t s " a n d

" l a b o r s y n di c a t e s " ; b u t n o r i g h t t o s t r i k e , n o g e n u i n e c o l -

l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g , n o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f l a b o r ' s o w n c h o o s -

i n g . 2 8 T h e r e a r e " p l e b i s c i t e s " a n d " e l e c t i o n s " ; b u t n o o p p o -

s i t i o n p r e s s , n o o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y , n o o p p o s i t i o n c a n d i d a t e s ,

n o n o m i n a t i o n s b y d e m o c r a t i c m e a n s , n o r i g h t t o c a m p a i g n

a g a i n s t t h e o f f i c i a l l i s t o f c a n d i d a t e s . W h o e v e r r e f u s e s t o g o

t o t h e p o l l s , o r o p p o s e s t h e r e g i m e , i s c o n s i d e re d a t r a i t o r o r

c r i m i n a l . J e w s a r e d en i e d th e r i g h t to v o t e . E v e n s e c r e c y o f

b a l l o t h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y i n f r i n g e d , a n d m i s c o u n t o f b a l l o t s

h a s b e e n s u s p e c t e d . A l a r g e o p p o s i t i o n v o t e w o u l d o n l y c o n -

v i n c e t h e g o v e r n m e nt o f t h e n e e d o f m o r e c e n s o r s h i p , e s -

p i o n a g e , a n d t e r r o r ; i t w o u l d b e a d a n g e r o u s , a n d p e r h a p s a

futi le, gesture .

T h i s e m i n e n t l y d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m w a s i n s t i t u t e d a f t e r t h e

g r o un d w a s c l e a r e d o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e nt s . S i n c e H i t l er ' s

a d v e n t t o p o w e r , t w e n t y - o n e m e m b e r s o f t h e R e i c h s t a g h a v e

b e e n m u r d e r e d , a n d t h e m u r d e r e r s h a v e g o n e u n p u n i s h e d .

A l a r g e n u m b er o f o t h e r m e m be r s h a v e b e e n c o n f i n e d w i t h o u t

l e g a l p r o c e s s , a n d s o m e a r e i n p r i s o n t o t h i s d a y . T h e s e m e n

t h a t t h e N a z i s h a v e m u r d e r e d o r i m p r i s o n e d w e r e d u ly e l e c t e d

b y t h e p e o p l e2 9

S i m i l a r l y i n I t a l y , M u s s ol i n i s e i z e d p o w er ,

a l t h o u g h t h e p e o p l e r e j e c t e d h i m a n d h i s p a r t y a t t h e p o l l s .

W h e n t h e le a d e r o f t h e p o p u l a r f o r c e s , S i g n o r M a t t e o t t i ,

o b j e c t e d t o t h e s e m e t h o d s , h e w a s a t t a c k e d a n d b r u t a l l y

s l a i n b y F a s c i s t a g e n t s . I n S p a i n , t h e F a s c i s t s r e v ol t ed a g a i n s t

t h e d e m o c r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d g o v e r n m e n t ; a n d w h e n t he p e o p l e

s t r u g g le d t o k e e p t h e i r d e m o c r a c y , M u s s o l i n i a n d H i t l e r s e n t

h u n d r e ds o f a i r p l a n e s a n d m a n y t h o u s a n d s of s o l d i e r s t o ra i n

d e a t h u p o n t he L o y a l i s t p o p u l a t i o n . I n A u s t r i a , H i t l e r a n d

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198 NO COMPROMISEh i s v a s t a r m y i n v a d e d t h e c o u n t r y s o a s t o p r e v e n t a f r e e

p l e b i s c i t e , a n d f o r c e f u l l y t o a n n e x t h e c o u n t r y . I n C z e c h o s l o -

v a k i a , t h e N a z i s u n d e r m i n e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a d e m o c r a t i c

S t a t e a n d , b y s h e e r t h r e a t o f w a r , d i s m e m b e r e d t h e n a t i o n ,

d e s tr o y e d t h e de m o c r a c y , a n d f i n a l l y s e i z e d t h e r em a i n i n g t e r-

r i t o r y o f t h i s n o n - G e r m a n i c c o u n t r y . N o d e m o c r a t c a n s u p -

p o r t F a s c i s m , w i t h i t s s u bs t i t u t i o n o f m a c h i n e g u n s f o r f r e e

v o t i n g b o o t h s .

N e i t h e r c a n t h e a d v o c a t e o f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y

favor these methods . I n d e e d , F a s c i s m i s m u c h l e s s a r i s t o -

c r a t i c t h a n t h e de m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s t h a t i t h a s r e p l a c e d . I n a

s t a t i s t i c a l s t u d y o f g o v e r n m e nt a l a n d p a r t y l e a d e r s i n F a s c i s t

I t a l y , H a r o l d D . Lasswell and Renzo Sereno have demon-

s t r a t e d t h a t I t a l y i s n o t g o v e r n ed b y e x p e r t s o r s c i e n t i s t s .

T h e h er e d i t a r y n o b i l i t y a n d p l u t o c r a t i c e l e m e n t s ha v e e a s i l y

h e l d t h e i r o w n , t h e l a w y e r s h a v e a b o u t a s m u c h i n f l u e n c e a s

e v e r , t h e e n g i n e e r s wh o m t h e F a s c i s t s i n t h e o r y h a v e " g l o r i -

f i e d " a r e " f e w a n d f a r b e t we e n i n t h e m os t e f f e c t i v e a g e n c i e s , "

a n d m a n y m e n h a v e e n t e r e d p o l i t i c s b y m e a n s o f " i n f o r m a l

v i o l e n c e . "30

No comp ara ble study, I think, has been ma de of the

"leaders" of Nazi Germany ; b u t i t i s s y m p t o m a t i c o f t h e

r e g i m e t h a t a m i l i t a r y m a n , G e n e r a l G o r i n g , w h o h a s h a d n o

t r a i n i n g a s a n e c o n o m i s t a n d i s q u i t e u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d a s a

t h i n k e r , o c c u p i e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f s u p r e m e e c o n o m i c d i r e c t o r

o f t h e R e i c h . T h e a u t h o r s o f a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e s u r v e y , b a s e d

u p o n f i r s t - h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d of f i c i a l N a z i s t a t i s t i c s , a r e

n o t i m p r e s s e d b y t h e c a l i b e r o f t h e p r e s e n t G e r m a n g o v e r n -

ment :

T h e G e r m a n t o t a l i t a r i a n S t a t e i s n o t m o r e e f f i c i e n t t ha n a

d e m o c r a t i c o n e . I t r e p r e s en t s , i n d e e d, a d u a l i s m i n p u b l i c a d -

m i n i s t r a t i o n w h i c h i s b o t h i n e f f i c i e n t a n d c o s t ly . . . . The

" L e a d e r - S t a t e " i s a s s u r e dl y a f a r m o r e c o s t l y f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t

t h a n t h e m o st e x t r a v a g a n t d e m oc r a c y , e v e n i f w e e x c l u d e t h e c o r -

r u p t i o n w h i c h i s t h e i n e v i t a b l e o u t c o m e o f t h e di s a p p e a r a n c e o f

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 1 99

P a r l i a m e n t a r y c o n tr o l a n d t h e f r e e e x p r e s si o n o f p u b l i c o p i n -

i o n . 3 1

S i m i l a r l y P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t s , w ho h a s f i r s t - h a n d a n d d e t a i l e d

knowledge of the Nazi system , has noticed the immense

amount of waste and duplication . 3 2 The crimes of Fascism

a r e o f t e n c o m m i t t e d i n t h e n a m e o f e f f i c i e n c y ( " M u s s o l i n i

m a k e s t h e tr a i n s r u n o n t i m e ") , b u t t hi s e f f i c i e n c y i s l a r g e ly

m y t h i c a l .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t F a s c i s m r e j e c t s e q u a l l y t h e i d e a l o f s c i e n -

t i f i c c o n t r o l a n d th e i d e a l o f d e m o c r a t i c s h a r i n g . T h e t o t a l i -

t a r i a n s t a t e i s o r g a n i z e d l i k e a v a s t a r m y , a n d t h e m o r a l

v a l u e s o f F a s c i s m a r e S p a r t a n i n e s s e n c e . " T he d i s c i p l i n e o f

t h e P a r t y i s t h a t o f a m i l i t a r y o r d e r , " w r i t e s a G e r m a n a u -

t h o r i t y . "The iron clutches with which the individual is

b o u n d t o th e S t a t e a n d t o t h e P a r t y a l m o s t r e s e m b l e r e l i g i o u s

d u t i e s , a n d t h e h i e r a r c h i c a r r a n g e m en t g i v e s t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e

a p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s a k i n d o f

modern feudalism . "33

3 . Theories of Ruthlessness and Inequality

M a n y t h i n k e r s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

F a s c i s t d o c t r i n e o f t h e e l i t e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o de t e c t t r a c e s o f

t h e t h e o r i e s o f M a c h i a v e l l i , w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e w i l y a n d

r e s o lu t e t y r a n t i s t h e b e s t r ul e r i n a t i m e o f c r i s i s ; o f G i o b e r ti ,

w h o i n s i s t e d t h a t o n l y t h e r u l e o f t h e e l i t e c o r r e s p o n d s t o

t h e g en i u s o f I t a l y ; of Ma zzini, who temp ered his "repub-

l i c a n " a r d o r b y a d i s l i k e o f g e n u i n e d e m o c r a c y ; o f M i c h e l s ,

Mosca, and Pareto, modern critics of democracy, who be-

l i e v e d t h a t t h e e l i t e c h a n g e a n d c i r c u l a t e a s t h e s t r o n g ,

cunning men forge ahead ; o f C a r l y l e , w h o s e " h e r o w o r s h i p "

d i s p e n s e s w i t h i n t e l l ec t u a l c r i t e r i a o f g r e a t n e s s ; of Le Bon

a n d S o r e l , w h o m M u s s o l i n i a d m i r e d f o r t h e i r e x a l t a t i o n o f

force and their a ttack upon "m ob rule" ; o f N i e t z s c h e a n d

S p e n g l e r , w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t m a n i s a b e a s t o f p r e y a n d t h a t

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2 0 0 NO COMPROMISEt h e s t ro n g m a n s h o u l d c a s t a s i d e h u m a n i t a r i a n s c r u p l e s ; of

T r e i t s c h k e a n d C h a m b e r l a i n , w h o f o u n d i n P r u s s i a n m i l i -

t a r y a n n a l s t h e i d e a l s f o r t h e r u l i n g c a s t e ; a n d o f S t e f a n

G e o r g e , p o e t o f a n t i r a t i o n a l i s m , a n d h i s n u m e r o u s f o l l o w e r s ,

w h o d r e a m e d o f a s m a l l m i n o r i t y o f g o d l i k e h e r o e s t o w h o m

t h e p e o p l e m u s t b e s u b j u g a t e d . I f w e a d d t o t h e w or k s o f

s u c h m o d e r n t h i n k e r s t h e e x a m p l e s o f t h e R o m a n C a e s a r s

a n d t h e a n c i e n t G e r m a n i c w a r r i o r s c e l e b r a t e d i n F a s c i s t

l i t e r a t u r e , w e d i s c o v e r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l b a s i s o f t h e F a s c i s t

" e l i t e . "

T h e a n t i d e m o c r a t i c t r e n d s i n t h e G e r m a n t r a d i t i o n h a v e

b e e n i n d i c a t e d i n o t h e r c h a p t e r s o f t h e p r e s e n t b o o k . I n t he

l i g h t o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n , L e w i s M u m f o r d h a s r i g h t l y c o n d e m n e d

" t h o s e s u p e r f i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f N a z i s m w h i c h o v e r l o o k

h o w m u c h o f i t s a n i m u s a n d c r e e d a l r e a d y e x i s t e d - l o n g b e -

f o r e H i t l e r a n d R o s e n b e rg - i n L u t h e r, F i c h t e , H e g e l , T r e i t -

schke, Wagner, and Houston Chamberlain . " 3 4 Although

t h e r e i s m u c h t h a t i s p r o f o u n d a n d e n l i g h te n e d i n t h e G e r -

m a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a l s o m u c h t h a t i s s c a n d a l o u s a n d r e-

g re ss i v e . H i t l e r r e p r e s e n t s t he l a t t e r ( a n d m o r e s u p e r f i c i a l )

a s p e c t o f G e r m a n i s m , j u s t a s T h o m a s M a n n , f o r e x a m p l e ,

r e p r e se n t s t h e f o r m e r . I n m a n y o f t h e g r e a t G e r m a n t h i n k e r s ,

t h e r e g r e s s i v e a n d e n l i g h t e n e d i n t e r m i n g l e . H e g e l , f o r e x -

a m p l e , i s n o t p r i m a r i l y t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f F a s c i s m , a l t h o u g h

m a n y o f h i s i d e a s c a n b e u t i l i z e d b y t h e F a s c i s t a p o l o gi s t s .

A m o n g t h e le s s r e c o g n i z e d h a r b i n g e r s o f G e r m a n F a s c i s m

h a s b e e n t h e p o e t, S t e f a n G e o r g e ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 3 3 ) . A u r e l K o l n a i ,

i n h i s c h a l l e n gi n g b o o k , The War Aga inst the West, de-

c l a r e s t h a t " o f a l l t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e r i s e o f

N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m a s a c r e e d t he t w o o ut s t a n d i n g f i g u r es

a r e F r i e d r i c h N i e t z s c h e . . . a n d S t e f a n G e o r g e . " H e f i n d s i n

G e o r g e ' s w o r k s s u c h N a z i c o n c e p t s a s " R a c e , s u p e r - m o r a l

F o r c e , t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f f r e e d o m u p o n p e c u l i a r T y p e a n d

N o b i l i t y , t h e S p i r i t u a l S o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e R u l er , L e a d e r s a s

D e m i g o d s , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e P e o p l e m e r e l y a s a l e a g u e o f

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 201

s a t e l l i t es a n d w o r s h i p p e r s - t o n a m e b u t a f e w . " 3 5 T h e f o l -

l o w e r s o f t h e p o e t , c o m p r i s i n g t h e S t e f a n G e o r g e C i r c l e , r e -

g a r d h i m a s t h e f o r e r u n n e r a n d p r o p h e t o f a n a t i o n a l r e b i r t h

t o b e i n s p i r e d b y a s m a l l b a n d o f H e r o i c L e a d e r s . Hermann

D r a h n , o n e o f G e o r g e ' s d i s c i p l e s , a n n o u n c e s t h a t g e n u i n e

P o w e r m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f , " n o t i n t h e p e r s o n s of t h e m a n y , t h e

a l l - t o o - m a n y , b u t o n l y i n t h e c r e a t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e

H e r o , t h e L e a d e r , t h e P r o p h e t . "3 6 The New Nobility, en-

v i s a g e d b y G e o r g e a n d t h e m e m b e r s o f h i s C i r c l e , a r e n o t

d i s t i n g ui s h e d b y r a t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s , f o r m e r e r e a s o n i s d e -

s p i s e d , b u t b y a d e m o n i c s p i r i t w h i c h s p r i n g s f r o m " t h e

blood" and "corporate brotherhood . " G e o r g e ' s h o m o s e x -

u a l i t y m a y h a v e h e l p e d t o e ng e n d e r h i s s e n s e of t h e c r e a t i v e

f o r c e a n d t h e l o v e - s p e l l t o b e f o u n d i n a s e l e c t m i n o r i t y .

A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o i s s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n

with Fascism is the Frenchman, Gustave Le Bon . P e r h a p s

n o b o o k i n s o c i a l p s y c h o l o gy w r i t t e n d u r i n g t he l a s t f i f t y

y e a r s h a s b e e n s o w i d e l y r e a d a n d s o i n f l u e n t i a l a s L e B o n ' sThe Crowd . T h i s v o l u m e d i d n o t e s c a p e t h e a t t e n t i o n o f

M u s s o l i n i . " O n e o f t h e b o o k s t h a t i n t e r e s t ed m e m o s t , " h e

h a s s a i d , " w a s t h e Ps y chology of the Crowd by Gustave Le

Bon . " 3 7 I n t h i s w o r k , t h e a u t h o r e x p r e s s es h i s b e l i e f i n " t h e

e x t r e m e m e n t a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f c r o w d s , p i c k e d a s s e m b l i e s i n -

c l u d e d . " 3 8 H e b e l i e v e s t h a t i m p u l s i v e n e s s , i m a g i n a t i v e s u g -

g e s ti b i l i t y , e x a g g e r a t e d e m o t i o n a l i s m , i n c a p a c i t y t o r e a s o n ,

a n d a b s e n c e o f t h e c r i t i c a l s p i r i t a r e t h e o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s o f c r o w d m e nt a l i t y . A m a n i n a c r o w d b e c o m e s a n

a u t o m a t o n , p u l l e d h i t h e r a n d t h i t h e r by a c o n t a g i o n o f f e e l -

i n g s a n d i d e a s . I n i s o la t i o n , h e ma y b e a c u l t i v a t e d i n di -

v i d u a l ; b u t i n a c r o w d , h e i s a b a r b a r i a n , a c t i n g b y i n s t i n c t .

T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o m o b s . " T h e g e n -

e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c r o w d s , " w e a r e t o ld , " a r e t o b e m e t

w i t h i n p a r l i a m e n t a r y a s s e m b l i e s . " 3 9 E v e n " a n e n t i r e n a -

t i o n . . . m a y b e c o m e a c r o w d u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f c e r t a i n

i n f l u e n c e s . " 4 0 L e B o n i s c o n t e m p t u o u s o f d e m o c r a t i c g r o u p s

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2 0 2 NO COMPROMISEo f a l m o s t e v e r y d e sc r i p t i o n , a n d i s e s p e c i a l l y o p p o s e d t o so -

c i a l i s t i c o r ga n i z a t i o n s .

C r o w d s a r e e s s e nt i a l l y d e s t r uc t i v e; a l l i m p o r t a n t a c h i e v e -

m e n t s a r e t h e w o r k o f a s m a l l e l i t e . " T h e e l e c t c r e a t e , t h e

p l e b s d e s t r o y . " 4 1 H e n c e " t h e a d v e n t t o p o w e r o f t h e m a s s e s

m a r k s o n e o f t h e l a s t s t a g es o f W e s t er n c i v i l i z a t i o n , " a n d i s

bound to produce "a barba rian phase . " 4 2 Democratic forms

m a y n e v e rt h e le s s b e u ti l i z e d b y a r i s t o c r a t i c f o r c e s : t h e m e r e

f o r m a l c o n s t i t ut i o n o f a S t a t e i s o f s l i g h t i m p o r ta n c e , s i n c e

t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n i s w h o p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s . T h e p e o p l e a r e i n

f a c t i n c a p a b l e o f r u l i n g t h e m s e l v e s ; w h a t w e c a l l p o p u l a r

rule is really the dominion of tyrants and dem agogues .

C r o w d s a r e e s s en t i a l l y s e r v i l e , a n d t h e i r l e a d e r s " w i e l d a v e r y

d e s p o t i c a u t h o r i t y . " 4 3 This is especially true among the

w o r k i n g c l a s s e s , w h o s e r i n g l e a d e r s a n d a g i t a t o r s c o m m a n d

a n a b s o l u t e l y d o c i l e o b e d i e n c e .

A man who understands mob psychology can readily be-

come a tyrant :

T h e t y p e o f h e r o d e a r t o c r o w d s w i l l a l w a y s h a v e t h e s e m -

b l a n c e o f a C a e s a r . H i s i n s i g n i a a t t r a c t s t h e m , h i s a u t h o r i t y o v e r -

a w e s t h e m , a n d h i s s w o r d i n s t i l s t h em w i t h f e a r .4 4

T h e d i c t a t o r ' s h a r a n g u e s s h o u l d b e u n b u r d e n e d w i t h p r o o f s ,

a n d h i s d e e d s s h o u l d a p p e a r m a r v e l o u s ; h e s h o u ld c a p t i v a t e

t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h s t a r t l i n g i m a g e s a n d th e a t r i c a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . 4 5 F i n a l l y , h e s h o u l d n ot b e t oo f r i e n d l y w i t h

h i s s u b j e c t s :

T h e g o d s a n d m e n w h o h a v e k e p t t h e i r p r e s t i g e f o r l o n g h a v e

n e v e r t o l e r a t e d d i s c u s s i o n . F o r t h e c r o wd t o a d m i r e , i t m u s t b e

k e p t a t a d i s t a n c e . 4 6

That Il Duce agrees with Le Bon's estimate of popular

g o v e r n m e n t i s i n d i c a t e d b y h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t d e m o c r a c y i s

a " p a r o d y o r c a r i c a t u r e . . . w h i c h , i n r e p l y t o a n i n q u i r y o f

t h e g re a t s o c i o l o g i s t , G u s t a v e L e B o n , I . . . d e f i n e d a s t h e

doctrine and regime in which a p eople is given the inter-

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 203

mittent illusion of b eing sovereign . " 4 7 Mussolini found in

Le Bon's work an apology for dictatorship and a book of

M a c h i a v e l l i a n i n s t r u c t i o n s .

A n o t h e r o f I l D u c e ' s f a v o r i t e a u t h o r s w a s G e o r g e s S o r e l ,

w h o m w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s . Like Le Bon,

h e h a s a s c o r n o f p o p u l a r a s s e m b l i e s , a n d a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t

i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s c o n t r o l so c i e t y . But Le Bon m akes a show

o f b e i n g a m a n o f r e a s o n , w h e r e a s S o r e l l o o k s u p o n r e a s o n

a s o r d i n a r i l y i m p o t e n t . S c i e n c e , h e b e li e v e s , i s p o w e r le s s t o

f o r e c a s t t h e c o u r se o f h i s t o r y 4 8 I n t h u s d e n y i n g t h a t h i s t o r y

h a s a p r e d i c t a b l e s c h e m e , S o r e l p r e p a r e s t h e w a y f o r t h e o p -

p o r t u ni s t i c a n d d i s r u p t i v e a c t i o n o f t h e " e l i t e . " A s t h e F a s -

c i s t s h a v e r e c o g n i z e d , t h e re i s a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n t u i t i o n i s m o f S o r e l ' s p h i l o s o p h y , a n d t h e

" p u t s c h i s t " t e c h n i q u e i n p o l i t i c s . The exiled German so-

c i o l o g i s t K a r l M a n n h e i m p o i n t s o u t : " F a s c i s m r e g a r d s e v e ry

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y a s a m e r e f i c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n

d e s t i n e d t o d i s a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e d e e d o f t h e m o m e n t a s i t

b r e a k s t h r o u g h t h e t e m p o r a l p a t t e r n o f h i s t o r y . "4 »

A c c o r d i n g t o S o r e l , a n y s o c i a l m o v e m e n t t o t a k e f i r m r o o t

m u s t m o b i l i z e n o n r a t i o n a l f o r c e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e m u s t s u b -

s t i t u te t h e m y t h i n p l a c e o f s c i e n t i f i c p r o gr a m s . A m i n o r i t y

w h i c h a c h i e v e s p o w e r w i l l h a v e t o u s e v i o l e n c e . D e s p i t e h i s

s y n d i c a l i s m , h e w a s b a s i c a l l y i n t e r e st e d o nl y i n t h e m i n o r i t y .

H e w a s n o t p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d t o b e t t e r w a g e s a n d w o r k -

i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t o d e v e lo p r a r e h e r o e s i n a c l a s s w a r . H e

h o p e d t h a t a n e w e l i t e w o u l d e m e r g e f r o m t h i s c o n f l i c t a n d

i n a u g u r a t e a v i r i l e c i v i l i z a t i o n .

V i l f r e d o P a r e t o i s c l o s e l y a l l i e d i n t h o u g ht t o b o th L e B o n

a n d S o r e l : i n a l l t h r e e t h e r e i s a n e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e e l i t e

a n d t h e n o n r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e . S i n c e w e h a v e d e a l t

w i t h P a r e t o ' s i d e a s i n s o m e d e t a i l , w e s h a l l c o n f i n e o u r s e l v es

t o h i s t h e o r y o f " t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e e l i t e , " w h i c h M u s -

s o l i n i h a s c a l l e d "t h e m o st e x t r a o r d i n a r y s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p -

t i o n o f m o d e r n t i m e s . "

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2 04 NO COMPROMISEA l l g o v e r nm e n t s , P a r e t o t h i n k s , a r e o l i g a r c h i c a l :

W e n e e d n o t l i n g e r o n t h e f i c t i o n o f " p o p u l a r r e p r e s e n ta t i o n "

- p o p p y c o c k g r i n d s n o f l o u r .. . . K i n g D e m o s , g o o d s ou l , t h i n k s

he is following his own devi c es . I n r e a l i t y h e i s f o l l o w i n g t h e l e a d

o f h i s r u l e r s . s o

T h e r u l er s a r e t h o s e wh o a r e a d e p t e i t h e r a t c h i c a n e r y o r a t

v i o l e n c e . Corresponding to these methods, two types of

e l i t e s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : t h e " l i o n s , " w h o em p l o y f o r c e , a n d

t h e " f o x e s , " w h o e m p l o y c u n n i n g . ( T h e ec o n o m i c e l i t e a r e

s i m i l a r l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h e c r a f t y a n d a d v e n t ur o u s "s p e c u -

l a t o r s , " a n d t h e c o n s er v a t i v e a n d i d e a l i s t i c " r e n ti e r s . " )

S o m e t i m e s o n e t y p e , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e o t h e r , i s d o m -

i n a n t . A g o v e r n i n g e l i t e w h i c h i s u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o u s e

f o r c e w i l l f a l l p r e y t o a d e t e r m i n e d a n d w e l l - o r g a n i z e d

m i n o r i t y w h i c h d o e s n ot h e s i t a t e t o s h e d b l o o d . T h e l i o n s

s e i z e p o w e r , a n d t h e c y c l e b e g i n s . B u t v i o l e n c e , a l t h o u g h

v e r y u s e f u l i n g a i n i n g c o n t r o l , i s l e s s v a l u a b l e t h a n c u n n i n g

i n p o l i t i c a l i n t ri g u e . H e n c e i n p e a c e t i m e t h o s e sk i l l f u l i n

" t h e a r t s o f b a m b o o z l i n g " f o r g e a h e a d : t h e f o x e s g r a d u a l l y

r e p l a c e t h e l i o n s . " T h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o b e s t k n o w s t h e a r t s

o f s a p p i n g t h e s t r en g t h of t h e f o e s o f ` g r a f t ' a n d o f w i n n i n g

b a c k b y f r a u d a n d d e c e i t w h a t s e e m e d t o h a v e b e e n s u r -

r e n d e r e d u nd e r p r e s s u r e o f f o r c e , i s n o w l e a d e r o f l e a d e r s . " 5 1

B u t t h e f a t a l t e n d e nc y o f t h e f o x e s i s p a s s i v e l y t o e n j o y t h e

f r u i t s o f i n t r i g u e , a n d t o s h i r k o r o v e r l oo k t h e n e c e s s i t y o f

v i o l e n t r e p r e s s i o n . When the rulers have thus grown too

e f f e m i n a t e , t h e m o r e t a l e nt e d a n d r e s o lu t e i n d i v i d u a l s i n

t h e s ub j e c t c l a s s , d i s l i k i n g t h e f r a u d s r i f e w i t h i n t h e S t a t e ,

l e a d a r e v o l t a g a i n s t t he f o x e s a n d v i o l e n tl y s e i z e p o w e r .

W i t h t h i s r e a s c e n d e n c y o f t h e l i o n s , t h e e n ti r e c y c l e b e g i n s

anew .

H i s t o r y i s t h u s g o v e r n e d , n o t b y a l i n e a r a n d p r o g r e s s i v e

e v o l u t i o n , b u t b y a " g r e a t l a w o f r h y t h m , " b r i n g i n g p e r i o d i c

c r i s e s . " T h e p e n d u l u m c o n t i n u e s s w i n g i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h

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1nr 11-1x . jitY Vr lrrir . r.Lllr . .;Vf r o m o n e e x t r e m e t o t h e o t h e r , i n d e f i n i t e l y . " 6 2 C o r r e s p o n d -

i n g t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n b e t we e n t h e li o n s a n d t h e f o x e s i s a n

o s c i l l a t i o n i n i d e o l o g i e s . T h e l i o n s a r e m e n o f f a i t h ; t h e y a r e

a n i m a t e d b y m y t h s a n d r e l i g i o u s i l l u s i o n s . T h e f ox e s , o n t h e

o t h er h a n d , a r e r e l a t i v e l y s c e p t i c a l i n r e s p e c t t o t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l m o r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s i d e a s . H e n c e w e c a n s p e a k o f a n

a l t e r na t i o n b e t w ee n " a g e s o f f a i t h " a n d " a g e s o f s c e p t i c i s m . "

T h e s h i f t o f f o r c e s c a n b e d e l a y e d o r n e u tr a l i z e d i f t h e

r u l i n g e li t e a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a w a k e a n d r e so l u te . They must

n o t b e b e g u i l e d b y " h u m a n i t a r i a n s e n t i m e n t s . " T h e f o x e s

c a n s t r e ng t h e n t he i r o w n r u l i n g c l a s s a n d w e a k e n t h e o p p o s i -

t i o n b y a d m i t t i n g i n t o t h e i r c o m p a n y t h e t a l e n t e d m e n i n

t h e s u bj e c t c l a s s w h o a r e d i s p o s e d t o u s e f o r c e . T h e g r e a t e s t

s t r e ng t h l i e s , n o t i n t h e e x c l u s i v e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f e i t h e r

f o r c e o r f r a u d , b u t i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h . "A humani-

t a r i a n a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t i s c l o s ed o r s t i f f l y e x c l u s i v e r ep r e s e n t s

t h e m a x i m u m o f i n s e c u r i t y . "53

W h e n t h e t h r e a t t o t h e r u l i n g c l a s s c o m e s f r o m m i l i t a r y

f o r c e s o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t ry , t h e d a n g e r a g a i n i s t h a t h u m a n i -

t a r i a n i s m m a y s a p t h e s tr e n gt h o f t h e S t a t e . " A n y p e o p l e

w h o s e h or r o r o f b l o o d wi l l h a v e a d v a n c e d t o t h e p o i n t t h a t

t h e y n o l o n g e r k n o w h o w t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s w i l l s o o n e r

o r l a t e r b e c o m e t h e p r e y o f a n y b e l l i c o s e p e o p l e . " 5 4 Hence

t h e " m o r a l i s t s " w h o f a v o r " t h e w e a k a n d h u m b l e . . . a t t h e

e x p e n s e o f t h e s t r o n g a n d e n e r g e t i c , w h o c o n s t i t u t e t h e

e l i t e , " a r e m e r e l y i n v i t i n g a " n e w c o n q u e s t b y n e w b a r -

b a r i a n s . "55

P a r e t o i n s i s t s t h a t h i s a r g u m e n t i s p e r f e c t l y o b j e c t i v e . I n

o n e p a s s a g e , h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c h o o s e o n

a n y b a s i s e x c e p t s e n t i m e n t b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l o f t h e " s u p e r -

m a n " a n d t h e i d e a l o f s o c i a l e q u a l i t y . 5 6 S i n c e h e a n n o u n c e s

t h a t n o n n o rm a t i v e s c i e n c e i s h i s e x c l u s i v e c o n c e r n , h e s h o u ld

i n c l i n e i n n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n ; a n d y e t i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o se e

t h a t h e i s c o n t e m p t u o u s of d e m o c r a c y a n d v i o l e n t l y o p p o s e d

t o h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m . I n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e p r a g m a t i c v a l u e o f

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2 06 NO COMPROMISEd e c e i t a n d v i o l e n c e , h e i s i n c o m p l e t e a c c o r d w i t h F a s c i s m .

H e i s i n f a c t a " s o ur e d " li b e r a l ; a l t h o u g h h e s t i l l l i k e s c e r -

t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e l i b e r a l i d e a l , h e r e g a r d s t he g o a l a s u n -

r e a l i z a b l e. I n b i t t e r di s i l l u s i o n , h e r e a c t s a g a i n s t d e m o c r a t i c

l i b e r a l i s m , a n d h a l f w e l c o m e s t h e " r i g i d a n d r e s t r i c t i v e " i n -

s t i t u t i o n s o f a n a p p r o a c h i n g " B y z a n t i n e " a g e . H e n o w c o u n t s

i t a f a u l t t h a t h e , a " s c i e n t i s t, " o n c e w a s i n f e c t e d w i t h " o n e

s h r e d o f f a i t h t h a t f i n d s i t s e x p r e s s i o n i n a c e r t a i n s e n t i -

m e n t a l l e a n i n g i n f a v o u r o f f r e e d o m . " 6 7

H i s p e s s i m i s t i c o u t l o o k i s r e e n f o r c e d b y h i s c o n v i c t i o n

t h a t h u m a n na t u r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y u n a l t e r a b l e ; t h e b a s i c t y p e s

o f b e h a v i o r , h e t h i n k s , a r e i n v a r i a n t i n a l l e n v i r o n m e n t a l

a n d s o c i a l s e t t i n g s . S i n c e o n l y t h e e x t e r na l t r a p p i n g s c h a n g e ,

there can be no hope of any fundamental a melioration of

the huma n lot. T h e r e i s o s c i l l a t i o n , b u t n o g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s :

" C h a n g e o f r e g i m e b r i n g s a b o u t a c h a n g e o f t h e p r i v i l e g e d ,

b u t d o e s no t a b o l i s h t h e p r i v i l e g e . " 5 8 T h e h o p e o f e s t a b l i s h -

i n g a j u s t a n d d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y i s s h e er i l l u s i o n :

U n f o r t u na t e l y , t h i s true r e v o l u ti o n , t h a t s h o u l d b r i n g t o m a n -

k i n d u n m i x e d g o o d , i s o n l y a d e c e i v i n g m i r a g e , t h a t n e v e r b e-

c o m e s a r e a l i t y ; i t r e s e m b l e s t he G o l d e n A g e o f t h e M i l l e n ni u m ;

a l w a y s e x p e c t e d , i t a l w a y s l o s e s i t s e l f i n t h e m o rn i n g m i s t s , i t a l -

w a y s e l u d e s t h e f a i t h f u l a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n t h ey e x p e c t t o

g r a s p i t . 5 s

S i m i l a r i d e a s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d b y t w o o t h e r i n f l u e n t i a l

I t a l i a n t h i n k e r s , G a e t a n o M o s c a a n d R o b e r t M i c h e l s . M o s c a ,

a f a m o u s p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f R o m e , s p e a k s o f " t h e

f a l s i t y o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e g e nd , " w h i c h d i s t i n g ui s h e s b e -

tween "government by the few" and "government by the

m a n y . " I n r e a l i t y , a l l g o v e r n m en t s a r e o f t h e f i r s t c l a s s , s i n c e

t h e f e w e v e r y w h e r e d o m i n a t e b y r e a s o n o f t h e i r w e a l t h a n d

i n t e l l i g e n c e . " T h e w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y , " a s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g

f o r c e i n s o - c a l l e d d e m o c r a c i e s , i s n o t h i n g b ut a f i c t i o n , c o n -

s c i o u s l y f o s t e r ed b y t h e m i n o r i t y w h o p r o f i t b y i t . T h e v o t e r

i s a p a w n of b i g i n t e re s ts : h e h a s o nl y a l i m i t e d c h o i c e a t t he

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 207

b a l l o t b o x , a n d a s m a l l i n f l u e n t i a l g r o u p c o n t r o l s th e n e w s-

papers and electoral propaganda . Indeed, no thoroughly

d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m i s d e s i r a b l e , s i n c e t h e c u l t i v a t e d a n d " t h e

middle class" are superior to the masses . A r i s t oc r a c i e s ,

though sometimes superior, do not last ; a new minority

a r i s e s t o d r i v e o u t t h e o l d . T h e e t e r n a l s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n

" a r i s t o c r a c y " a n d " d e m o c r a c y " a r e r e a l l y c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n

r i v a l m i n o r i t i e s .

A number of Mosca's concepts are roughly p arallel to

t h o s e o f N i e t z s c h e , L e B o n , S o r e l , a n d P a r e t o . L i k e t h e s e

t h i n k e r s , h e s p e a k s o f t h e p r a g m a t i c v a l u e o f " u n i v e r s a l i l l u -

s i o n s " a n d " g r e a t su p e r s t i t i o n s , " w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y t o c o n -

s o l i d a t e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d u n i f y p e o p l e s o r e v e n

w h o l e c i v i l i z a t i o n s ." Like his antidemocratic contempo-

r a r i e s , h e r e c o g n i z e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f f o r c e a s " t h e q u i c k e s t

m e a n s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o n v i c t i o n " a n d o f i n s u r i n g t h e p r e -

d o m i n a n c e o f a r u l i n g c l a s s . 6 1 H i s c o n c e p t o f " t h e ru l i n g c l a s s "

o r " p o l i t i c a l c l a s s " i s s i m i l a r t o t h e i d e a o f t h e " e li t e " a s d e -

veloped by Sorel, P areto, and others . Like Le Bon and

P a r e t o , h e i s h o s t i l e t o d e m o c r a t i c c o l l e c t i v i s m . " S o c i a l

d e m o c r a c y , " h e a s s e r t s , " i s m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e t h e i n -

t e l l e c t u a l m a l a d y o f o u r a g e . " 6 2 F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , h e e x -

pressed ideas which were "in the air," but in advancing

t h e s e do c t r i n e s a s e a r l y a s 1 8 9 5 , h e w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t t o

g i v e t h e m w i d e c u r r e n c y .

A n e x p a n d e d e d i t i o n o f h i s m a s t e r p i e c e , t h e Elements o fPolitical Science, ap peared in 1923 . Although in this new

e d i t i o n h e s ti l l o p p o s e s u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e a n d s o c i a l d e m o c -

r a c y , h e i s m u c h m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n a s u b s e q u e n t a d d r es s , h e r e f e r s t o d i c t a t o r -

s h i p a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y e x p e d i e n t :

I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e r e m a y b e m o m e n ts i n t h e li f e o f n a t i o n s

i n w h i c h a t e m p o r a r y a b s o l u t i s m m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a v e a

c o u n t r y f r o m a n a r c h y . B u t i f a p e o p l e o f E u r op e a n c u l t u r e a c -

q u i e s c e d d e f i n i t e l y i n t h i s f o r m o f g o v e r nm e n t t h a t w o ul d b e a n

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2 0 8 NO COMPROMISEi n d i c a t i o n o f p r o f o u n d i n t e l l e c t u a l d e c a d e n c e , w h i c h i n t h e l o n g

r u n m u s t ne c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e t h e d e c a d e n c e o f e v e r y o t h e r f o r m

o f h u m a n a c t i v i t y . 6 3

T h i s s t a t e m e n t , u t t e r e d a f t e r 1 1 D u c e w a s s o l i d l y i n t r e n c h e d ,

s u g g e s t s t h a t M o s c a h a d m i s g i v i n g s a s t o t h e f u t u r e u n d e r

F a s c i s m .

Another famous academic critic of democracy, Robert

M i c h e l s , w h o h a s b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l i n G e r m a n y a s w e l l a s i n

I t a l y , s p e a k s o f a n " i r o n l a w o f o l i g a r c h y , " w h i c h p e r m i t s a

t r a n s f e r, b u t n e v e r a n a b o l i t i o n , o f u n de m o c r a t i c p r i v i l e ge s .

" T h e m o s t f o r m i d a b l e a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f

t h e m a s s e s , " h e m a i n t a i n s , " i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m e c h a n i c a l

a n d t e c h ni c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s r ea l i z a t i o n . " 6 4 The neces-

s i t y f o r e x p e r t l e a d e rs h i p r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d s p e -

c i a l i z a t i o n , i n t u rn , i m p l i e s a u t ho r i t y . " E v e r y h u m a n p o w e r , "

m o r e o v e r , " s e e k s t o e n l a r g e i t s p r e r o g a t i v e s ." Hence the

r u l e r s w i l l w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e m a s s e s , a n d b u i l d d e f e n s i v e

r a m p a r t s t o s a f e g u a r d t h e i r p o w e r .6 5

The attack upon democracy is certainly not limited to

c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . I f a n y o n e t hi n k s t h a t t h e F a s c i s t t h eo r y

o f t h e e l i t e i s a l i e n t o E n g l a n d , l e t h i m p o n d e r t he w o r k o f

Thoma s Carlyle . " T h e H i s t o r y o f t h e W o r l d , " C a r l y l e c o n -

t e n d e d , " w a s t h e B i o g r a p h y o f G r e a t M e n . " H e n c e t h e p a r a -

p h e r n a l i a o f d e m o c r a c y i s i n h e r e n t l y a b s u r d :

F i n d i n a n y c o u n t r y t h e A b l e s t M a n t h a t e x i s t s t h e r e ; r a i s e

h i m t o t h e s u p r e m e p l a c e , a n d l o y a l l y r e v e r e n c e h i m : y o u h a v e a

p e r f e c t g o v e r n m e n t f o r th a t c o u n t r y ; n o b a l l ot - b o x , p a r l i a m e n -

t a r y e l o q u e n c e , v o t i n g , c o n s t i t u t i o n - b u i l d i n g , o r o th e r m a c h i n e r y

w h a t s o ev e r c a n i m p r o v e i t a w h i t . I t i s t h e p e r f e c t s t a t e ; a n i d e a l

c o u n t r y . T h e A b l e s t M a n ; h e m e a n s a l s o t h e t r u es t - h e a r t e d , j u s t -

e s t , t h e N o b l es t M a n ; w h a t h e t e l l s u s t o d o m u s t b e p r e c i s e l y t h e

w i s e s t , f i t t e s t , t h a t w e c o u l d a n y w h e r e o r a n y h o w l e a r n ; - t h e

t h i n g w h i c h i t w i l l i n a l l w a y s b e h o v e us , w i t h r i g h t l o y a l t h a n k -

f u l n e s s , a n d n o t h i n g d o u b t i n g , t o d o t O u r doing a n d l i f e w e r e

t h e n , s o f a r a s g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d r eg u l a t e i t , w e l l r e g u l a t e d ; t h a t

w e r e t he i d e a l o f c o n s t i t u t i o n s . 6 6

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 209

Hence "the few Wise" must "take comm and of the Innu-

m e r a b l e F o o l i s h , " l e s t " W i s d o m , " " V a l o r , " a n d " h e ro i c N o b l e -

n e s s " b e s u b m e r g e d b y m e d i o c r i t y . The "Ableman" is the

m a n o f s t r o n g f a i t h a n d r e s o l u t e w i l l . I n t e l l ec t u a l i t y , o n t h e

o t h er h a n d , i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f d e c a d e n c e : " M a n i s s e n t

h i t h e r n o t t o q u e s t i o n b u t t o w o r k : ` t h e e n d o f m a n , ' i t w a s

l o n g a g o w r i t t en , ' i s a n A c t i o n , n o t a T h o u g h t . ' " 8 7 There

h a s b e e n n o l a c k o f E n g l i s h m e n t o c a r r y o n t h i s t r a d i t i o n o f

a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m a n d " he r o w or s h i p . "

D e m o c r a c y i s s u b j e c t t o a t t a c k n o t o n l y i n E u r o p e , b u t i n

e v e r y d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t ry . S o m e a t t a c k o p e n l y , s o m e c o v e r t l y .

I n A m e r i c a , m a n y o f t h e e ne m i e s o f d e m o c r a c y s p e a k i n i t s

n a m e . W e s h o u l d a p p l y t o s u c h p e o p l e t h e w o rd s o f E m e r -

s o n : " W h a t y o u a r e s p e a k s s o l ou d th a t I c a n n o t h e a r w ha t

y o u s a y . " T h e r e a r e o t h e r s wh o s e w o rd s , i f a n a l y z e d , i n d i -

c a t e t h e i r i n t e n t i o ns . I n t h e wr i t i n g s o f m e n l i k e M a d i s o n

G r a n t , L o t h r o p S t o d d a r d , T h o m a s N i x o n C a r v e r , L a w r e n c e

Dennis, and Walter B . P i t k i n , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o di s c e r n

" t h e l o o m i n g s h a d o w o f F a s c i s m " o v e r t h e d e m o c r a c i e s . " "

I n a l l c o u n tr i e s t h e r ef r a i n i s t h e s a m e : " O n l y t h e f e w a r e

w i s e , n o b l e , h e r o i c . O n l y th e f e w c a n r ul e . W h a t i s n e e de d

i s d y n a m i c a c t i o n . "

4 . C r i t i c i s m o f t h e F a s c i s t E l i t e

W e h a v e n o w m a d e a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h e u n s u i t a b i l i t y o f

F a s c i s m a s a m e a n s o f r e a l i z i n g d e m oc r a c y , i n t e l l ec t u a l " a r i s -

t o c r a c y , " o r , b y i m p l i c a t i o n , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t w o . A n y

f u r t h e r c r i t i c i s m c a n b e re s t r i c t e d t o p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e

F a s c i s t t h eo r y o f t h e e l i t e i n v o l v e s a n u m b er o f d i f f i c u l t i e s

a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e F a s c i s t s d e m a n d a n e li t e , y e t r e j e c t

a l l o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e s u p e r i o r i n d i -

v i d u a l s . T he y i ns i st th a t t he re i s no s c i e n c e o f v a l u es , n o un i -

v e r s a l a n d o b j e c t i v e s t a n d a r d s w h e r e b y e x c e l l e n c e c a n b e

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2 1 0 NO COMPROMISEmea sured . I n d e e d, t h i s i s a p t t o b e t h e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h a l l s e lf -

s t y l e d e li t e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t a t b e s t t o d em o n s t ra t e t h a t t h e s el f -

e l e c te d a re t h e t r u e el i t e , a n d i t i s i m p o s s i b l e s o t o de m o n -

s t r a t e i f o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a o f m e a s u r em e n t a r e r e j e c t e d . T o

m a n y o f u s , M u s s o l i n i a n d H i t l e r a p p e a r t o b e m e r e " s a w d u s t

C a e s a r s , " r e m a r k a b l e o n l y f o r a n a r r o w a n d u n de s i r a b l e r a n g e

o f a b i l i t i e s . T h e F a s c i s t s c a n n o t r a t i o n a l l y o p p o s e t h i s o p i n -

i o n , s i n c e t h e y a d m i t n o o b j e c t i v e b a s i s f o r j u d g m e n t ; u l t i -

m a t e v a l u e j u d g m e n t s a r e f o r t h e m m e r e m a t t e r s o f s e n t i -

m e n t o r b i a s . ( S e e C h a p t e r s I I I a n d I V . )

T o b e c o n s i s t e n t , t h e y s h o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e r e i s n o

a u t h o r i t a t i v e o p i n i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a l u e o f a n y g i v e n p e r -

s o n a l i t y . T h e r e i s o n l y t h e o p i n i o n o f t h i s p e r s o n o r t h a t ; o r

t h e op i n i o n o f p e r s o n s o f s o m e sp e c i f i e d s o rt . A n y c h o i c e o f

t h e " s u p e r i o r " f r o m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t i s p u r e l y a r b i t r a r y . On

t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e F a s c i s t s r e a l l y d o m e a n t h a t t h e i r

" e l i t e " a r e t r u l y a n d o b j e c t i v e l y s u p e r i o r , t h e y s h o u ld b e p r e -

p a r e d t o s t a t e a n d i n s o m e m e a s u r e j u s t i f y t h e i r o w n c r i t e r i a .

B u t t h e y h a v e n e v e r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n e d h o w i t i s p o s -

s i b l e t o s e l ec t s u c h a g e n u i n e e l i t e , w h o i s q u a l i f i e d t o s e le c t

t h e m , a n d w h a t a r e t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b o t h o f t h e s e l e c t o r s

a n d o f t h e s e l e c t e d .

I n p r a c t i c e , t h e y d e p e n d u p o n m e r e e x t e r n a l i s t i c i n d i c a -

t i o n s of " s u p e r i o r i t y , " c h i e f l y r a c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c . B u t t h e se

c r i t e r i a , b e s i d e s b e i n g i n h e r e n t l y u n c o n v i n c i n g , s o m e t i m e s

c o n f l i c t : f o r o n o n e b a s i s , a m a n m a y b e a d j u d g e d s u p e r i o r ,

a n d o n t h e o t h e r b a s i s , i n f e r i o r . T h e N a z i s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e w e a l t h y g e n e r a l l y d e s e r v e t h e i r w e a l t h , b e -

c a u s e t h e i r e c o n o m i c s t a t u s a t t e s t s t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y . 6 9 Y e t

t h e y a l s o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e J e w s a r e " s u b - m e n , " w h o d e s e r v e

t o b e a b u s e d . A c c o rd i ng t o th e ra c i a l s ta n da r d, J e w s , whether

w e a l t h y o r n o t, a r e i n n a t e l y i n f e r i o r ; b u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

e c o n o m i c s t a n d a r d , w e a l t h y J e w s a r e i n n a t e l y s u p e r i o r .

I f t h e N a z i s m a i n t a i n t h a t w ea l t h i s a s u f f i c i e n t i nd i c a t i o n

o f s u p e r i o r i t y , t h e y s h o ul d n o t p e r s ec u t e r i c h J e w s ; a n d t h ey

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 211

s h o u l d a d m i t t h a t a m a n m a y b e a J e w a n d y e t b e t h e s a l t o f

t h e e a r th . O n t h e o t h e r ha n d , i f " A r y a n s " m e r e ly a s s u c h a r e

i n n a t e l y s u p e r i o r , a n d p o v e r t y i s n o i n d i c a t i o n t o t h e c o n -

t r a r y , t h e y s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d l i k e s u p e r i o r b e i n g s . I n s te a d ,

t h e N a z i s o p p o s e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a g e n u i n e c l a s s l e s s so -

c i e t y e v e n a m o n g t h e " A r y a n s , " m a n y o f w h o m a r e d r e a d -

f u l l y p o o r a n d e x p l o i t e d .

A d m i t t e d l y , i f b e i n g " A r y a n " a n d b e i n g w e a l t h y a r e n o t

r e g a r d e d a s each a s u f f i c i e n t c r i t e r i o n o f s u p e r i o ri t y , b u t

r a t h e r a s m e r e i n d i c a t o r s w i t h i n a c e r t a i n r a n g e o f p r o b a -

b i l i t y , t h e r e i s n o f o r m a l c o n t ra d i c t i o n i n t h e N a z i p o i n t o f

v i e w . Y e t o n e s u s p e c t s t h a t t h e N a z i s a n d o t h e r F a s c i s t s w h o

s h a r e t h i s v i e w p o i n t h a v e n o t r e a l l y t h o u g h t o u t t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i r r a c i a l t h e o ry a n d t h e i r c l a s s t h e or y . O n e

t h e or y t e n d s t o r ef u t e , a n d i n p r a c t i c e t o c o n f l i c t w i t h , t h e

o t h e r .

I n a n y e v e n t, t h e i r t h e o ry o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n

o f t h e e li t e c o n f l i c t s w i t h th e i r o w n v e r y e f f e c t i v e p r a c t i c e o f

s o c i a l r e g i m e n t a t i o n . V e r b a l l y t h e y r e c o g n i z e t h e m os t e x -

t r e m e s o r t o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e rm i n i s m . M u s s o l i n i h a s s p o k e n

o f t h e " i m m u t a b l e " i n e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n p e o p l e o f v a r i o u s

r a n k s , a n d W a l t h e r D a r r e , a t y p i c a l N a z i , s p e a k s o f " t h e

h e r e di t a r y i n e q u a l i t y o f h u m a n b e i n g s . " S i m i l a r l y H i t l e r r e-

p e a t e d l y r e f e r s t o " t h e b a s i c a r i s t o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e i n n a t u r e , "

w h e r eb y c e r t a i n r a c e s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s a r e c o n g e ni t a l l y s u -

p e r i o r .

Y e t t h e F a s c i s t s a l s o b o a s t o f t h e w o n d e r s t h e y c a n p e r f o r m

w i t h p r o p a g a n d a a n d o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l s . I n d e ed ,

n o o n e h a s m o r e c o m p l e t e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p o w e r o f i n -

s t i t u t i o ns i n t h e m o l d i n g o f c h a r a c t e r t h a n t h e F a s c i s t s .

W h a t e v e r w e m a y t h i n k o f t h e i r m e t h od s o t h er w i s e , w e m u s t

g r a n t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e i r p r o p a g a n d a a n d r e g i m e n t a -

t i o n . I f n i n e t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f a n a t i o n ' s e l e c t o ra t e c a n b e

g o t t o v o t e f o r H i t l e r , t h e r e w o u l d s e em t o b e a l m o s t n o l i m i t

t o t h e m a l l ea b i l i t y o f h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . The tremendous

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2 1 2 NO COMPROMISEt r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n n a t i o n a l l i f e w h i c h t h e F a s c i s t s ha v e b e e n

a b l e t o a c h i e v e i s t h e b e st r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e i r c o n t e n ti o n t h a t

h u m a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y i n b o r n . We can

t h a n k t h e F a s c i s t s f o r d em o n s t r a t i n g t h a t a s e r v i l e s o c i e t y ,

s u c h a s t h e y h a v e c r e a t e d , a n d b y i m p l i c a t i o n i t s op p o s i t e ,

a r e d e t e r m i n e d m a i n l y b y n o n c o n g e n i t a l f a c t o r s . 7 0

I n w o r k i n g o u t t he i r d o c t r i n e s o f a b i o l o g i c a l e l i t e t h e y

have completely broken with Christianity, which most of

t h e m s t i l l p r o f e s s . T h e E ng l i sh h i s t o ri a n , A r n ol d J . T o y n b e e ,

comments as follows upon their "newfangled" division of

m a n k i n d u p o n t h e b a s i s o f p h y s i c a l r a c e a s o p p o s e d t o " t h e

C h r i s t i a n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y f a i t h a n d wo r k s " :

T h i s n e w c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w a s m a n i f e s t l y b o th l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t a n d

l e ss h u m a n e t ha n t h e h i s t or i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h i c h i t c l a i m e d t o

s u p e r s e d e : l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e t h e c o l o u r o f t h e s k i n o r t h e

s l a n t o f t h e n os t r i l s i s a l e s s i m p o r t a n t f a c t a b o u t a n y h u m a n

b e i n g t h a n h i s b e l i e f s a n d b e h a v i o u r ; l e s s h u m a n e b e c a u s e t h e

l e o p a r d c a n n o t c h a n g e h i s s p o t s n o r t h e E t h i o p i a n h i s s k i n , s o

t h a t d i v i s i o n s b a s e d o n m a r k s o f p h y s i c a l r a c e a r e i n s u r m o un t -

a b l e , w h e r e a s t h e u n b e l i e v e r a n d t h e e v i l - d o e r a r e n e v e r b e y o n d

r e a c h o f s p i r i t u a l c o n v e r s i o n so l o n g a s t h e y l i v e , s o t h a t d i v i s i o n s

b a s e d o n r e l i g i o u s a n d e t h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s d o n ot d e n y o r r ul e

o u t t he u l t i m a t e u n i t y o f M a n k i n d i n t h e f a t h e r h oo d o f o n e G o d -

h e a d .7 1

S i m i l a r l y o p p o s e d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f s p i r i t u a l

e q u a l i t y i s t h e F a s c i s t d o c t r i n e th a t t h e " e li t e " i n t h e f a m i l y

c i r c l e i s t h e m a n a s h e a d o f t h e f a m i l y . H e r e a g a i n a b i o -

l o g i c a l d i f f e r en c e i s m a d e d e c i s i v e , a n d r i g h t s a r e n o t eq u i -

t a b l y s h a r e d i n a n i d e a l l y C h r i s t i a n f a s h i o n .

S u c h r a c i a l a n d m a l e c h a u v i n i s m i s n o l e s s o p p o s e d t o t h e

t h e o r y o f S o c i a l i s m . I n K a r l M a r x , t h e g re a t e st o f S o c i a l i s t s ,

t h e do c t r i n e o f t h e u l t i m a t e s o l i d a r i t y o f m a n k i n d i s f u n d a -

mental . I n d e e d , ge n u i n e S o c i a l i s t s ev e r y w h e r e a r e op p o s e d t o

r a c i a l a n d s e x d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d t o a n " i m m u t a b l e " a n d

p r i v i l e g ed e l i t e . The Fascists, when they call themselves

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 2 13

C h r i s t i a n s a n d S o c i a l i s t s , a r e ei t h e r i g n o ra n t o r hy p o c r i t i c a l .

T h e y h a v e n e v e r b o t h e re d t o b e r e a l l y c o n s i s t e n t .

T h e g r ea t e s t o f t h e i n c o n s i s t e nc i e s o f F a s c i s m , h o w e v er , i s

t h a t b e t w e en i t s p r o m i s e s a n d i t s p e r f o r m a n c e s . T h e " l e a d -

e r s " h a v e p r o m i s e d g l o r i o u s t h i n g s : p e a c e , p r o s p e r i t y , t h e

e n d o f c l a s s s t r u gg l e , t h e r e v i v a l o f n a t i o n a l h o n o r , t h e r e n a i s -

s a n c e o f c u l t u r e . S o f a r a s p r o m i s e s g o, F a s c i s m i s m a r v e l o u s ;

y e t i n o p e r a t i o n F a s c i s t "t i m o c r a c y " i s e s s e n ti a l y i l l i b e r a l a n d

d e s tr u c t i v e .

T h e o v er e m p h a s i s u p o n m i l i t a r y v i r t u e s i s a p o o r w a y t o

r e i n v i g o r a t e ou r c i v i l i z a t i o n . A r n o l d J . T o y n b e e , a u t h o r o f

t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e s u rv e y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n s e v e r a t t e m p t e d, i n -

d i c a t e s h ow d a n g e r ou s i s t h e " t i m o c r a t i c " w a y o f l i f e . H i s

s t u dy o f a n c i e n t S p a r t a a n d k i n d r e d s o c i e t i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t

" c a s t e " a n d " s p e c i a l i z a t i o n " a r e th e b a s i c f a c t o r s i n t h e a r r e s t

o f c u l t u r a l g r o w t h . W h e n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c o m e s t o o

r i g i d l y h i e r a r c h i c a l , a n d c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l a p t i t u d e s b e c o m e

g r e a t l y o v e r d e v e l o p e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o t h e r s, t h e p r o c e s s e s

o f g r o w th a r e i n t e r ru p t e d , a n d d e c a y s e t s i n . F o r t he sa k e of

a r o u t i n i z e d e f f i c i e n c y a n d a r i g i d d i s c i p l i n e , l i k e t h a t o f

a n a r m y o r a n a n t h i l l , s o c i e t i e s a t t i m e s s u r re n d er a l i v e n e s s ,

v e r sa t i l i t y , a n d s e ns i t i v e n es s . O f a l l t h e t y p e s o f s p e c i a l i z a -

t i o n , t h e o v e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s o l d i e r l y c a s t o f m i n d i s

t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s . T o y n b e e r e a c h e s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

m i l i t a r i s m i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a u s e o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f

c i v i l i z a t i o n s . 7 2 E v e n S p e n g l e r , w h o y e a r n s f o r a r e t u r n o f

C a e s a r i s m , i n d i c a t e s t h a t c u l tu r e s d i e a m i d a f a n f a r e o f m i l i -

t a r i s m . S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s a r e r e a c h e d b y S i r W i l l i a m F l i n -

d er s P et ri e i n h i s R e v o l u ti o n s o f C i v i l i z a t i o n , and by Gibbon

i n h i s Decline and Fall of the Roma n Emp ire .

H e n c e r e p u t a b l e h i s t o r i a n s d o n o t a g r e e w i t h G o r i n g w h e n

h e s a y s t h a t " t h e A r m y a n d N a v y h a v e a l w a y s s y m b o l i z e d t h e

s t r e n g t h o f a p e o p l e . " 73A c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t h a s c o n c e n tr a t e d

i t s m a j o r e f f o r t u p o n t h e te c h n i q u e o f d e s t ru c t i o n i s i n h e r -

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2 14 NO COMPROMISEe n t l y r o t t e n , a n d c a n n o t s u r v i v e . I t i s d o ub t f u l i f m i l i t a r y

a u t h o ri t a r i a n i s m , a s a p e r m a n e n t ty p e o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

i s d e s i r a b l e e v e n f o r t h e p u r p o s es o f w a r . " E v er s i nc e t he b e-

g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t e e nt h c e n t u r y , " B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l p o i n t s

o u t , " v i c t o r y i n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t w a r h a s g o n e t o th e s i d e t h a t

h a d t h e m o s t n ea r l y d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . " 7 4 Modern war-

f a r e , w h i c h i n v o l v es a n e x p e r t h a n d l i n g of d i f f i c u l t t ec h n i c a l

a p p a r a t u s , r e q u i r e s a n a d a p t a b i l i t y a n d a n i n t e l l i g e n t i n i -

t i a t i v e t h a t F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s h i p d o e s n ot c u l t i v a t e . T h e r e c e n t

v i c t o r i e s i n E t h i o p i a a n d S p a i n d o n o t p r o v e t h e c o n t r a r y ,

s i n c e t h e i m p l e m e n t s o f w a r h a v e b e e n t o o u n e v e n l y d i v i d e d ,

a n d t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t s t oo d e s p e r a t e l y s h o r t o f s u p p l i e s , t o t e st

t h e f i g h t i n g q u a l i t i e s o f F a s c i s t m a n p o w e r .

E v e n i f F a s c i s m s h o u l d " w i n " i n a f u t u r e w o r l d w a r , t h e

v i c t o r y w o u l d g o t o t h e s t r o n g a n d n o t t o t h e w i s e . T h e s o l -

d i e r l y c a s t o f m i n d i s a r e a l c u l t u r a l m e n a c e w h e n i t d o m i -

n a t e s b e y o n d i t s r i g h t f u l s p h e r e . As Benedetto Croce has

remarked :

M i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e h a s i t s f u n c t i o n o n l y a s o n e a s p e c t o f t h e

s o c i a l o rd e r . I f i n s t ea d o f b e i n g c o n ta i n e d w i t h i n t h e s o c i e t y , i t

i s i t s e l f t h e c o n t a i n i n g b o d y o r i s c o e x t e n s i v e w i t h s o c i e t y , i t c a n

n o l o n ge r b e c a l l e d m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e , b u t i s a g e ne r a l p r o c e s s

o f f o s t e r i n g u n i v e r s a l st u p i d i t y . A n a r t i s t w i t h t he f a c e o f a c o r -

p o r a l , a s c i e n t i s t w i t h th a t o f a s e r ge a n t , a p o l i t i c i a n w h o wa i t s f o r

h i s o r d e r s a n d b l i n d l y c a r r i e s t h e m o u t , i s n o lo n g e r a n a r t i s t , a

s c i e n t i s t o r a p o l i t i c i a n , b u t a n i m b e c i l e . 7 5

T h e b li g h t i n g e f f e c t o f s u c h a u t h o r i t a r i a n d o m i n a t i o n i s o b -

v i o u s u n d er F a s c i s t ru l e . T h e a t t e nd a n c e a t u n i v e r s i t i e s h a s

f a l l e n o f f g r e a t l y , f e w n o t a b l e w o r k s o f a r t a r e b e i n g c r e a t e d ,

b o t h a r t i s t s a n d s c i e n t i s t s ha v e f l e d t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s i n

g r e a t n u m b e r s , e x c e l l e n t b o o k s a n d a r t w o r k s a r e b u r n e d a n d

c o n f i s c a t e d , a n d m e n r e v e r t t o p r i m i t i v e t r i b a l i s m i n m a n y

f o r m s o f p r e j u d i c e a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n .

E v e n P l a t o ' s i d e a l S t a t e , w e m u s t a d m i t , e x h i b i t s s o m e of

t h e d e f e c t s o f F a s c i s t a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . The fundam ental

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THE THEORY OF THE ELITE 215

e r r o r i n h i s p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y i s t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t a r i s -

t o c r a t i c a n d d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s a r e i r r e c o n c i l a b l e . T h i s m i s -

t a k e l e d h i m t o a d v o c a t e a s h a r p d i v i s i o n o f t h e b o d y p o l i t i c

i n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r - k i n g s , t h e s o l di e r - p o l i c e , a n d t h e s u b j e c t

c l a s s . A s a r e s u l t , h i s U t o p i a , w i t h i t s c e n s o r s h i p a n d c l a s s

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , e x h i b i t s a r i g i d i t y a l m o s t a s u nh e a l t h y a s F a s -

c i s m . T o s a f e g u a r d h i s v a l i d a r i s t o c r a t i c i d e a l , w e m u s t t h e r e -

f o r e c o m b i n e i t w i t h a m o r e d e m o c r a t i c s e t o f v a l u e s . " A r i s -

tocratic" values must be brought to the people through

e d u c a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d d e m o c r a c y m u s t

l e a r n i n t e ll i g e n t l y t o p l a n a n d m a k e u s e o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t s .

I n d e e d , c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i l l p r o b a b l y f o r c e d em o c r a t i c g o v e r n -

m e n t s t o d o s o ; t h e y a r e n o w i n t h e v er y g r a v e s t d a n g e r, a n d

t h e y c a n n o t s a f e g u a r d t h e i r f u t u r e w i t h o u t s h r e w d a n d d e e p -

l a i d p l a n s . T h e p l a n n e r s , o f c o u r s e , m u s t b e s u b j e c t t o d e m -

o c r a t i c c h e c k s a n d r e sp o n s i b i li t i e s .

P l a t o w a s r i g h t , h o w e v e r , i n r e j e c t i n g t h e " t i m o c r a t i c "

i d e a l . I n c o m p a r i s o n , t h e i d e a l s o f d e m o c r a t i c s h a r i n g a n d

s c i e n t i f i c c o n t r o l a r e v i t a l a n d b e ne f i c e n t . When we coolly

a n a l y z e t h e na t u r e o f F a s c i s m , w e a r e i n c l i n e d t o ho n o r m o re

t h a n f o r m e r l y t h e a i m s o f o u r p r e d e c e s s o r s . W e s e e t h a t i n t e l -

l i g e n c e a n d k i n d l i n e s s ha v e l o s t n o n e o f t h e i r l i f e - g i v i n g v i r -

t u e , w h e r e a s F a s c i s m h a s " d r u n k e n o f t h i n g s L e t h e a n , a n d

f e d o n t h e f u l l n e s s o f d e a t h . "

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VII

RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUALUpright governments have liberty as their aim, that men m ay live

for themselves ; not citizens for the sake of the consuls, nor a peop le

f o r a k i n g , b u t c o n v e r s e ly , c o n s u l s f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e c i t i z e n s , a n d a

king for his people.-DANTE ALIGHIERI1

1 . The Collapse of Traditional LiberalismSINCE t h e S t a t e e x e r c i s e s t he m a i n c o e r c i v e p o w e r i n m o d e r n

s o c i e t y , a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t eu l o g i z e s f o r c e a n d g l o ri f i e s a m i l i -

t a r i s t i c e l i t e c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o l a u d t h e v i r t u e s o f a n a u -

t h o ri t a r i a n S t a t e . T h e r e by t h e b l a c k j a c k i s l e g a l i z e d , t h e r u le

o f t h e e l i t e i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , a n d t h e i d e a l o f l i b e r a l i s m i s

c a s t u p o n t h e j u n k h e a p .

T h e F a s c i s t s a r e n o t a l o n e i n a b a n d o n i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

t h e o r y o f l i b e r a l i s m . T h e " P o p u l a r F r o n t " m o v e m e n t , t h e

" N e w D e a l , " F a s c i s m , S o c i a l i s m , C o m m u n i s m , i n v o l v e a d e -

p a r t u r e f r o m t h e o l d e r l i b e r a l i s m . T h e re a r e st i l l re m n a n ts

o f t h e a n c i e n t f a i t h i n E n g l a n d a n d t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t

m o s t p e o p l e f e e l t h a t t h e s e " l i b e r a l " f o r c e s a r e s t r u g g l i n g f o r

a l o s i n g c a u s e .

T h e tr a d i t i o n a l l i b e r a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e S t a t e i s f o r

t h e sa k e o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t i n t e r f e r e n c e ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p u r s ui t o f w e a l t h . I t s v a l u e c o n s i s t s i n s a f e -

g u a r d i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c s y s t e m o f s o c i a l a n d p r o p e r ty r e -

l a t i o n s . T h i s t h e o r y o f t h e S t a t e a r o s e w h e n b u s i n e s s w a s

s t r u g gl i n g t o f r e e i t s e l f f r o m t h e t r a m m e l s o f f e u d a l i s m a n d

m o n a r c h i c a l a b s o l ut i s m . I t r e p r e s e n t s , a s L a s k i h a s s a i d , " t h e

p h i l o s o p h y o f a b u s i n e ss c i v i l i z a t i o n . "

T h e n a t u re o f t r a d i t i o n a l l i b e r a l i s m i s i n d i c a t e d b y i t s

s p o k e s m e n . " T h e g r e a t a n d c h i e f e n d " o f g o v e r n m e n t , d e -

c l a r e d J o h n L o c k e , i s " t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n " o f " p r o p e r t y . " 2 H e

i n c l u d e s u n d er " p r o p e r t y , " i t i s t r u e, n o t o n l y m e n ' s " e s t a t e s , "

b u t a l s o t h e i r " li v e s " a n d " l i b e r t i e s . " T h e r e i s m u c h t o i n d i -

216

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 2 17

c a t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t h e w a s e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t he

" l i be r ty " o f b u s i n es s e nt e rp r i s e . A c a p i t a l i s t i c s y s t e m , A d a m

S m i t h l i k e w i s e a n n o u n c e d , i s a l m o s t s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g : a b u s i -

n e s s m a n , t o p r o f i t , m u s t p r o d u c e w h a t t h e p e o p l e m o s t w a n t .

H e n c e t h e " o bv i o u s a n d s i m p l e s y s t e m o f n a t u r a l l i b e r t y " -

t h e m i n i m u m o f g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r f e r e n c e - i s t h e t r u e r e m -

e d y f o r s o c i a l i l l s . T h e m o n o p o l y o f p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y ,

d e c l a r e d E d m u nd B u r k e , i s a n e v i l , b u t " th e m o n op o l y o f c a p i -

t a l i s t h e c o n t r a r y . I t i s a g r e a t b e ne f i t , a n d a b e n e f i t p a r t i c u -

l a r l y t o t h e p o o r . " 3 T h e m a s s e s , h e b e l i e v e d , a r e " b o r n t o

c o n s u m e f r u g a l l y , " a n d i t w o u l d be f o l l y t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e

" l a w s o f c o m m e r c e " i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e p o v e r t y . " I t i s i n -

e v i t a b l e , " s a i d V o l t a i r e , " t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y s h o u l d b e p o o r ;

i t i s o n l y n o t n ec e s s a r y t h a t i t s h o u l d b e w re t c h e d . " 4

T h e s e s t a t e m en t s e m b o d y t h e e s s e n c e o f h i s t o r i c a l l i b e r -

a l i s m : a m e a s u r e of p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y i s r e g a r d ed a s n e c e s -

s a r y , b u t e c o n o m i c d e m o c r a c y i s r e j e c t e d a n d e v e n p o l i t i c a l

d e m o c r a c y i s l i m i t e d s o a s t o sa f e g u a r d p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . M a n y

f e a t u r e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t c a n o n l y b e

e x p l a i n e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s r e g a r d f o r p r o p e r t y . T h e a i m o f

t h e C o n st i t u t i o n , d e c l a r e d J a m e s M a d i s o n , i s " t o p r o t e c t t h e

o p u l e n t m i n o r i t y a g a i n s t t h e m a j o r i t y . " B a r r i e r s w er e p u t i n

t h e w a y o f p o p u l a r r u l e , a n d s o m e o f t h e s e b a r r i e r s s t i l l r e -

main . T h e H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n ta t i v e s c a n c h e c k t h e S e n a t e ,

t h e S e n a t e c a n c h e c k t h e H o u s e, t h e C o n g r es s c a n c h e c k t h e

P r e s i d e n t , t h e P r es i d e n t c a n c h e c k C o n g r e s s , a n d t h e S u -

prem e Court can check everybody . T h e o r i g i n a l i n d i r e c t

m e t h o d o f e l e c t i n g t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t , t h e e l e c t i o n

o f o n l y o n e t h i r d o f t h e S e n a t e i n a n y s i n g l e e l e c t i o n y e a r ,

t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f a m e n d i n g t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e s e v e r e

r e s t r i c t i o n s u p o n t h e r i g h t to v o t e ( d e p e n d i n g o r i g i n a l l y i n

m o s t s t a t e s , a n d e v e n t o d a y i n s o m e s t a t e s , u p o n p r o p e r t y

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ) a r e a l l d e v i c e s f o r l i m i t i n g d e m oc r a c y i n t h e

i n t e r e s t of p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s .

Y e t t h e l i b e r a l i d e a l i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f

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2 18 NO COMPROMISEp r o p e r t y r i g h t s . T h e b e l i e f i n d e m o c r a c y a n d l i b e rt y t h a t i n -

s p i r e d T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s n o t m e r e l y t h e

d e s i r e t o p r o te c t p r o p e r t y . T h e p a s s i o n f o r j us t i c e a n d f r ee -

d o m t h a t a n i m a t e d L i n c o l n w a s n o m e r e r e s p e c t f o r v e s t e d

interests . I f w e c o u n t s u c h t h i n k e r s a m o n g t h e l i b e r a l s w e

s h a l l h a v e t o e x t e n d t h e m e a n i n g o f l i b e r a l i s m .

A w i d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m i s e m b o d i e d i n t h e A m e r -

i c a n D ec l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n de n c e . T h i s d o c u m e n t a s s e r t s th e

e q u a l r i g h t o f a l l h u m a n b e i n g s t o " li f e , l i b e r t y , a n d t h e p u r -

s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s . " T h e t e r m " p r o p e r ty " i n L o c k e ' s t r e a t i s e

i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e t er m " h a p p i n e s s, " a n d t h e l i b e r a l i d e a l i s

c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y br o a d e n e d . T h e De c l a r a t i o n a l s o a f f i r m s t h a t

g o v e r n m e n t s d e r i v e " t h e i r j u s t p o w e r s f r o m t h e c o n s e n t o f

t h e g o v e r n e d, " a n d t h a t t h e p e o p l e h a v e t h e r i g h t t o a l t e r o r

a b o l i s h a n y f o r m o f g o v e r nm e n t , a n d t o i n s t i t u t e n e w g o v -

e r n m e n t , w h e n e v e r t h e e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s b e c o m e d e s t r u c -

t i v e o f l i f e , l i b e r t y , a n d h a p p i n e ss . T h e r e i s n o s u g g e s t i o n o f

r e s tr i c t i n g t h e r i g h ts o f c i t i z e n s h i p t o a p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s . T h i s

c h a r t e r o f l i b e r t y , w h e n g e n er o u s ly i n t e r p r e t ed , i s a p e r f e c t l y

v a l i d s t a t e m e n t o f t h e l i b e r a l i d e a l . T h e p r e s e n t g en e r a t i o n ,

h o w e v e r , m u s t c o n s t r u e i t i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f m o d -

ern li fe . T o d o s o r e q u i r e s a n e n l a r g e d a n d m o d e r n i z e d c o n -

c e p t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m .

A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n l a w s a n d t r a d i t i o n s w i l l a l s o

s u g g e s t t h e n e e d f o r b r o a d e r c o n c e p t s . O u r m o s t b a s i c d o c u -

m e n t , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , a s i t h a s e v o l v e d u n d e r a m e n d m e n t

a n d l e g a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , m a y b e r o u gh l y d i v i d e d i n t o t w o

m a i n p a r t s : t h e p a r t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f

" p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , " a n d t h e p a r t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t he m a i n -

t e n a n c e o f " h u m a n r i g h t s . " T o s o m e o f o u r f o r e f a t h e r s t h e r e

s e e m e d t o b e l i t t l e o r n o c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p a r t s , b u t

g r a d u a l l y t h e c o n f l i c t h a s i n t e n s i f i e d u n ti l t h e " c o m m e r c e

c l a u s e " a n d t h e " d u e p r o c e s s o f l a w c l a u s e " h a v e b e e n i n t e r -

p r e t e d s o a s e f f e c t i v e l y t o n u l l i f y , i n c e r t a i n c a s e s , t h e " g en -

e r a l w e l f a r e c l a u s e . " T h e c h e c k s u p o n d e m o c r a c y , t h e l eg a l -

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 219

i s t i c i n t e r p r et a t i o n o f p r o p e r ty r i g h t s , a n d c e r ta i n o f t h e l i m i -

t a t i o n s u p o n f e d e r a l p o w e r i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of S t a t e s r i g h t s a r e

o p e r a t i n g t o p r o t e c t a n u n j u s t d i s t ri b u t i o n o f w e a l t h.

B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n : t h e d e c l a r a -

t i o n o f h u m a n r i g h t s , a s e m b o d i e d i n t h e B i l l o f R i g h t s , t h e

Fourteenth Amendment, a nd the woma n suffrage a mend-

ment . T h e s e r i g h t s i n c l u d e f r e e d o m o f w o r s h i p , f r e e d om o f

t h o u g h t , f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h , f r e e d o m o f a s s e m b l y , f a i r t r i a l

b y j u r y , u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , a n d p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t ra c i a l d i s -

c r i m i n a t i o n . T o t h e s e h a v e b e e n a d d e d, a s a r e s u l t o f v a r i o u s

l a w s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , t h e r i g h t t o u n i v e r s a l f r e e e d u c a t i o n ,

a n d t h e r i g h t o f l a b o r to b a r g a i n c o l l e c t i v e l y . S i m i l a r r i g h ts

h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , i n v a r i o u s d e g r ee s , i n e v e r y c o u n t r y

w h e r e t h e l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n h a s m a t u r e d . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e se

r i g h t s h a v e n e v e r b e e n f u l l y r e a l i z e d , a n d s o m e o f t h e m h a v e

b e e n p e r v e r t e d b y c o u r t d e c i s i o n s , b u t th e y a r e o f b a s i c i m -

p o r t a n c e e v e n a s i d e a l s .

N o w t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e r e a c t i o n a r y p r o g r a m i s t o i n s i s t

u p o n p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f h u m a n r i g h t s . T h i s i s

t h e t en d e n c y , i f n o t t he a n n o u n c e d p o l i c y , o f t h e A m e r i c a n

L i b e r t y L e a g u e a n d t h e m o r e r e a c t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s i n t h e

R e p u b l i c a n a n d D e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s . I t m e a n s th e s a c r i f i c e o f

t h e A m e r i c a n i s m o f m e n l i k e J e f f e r s o n , L i n c o l n , a n d W a l t

Whitm a n . I n t h e na m e o f " A m e r i c a n i s m " w e a r e o f t e n a s k e d

t o o p p o s e b a s i c A m e r i c a n i d e a l s . S i m i l a r l y , F a s c i s m s up p r e s s es

t h e s e h um a n r i g h t s i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e p r o f i t s y s t e m a n d

i t s a l l i e d i n s t i t u t i o ns . W e c a n s e e t h a t t hi s i s t r u e i n S p a i n ,

w h e r e t he F a s c i s t s h a v e b e e n s u b s i d i z e d b y t h e m u l t i m i l l i o n -

a i r e , J u a n M a r c h , a n d h a v e f o u g h t o n t h e s i d e o f l a n d l o r ds

a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a g a i n s t a d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t . I t i s t r u e

i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w h er e t h e F a s c i s t s a r e i n c o n t r ol .

C l e a r l y t r a d i t i o n a l l i b e r a l i s m h a s n o t s u f f i c e d t o p r e v e n t

t r e m e n d o u s a b u s e s a n d t o sa f e g u a r d m e n f r o m t y r a n n y . D u r -

i n g t h e l a s t h u nd r e d y e a r s , m a n y r e f o r m s h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d ;

y e t i n j u s ti c e i s m o r e f l a gr a n t t ha n e v e r . T e r ri b l e p o v e r t y

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2 2 0 NO COMPROMISEe x i s t s i n t h e m i d s t o f p o t e n t i a l p l e n t y ; a n d e v e n p o l i t i c a l

d e m o c r a c y , u n d e r t he s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i s l i m i t e d . P a r et o a n d

M o s c a r i g h t l y p o i n t o u t t h a t p l u t o c r a t i c a n d s c h e m i n g m i -

n o r i t i e s e x e r c i s e a n u n d u e i n f l u e n c e i n " d e m o c r a t i c " s o c i e -

t i e s ; b u t t h e lo b b y i s t s a n d g r a f t e r s w ho c i r c u m v e n t d e m o c r a c y

a r e e i t h e r t h e a g e n t s o f b u s i n e s s, o r t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w h o h a v e

y i e l d e d to b u s i n e s s b r i b e s a n d p r e s s u r e . T h e s e e k i n g o f s p e -

c i a l p r i v i l e g e s b y w e a l t h y i n t e re s t s o r b y i n t e r e s ts t h a t s e e k

t o b e c o m e w e a l t h y i s t h e s o u rc e o f m o s t g o v e r n m e n t a l c o r -

r u p t i o n . T h e w a y t o m a k e p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y " w or k " i s t o

establish an economic democracy which would eliminate

t h e s e f o r m s o f p r e s s u r e .

P o l i t i c a l f r e e d o m , m o r e o v e r , c a n n o t b e g e nu i n e w i t h o u t

e c o n o m i c f r e e d o m wh i c h , i n t u rn , c a n o n ly b e r e a l i z e d w i t h i n

t h e c o n t ex t o f e q u a l i t y . A s M r . J u s t i c e H o l m e s p o i n t e d o u t

i n h i s f a m o u s d i s s e nt i n g o p i n i o n i n t h e c a s e o f Cop p a g e ver-

sus Kansa s (1914), l i b e r t y o f c o n t r a c t b e g i n s w he r e e q u a l i t y

o f b a r g a i n i n g p o w e r b e g i n s . No ma n, in other words, can

r e a l l y b e f r e e w h e n h e i s " i l l - h o u s e d , i l l - f e d , a n d i l l - c l a d , "

without money for education, without money for medicine,

unemployed or living at a miserable wage . G e n u i n e l i b e r t y

m e a n s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e a b s e n c e o f l e g a l r e s t r a i n t .

I t m e a n s , t o u s e C o o le y ' s p h r a s e , " o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r i g h t d e -

v e l o p m e nt , " i n v o l v i n g s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c p l a n -

ning . S o l o n g a s e c o n o m i c p o w e r i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e f e w ,

g e n u i n e f r e e d o m i s d e n i e d t o t h e m a n y . W h a t I s a y i s s o tr i t e

t h a t I w o u l d h es i t a t e t o s a y i t , i f i t w e r e n o t s o t r u e .

T h e w h o l e l i b e r a l i s t i c i d e a l o b v i o u s l y n e e d s t o b e en -

l a r g e d . I n r e s p e c t t o s u c h a b r o a d e r l i b e r a l i s m , w e h a v e

s o m e t h i n g t o l e a r n f r o m t h e S o v i e t C o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s d o c u -

m e n t n o t o n l y p r o v i d e s f o r m a n y o f t h e c i v i l r i g h t s w i t h

w h i c h w e a r e f a m i l i a r , b u t i n c l u d e s a n o v e l l i s t o f r i g h t s .

A s S i d n e y W e b b h a s w r i t t e n :

I n 1 9 3 6 t h e S o v i e t C o n st i t u t i o n i n s u r es t o e v e ry c i t i z e n n o t

o n l y p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t a g g r e s s i o n b u t a l s o th e r i g h t t o h a v e r e -

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 221

m u n e r a t i v e w o r k ; t h e r i g h t t o s p e c i f i e d h o u r s o f r e s t a n d p a i d

w e e k s o f h o l i d a y ; t h e r i g h t t o e d u c a t i o n o f e v e r y k i n d a n d g r a d e

f r e e o f a l l c h a rg e s ; a n d , m o s t f a r - r e ac h i n g o f a l l , t h e r i g h t t o f u l l

e c o n o m i c p r o v i s i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o n e e d , i n a l l t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f

l i f e . . . . A l l t h e s e n e w a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d r i g h t s o f m a n a r e t o

b e g u a r a n t e e d b y t h e . . . c o n s t i t u t i o n , n o t m e r e l y t o a r u l i n g

c l a s s , a d o m i na n t ra c e , a f a v o re d s e x , o r e v en a s p e c i a l l y i n s u r e d

m i n o r i t y , b u t u n i v e r s a l l y , a c c o r d i n g t o n e e d , w i t h o u t e x c l u s i o n

o f s e x o r c o l o r o r s o c i a l p a s t , a n d w i t h o u t i n s u r a nc e p r e m i u m , t o

a l l p e r s o n s o v e r e i g h t e e n i n c i t y o r v i l l a g e , i n c l u d i n g t h e b a c k -

w a r d p e o p l e s o f n e a r l y t w o h u n d r e d d i f f e r e n t t r i b e s t h r o u g h o u t

t h e v a s t c o n t i n e n t . T h i s i s i n s t a r t l i ng c o n t r as t t o t h e c o n s t i t u -

t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e o f e v e r y o t h e r S t a t e i n t h e w o r l d . 5

W e b b , m o r e o v e r , b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e s e " r i g h t s " a r e i n p r o c e s s

o f r e a l i z a t i o n . T h e y a r e u n l i k e t h e A m e r i c a n " r i g h t " t o t h e

" p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s , " o r u n l i k e t h e r i g h t s i n t h e F o u r t e e n t h

A m e n d m e n t ( g r a n t i n g e q u a l i t y t o t h e N e g r o e s ) , w h i c h h a v e

r e m a i n e d , f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , d e a d l e t t e r s .

W e s h a l l n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e h o t d i s p u t e a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y

o f W e b b ' s o p i n i o n s o r t h e e x t e n t o f c i v i l r i g h t s i n t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n , b u t w e d o w i s h t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

w i d e n i n g o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f t h e r i g h t s o f m a n , a w i d -

e n i n g w h i c h i s f u l l y c o n s o n a n t w i t h o u r o w n D e c l a r a t i o n o f

Independence . W h a t e v e r w e m a y t h i n k o t h e r w i s e o f t h e S o -

v i e t s y s t e m , w e s u r e l y h a v e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s h a v e

e m b o d i e d , i n t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n , a m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t s e t o f p r i n -

c i p l e s .

I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e s p e c t , t h e y a r e p r o v i d i n g a m o d e l f o r

a l l l i b e r a l s . T h e w a y t o r e a l i z e t h e b e s t p a r t o f t h e l i b e r a l -

i s t i c i d e a l , w e b e l i e v e , i s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t e x i s t i n g p r o p e r t y

r i g h t s a r e o f t e n o p p o s e d t o h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d t h a t w e m u s t

have a thorough reconstruction of our social order . To

a c h i e v e t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h a m i n i m u m o f b l o o d s h e d ,

w e m u s t v i g o r o u s l y m a i n t a i n a n d e x t e n d o u r c i v i l r i g h t s :

f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h , p r e s s , r a d i o , a s s e m b l y , a n d t e a c h i n g ; t h e

r i g h t p e a c e f u l l y t o s t r i k e a n d t o p i c k e t ; t h e r i g h t t o o r g a n i z e

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222 NO COMPROMISE

a p a r t y t o c h a n g e o u r s y s t e m f u n d a m e n t a l l y . A l s o , w e n e e d

t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t F a s c i s m r a t h e r t h a n S o c i a l i s m i s t h e g r e a t

e n e m y o f t h e b r o a d l i b e r a l i d e a l ; a n d t h a t s i n c e t h e F a s c i s t

m e t h o d i s o f t e n v i o l e n c e , w e m u s t m e e t i t r e a l i s t i c a l l y w i t h a

f i r m c o n t ro l . T h e p r o g r a m o f l i b e r al i s m , i n a t im e o f c r i s i s , m a y

h a v e t o b e s e v e r e l y m o d i f i e d , i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e v i c t o r y

o f a b s o l u t e t y r a n n y . A t t i m e s w e h a v e t o r e s t r i c t t h e t y p e o f

" f r e e d o m " w h i c h a i m s t o d e s t r o y f r e e d o m . I f t h e l i b e r a l g o v -

e r n m e n t o f S p a i n , b e f o r e t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e F a s c i s t r e v o l t ,

h a d b e e n l e s s t o l e r a n t t o w a r d s i t s e n e m i e s , m o r e t h a n a m i l -

l i o n l i v e s m i g h t h a v e b e e n s a v e d , a n d W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n

w o u l d n o t b e i n s u c h a w f u l j e o p a r d y . I n t h e s e c r i t i c a l t i m es ,

l i b e r a l i s m a n d d e m o c r a c y m u s t b e f a r m o r e r e s o l u t e i n d e -

f e n s e o f t h e p e o p l e ' s r i g h t s .

F i n a l l y , t h e e n t ir e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d e t h i c a l b a s i s o f l i b e r -

a l i s m n e e d s t o b e r e p a i r e d . H i s t o r i c a l l i b e r a l i s m h a s b e e n

b a s e d u p o n a n e x t r e m e l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t h e o r y o f s o c i e t y . A s

e l a b o r a t e d b y s u c h t h i n k e r s a s J e r e m y B e n t h a m , l i b e r a l i s m

h a s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e v e r y m a n i s a n i m a t e d b y p u r e l y s e l f i s h

m o t i v e s . O n l y t h e m a r v e l o u s c o n t r i v a n c e o f f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n ,

w e h a v e b e e n t o l d , a l l o w s t h e s u m o f i n d i v i d u a l s t r i v i n g s t o

a d d u p m i r a c u l o u s l y t o t h e m a x i m u m o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e . T h i s

t h e o r y s u r v i v e s a m o n g t h e s o - c a l l e d l i b e r a l e c o n o m i s t s . F o r

e x a m p l e , L u d w i g v o n M i s e s , a w e l l - k n o w n A u s t r i a n e c o n o -

m i s t w h o w r i t e s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l l i b e r a l i s m , a s -

s e r t s t h a t " e g o i s m i s t h e b a s i c l a w o f s o c i e t y , " a n d t h a t " t h e r e

i s n o c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n m o r a l d u t y a n d s e l f i s h i n t e r e s t s . " H e

a c c o r d i n g l y c o n d e m n s t h e i d e a l o f w o r k i n g o u t a c o o p e r a t i v e

s o c i e t y , a n d w i s h e s t o l i m i t t h e S t a t e to t h e s o l e " t a s k o f s a f e -

g u a r d i n g l i f e a n d p r o p e r t y . "6

Y e t t h i s e n t i r e c o n c e p t i o n o f

s o c i e t y a s a h a r m o n i o u s c o l l e c t i o n o f u n m i t i g a t e d e g o i s t s h a s

b e e n u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s

a n d t h e r a p i d d e c l i n e o f r e l a t i v e l y " f r e e " c o m p e t i t i o n . G r a d -

u a l l y , a n d q u i te r i g h t l y , w e h a v e r e tu r n e d t o A r i s t o tl e ' s d o c -

t r i n e t h a t m a n i s a s o c i a l a n i m a l .

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 223

W e m u s t r e c o g n i z e , a l s o , t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g e v e n i n t h e

t r a d i t io n a l t h e o r y o f l i b e r a l i s m w h i c h c a n j u s t i f y t h e p r e s e n t

g r o s s l y u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h . T h e l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n

i n s i s t s t h a t t h e r i g h t t o p r o p e r t y i s b a s e d u p o n l a b o r . " P r o p -

e r t y , " L o c k e s t a t e s , i s " t h a t w i t h w h i c h a m a n h a t h m i x e d h i s

l a b o u r . "

F o r i t i s l a b o u r i n d e e d t h a t p u t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f v a l u e o n

e v e r y t h i n g ; a n d l e t a n y o n e c o n s i d e r w h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s b e -

t w e e n a n a c r e o f l a n d p l a n t e d w i t h t o b a c c o o r s u g a r , s o w n w i t h

w h e a t o r b a r l e y , a n d a n a c r e o f t h e s a m e l a n d l y i n g i n c o m m o n

w i t h o u t a n y h u s b a n d r y u p o n i t , a n d h e w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e i m -

p r o v e m e n t o f l a b o u r m a k e s t h e f a r g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e v a l u e . 7

T h i s e x c e l l e n t d o c t r i n e , w h i c h w a s a c c e p t e d b y A d a m S m i t h

and Ricardo, was a su pport to th e business m en who were

t r y i n g t o t h r o w o f f t h e y o k e o f f e u d a l i s m . T h e f e u d a l " r i g h t "

t o p r o p e r t y w a s u l t i m a t e l y b a s e d u p o n t h e g r e a t e r p o w e r o f

t h e l o r d o f t h e m a n o r , b u t i n t h e n e w b o u r g e o i s o r d e r w h i c h

w a s a r i s i n g , t h e t i t l e w a s t o b e b a s e d n o t u p o n m e r e f o r c e ,

b u t u p o n t h e i n d u s t r y a n d t h r i f t ( i . e . t h e " l a b o r " ) o f t h e

f a r m e r s a n d s m a l l b u s i n e s s m e n . A l t h o u g h t h e " l a b o r t h e o r y

o f v a l u e " m i g h t b e t h u s u s e d t o d e f e n d b o u r g e o i s p r o p e r t y

r i g h t s a g a i n s t d y i n g f e u d a l i s m , i t c o m p l e t e l y f a i l s t o j u s t i f y

t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d o f l a r g e -

s c a l e i n d u s t r y a n d f i n a n c e c a p i t a l i s m .

Abraham Li ncoln remarked that the implication of the

" l a b o r t h e o r y " w a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g i n t e n d e d b y t h e

c o n s e r v a t i v e e c o n o m i s t s :

N o g o o d t h i n g h a s b e e n o r c a n b e e n j o y e d b y u s w i t h o u t h a v -

i n g f i r s t c o s t l a b o u r . A n d i n a s m u c h a s m o s t t h i n g s a r e p r o d u c e d

b y l a b o u r , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a l l s u c h t h i n g s o f r i g h t b e l o n g t o t h o s e

w h o s e l a b o u r h a s p r o d u c e d t h e m . B u t i t h a s s o h a p p e n e d , i n a l l

a g e s o f t h e w o r l d , t h a t s o m e h a v e l a b o u r e d , a n d o t h e r s h a v e

w i t h o u t l a b o u r e n j o y e d a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e f r u i t s . T h i s i s

w r o n g a n d s h o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e . T o s e c u r e t o e a c h l a b o u r e r t h e

w h o l e p r o d u c t o f h i s l a b o u r , o r a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e , i s a w o r t h y

o b j e c t o f a n y g o o d g o v e r n m e n t . 8

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224 NO COMPROMISE

T h i s d o c t r i n e c l e a r l y i m p l i e s a s o c i a l i z e d s y s t e m o f d i s t r i b u -

t i o n a n d o w n e r s h i p . P r e s e n t - d a y l i b e r al i s m , i f i t i s n o t t o b e

s i m p l y a n a m e f o r r e a c t i o n , m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h e v a l i d i t y o f

L i n c o l n ' s c o n t e n t i o n : i t s n e w o b j e c t i v e m u s t b e a d e m o -

c r a t ic c o l l e c t i v is m . B u t " l i b e r a l i s m " i s i n s t e a d b e i n g u s e d a s

a t a g f o r t h o u g h t a n d a c t i v i t y w h i c h i s f a r f r o m p r o g r e s s i v e .

T h e o l d e r l i b e r a l i s m , w i t h i t s e x t r e m e e m p h a s i s u p o n i n d i -

v i d u a l i s m , i s b e i n g a b a n d o n e d n o t o n l y b y o r d i n a r y w a g e

e a r n e r s b u t a l s o b y e m p l o y e r s . A s s o c i a l l i f e b e c o m e s m o r e

c o m p l i c a t e d a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t , t h e r e m u s t b e m o r e r e g u -

l a t i o n e v e n t o i n s u r e p r o f i t s . T h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s g i v e u p t h e i r

i n d i v i d u a l i s m a s t h e y b e c o m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t e c o n o m i c c o m -

b i n a t i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t a i d w i l l a s s i s t t h e m i n " g e t t i n g

on . " D u r i n g a t i m e o f d e p r e s s i o n , b u s i n e s s m e n d e s p a i r o f

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r p r o f i t s , o r e v e n a v oi d i n g b a n k r u p t c y , w i t h -

o u t a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e S t a t e . A p o w e rf u l S t a t e is a l s o i nd i s -

p e n s a b l e t o b i g b u s i n e s s i n a p e r i o d o f i m p e r i a l i s t i c r i v a l r y ,

s i n c e t h e w e a k a n d u n a r m e d S t a t e c a n n o t d e f e n d t h e " r i g h t "

t o m a r k e t s , r a w m a t e r i a l s , a n d c o l o n i e s . A s t h e l a b o r m o v e -

m e n t g r o w s m o r e p o w e r f u l a n d r a d i c a l i n i t s d e m a n d s , b u s i -

n e s s l e a d e r s s e e k a l s o t o e m p l o y t h e c o e r c i v e p o w e r o f t h e

S t a t e t o c u r b t h e g r o w t h o f r a d i c a l i s m . W h e n t h e c r i s i s

r e a c h e s a n a c u t e s t a g e , a f i e r c e s t r u g g l e f o r p o w e r e n s u e s , a n d

l i b e r a l i s t i c c a p i t a l i s m i s a b a n d o n e d e i t h e r i n f a v o r o f S o -

c i a l i s m o r , i f t h e o p p o s i n g f o r c e s p r e va i l , i n f a v o r o f F a s c i s m .

B u s i n e s s m e n m a y n o t p r e f e r F a s c i s m t o c a p i t a l i s t i c d e m o c -

r a c y , b u t t h e y c h o o s e i t i n p r e f e r e n c e t o a s o c i a l i z e d w o r k e r s '

s o c i e t y .

2 . T h e T h e o r e t i c a l F o u n d a t i o n o f t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e

F a s c i s t e c o n o m y , a s M u s s o l i n i h a s s a i d , " r e s p e c t s t h e p r i n -

c i p l e o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , " b u t a b a n d o n s t h e t h e o r y o f l i b -

e r a l i s m w h i c h w a s t h e o r i g i n a l f o u n d a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m :

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 225

L i b e r a l i s m d e n i e d t h e S t a t e i n t h e n a m e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ;

F a s c i s m r e a s s e r t s t h e r i g h t s o f t h e S t a t e a s e x p r e s s i n g t h e r e a l

e s s e n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . A n d i f l i b e r t y i s t o b e t h e a t t r i b u te o f

l i v i n g m e n a n d n o t o f a b s t r a c t d u m m i e s i n v e n t e d b y i n d i v i d u a l -

i s t i c l i b e r a l i s m , t h e n F a s c i s m s t a n d s f o r l i b e r t y , a n d f o r t h e o nl y

l i b e r t y w o r t h h a v i n g , t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e S t a t e a n d o f t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l w i t h i n t h e S t a t e . T h e F a s c i s t c o n c e p t i on o f t h e S t a t e is a l l -

e m b r a c i n g ; o u t s i d e o f i t n o h u m a n o r s p i r i t u a l v al u e s c a n e x i s t ,

m u c h l e s s h a v e v a l u e . T h u s u n d e r s t o o d , F a s c i s m i s t o t a l i t a r i a n ,

a n d t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e - a s y n t h e s i s a n d a u n i t in c l u s i v e o f a l l v a l u e s

- i n t e r p r e t s , d e v e l o p s , a n d p o t e n ti a t es t h e w h o l e l i f e o f a p e o p l e . 9

" L i b e r t y " i s n o t i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s a s i t w a s u n d e r

l i b e r a l i s m ; i t i s e i t h e r t h o u g h t o f a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p o l i t i c a l

r e g i m e n t a t i o n , a s i n t h e a b o v e p a s s a g e , o r i t i s u n r e s e r v e d l y

d e n o u n c e d , a s w h e n M u s s o l i n i i n h i s e s s a y o n " F o r c e o r C o n -

s e n t , " c a l l s i t a " d e c a y e d c o r p s e . "

S i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s a r e m a d e b y t h e G e r m a n F a s c i s t s . I n

t h e N a z i t h e o r y , h o w e v e r , t h e " R a c e " i s u s u a l l y s u b s t i t u t e d

i n p l a c e o f t h e S t a t e a s t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e p t . T h e S t a t e , n e v e r -

t h e l e s s , i s e x a l t e d a s t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r a c h i e v i n g r a c i a l u n i t y ,

a n d i s t o t a l i t a r i a n a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n i n o p e r a t i o n . " L i b e r -

a l i s m " b e c o m e s , l i k e " M a r x i s m , " a t e r m o f a b u s e .

T o g r a s p t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f t h e S t a t e , w e m u s t u n d e r -

s t a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s . M u s s o l i n i h a s s a i d : "We

s t a n d f o r s h e e r , c a t e g o r i c a l , d e f i n i t i v e a n t i t h e s i s t o . . . t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s l a i d d o w n i n 1 7 8 9 . " 1 0 A l f r e d R o s e n -

b e r g h a s l i k e w i s e d e c l a r e d : " T h e g r a v e s i c k n e s s , w i t h w h i c h

t h e i d e a s o f 1 7 8 9 h a v e i n f e c t e d E u r o p e , h a s b e e n o v e r c o m e

i n G e r m a n y , n o t i n a n e g a t i v e m a n n e r , b u t i n t h e p o s i t i v e

c r e a t i o n o f a n e w S t a t e ."" These quota tions suggest that

t h e r e m a y b e a r e a l s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e F a s c i s t s a n d t h e

t h i n k e r s w h o f i r s t r e p u d i a t e d t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n .

T h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s a p e r i o d o f

r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n f l u e n c e . I t w a s

an a ge o f w a r and fe r men t s o me w h a t l i ke o u r o w n . The

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226 NO COMPROMISE

French Revolut ion and the ensu ing war left Europe in a

s t a t e o f p a n i c a n d P r u s s i a i n a m o o d o f n a t i o n a l h u m i l i a t i o n .

J u s t a s t h e d e f e a t o f G e r m a n y i n t h e W o r l d W a r b r o u g h t a

h e r i t a g e o f s h a m e w h i c h d i d m u c h t o a g g r a v a t e n a t i o n a l i s t i c

a r d o r , s o t h e d e f e a t o f P r u s s i a b y N a p o l e o n a r o u s e d i n t h e

s u b j u g a t e d p e o p l e a k e e n d e s i r e t o r e a s s e r t t h e i r n a t i o n a l

i n t e g r i t y .

T h e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t l i b e r a l i d e a l s f i r s t b e c a m e a r t i c u l a t e

i n 1 7 9 0 w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f B u r k e ' s R e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e

R e v o l u t i o n i n F r a n c e , i n w h i c h t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s t s a r e d e -

s c r i b e d a s c r u e l a n d u n n a t u r a l h o o d l u m s b e n t u p o n t h e d e -

s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r e c i o u s o l d t r a d i t i o n s , a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t i ve

S t a t e i s c e l e b r a t e d a s " a p a r t n e r s h i p i n a l l s c i e n c e ; a p a r t n e r -

s h i p i n a l l a r t ; a p a r t n e r s h i p i n e v e r y v i r t ue a n d i n a l l p e r -

f e c t i o n . " 1 2 In Germany after 1 8 o o , w h e n N a p o l e o n s e e m e d

t o b e t h e h e i r o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n , t h e r e a c t i o n w a s e s p e c i a l l y

m a r k e d , a n d B u r k e ' s b o o k e n j o y e d a g r e a t v o g u e . M e n l i k e

N o v a l i s , S c h l e g e l , K l e i s t , B r e n t a n o , S c h e l l i n g , S c h l e i e r -

m a c h e r , a n d A d a m M u l l e r a t t a c k e d t h e e n t i r e t h e o r y o f n a t -

u r a l r i g h t s a n d p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y w h i c h h a d i n s p i r e d t h e

r e v o l u t i o n . During this period, most of the fundamental

t e n e t s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e r v a t i s m o f t o d a y w e r e d e v e l o p e d .

I t w a s a n a g e w h e n a n t i l i b e r a l t h i n k e r s w e r e r e d e f i n i n g t h e

r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e S t a t e a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

Adam Mu l le r w a s t he le ad in g p o l i t ic a l and ec on o m ic

t h e o r i s t a m o n g t h e G e r m a n r o m a n t i c i s t s . A l t h o u g h b o r n i n

B e r l i n , h e e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e A u s t r i a n s t a t e , a n d b e -

c a m e a c o n f i d a n t e o f i t s m i n i s t e r , M e t t e r n i c h , t h e c h i e f r e -

a c t i o n a r y s t a t e s m a n o f E u r o p e . W h e n M u l l e r f i r s t a d v a n c e d

h i s p o l i t i c a l i d e a s , N a p o l e o n w a s a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o w e r .

M u l l e r s o u g h t t o f r e e t h e G e r m a n S t a t e s f r o m t h e N a p o l e o n i c

y o k e b y i n v o k i n g i d e a s a n d s e n t i m e n t s o p p o s e d t o t h e e n t i r e

l i b e r a l i d e o l o g y o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n .

H i s i n f l u e n c e h a s c o n t i n u e d d o w n t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . H e

h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a m a s t e r b y O t h m a r S p a n n , t h e p h i l o s -

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 227

o p h e r a n d e c o n o m i c t h e o r i s t o f A u s t r o - G e r m a n F a s c i s m . H i s

w o r k s h a v e e n j o y e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e p u t a t i o n i n G e r m a n y ,

a n d a n u m b e r o f n e w e d i t i o n s o f h i s w r i t i n g s h a v e a p p e a r e d .

A s t h e Encyclopaedia o f the Social Sciences p o i n t s o u t , " h e i s

t h e s p i r i t u a l a n c e s t o r o f t h e i d e o l o g y , t h o u g h n o t o f t h e

m e t h o d s , o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m . "

H i s m a i n c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t t h e S t a t e i s s i m i l a r i n v a l u e ,

f u n c t i o n , a n d s t r u c t u r e t o a n o r g a n i s m . T h e i n d i v i d u a l c i t i -

z e n s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o i t j u s t a s i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s a r e s u b -

o r d i n a t e d t o t h e h u m a n b o d y a s a n o r g a n i c u n i t y . " I f w e r e -

g a r d t h e S t a t e a s a g r e a t i n d i v i d u a l , w h i c h a b s o r b s t h e s m a l l e r

i n d i v i d u a l s , " h e d e c l a r e s , " w e s e e t h a t s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e c a n

o n l y b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s a s u b l i m e a n d c o m p l e t e h u m a n

being . " 1 3 Th i s o b v i o u s l y m e a n s a n a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e

t h e o r y o f l i b e r a l i s m , w i t h i t s d o c t r i n e o f t h e s u p r e m e v a l u e

a n d r e a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

The value of th e social org anism, Muller according ly

m a i n t a i n s , c a n n o t b e c a l c u l a t e d a s a m e r e s u m m a t i o n o f i n d i -

v i d u a l v a l u e s : " M a n k i n d - i n s o f a r a s i t i s m e r e l y t h e s u m o f

i n d i v i d u a l s w h o s t r i v e t o b e h a p p y - r e p r e s e n t s a n i n f a m o u s

p u r p o s e . " 1 4 T h e c i t i z e n s m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y l e a r n t o r e c k o n

b y a n e w a r i t h m e t i c : " o n e p l u s o n e , i f c o m b i n e d t o g e t h e r i n

a l i v i n g w h o l e , m a k e t h r e e , o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e . " 1 5 B u t t h e r e

m u s t b e " a f o r c e w h i c h i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s u m o f a l l i n d i -

v i d u a l f o r c e s " t o a c h i e v e t h i s p r o d u c t i v e u n i o n o f a l l i n d i -

v i d u a l s . T h i s f o r c e i s t h e S t a t e , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s " t h e t o t a l i t y

o f h u m a n a f f a i r s , t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n t o f o r m a l i v i n g

w h o le" :

S i n c e t h e d a w n o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , n o t o n l y i n E u r o p e b u t e v e r y -

w h e r e a n d a t a l l t i m e s , m a n h a s b e e n u n a b l e t o h e a r , s e e , t h i n k ,

f e e l , o r l o v e w i th o u t t h e S t a t e ; i n s h o r t , m a n c a n b e t h o u g h t o f

o n l y a s w i t h i n t h e S t a t e . 1 6

T h e t a s k o f s t a t e s m e n , h e c o n t e n d s , s h o u l d b e t o " a c h i e v e

a v i t a l r e c i p r o c i t y , a l i v i n g e q u i l i b r iu m , o f t h e f o r c e s o f l a n d ,

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228 NO COMPROMISE

l a b o r , s p i r i tu a l c a p i t a l , a n d p h y s i c a l c a p i t a l . " 1 7 In working

o u t t h i s s c h e m e , h e r e v e a l s h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e M i d d l e

A g e s , a n d w a n t s t o e s t a b l i s h a n o r d e r o f e s t a t e s s o m e w h a t l i k e

f e u d a l i s m , w h i c h h a d b y n o m e a n s c o m p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d i n

G e r m a n y . H e r e s e r v e s t h e h i g h e s t p l a c e i n t h e S t a t e t o a

l a n d e d a n d h e r e d i t a r y n o b i l i t y , a n d r a n g e s t h e v a r i o u s a d d i -

t i o n a l g r o u p s i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e : s o l d i e r s , t e a c h e r s ,

c l e r g y m e n , m a n u f a c t u r e r s , l a b o r e r s , a n d p e a s a n t s a r e e a c h t o

t a k e t h e i r p l a c e i n a n o r d e r o f r a n k . T h e F a s c i s t S t a te i s o r -

g a n i z e d i n a d i f f e r e n t m a nn e r , b u t t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s

u p o n d i c t a t o r i a l c o n t r o l f r o m a b o v e , a n d a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a c -

c o r d i n g t o e c o n o m i c c l a s s e s .

L i k e th e F a s c i s t s , M i i l l e r a l s o f a v o r s a b e l l i g e r e n t n a t io n a l -

i s m . W a r , h e m a in t a i ns , i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e

o f t h e p o l i t i c a l or d e r : s i n c e e a c h s t a t e i s " c o m p e l l e d t o f e e l

a n d o r g a n i z e i t s e l f a s a w h o l e o v e r a g a i n s t a n o t h e r w h o l e

w h i c h t h r e a t e n s i t s e x i s t e n c e . " 1 8 W o r l d c a l a m i t y a n d s t a g -

n a t i o n w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f a b i d i n g

p e a c e a n d a p e r m a n e n t l e a g u e o f n a t i o n s . 1 9 E v e n i n t h e i n -

t e r i m b e t w e e n h o s t i l i t i e s , t h e i d e a l i s " t o r e t a i n t h e p r o u d

s p i r i t o f w a r a n d t o w e a v e i t i n t o t h e f a b r i c s o f s o - c a l l e d

p e a c e . " 2 0 I n a n o t e r e f e r r i n g t o t h i s p a s s a g e , D r . B a x a , t h e

r e c e n t e d i t o r o f M i l l l e r ' s w o r k s , r e m a r k s t h a t " t h i s k i n d o f a

S t a t e f o r e v e r w i l l b e t h e d r e a m o f t h e G e r m a n l o n g i n g . "2 1

T h e m i l i t a ri s t i c n a t i o na l i s m o f M i i l l e r t h u s r e a p p e a r s i n t h e

a s p i r a t i o n s o f m o d e r n c h a u v i n i s t s . I t i s n o t t o o m u c h t o s a y

t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s a c c e p t a l l o f t h e p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s o f h i s

i d e a l S t a t e : i t s o r g a n ic , t o ta l i t ar i an , a u th o r i ta r ia n , h i e ra r c h -

i c a l , n a t i o na l i s t i c , a n d w a r l i k e c h a r a c t e r .

J o h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e ( 1 7 6 2 - 1 8 1 4 ) , t h e i d e a l i s t i c p h i l o s -

o p h e r a n d p a t r i o t , w a s m o r e r e s p o n s i v e t o l i b e r a l i n f l u e n c e s

t h a n M U l l e r . B e i n g t h e s o n o f a p o o r w e a v e r a n d s u b j e c t e d

t o J a c o b i n i n f l u e n c e s , h e w a s i n c l i n e d t o w a r d d e m o c r a c y a n d

a m e a s u r e o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e , b u t h e f i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d a p o i n t

o f v i e w s i m i l a r t o t h e N a z i . I t i s e a s y t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e s i m i-

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 229

l a r i t y : t h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g s , t h e r e a r e t r a c e s o f r e p u b l i -

canism and cosmopolitanism . Yet the main impress ion

c r e a t e d b y h i s Addresses to t he Germa n Nation is t h e n e e d

o f s u b o r d i n a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l e n d s t o a n i n t e n s e a n d a l m o s t

f a n a t i c a l n a t io n a l i s m .

H i s w o r k s h a v e e x e r t e d a n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e i n G e r -

many s ince the World War . E v e n b e f o r e t h e N a t i o n a l S o -

c i a l i s t " R e v o l u t i o n , " a " F i c h t e R e n a i s s a n c e " w a s i n f u l l

s w i n g , a n d h i s i d e a l s w e r e b e i n g w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d . A F i c h t e

Bu n d w a s o r g a n i z e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s .

T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s b e c o m e a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e

Nazi propaganda machine . I n 1 9 3 5 , i t d i s s e m i n a t e d t o n s o f

b o o k s a n d f i v e m i l l i o n p a m p h l e t s i n f o r t y - f o u r l a n g u a g e s , a n d

i t s a c t i v i t y h a s c o n t i n u e d u n a b a t e d . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e N a z i s

h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e n a m e o f t h e Ficht e Bund and have made

s u c h e x t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s o m e i n d i c a t i o n o f

t h e i r h i g h r e g a r d f o r i t s n a m e s a k e .

W r i t i n g a f t e r t h e d e f e a t o f P r u s s i a b y N a p o l e o n , F i c h t e

r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x t r e m e o f e x a c e r b a t e d n a t i o n a l i s m . I n l a n -

g u a g e t h a t r e m i n d s u s o f N a z i c h a u v i n i s m , h e d e c l a r e s t h a t

" a l l t h e e v i l s w h i c h h a v e n o w b r o u g h t u s t o r u i n a r e o f f o r -

e i g n o r i g i n , " a n d t h a t " t o h a v e c h a r a c t e r a n d t o b e G e r m a n

undoubtedly mean the same . " 2 2 T h e G e r m a n s a r e d e p i c t e d

a s a n " o r i g i n a l " p e o p l e c o m p a r e d w i t h w h i c h a l l o t h e r p e o -

p l e s a r e " u n o r i g i n a l . " T h e u n e q u a l e d p r o f u n d i t y o f t h e G e r -

m a n m i n d , h e t h i n k s , i s d u e t o t h e u s e o f a " p u r e " l a n g u a g e .

F r e n c h o r I t a l i a n r e p r e s e n t s t h e o p p o s i t e t y p e o f l a n g u a g e ,

w h i c h i s b a s e d u p o n a " d e a d " t o n g u e , s u c h a s L a t i n . B u t a s

B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e i s

n o m o r e p u r e t h a n t h a t o f t h e E s k i m o s o r t h e H o t t e n t o t s ,

a n d h e n c e F i c h t e h a s f a i l e d t o a s s i g n r e a s o n s f o r t h e u n i q u e

s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e G e r m a n s.2 3

T h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e S t a t e a s a d v a n c e d b y F i c h t e a s s u m e s

t h e s a m e b a s i c f o r m a s i n N a z i t h e o r y . T h e N a t i o n i s t h e

p r i m a r y c o n c e p t , a n d t h e S t a t e i s s a i d t o e x i s t e s s e n t i a l l y f o r

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230 NO COMPROMISE

t h e s a k e o f t h e N a t i o n a s c o n c e i v e d i n r a c i a l t e r m s . I t " i s n o t

s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s p r i m a r y a n d w h i c h e x i s t s f o r i t s o w n

s a k e , b u t i s m e r e l y t h e m e a n s t o t h e h i g h e r p u r p o s e o f t h e

e t e r n a l , r e g u l a r , a n d c o n t i n u o u s d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t i s

p u r e l y h u m a n i n t h i s n a t i o n . " 2 4 B u t e l s e w h e r e F i c h t e s p e a k s

o f t h e S t a t e a s s i m i l a r t o a n or g a n i s m , a n d t h e c i t i z e n a s a k i n

t o a d e p e n d e n t p a r t o f t h i s o r g a n i c w h o l e .25

T h e i n d i v i d u a l , w e a r e t o l d , h a s n o g e n u i n e e x i s t e n c e o r

v a l u e a s a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y . H e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e s e t " n o l i m i t

w h a t e v er " t o h i s " s a c r i f i c e s " f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e r a c e a n d t h e

nation, and should admit no purpose "which is his own

m e r e l y a n d n o t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e w h o l e

c o m m u n i t y . " T h i s u n i t y o f a i m , F i c h t e d e c l a r e s , " d o e s n o t

b y a n y m e a n s e x c l u d e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f c l a s s e s i n s o c i e t y , "

b u t e v e r y c l a s s m u s t b e " d e d i c a t e d t o t h e w h o l e . " 2 6

H i s s e n t i m e n t s r e m i n d u s o f H i t l e r ' s d e c l a r a t i o n t o t h e

German workers : " Y o u a r e s e r v a n t s o f t h e n a t i o n , b u t y o u

a l o n e a r e n o t h i n g . A s p a r t o f t h e o r g a n i c w h o l e y o u a r e

e v e r y t h i n g . " 2 7 H e a l s o a n t i c i p a t e s t h e N a z i d o c t r i n e o f a r u l -

i n g e l i t e : t h e w o r l d , h e d e c l a r e s , e x i s t s f o r t h e s a k e o f " t h e

noble-m inded," and all other m en must conform t o the

w i s h e s o f t h i s s u p e r i o r g r o u p . 2 8 L i k e t h e F a s c i s t s , h e a d v o -

c a t e s n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y ( a u t a r c h y ) , a n d t h e

s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f s c i e n c e t o r a c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . He ha s

c l e a r l y a n t i c i p a t e d t h e m a i n f e a t u r e s o f F a s c i s m .

G e o r g W i l h e l m F r i e d r i c h H e g e l ( 1 7 7 o - 1 8 3 1 ) , t h e g r e a t -

e s t p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a s a l s o

u n w i t t i n g l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o F a s c i s m . A l t h o u g h h e i s i n c e r -

t a i n r e s p e c t s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h e i r o f t h e R o m a n t i c s , a n d a l -

t h o u g h h i s Phenomenology a n d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f h i s L o g i c

w e r e p u b l i s h e d p r i o r t o t h e C o n g r e s s o f V i e n n a , h i s i n f l u -

e n c e b e l o n g s m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e p o s t - R o m a n t i c p e r i o d

f o l l o w i n g t h e C o n g r e s s . T h e s t a t e s m e n o f t h e v i c t o r i ou s a l l i e s

o f 1 8 1 5 t h o u g h t t h e y h a d e n d e d t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t

b y f i n a l l y d i s p o s i n g o f N a p o l e o n . T h e y w e r e m i s t a k e n ; f o r

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 231

i n t h e l o n g p e r i o d o f p e a c e w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e C o n g r e s s , t h e

i d e a l s o f 1 7 8 9 g r a d u a l l y r e a s s e r t e d t h e m s e l v e s , a n d w e r e

e v e n t u a l l y e m b o d i e d i n a g r e a t m a n y l e g i s l a t i v e a c t s . L i b e r -

a l i s m a n d p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y , h o w e v e r , s u f f e r e d a g r e a t i m -

m e d i a t e b l o w d u r i n g t h e N a p o l e o n i c W a r s a n d a t t h e p e a c e

s e t t l e m e n t . H e g e l i s t h e o u t s t a n d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s

a n t i l i b e r a l r e a c t i o n . I t i s o f t e n s a i d t h a t h i s p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s -

o p h y i s a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u n d e m o c r a t i c P r u s s i a n S t a t e .

T h i s j u d g m e n t m a y n o t b e w h o l l y j u s t , b u t h e i s i n c l i n e d

t o d e f e n d t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l e m b o d i m e n t o f

r e a s o n .

T h e i d e a l , h e b e l i e v e d , i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e a c t u a l : " w h a t

i s r a t i o n a l i s r e a l ; a n d w h a t i s r e a l i s r a t i o n a l . " 2 9 E a c h n a -

t i o n m a k e s i t s u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o " t h e r a t i o n a l n e c e s s a r y

c o u r s e o f t h e W o r l d - S p i r i t , " b u t c e r t a i n n a t i o n s h a v e m o r e

t o c o n t r i b u t e t o w o r l d c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a n o t h e r s , a n d t h e

W o r l d - S p i r i t i s m o s t a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e P r u s s i a n

S t a t e . H e g e l t h u s r e j e c t s t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m o f K a n t , a n d

e m p h a s i z e s t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c a s p e c t s o f t r a d i t i o n , u p o n w h i c h

h e w o u l d b a s e p o l i t i c s . H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i l i k e w i s e s t r e s s

t h e n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r .

M u s s o l i n i s e e m s t o b e e c h o i n g H e g e l w h e n h e d e c l a r e s , " T r a -

d i t i o n c e r t a i n l y i s o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s o f a

p e o p l e , i n a s m u c h a s i t i s a s u c c e s s i v e a n d c o n s t a n t c r e a t i o n

o f t h e i r s o u l . " 30

T h i s c r e a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l s o u l , H e g e l b e l i e v e s , i s t o b e

a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e S t a t e , w h i c h i s t h e h i g h e s t e m b o d i m e n t

o f r e a s o n w i t h i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . " T h e S t a t e i s t h e

D i v i n e I d e a a s i t e x i s t s o n e a r t h . " 3 1 There is no higher

e a r t h l y a u t h o r i t y t o w h i c h a n a p p e a l c a n b e m a d e :

A s a g a i n s t t h e S t a t e t h e r e i s n o p o w e r t o d e c i d e w h a t i s i n t r i n -

s i c a l l y r i g h t a n d t o r ea l i z e t h i s d e c i s i o n . H e n c e , w e m u s t r e m a i n

b y t h e a b s o l u t e c o m m a n d . S t a t e s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o o n e a n o t h e r

a r e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d l o o k u p o n t h e s t i p u l a t i o n s w h i c h t h e y

m a k e o n e w i t h a n o t h e r a s p r o v i s i o n a l . 3 2

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232 NO COMPROMISE

N o i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a g u e , c o u r t , o r b o d y o f l a w c a n l i m i t t h e

s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e S t a t e . E a c h n a t i o n , i t i s t r u e , m u s t b e

j u d g e d i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e e n t i re h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s: " t h e h i s -

t o r y o f t h e w o r l d i s t h e w o r l d ' s c o u r t o f j u d g m e n t . " 3 3 Bu t

m o r a l i t y a s b e t w e e n n a t i o n s r e m a i n s a m e r e i n e f f e c t u a l

" o u g h t " ; i t c a n n o t b e e m b o d i e d i n e f f e c t i v e l a w , a n d h e n c e

n a t i o n s a r e i n a " s t a t e o f n a t u r e , " i . e . , a c o n d i t i o n o f l e g a l

a n a r c h y , i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o o n e a n o t h e r . The mere powe r

o f s u r v i v a l i s t h e u l t i m a t e a r b i t e r o f h i s t o r y , a n d h e n c e f o r

H e g e l t h e s o l e e f f e c t i v e t e s t o f n a t i o n a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s . T h i s

d o c t r i n e , a s M o r r i s C o h e n h a s s a i d , " m i s s e s t h e t r a g e d y o f h i s -

t o r y a n d i s e q u i v a l e n t t o N a p o l e o n ' s d i c t u m t h a t G o d i s o n

t h e s i d e o f t h e h e a v i e s t a rt i l l e r y . "34

H e g e l a c c e p t s w a r a s a n e c e s s a r y m o r a l t o n i c ; i n b a t t l e m e n

l e a r n t o b e b r a v e . T h e b r a v e m a n l o o k s t o t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f

t h e S t a t e a s h i s " t r u e a b s o l u t e f i n a l e n d , " a n d " i n s o d o i n g

g i v e s u p p e r s o n a l r e a l i t y . " " A n u t t e r o b e d i e n c e o r c o m p l e t e

a b n e g a t i o n o f o n e ' s o w n o p i n i o n a n d r e a s o n i n g s , e v e n a n a b -

s e n c e o f o n e ' s o w n s p i r i t , i s c o u p l e d w i t h t h e m o s t i n t e n s e

a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s p i r i t a n d o f r e s o l u -

t i o n . " 3 5 T h e s e a r e t h e " v i r t u e s " t h a t h a v e a l w a y s b e e n d e -

m a n d e d o f t h e s o l d i e r .

H e g e l r e g a r d s t h i s s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n a s t h e o n l y t r u e f r e e -

d o m . T h e i n d i v i d u a l f u l f i l l s h i m s e l f b y m e r g i n g h i s i n d i -

v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e w h o l e . " I t i s t h e m o r a l

W h o l e , t h e S t a t e , w h i c h i s t h a t f o r m o f r e a l i t y i n w h i c h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l h a s a n d e n j o y s h i s f r e e d o m ; b u t o n t h e c o n d i t i o n

o f h i s r e c o g n i z i n g , b e l i e v i n g i n , a n d w i l l i n g t h a t w h i c h i s

c o m m o n t o t h e Wh o l e . "3 8 The individual is thu s made

happy ; b u t h i s g o o d i s n e g l i g i b l e i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h a t o f

t h e S t a t e , w h i c h i s a n " a b s o l u t e , s t a b l e e n d - f o r - i t s e l f . " 37

T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s r e s e m b l e M u s s o l i n i ' s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t

t h e S t a t e i s " a n a b s o l u t e , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h w h i c h a l l i n d i -

v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s a r e r el a t i v e , o n l y t o b e c o n c e i v e d o f i n t h e i r

r e l a t i o n t o t h e S t a t e . " L i k e H e g e l , M u s s o l i n i i n s i s t s t h a t t h e

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 2 3 3

S t a t e h a s a l i f e o f i t s o w n : " T h e F a s c i s t S t a te i s i t s e l f c o n -

s c i o u s , a n d h a s i t s e l f a w i l l a n d a p e r s o n a l i t y . " 3 8 H i t l e r, i n

c o n t r as t , t e nd s t o s u b s t a n ti a l i z e t h e r a c e , a n d r e g a r d s t h e S t a te

a s o n l y a m e a n s t o r a c i a l w e l f a r e. 3 9

I n r e v i e w i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e s o f M u l l e r , F i c h t e , a n d

H e g e l , w e h a v e d i s c o v e r e d m a n y i d e a s d e a r t o t h e F a s c i s t s .

I t i s a s i n g u l a r a n d s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t t h a t t h e b a s i c t h e o r y o f

t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e w a s f o r m u l a t e d i n G e r m a n y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

y e a r s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h u s F a s c i s m i n m a n y r e -

s p e c t s i s n o t a n o r i g i n a l d o c t r i n e , b u t r e p r e s e n t s a r e v e r s i o n

t o e a r l i e r f o r m s o f p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t .

T h e s e i d e a s o f t h e G e r m a n r o m a n t i c s a n d i d e a l i s t s h a v e

b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d t o l a t e r t h i n k e r s , b o t h G e r m a n a n d I t a l i a n .

O n e o f t h e c h i e f l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

a n d G e r m a n F a s c i s m i s t o b e f o u n d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f P a u l

d e L a g a r d e ( 1 8 2 7 - 1 8 8 1 ) . T h i s a u t h o r h a s d e r i v e d a g o o d d e a l

f r o m F i c h t e , a n d i n t u r n h a s b e e n a s s i d u o u s l y r e a d a n d

q u o t e d b y R o s e n b e r g a n d o t h e r N a z i s . S o n o f a B e rl i n s c h o o l -

t e a c h e r , h e s t u d i e d t h e o l o g y , t a u g h t i n t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s ,

a n d e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e P r o f e s s o r o f O r i e n t a l L a n g u a g e s a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f G o t t i n g e n . I n a d d i t i o n t o w r i t i n g w o r k s o f

s c h o l a r s h i p , h e t o o k a l i ve l y p a r t i n t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f h i s d a y . H i s p o l e m i c a l e s s a y s s t r e s s t h e i m -

p o r t a n c e o f b a s i n g G e r m a n l i f e u p o n t h e n a t i o n ' s r e l i g i o u s

a n d e t h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , e x c l u d i n g S e m i t i c a n d f o r e i g n e l e -

ments .

L i k e t h e N a z i s , h e d o e s n o t a p p r o v e t h e H e g e l i a n d e i f i c a -

t i o n o f t h e S t a t e , a n d s u b s t i t u t e s t h e n a t i o n , c o n c e i v e d i n

r a c i a l t e r m s , a s t h e s u p r e m e e n d a n d v a l u e . " T h e S t a t e , " h e

d e c l a r e s , " i s n o t a l i v i n g o r g a n i s m b u t a m a c h i n e . . . . A

m a c h i n e m u s t n o t b e t r e a t e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s s o m e t h i n g

l i v i n g. " 4 0 N o t b e i n g a l i v e , t h e S t a t e i s a m e r e m e a n s t o a n

e n d , a n d t h e r e f o r e H e g e l i s m i s t a k e n i n i d e n t i f y i n g i t w i t h

t h e s u m o f h u m a n i n t e r e s t s : " t h e S t a t e d o e s n o t c a r r y w i t h i n

i t s e l f t h e w h o l e e s s e n c e o f t h e h u m a n s p i r i t . " 4 1 T h e e f f e c t o f

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234 NO COMPROMISE

H e g e l ' s w o r s h i p o f t h e S t a t e i s t o s a n c t i f y t h e s t a t u s q u o ,

w h e r e a s p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , b e i n g i m p e r f e c t , a r e r i g h t l y

s u b j e c t t o c h a n g e . T h e S t a t e i s l i k e " a n A d o n i s , w h o d i e s e a c h

J u l y i n o r d e r t o b e r e s u r r e c t e d i n t h e n e x t y e a r , n o t a s a n

i d e n t i c a l b u t o n l y a s a s i m i l a r b e i n g , w h i c h i n t u rn w i l l s o o n

p e r i s h . "42

D e s p i t e t h e s e a t t a c k s , L a g a r d e h a s m u c h t h e s a m e a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d s t h e n a t i o n a s H e g e l h a s t o w a r d s t h e S t a t e . "Wha t

c a n b e s a i d o f i n d i v i d u a l s c a n a l s o b e s a i d o f n a t i o n s , " h e d e -

c l a r e s . " F o r n a t i o n s t o o a r e p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a n d h a v e a g u i d i n g

i d e a , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t o l i v e i s t h e i r s o l e d u t y . " 4 3 I n a n -

o t h e r p a s s a g e , h e c o m p l a i n s t h a t " n o t a s i n g l e t h o u g h t h a s

b e e n g i v e n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n a t i o n , l i k e t h e h u m a n b e i n g ,

h a s a s o u l , a n d t h a t u l t i ma t e l y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s a s w e l l a s f o r

n a t i o n s t h i s s o u l i s t h e t h i n g o f v a l u e . " 4 4 T h e n a t i o n i s t h u s

t h e s u p r e m e e n d , t o w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s s h o u l d b e s u b o r d i -

n a t e d . I f u s e d a s a m e a n s t o t h i s e n d , t h e S t a t e h a s a g r e a t i m -

p o r t a n c e . S o l o n g a s t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s e m p l o y e d t o g i v e " a

n a t i o n a l a n d i d e a l c h a r a c t e r " t o e v e n t s , n o t h i n g s h o u l d b e

p e r m i t t e d t o d i s t u r b i t s a u t h o r i t y . 4 5

R e s t a t i n g F i c h t e ' s p o s i t i o n , L a g a r d e i n t e r p r e t s t h e n a t i o n

i n r a c i a l t e r m s . H e i n s i s t s u p o n e l i m i n a t i n g f r o m n a t i o n a l

l i f e a l l " a l i e n " e l e m e n t s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r w i s h e s t o e r a d i -

c a t e S e m i t i c i n f l u e n c e s . " T h e J e w i s h p e o p l e , " h e d e c l a r e s ,

" h a v e n o t p r o d u c e d a s i n g l e i m p o r t a n t m a n , w i t h t h e p o s -

s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f S p i n o z a . " 4 6 M e n l i k e M a i m o n i d e s w e r e

m e r e l y " t h i e v e s , " s t e a l i n g t h e i r i d e a s f r o m f o r e i g n s o u r c e s .

J e w i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e s i m i l a r l y d e r i v e d : mono gam y, for

example, was appropr iated from t he Germans in the year

1000 A.D . T h e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t o f t h e G e r m a n s , i n c o n t r a s t , i s

unique and original . I n m o d e r n t i m e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e h a s

b e e n a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s a d e - G e r m a n i z a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n;

t h e e s s e n c e o f L a g a r d e ' s p r o g r a m i s t o r e t u r n t o p u r e G e r -

m a n i s m .

H e b e l i e v e s t h a t b o t h m o r a l s a n d r e l i g i o n s h o u l d b e p u r g e d

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RACE, S TATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 235

o f a l i e n e l e m e n t s . U n i v er s a l i s t i c e t h i c s , h e i n s i s t s , c a n n o t s a t -

i s f y t r u e n at i o n a l i s t s :

. . . W h a t d o e s t h e f a i t h i n a m o r a l o r d e r o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e

d e m a n d t o l o v e a l l h u m a n b e i n g s , h a v e t o d o w i t h t h e G e r m a n

n a t i o n ? H o w c a n a f a i t h w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y b e l o n g s t o a l l h u -

m a n b e i n g s , a n d a d e m a n d w h i c h m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t a s f a r a s

t h e s u n s h i n e s , b e f i t t o s e r v e a s a n a t i o n a l i d e a l f o r a l l G e r -

mans? 47

" T h e d e v i l , " h e d e c l a r e s , " i n v e n t e d t h e i d e a o f t o l e r a n c e . " 4 8

R e l i g i o n , t o o , m u s t b e p u r g e d : s u c h B i b l i c a l c h a r a c t e r s a s

Abrah am, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and David m ean noth ing t o

Germans , and the entire Old Testament mig ht as wel l be

d i s c a r d e d . 4 9

T h e i d e a l s o f d e m o c r a c y , l i b e r a l i s m , m a s s e d u c a t i o n , a n d

w o m a n ' s r i g h t s a r e l i k e w i s e f o r e i g n i m p o r t a t i o n s , a n d m u s t

b e e l i m i n a t e d . The Germa n racial her itag e, by whi ch the

S t a t e s h o u l d b e g u i d e d , i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a r i s t o c r a t i c , a n d

e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l s y s t e m : " i n e q u a l i t y i s t h e

b a s i s o f a l l s u s t e n a n c e a n d a l l g r o w t h . " 6 0 H e p a r t i c u l a r l y a d -

m i r e s t h e t r a i n i n g a n d d i s c i p l i n e p r o v i d e d b y t h e a r m y , a n d

r e g a r d s s t r u g g l e a s a b a s i c n e c e s s i t y :

I n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e - a n d p o l i t i c a l l i f e i s i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e - a w a k e n s

t h r o u g h t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s t r u g g l e . . . . T h r o u g h w a r [ i n t h e w i d e

m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d ] , a p e o p l e g a i n s t h e e x e r c i s e a n d f u l l d e -

v e l o p m e n t o f i t s n a t i v e a b i l i t i e s . . . 5 1

L a g a r d e ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l e t h i c s , r e l i g i o n ,

a n d p o l i t i c s m u s t b e r e p l a c e d b y a b e l l i g e r e n t n a t i o n a l i s m

f o r e s h a d o w s t h e i d e a s o f t h e N a z i s . L i k e R o s e n b e r g a n d H i t -

l e r , h e s u b o r d i n a t e s i n d i v i d u a l w e l f a r e t o r a c i a l s o l i d a r i t y .

W i t h p r o p h e t i c i n s i g h t , h e a n n o u n c e s t h a t " t h e f u t u r e b e -

l o n g s t o m y p a r t y , t h e R a d i c a l - C o n s e r v a t i v e s , w h i c h t h u s f a r

i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a l o n e . "52

A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o h a s h a n d e d o n t h e i d e a s o f F i c h t e i s

t h e h i s t o r i a n , H e i n r i c h v o n T r e i t s c h k e . This spokesm an of

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236 NO COMPROMISE

t h e a g e o f B i s m a r c k p r a i s e d F i c h t e f o r c o n t e n d i n g t h a t " a

G e r m a n c o u l d f i n d l i g h t a n d r i g h t o n l y i n G e r m a n y . "5 3 H e

i n s i s t e d t h a t h i s c o u n t r y m e n m u s t c l i n g t o t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w :

W e w h o a r e s t il l l i v in g s h a l l p r e s e r v e F i c h t e ' s s p i r it b e s t , i f a l l

t h e n o b l e h e a d s a m o n g u s w i l l s t r i v e t o d e v e l o p i n o u r c i t i z e n s

" t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e w a r r i o r " w h o k n o w s h o w t o s a c r i f i c e h i m -

s e l f f o r t h e s a k e of t h e S t a t e . I f F i c h t e ' s n a m e i s m e n t i o n e d t h e

p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n r i g h t l y t h i n k s a t o n c e o f t h e s p e a k e r w h o d e -

c l a i m e d t o a s u b j u g a t e d p e o p l e t h e s e h e r o i c w o r d s : " T o p o s s e s s

c h a r a c t e r a n d t o b e G e r m a n a r e u n d o u b t e d l y s y n o n y m o u s . " 54

A number of Germ an writers o f the nineteenth century

t h u s f o r m u l a t e d t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y

o f S t a t e a n d R a c e . S i m i l a r d o c t r i n e s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d b y

i n f l u e n t i a l I t a l i a n s , a n d i n a d d i t i o n , H e g e l a n d o t h e r G e r -

m a n i d e a l i s t s h a v e e x e r c i s e d a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e i n I t a l y .

Niccolo Machiavelli, whose influ ence upon Fascism ha s

b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r V , a p p r o a c h e s m o r e c l o s e l y t h a n

a n y o t h e r g r e a t I t a l i a n t h i n k e r t o t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f t h e

s t r o n g S t a t e . Another famou s man wh om the Fa scists cele-

b r a t e a s t h e i r p r e c u r s o r i s G u i s e p p e M a z z i n i ( 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 7 2 ) ,

t h e i n t r e p i d l e a d e r o f t h e m o v e m e n t t o l i b e r a t e a n d u n i f y

I t a l y . U n q u e s t i o n a b l y h e f o r e s h a d o w s c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e

F a s c i s t p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y . H e c o n t e n d e d t h a t t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f

d u t i e s i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e e x a c t i o n o f r i g h t s , a n d

c r i t i c i z e d l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y f o r o v e r e m p h a s i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l

w e l l - b e i n g . " T h e e p o c h o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s e x h a u s t e d , " h e

contended ; " t h e e p o c h o f a s s o c i a t i o n h a s b e g u n . " 6 5 An in-

f l u e n t i a l F a s c i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l , A l f r e d o R o c c o , c i t e s t h e f o l l o w -

i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a s s a g e f r o m M a z z i n i :

T r a i n i n g f o r s o c i a l d u t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n d l o g i c a l l y u n i ta r i an .

L i f e f o r i t i s b u t a d u t y , a m i s s i o n . T h e n o r m a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f

s u c h m i s s i o n c a n o n l y b e f o u n d i n a c o l l e c t i v e t e r m s u p e r i o r t o

a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h e c o u n t r y - i n t h e p e o p l e , i n t h e n a t i o n .

I f t h e r e i s a c o l l e c t i v e m i s s i o n , a c o m m u n i o n o f d u t y . . . i t c a n

o n l y b e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l u n i t y . 5 6

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 2 3 7

R o c c o p o i n t s o u t t h a t " i n M a z z i n i ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e c i t i z e n

a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n ' s e n d s a n d

t h e r e f o r e s u b m i s s i v e t o a h i g h e r m i s s i o n , t o t h e d u t y o f s u -

p r e m e s a c r i f i c e , w e s e e t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f o n e o f t h e f u n d a -

m e n t a l p o i n t s o f t h e F a s c i s t d o c t r i n e . " 8 7

U n l i k e t h e F a s c i s t s , h o w e v e r , M a z z i n i t e m p e r e d h i s n a -

t i o n a l i s m b y t h e i d e a l o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . H e r e -

l i g i o u s l y i n s i s t e d u p o n t h e v a l u e o f d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s ,

a n d l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f m a n k i n d . T h e F a s -

c i s t s , i n t h e i r u s u a l e c l e c t i c m a n n e r , h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e

d o c t r i n e s w h i c h s u i t t h e i r p u r p o s e s , n e g l e c t i n g M a z z i n i ' s i n -

t e r n a t i o n a l i s m a n d q u a s i - r e p u b l i c a n i s m .

O t h e r I t a l i a n c o n t r i b u t o r s t o F a s c i s t p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y a r e

sometimes mentioned . Amo ng th ese, for exa mple, is V in-

c e n z o C u o c o , a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f M u l l e r a n d F i c h t e . H e d e -

n o u n c e d t h e i d e a l s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d p r a i s e d t h e

v a l u e o f t h e n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n . A far m ore im mediate a nd

d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e , h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n e x e r t e d b y a n u m b e r o f

l i v i n g I t a l i a n s , s u c h a s E n r i c o C o r r a d i n i , G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e ,

and Alf redo Rocco .

C o r r a d i n i m a y b e t a k e n a s s o m e w h a t t y p i c a l o f t h e s e t h e -

o r i s t s . I n t h e y e a r s p r e c e d i n g t h e W o r l d W a r , h e w a s a n i n -

f l u e n t i a l p a t r i o t a n d d e f e n d e r o f t h e t h r o n e , w h o m M u s s o -

l i n i v e h e m e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d . Y e t a s a F a s c i s t i n t h e p o s t w a r

y e a r s , I l D u c e c o m p l e t e l y y r e v e r s e d h i s p o s i t i o n , a n d w e l -

c o m e d C o r r a d i n i a s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l p i l l a r o f t h e n e w r e g i m e .

I n a b o o k w r i t t e n i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f F a s c i s t r u l e , C o r r a -

d i n i i n s i s t s t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l i s m e r e l y p a r t o f a s o c i a l o r g a n -

i s m , a n d c a n n o t e x i s t o t h e r w i s e :

T a k e a w a y t h e f e c u n d e a r t h , a n d t h e s e e d s r e m ai n f o r a w h i l e

u n c h a n g e d a n d t h e n p e r i s h . S i m i l a r l y , t a k e a w a y t h e n a t i o n a l

s o c i e t y a n d t h e S t a t e , a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e m a i n s a n e m b r y o n i c

b e i n g . . . . C e r t a i nl y t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w ee n t h e b i o l o g i c a l

f a c t w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h a t m u c h m o r e i m p o s -

i n g f a c t , t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e S t a t e , w h i c h o p e r a t e s b e t w e e n i n d i -

v i d u a l s ; b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s a p p a r e n t o n l y . . . . 5 8

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238 NO COMPROMISE

As s o o n as this c o n c e p t o f t h e s o c i a l organism i s f i r m l y

g r a s p e d , t h e l i b e r a l e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l c a n n o l o n g e r b e j u s t i f i e d :

L i b e r t y, a s c o ncei v ed b y o l d p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s, o l d p a r t i e s, t h e

o l d j o u r n a l i s m , t h e o u t - m o d e d p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m, a n d t h e o l d

ruling classes which held swa y in Italy and are still i n power in

c e r t a i n Eu r o p e a n S t a t e s , i s a w o r d w i t h o u t c o n t e n t . Th e p a r -

t i c u l a r m e r i t o f t h e n e w I t a l i a n p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e c o n s i s t s p r e -

ci s e l y i n t h i s : t h a t i t h a s p e r c e i v e d t h e v a n i t y o f t h a t w o r d .

. . . An d w h y ? Th e r e a s o n i s s i m p l y t h i s : Li b e r t y, t h i s b a s i c

c o n c e p t o f t h e o l d Eu r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y, w h e n i t t r a n s -

f o r m e d i t s e l f f r o m a n a c t i v e f o r c e h a v i n g a d e f i n i t e h i s t o r i c a l

f u n c t i o n, t h a t o f l i b e r a t i n g n a t i o n s f r o m a b s o l u t i s m , i n t o a f i x e d

a n d s a c r e d d o c t r i n e, l o s t a l l s e n s e o f r e a l i t y . It b e c a m e t h e p o -

litical principle which defined the relationsh ip between State and

i n d i v i d u a l, a p r i n c i p l e w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f n a t -

u r a l l i b e r t y b e t w e e n t h e S t a t e a n d t h e i n di v i d u a l . . . . And th at

i s p r e c i s e l y f a l s e . For we know now that a natural, native, initial

l i b e r t y d o e s n o t e x i s t b e t w e n S t a t e a n d i n di v i d u a l , b u t r a t h e r

that they are united in a biological unity . Po l i t i c a l l i b e r t y m u s t

take this fact into a ccount, it must ma ke it its norm . This is the

p u n c t u m s a l i e n s o f t h e n e w I t a l i a n p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e, t h i s i s t h e

r e v o l u t i o n o f p r i nc i p l es . I n o r d er t o r e g u l a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n S t a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l , t h e y m u s t n o l o n g e r b e l o o k e d

upon as separate entities ; t h e y m u s t b e p e r c ei v e d i n t h e i r b i o -

l o g i c a l u n i t y . 5 9

I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e t h e o r i e s w e h a v e c i t e d , t h e m a i n t e n e t s

o f F a s c i s t p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s :

(i ) T h e St a t e f u n c t i o n s a s a c o l l e c t i v e m i n d o r o r g a n i s m ,

o r ( i n t h e N a z i v e r s i o n ) t h e r a c e s o f u n c t i o n s a n d e m p l o y s t h e

S t a t e a s i t s i n s t r u m e n t .

( 2 ) Th i s m i n d o r o r g a n i s m h a s a s u p r e m e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e .

(3) I t i s m o r a l l y a b s o l u t e a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i n g . It has practi -

c a l l y n o o b l i g a t i o n s t o i t s i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s , no r t o a n y

o t h e r S t a t e o r r a c e , n o r t o a n y m o r e i n c l u s i v e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a -

tion, such as , an internati onal leag ue .

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RACE, ST ATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 239

(4) The individua l achi eves his freedom and welfare

t h r o u g h h i s a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e S t a t e o r r a c e .

L e t u s n o w e x a m i n e t h e s e t e n e t s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l.

3 . T h e Ne w L e v i a t h a n

R e p e a t e d l y i n F a s c i s t l i t e r a t u r e , t h e S t a t e i s s a i d t o b e

an organism or group mind . M u s s o l i n i s p e a k s o f t h e S t a t e a s

h a v i n g a w i l l a n d a s b e i n g i t s e l f c o n s c i o u s . A l f r e d o R o c c o h a s

d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e S t a t e i s " a n o r g a n i s m d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e

c i t i z e n s w h o a t a n y g i v e n t i m e c o m p o s e i t , a n d h a s i t s o w n

l i f e a n d i t s e n d s h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f i n d i v i d u a l s , t o w h i c h

those of individuals must be su bordinated . " 6 0 S i m i l a r l y

W a l t h e r D a r r e , N a z i M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e , h a s r e f e r r e d t o

t h e S t a t e a s a " s u p e r o r g a n i c o r g a n i s m , " w h i c h e x a c t s " d e v o -

t i o n , s a c r i f i c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d a b a n d o n m e n t o f e g o i s m "

f o r t h e s a k e o f a " h i g h e r a i m . "61

But as we ha ve remark ed before, the Nazis m ore often

d e n y t h e S t a t e a s t h e f i n a l e n d o f a c t i o n , a n d s u b s t i t u t e a

new organism or group mind ; n a m e l y , t h e r a c e a s d e t e r m i n e d

by "the law of blood brotherhood . " T h e S t a t e i s s t i l l e m -

p h a s i z e d , b u t i t i s t h o u g h t o f a s h a v i n g a r a c i a l b a s i s . "The

N a z i S t a t e , " d e c l a r e s o n e P a r t y t h e o r i s t , " i s n o t o n l y o r g a n i c

b u t b i o l o g i c a l , s i n c e i t r e s t s o n t i e s o f b l o o d . " 6 2 This em-

p h a s i s u p o n r a c e p e r m i t s t h e N a z i s t o c o u n t a s p a r t o f t h e

r a c i a l o r g a n i s m t h e m a n y G e r m a n s w h o l i v e o u t s i d e o f t h e

t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e S t a t e . O b v i o u s l y s u c h a n i d e -

o l o g y i s h e l p f u l i n g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e G e r m a n i c a r e a s i n

c e n t r a l E u r o p e , a n d i n r a l l y i n g s u p p o r t f r o m G e r m a n s a l l

over th e world. Whichever co ncept be uppermost, race or

S t a t e , m u c h t h e s a m e c r i t i c i s m a p p l i e s . I n e i t h e r c a s e , t h e r e

i s a t e n d e n c y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e c o l l e c t i v i t y a t

t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

N o w i t s e e m s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e f a c t s e v e r w a r r a n t b e l i e f

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240 NO COMPROMISE

i n a s o c i a l o r g a n i s m o r g r o u p m i n d . A l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l s

u s u a l l y t h i n k a n d a c t a s t h e y d o b e c a u s e o f t h e i r m a n i f o l d

r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s , y e t a s i n g l e m i n d o r p e r -

s o n a l i t y a p p e a r s t o h a v e a m u c h m o r e i n t e n s e d e g r e e o f i n -

t e g r a t i o n t h a n a r a c e , a S t a t e , o r a n y o t h e r s o c i a l g r o u p . A s

L. T . H o b h o u s e h a s s a i d , " T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g c o m m o n i n

m e t o a l l m y a c t s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h i s n e v e r c o m m o n t o

you and me . " 6 3 T h e p e r s o n a l i t y h a s a c o r e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y

a n d v a r i o u s s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g s w h i c h i t c a n n e v e r p r e c i s e l y

s h a r e ; a l t h o u g h y o u m a y s y m p a t h i z e w i t h m e , m y t o o t h a c h e

r e m a i n s m y t o o t h a c h e .

T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n a S t a t e a r e

p a r t l y r e l a t e d i n t e r m s o f s p a t i a l a d j a c e n c y s u g g e s t s t h a t w e

a r e n o t d e a l i n g w i t h r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n a s u p e r m i n d . T h e r e l a -

t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t s o f a m i n d a r e n o t s p a t i a l . A g a i n ,

p h y s i c a l c o e r c i o n u s e d a s p o l i c e p o w e r , w h i c h i n p r a c t i c e i s

i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e S t a t e , i m p l i e s a n a b s o l u t e d i v i s i o n a n d

c l a s h o f i n t e r e s t s b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n s w h o a r e m e m b e r s o f

t h e S t a t e . I t i s a l i t t l e s t r a n g e f o r o n e p a r t o f a m i nd t o c l u b

a n o t h e r p a r t . T h i s o b j e c t i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e

F a s c i s t S t a t e , i n w h i c h t h e p o l i c e p o w e r h a s b e c o m e s o c o n -

s p i c u o u s . I t m a y b e o b j e c t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e c o n f l i c t s o f i n -

t e r e s t s w i t h i n a m i n d , a n d a m i n d d o e s a t t i m e s s e e m t o d i s -

c i p l i n e an d c o e r c e i t s e l f . B u t o n e p a r t o f t h e m i n d d o e s n o t

s u p p r e s s a n o t h e r p a r t b y m e a n s o fp h y s i c a l

v i o l e n c e , w h i c h

i n v o l v e s s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e m e r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s w h i c h h o l d w i t h i n a m i n d . I f t h e S t a t e o r r a c e ,

m o r e o v e r , i s a n a l o g o u s , n o t t o a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d a n d h a r -

m o n i o u s m i n d , b u t t o a m i n d r e n t b y i n n e r c o n f l i c t , i t w o u l d

n o t s e e m t o b e t h e w e l l - n i g h p e r f e c t t h i n g w h i c h t h e F a s c i s t s

c o n s i d e r i t t o b e .

I f w e r e g a r d t h e S t a t e , n o t a s a g r o u p m i n d , b u t a s a n

o r g a n i s m , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n t i n u e t o b e f o r m i d a b l e . L e t u s

e n u m e r a t e s o m e o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f a n o r g a n -

i s m . F i r s t , t h e p a r t s a r e d e a d a n d f u n c t i o n l e s s w h e n r e m o v e d

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 241

f r o m t h e i r p l a c e s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i s m . A n e y e c a n n o t p o s -

s i b l y l i v e , e v e n i n a m u t i l a t e d f o r m , w h e n p l u c k e d o u t o f t h e

b od y. M u s s o l i n i d e c l a r e s t h a t i t i s s i m i l a r l y " i m p o s s i b l e t o

c o n c e i v e a n y i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e t h e S t a t e u n l e s s h e

b e a s a v a g e w h o s e h o m e i s i n t h e s o l i t u d e o f t h e s a n d y d e s -

e r t . "8 4

B u t M u s s o l i n i ' s a d m i s s i o n t h a t a s a v a g e m i g h t l i v e

o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a n y S t a t e i m p l i e s t h a t t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l i s p r i o r t o t h e S t a t e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e S t a t e i s p r i o r t o

t h e c i v i l i z e d i n d i v i d u a l . I n a d d i t i o n , w e c a n e a s i l y c o n c e i v e

a n i n d i v i d u a l d e t a c h i n g h i m s e l f f r o m o n e S t a t e a n d j o i n i n g

a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s t o h i s o w n e n r i c h m e n t . Such au tonomy

u p o n t h e p a r t o f t h e o r g a n s i n a b i o l o g i c a l u n i t y w o u l d b e

f a t a l .

S e c o n d , t h e p a r t s o f a h i g h e r o r g a n i s m a r e l o c a l l y d i f f e r -

e n t i a t e d . T h u s i n t h e h u m a n b o d y t h e r e a r e b r a i n , n e r v e s ,

h e a r t , l i v e r , e t c . D e s p i t e t h e d i v i s i on o f l a b o r i n s o c i e ty , t h e r e

i s n o s u c h e x t r e m e d e g r e e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e S t a t e .

T h o u g h t a n d d i g e s t i o n a n d n e r v o u s s e n s i t i v i t y o c c u r i n a l l

the members . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , m o r e o v e r, t h a t t h e r e i s m u c h

l e s s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n a n e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y

t h a n i n a c a s t e s o c i e t y . O b v i o u s l y t h e " o r g a n i c t h e o r y " i s

v e r y u s e f u l t o a r u l i n g c l a s s , w h i c h c a n p l e a d t h a t i t i s t h e

" b r a i n s " o f t h e b o d y p o l i t i c . I t i s n o a c c i d e nt t h a t t h e p ro -

p o n e n t s o f t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w a r e g e n e r a l l y o p p o s e d t o d e m o c -

r a c y .

T h i r d , a n o r g a n i s m p a s s e s t h r o u g h a l i f e c y c l e , e n d i n g i n

o l d a g e a n d d e a t h . E a c h t y p e o f o r g a n i s m h a s a c e r t a i n n o r -

m a l l i f e s p a n . T h e S t a t e a p p e a r s t o b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t ; t h e r e i s

o r d i n a r i l y n o c l e a r l y m a r k e d p o i n t o f b i r t h o r o f d e a t h . D i d

t h e A m e r i c a n S t a t e , f o r e x a m p l e , c o m e i n t o b e i n g w h e n t h e

c o l o n i e s f i r s t b e g a n t o r e s i s t E n g l i s h r u l e ? O r w h e n t h e D e c -

l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e w a s s i g n e d ? O r w h e n t h e i n d e -

p e n d e n c e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s f i r s t r e c o g n i z e d b y G r e a t

B r i t a i n ? O r w h e n t h e A r t i c l e s o f C o n f e d e r a t i o n w e r e r a t i -

f i e d ? O r w h e n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n w a s a d o p t e d ? W h e n d i d t h e

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242 NO COMPROMISE

p o l i t i c a l u n i t y o f C h i n a , o r o f I t a l y , b e c o m e s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t

t o c a l l i t a S t a t e ? I s t h e B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h o f N a t i o n s a

S t a t e ? I f s o , w h e n d i d i t c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e ? I f t h e C o m -

m o n w e a l t h i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t e g r a t e d t o b e c a l l e d a S t a t e ,

j u s t w h a t d e g r e e o f i n t e g r a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ? J u s t w h e n c a n a

S t a t e b e s a i d t o h a v e d i e d ? D o e s a S t a t e w h o l l y p e r i s h , a n d

a new one begin, when a revol ution occur s? When a mere

c o u p d ' e t a t o c c u r s ? I f t h e B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h i s a S t a t e ,

j u s t h o w m u c h h o m e r u l e o r i n d e p e n d e n c e w o u l d h a v e t o b e

g r a n t e d t o A u s t r a l i a , C a n a d a , S o u t h A f r i c a , e t c . , b e f o r e t h i s

S t a t e w o u l d b e d i s s o l v e d ? S u c h q u e s t i o n s c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t

t h a t a S t a t e i s t o o a m o r p h o u s a n e n t i t y t o p o s s e s s a d e f i n i t e

l i f e s p a n o r c y c l e s u c h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e s a n o r g a n i s m . T h e c o n -

c l u s i o n s e e m s t o b e i n e s c a p a b l e t h a t t h e S t a t e i s n o t a n o r -

g an i s m .

Although a h uman society is probabl y more like a mind

o r o r g a n i s m t h a n l i k e a m a c h i n e , t h e a n a l o g y i s p r e s s e d t o o

f a r i n t h e a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y c r u e l d i c t a t o r s h i p s . As Ho bhou se

p o i n t s o u t , i f w e d e s c r i b e a S t a t e a s " o r g a n i c , " w e m u s t n o t

r e g a r d i t a s " a g r e a t L e v i a t h a n , a w h o l e r e l a t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s

a s a b o d y t o i t s c e l l s . . . . W e m u s t a v o i d i m p o r t i n g i n t o o u r

d e f i n i n g t e r m t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s w h i c h b e l o n g t o i t i n a n o t h e r

c a p a c i t y . " W e m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e " s o c i a l o r g a n i s m , " i n

i t s c o m p l e t e n e s s , i s a n i d e a l r a t h e r t h a n a n a c t u a l i t y . N o s o -

c i e t y v e r y c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s a n a n i m a l o r a h u m a n p e r s o n -

a l i t y . " B u t a c t u a l s o c i e t i e s h a v e a t o u c h o f t h e o r g a n i c c h a r -

a c t e r , s o m e m o r e a n d s o m e l e s s . "65

4 . The Abst ract Mo nster a s an End in Itsel f

T h e d e c i s i v e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a b i o l o g i c a l o r g a n i s m a n d

a s o c i e t y i s t h a t t h e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e o f t h e f o r m e r i n h e r e s i n

t h e w h o l e , w h e r e a s t h e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e o f t h e l a t t e r i s r e a l i z e d

i n i t s m e m b e r s . V a l u e s o r d i n a r i l y d e p e n d u p o n s o c i a l r e l a -

t i o n s b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l i t i e s , b u t t h e y a r e r e a l i z e d i n e a c h

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RACE, ST ATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 243

man's life, and not in a group m ind or superorganism in

w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a r e m e r g e d a n d l o s e t h e i r i d e n t i t y . The

S t a t e e x i s t s f o r m a n , a n d n o t m a n f o r t h e S t a t e .

T h i s c o n t e n t i o n , w h i c h i s b a s i c t o l i b e r a l i s m , i s d e n i e d

b y t h e F a s c i s t s . A l f r e d o R o c c o , f o r e x a m p l e , i n a n a d d r e s s

e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y e n d o r s e d b y M u s s o l i n i , r e j e c t s K a n t ' s f a m o u s

p r i n c i p l e t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e t r e a t e d a s e n d s

i n t h e m s e l v e s , n e v e r a s m e r e m e a n s o r i n s t r u m e n t s . T h i s i s

t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f l i b e r a l i s m , h e d e c l a r e s , b u t i t i s n o t

t h e p r i n c i p l e o f F a s c i s m :

F o r l i b e r a l i s m , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t h e e n d a n d s o c i e t y t h e m e a ns ;

n o r i s i t c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u al , c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e d i g -

n i t y o f a n u l t i m a t e f i n a l i t y , b e l o w e r e d t o m e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y .

F o r F a s c i s m , s o c i e t y i s t h e e n d , i n d i v i d u a l s t h e m e a n s , a n d i t s

w h o l e l i f e c o n s i s t s i n u s i n g i n d i v i d u a l s a s i n s t r u me n t s f o r i t s s o -

c i a l e n d s . . . . I n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a r e o n l y r e c o g n i z e d i n s o f a r a s

t h e y a r e i mp l i e d i n t h e r i g h t s o f t h e S t a t e s °

I t m i g h t b e d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d i n N a z i l i t e r a t u r e a n y s t a t e m e n t

s o c l e a r a n d e x p l i c i t i n e x a l t i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e

a b o v e t h a t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e a p p e a l o f F a s c i s m o f t e n

d e p e n d s u p o n p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h a r e v a g u e l y i m p l i e d r a t h e r

t h a n c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s a t en d e n c y i n Na z i

t h e o r y t o e x a l t t h e r a c e a s t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e . A l f r e d R o s e n -

b e r g , f o r e x a m p l e , d e c l a r e s :

S o u l m e a n s r a c e s e e n f r o m t h e i n s i d e , a n d v i c e v e r s a t h e r a c e

i s t h e e x t e r n a l a s p e c t o f a s o u l . T o a w a k e n t o l i f e t h e s o u l o f t h e

r a c e m e a n s t o k n o w i t s h i g h e s t v a l u e s a n d t o s u b o r d i n a t e t o i t s

r u l e a l l o t h e r v a l u e s w i t h i n a n o r g a n i c h i e r a r c h y : i n p o l i t i c s , i n

a r t , a n d i n r e l i g i o n .6 7

I f t h i s m e a n s w h a t s e e m s t o b e i m p l i e d , t h e r a c e h a s a s u -

p r e m e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e .

T h e p l a u s i b i l i t y o f t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e S t a t e o r t h e r a c e

i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y g o o d d e p e n d s u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i t

h a s a l i f e o r m i n d o f i t s o w n d i s t i n c t f r o m t h a t o f a n y o f i t s

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244 NO COMPROMISE

individual members . ( B y i n t r i n s i c g o o d n e s s , w e m e a n o f

c o u r s e t h a t w h i c h i s g o o d f o r i t s o w n s a k e , a n d n o t m e r e l y

a s a me an s . A l a d d e r i s g o o d a s a m e a n s , b u t n o t a s a n

end ; h e n c e i t i s n o t i n t r i n s i c a l l y g o od . ) A l m o s t e v e r y b o d y

w h o h a s t r i e d t o f o r m u l a t e t h e m e a n i n g o f i n t r i n s i c g o o d -

n e s s h a s f o u n d i t i n s o m e s t a t e o f a n o r g a n i c , a n d m o s t

p e o p l e w o u l d s a y o f a c o n s c i o u s , b e i n g - i n p l e a s u r e , v i r t u e ,

i n t er e s t , s e l f - r e a l iz a t i o n, s a t i s f a c t i o n o f d e s i r e , o r f u l f i l l m e n t

o f s o m e l i v i n g i m p u l s e . N o n l i v i n g t h i n g s m a y h a v e g r e a t

v a l u e a s m e a n s t o e n d s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t e n d s i n t h e m -

s e l v e s .

I f t h i s i s t r u e a nd i f o u r a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n c o r r e c t , a g r o u p

m a y h a v e v a l u e a s a m e a n s b u t n o t a s a n e n d ; f o r w e h a v e

s e e n t h a t t h e o n l y v i t a l i t y t h a t a g r o u p h a s i s i n t h e l i v e s o f

i t s m e m b e r s . I t i s p e r f e c t l y t r u e t h a t t h e s e m e m b e r s d e r i v e

v a l u e f r o m t h e i r g r o u p a f f i l i a t i o n . S t i l l , i t i s e a c h m e m b e r ' s

g o o d , a n d n o t t h e g o o d o f s o m e f i c t i t i o u s g r o u p m i n d . T h e

g r o u p i s j u s t i f i a b l e o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t b e n e f i t s t h e

i n d i v i d u a l s . 6 8

E v e n i f t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i s q u i t e w ro n g , a n d t h e S t a t e o r

r a c e d o e s p o s s e s s i n t r i n s i c v a l u e , i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t t h e

F a s c i s t s a r e i n a p o s i t i o n r i g h t l y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e v a l u e s o f

the group mind or organism . How can we know tha t any

p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l i s t h e p r o p e r s p o k e s m a n o f t h i s s u p e r

e n t i t y ? D o e s t h e r a c i a l s o u l w h i s p e r i t s p r o m p t i n g s i n t h e

e a r o f H i t l e r ? I s M u s s o l i n i i n " c a h o o t s " w i t h t h e A b s o l u t e ?

W h a t s i g n f r o m o n h i g h c a n t h e s e s e l f - a n n o u n c e d s p o k e s -

m e n p r e s e n t ? I f a F a s c i s t s t a t e s m a n p r o c l a i m s t h a t h i s d e e d s

a n d o p i n i o n s a r e n o t m e r e l y h i s , b u t t h o s e o f a g r o u p m i n d ,

h e i s a s s e r t i n g t h a t h e i s t h e t o o l o f a b e i n g w h i c h e l u d e s

a n y s c i e n t i f i c s c r u t i n y , a n d w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y c a n o n l y b e

k n o w n m y s t i c a l l y i f i t c a n b e k n o w n a t a l l . L a c k i n g t h e

m y s t i c a l i l l u m i n a t i o n , I s e e n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a

S o c i a l D e m o c r a t m i g h t n o t i n t e r p r e t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h i s

e l u s i v e b e i n g j u s t a s w e l l a s H i t l e r o r M u s s o l i n i .

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 245

5 . The Monster as a Mo ral Absol ute

In Fascist theory, this gro up mind or organism is exempt

from moral strictures . Hitl er remarks :

T h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e m u s t e s p e c i a l l y b e i n s i s t e d u p o n a n d

c a r r i e d t h r o u g h i n p r a c t i c e w i t h w h a t I m a y c a l l a d e v o t e d f a -

n a t i c i s m : n a m e l y , t h a t a n e n e m y o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t S t a t e ,

no matter wheth er at home or abro ad, must not know or dis-

c o v e r a n y p e r s o n o r s o u r c e i n G e r m a n y t h a t w i l l a g r e e w i t h h i m

o r s u p p o r t h i m . 6 9

This means, in practice, a rigo rous s uppression of criticism .

"The sov ereign State," Mussolini declares, "is above every-

o n e a n d c a n a f f o r d t o b e a g a i n s t e v e r y o n e , s i n c e i t r e p r e s e n t s

the moral continuity of the nation in history . " 7 0

The p l a in f ac t, h o we ve r, i s t h a t t h e re h a ve be en b ad

S t a t e s . H e g e l h i m s e l f d e c l a r e s t h a t h i s t o r y a f f o r d s t h e s p e c t a -

cle of "wrecks confusedly hurl ed," and that "the happiness

of peoples, the wisdom of States, and the vir tue of individ-

uals" have all b een sacrificed at the "slaughter-b ench" of

h i s t o r y . 7 1 "T h e r e h a v e b e e n b a r b a r i c t i m e s a n d c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s , " h e a s s e r t s , i n w h i c h " t h e S t a t e w a s o n l y a w o r l d l y r u l e

o f f o r c e , l a w l e s s n e s s , a n d p a s s i o n . " 7 2 H o w t h e n, w e a s k , c a n

he extol t he State as "the march o f God in t he world," and

a s t h e " a b s o l u t e , s t a b l e , e n d - f o r - i t s e l f " ?

H e a t t e m p t s t o e s c a p e c o n t r a di c t i o n b y s a y i n g t h a t t h e

b a d S t a t e i s u n r e a l :

A c t u a l i t y i s a l w a y s t h e u n i t y o f u n i v e r s a l i t y a n d p a r t i c u l a r i t y .

. . . I n s o f a r a s t h i s u n i t y i s a b s e n t , t h e t h i n g i s u n r e a l i z e d , e v e n

though exis tence may be predicated of it . A bad State is one

w h i c h m e r e l y e x i s t s . A s i c k b o d y a l s o e x i s t s , b u t i t h a s n o t r u e

r e a l i t y . A h a n d , w h i c h i s c u t o f f , s t i l l l o o k s l i k e a h a n d a n d e x i s t s ,

t h o u g h i t i s n o t r e a l . 7 3

B u t i f o n l y a p e r f e c t l y i n t e g r a t e d S t a t e i s " r e a l , " H e g e l ' s a c -

count of the real State hardly applies to our present world .

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246 NO COMPROMISE

We would need to determ ine, in any ev ent, wheth er the

S t a t e i n q u e s t i o n i s " r e a l " o r " m e r e l y e x i s t e n t . " T h i s w o u l d

r e q u i r e i n d i v i d u a l r e f l e c t i o n a n d m o r a l c r i t i c i s m .

A s i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t y c o n f r o n t s t h e F a s c i s t s . W i l l t h e y c o n -

t e n d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e S o v i e t g o v e r n m e n t i n R u s s i a r e p -

r e s e n t s t h e h i g h e s t g o o d f o r i t s c i t i z e n s ? W i l l M u s s o l i n i a d -

m i t t h a t H a i l e S e l a s s i e ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n E t h i o p i a a c t u a l l y

e m b o d i e d t h e h i g h e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p e o p l e ? W i l l F r a n c o

a n d h i s F a s c i s t a l l i e s g r a n t t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f t h e S p a n i s h

g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h w a s e l e c t e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 ? O f c o u r s e

n o t . T h e F a s c i s t s h a v e h e a p e d a b u s e u p o n a l l t h e s e g o v e r n -

ments . H e n c e t h e y m u s t a d m i t t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e a l w a y s

t o i d e n t i f y t h e h i g h e s t g o o d w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g S t a t e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n . B u t w h o i s t o s a y w h e n t h e S t a t e i s b a d a n d w h e n i t i s

n o t ? W h o c a n j u d g e e x c e p t r e s p o n s i b l e a n d i n f o r m e d i n d i -

v i d u a l s , o r t h e e n t ir e b o d y o f t h e c i t i z e n s a t t h e b a l l o t b o x ?

T h e S t a t e s h o u l d b e a n i n s t r u m e n t o f h u m a n w e l f a r e , a n d i f

i t i s a m e r e i n s t r u m e nt o f i n i q u i t y , t h e c i t i z e n s h a v e n o o b l i -

g a t i o n t o u p h o l d i t ; t h e y m u s t u s e t h e i r o w n b e s t j u d g m e n t

i n d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r t h i s i s t h e f a c t . T h e S t a t e i t s e l f s u r e l y

h a s n o o r a c l e w h e r e b y i t a n n o u n c e s i t s o w n d i v i n i t y .

T h e n e e d o f r e f l e c t i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e

f a c t t h a t S t a t e s o n o c c a s i o n f l a t l y o p p o s e e a c h o t h e r ; e v e n

F a s c i s t S t a t e s h a v e b e e n k n o w n t o c l a s h w i t h e a c h o t h e r a s

w e l l a s w i t h n o n - F a s c i s t S t a t e s . W h e n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

o n e S t a t e s a y " A " i s r i g h t , a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a n o t h e r

S t a t e s a y " A " i s n o t r i g h t , t h e t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y j u d g m e n t s

c a n n o t b o t h b e t r u e . T h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y p r i n c i p l e o f l o g i c

a s s e r t s t h a t n o p r o p o s i t i o n c a n b e b o t h t r u e a n d f a l s e . T h e

F a s c i s t s m u s t e i t h e r c a s t l o g i c t o t h e w i nd s , o r r e c o g n i z e t h a t

S t a t e s a r e f a l l i b l e . I f t h e y d i s c a r d l o g i c , t h e r e i s n o b a s i s

u p o n w h i c h t o a r g u e w i t h t h e m , a n d n o r e a s o n t o t a k e t h e i r

" a r g u m e n t s " s e r i o u s l y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e y a d m i t

t h a t t h e S t a t e i s f a l l i b l e , t h e y m u s t s u r e l y g r a n t t h a t t h e

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RACE, S TATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 247

S t a t e i s s u b j e c t t o c r i t i c i s m . B y i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e y c o n d e m n

t h e i r o w n p r a c t i c e o f s u p p r e s s i n g c r i t i c i s m .

A g r e a t m a n y i n t e r e s t s , i t i s w e l l t o r e m e m b e r , a r e i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l i n s c o p e . A r t , s c i e n c e , c o m m e r c e , r e l i g i o n , a n d v a r i -

o u s o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s t r a n s c e n d n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s . U n l e s s

n a t i o n a l i s t i c S t a t e s r e c o g n i z e t h e n e e d o f c o n c i l i a t i n g t h e i r

o p p o s i n g i n t e r e s t s , a n d o f l i m i t i n g t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y b y a

b o d y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , t h e i n t e r e s t s w h i c h c r o s s n a t i o n a l

b o u n d a r i e s w i l l f a i l t o a c h i e v e a n o r g a n i z e d e x p r e s s i o n . The

r e s u l t w i l l b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d m o r a l a n a r c h y. I n b o t h i t s

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s , t h e S t a t e c a n n o t e s c a p e

m o r a l r e s t r i c t i o n s , a n d m u s t n o t b e e x e m p t e d f r o m t h e e t h i -

c a l c e n s u r e o f r e s p o n s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l s .

6 . S t a t e - P o l i c y a n d I n d i v i d u a l W e l f a r e

T h e r a c i a l o r t o t a l i t a r i a n S t a t e m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y b e e x -

e m p t e d f r o m m o r a l c r i t i c i s m i f i n d i v i d u a l w e l f a r e w h o l l y

d e p e n d e d u p o n , o r c o i n c i d e d w i t h , t h e S t a t e . T h e F a s c i s t s

c o n t e n d t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e . R o b e r t o F a r i n a c c i , o n e o f t h e

c h i e f F a s c i s t " i n t e l l e c t u a l s , " h a s d e c l a r e d :

T h e S t a t e , i n t h e F a s c i s t v i e w , i s n o t a n e n t i t y f o r e i g n t o t h e

i n d i v i d u a l o r s t a n d i n g i n c o n s t a n t o p p o s i t i o n t o h i m ; r a t h e r i t i s

t h e v e r y f o u n t o f a u t h o r i t y a n d l i b e r t y , t h e s u p r e m e , u n i v e r s a l

a n d n e c e s s a r y a i m o f h i s l i f e . . . . T h e l i b e r t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

c o i n c i d e s p e r f e c t l y w i t h o b e d i e n c e t o t h e S t a t e , t h a t i s t o s a y ,

w i t h t h e r e a l i z a t i on o f t h a t u l t i m a t e g o o d f o r w h i c h t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l h i m s e l f l i v e s a n d w o r k s a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h h e b e c o m e s a

p a r t i c i p a n t i n h i s t o r y a n d i n t h e d i v i n e l i f e 7 4

M u s s o l i n i , i n l i k e m a n n e r , a f f i r m s t h a t " t h e i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t s

o n l y i n s o f a r a s h e i s w i t h i n t h e S t a t e a n d s u b j e c t e d t o t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e S t a t e , " a n d t h a t " t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e

F a s c i s t S t a t e i s n o t a n n u l l e d b u t r a t h e r m u l t i p l i e d . " 7 5 TheN a z i s a l s o i n s i s t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n a c h i e v e f r e e d o m a n d

p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y o n l y b y i d e n t i f y i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e r a c e ,

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248 NO COMPROMISE

t h e n a t i o n , a n d t h e S t a t e . " P e r s o n a l i t y , " d e c l a r e s R o s e n b e r g ,

" d o e s n o t s t a n d i n a n a l i e n r e l a t io n s h i p t o t h e m a s s e s , b u t i s

t h e h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l w i l l . "

76

U n d e r i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e F a s c i s t c o n t e n t i o n i s t r u e . I f

a l l m e n f r e e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e g o o d o f t h e w h o l e a s e m -

b o d i e d i n l a w s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e r e c a n b e n o o p p o s i t i o n

b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l w e l f a r e a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . B u t i f

t h e S t a t e i s i m p e r f e c t , o r t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n a w r y ,

t h e f r e e d o m a n d w e l f a r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l d o n o t c o n s i s t i n

h i s a b s o l u t e s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e S t a t e a n d t o t h e n a t i o n a l

t r a d i t i o n . L e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s o r d i n a n c e s

a r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e h a p p i n e s s a n d w e l f a r e o f t h e c i t i z e n s ,

a n d t h a t t h e S t a t e i s a c r u e l d i c t a t o r s h i p . F r e e do m w o u l d

s u r e l y n o t c o n s i s t i n u t t e r s u b m i s s i o n t o s u c h a v i c i o u s t y r -

anny .

O u r s u p p o s i t i o n s , i t w o u l d s e e m , a r e n o t s o c o n t r a r y t o

t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s . L e t u s t a k e

I t a l y a s a n e x a m p l e . D o e s t h e I t a l i a n S t a t e a c h i e v e t h e p e r -

f e c t c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l w e l f a r e a n d g o v e r n -

mental decree? Writing in Curr ent History, a s t u d e n t o f

I t a l i a n c o n d i t i o n s p o i n t s o u t :

F a s c i s m ' s r e c o r d o f p u b l i c s e r v ic e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s m a l l e r

t o w n s a n d i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t i e s - p u b l i c s e r v i c e a s r e p r e -

s e n t ed n o t o n l y b y u t il i t i es , b u t b y s u c h t h i n g s a s h o s p i t a l s , s a n a-

t o r i a a n d s c h o o l s - i s p o o r e r t h a n t h a t o f a n y o t h e r E u r o p e a n

c o u n t r y i n t h e s a m e p o l i t i c a l c a t e g o r y , a n d i s c e r t a i n l y p o o r e r

t h a n t h a t of p r e - F a s c i s t I t a l y . 7 7

C e r t a i n l y o n e i n d e x o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e i s t h e a m o u n t o f d e s -

t i t u t i o n ; a n d F a s c i s t I t a l y h a s a b a d r e c o r d i n t h i s r e s p e c t .

A s t u d y o f t h e e c o n o m i c r e p o r t s o f t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s

r e v e a l s t h a t I t a l y i s a l m o s t a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s c a l e i n

e c o n o m i c w e l f a r e .

This condition migh t be excusable if the government

w e r e b e n d i n g i t s m a i n e f f o r t s t o a b o l i s h i n g p o v e r t y , b u t t h e

F a s c i s t r e g i m e i s m a i n l y b e n t u p o n m i l i t a r y p r o w e s s . A l e t t e r

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RACE, STATE, AND INDIVIDUAL 251

w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h a t U n i v e r s a l R e a l m , s p i r i t u a l a n d t e m p o r a l ,

w h i c h m a y b e c a l l e d t h e U n i v e r s a l C h u r c h , o r , w i t h e q u a l p r o -

p r i e t y , t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h o f t h e H u m a n R a c e . T h e r e f o r e t h a t

i t m a y a t t a i n i t s o n e p u r p o s e , i t n e e d s O n e L a w a n d O n e G o v -

e r n m e n t . 7 9

M e d i e v a l i s m d i d , i n c o n s i d e r a b l e m e a s u r e , a c h i e v e s u c h a u n i -

v e r s a l i s t i c c u l t u r e . U p o n t h e c o n t i n e n t o f E u r o p e w h i c h c o m -

p r i s e d m o s t o f t h e m e d i e v a l " w o r l d , " t h e r e w a s a u n i v e r s a l

c h u r c h , t h e C a t h o l i c ; a u n i v e r s a l p h i l o s o p h y , t h e S c h o l a s t i c ;

a u n i v e r s a l l a w , t h e R o m a n ; a u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e , t h e L a t i n ;

a u n i v er s a l a r t , t h e G o t h i c ; a u n i v e r s a l e t h i c s , t h e C h r i s t i a n ;

and a universal code of manners, the chivalro us . D a n t e ' s

d r e a m o f a u n i v e r s a l c o m m o n w e a l t h , w h i c h w a s m e d i e v a l t o

i t s c o r e , i s n o w r e t u r n i n g i n a l t e r e d f o r m a s t h e i d e a l o f

democracy . W e h a v e l e a r n e d h o w d e s t r u c t i v e a r e r a m p a n t n a -

t i o n a l i s m a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s m ; a n d w e no w w i s h t o e m p l o y

o u r v a s t l y a u g m e n t e d r e s o u r c e s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a

w o r l d - w i d e c u l t u r e .

According to Hegelian philo sophy, it s hould b e noted,

h i g h e r d e g r e e s o f r e a l i t y a n d v a l u e a r e a c h i e v e d w i t h m o r e

i n c l u s i v e d e g r e e s o f i n t e g r a t i o n . I f w e a c c e p t t h i s p o i n t o f

view, we must regard Hegel's extreme attachment to the

n a t i o n - s t a t e a s l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y t h a n t h e m e d i e v a l a n d n o w

r e v i v i n g f a i t h i n a w o r l d - s t a t e o r a w o r l d c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f

S t a t e s .

T h e a b s o l u t e n a t i o n - s t a t e i s a n a n a c h r o n i s m . A l r e a d y t h e

tremendous develo pment of communica tion, mobil ity, and

exchange has doom ed the old order . Travel by means of

t r a i n , a u t o m o b i l e , s t e a m s h i p , a n d a i r p l a n e ; communicati on

b y m e a n s o f t e l e g r a p h , t e l e p h o n e , r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , c i n e m a ,

a n d p r e s s ; e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y i n t h e f o r m o f t r a d e , f i n a n c e ,

c r e d i t e x c h a n g e s , a n d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f b o t h

l a b o r a n d c a p i t a l ; a n d c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y a s e m b o d i e d i n a r t ,

r e l i g i o n , s c i e n c e , a n d s p o r t - a l l t r a v e r s e n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s

a n d i n d i c a t e t h e n e e d o f a w i d e r i n t e g r a t i o n t h a n p u r e l y n a -

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252 NO COMPROMISE

t i o n a l i s t i c u n i t y p e r m i t s . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w e c a n -

n o t r e g a r d t h e r a c i a l o r n a t i o n a l i s t i c S t a t e a s t h e f i n a l a n d

e x c l u s i v e f o r m o f h u m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . W e c a n n o t t h i n k t h a t

h u m a n i n t e r e s t s a r e a d e q u a t e l y a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l

f o r m s t h a t a r e f a r m o r e c o n s t r i c t e d t h a n t h e a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h

t h e y p r e t e n d t o r e g u l a t e a n d s u b s u m e . W e c a n n o t i m a g i n e

that human beings achieve their maximum freedom and

w e l f a r e t h r o u g h t h e s h a r p d i v i s i o n o f m a n k i n d i n t o w a r r i n g

S t a t e s . T h e h o p e o f t h e f u t u r e l i e s , n e i t h e r i n a n a ti o n a l i s t i c

t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m n o r a n o u t m o d e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m , b u t i n a

w o r l d c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f s o c i a l d e m o c r a c i e s .

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VIII

THE IDEALISTIC MASK ANDTHE REAL FACE

Beloved Pan, and all ye other gods her e dwelling, grant that I may

g r o w b e a u t i f u l w i t h i n, a nd t h a t w h a t s o e v e r I p o s s e s s w i t h o u t m a y b e

in harmony with my inner man .-PL ATO 1

i . T h e F a s c i s t T h e o r y o f H i s t o r y

IN THE p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , w e e x a m i n e d a d o c t r i n e b a s e d

u p o n i d e a l i s t i c p r e m i s e s . T h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y o f t h e r a c e o r t h e

S t a t e a s a s u p e r m i n d o r s u p e r o r g a n i s m h a s b e e n f o r m u l a t e d

b y s u c h i d e a l i s t s a s H e g e l a n d G e n t i l e . B u t t h e t e r m " i d e a l -

i s m , " a s e m p l o y e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s , m e a n s m u c h m o r e t h a n

t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l o r r a c i a l " o r g a n i s m . " A m e t a -

p h y s i c a l c r e e d , a t h e o ry o f h i s t o ry , a r e l i g i ou s f a i t h , a c r i t i-

c i s m o f a r t , a n d a n a g r a r i a n m o v e m e n t a r e a l l u n i t e d w i t h i n

a c o m p r e h e n s i v e Welt an sc h a u un g w h i c h s t r e s s e s " s p i r i tu a l "

r a t h e r t h a n " m a t e r i a l " f a c t o r s .

W e c a n a t l e a s t r o u g h l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r i e s

o f t h e N a z i s a n d t h e B l a c k s h i r t s . T h e l a t t e r p r o c l a i m a r e l a -

t i v e l y u n a d u l t e r a t e d i d e a l i s m . T h e p h y s i c a l s i d e o f l i f e i s

d e c l a r e d t o b e a m e r e a p p e a r a n c e d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e m e n -

t a l . T h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i s f o r m u l a t e d b y G e n t i l e , t h e m o s t i n -

f l u e n t i a l o f t h e F a s c i s t m e t a p h y s i c i a n s :

M a t t er h a s i t s f o u n d a t i on i n t h o u g h t b y w h i c h t h e p e r s o n a l i t y

i s a c t u a l i z e d . T h i n g s a r e w h a t w e i n o u r o w n t h o u g h t c o u n t e r -

p o s e t o o u r s e l v e s w h o t h i n k t h e m . O u t s i d e o f o u r t h o u g h t t h e y

a r e a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g . 2

In Germany, on the oth er hand, the extrem e emphasis

u p o n r a c i a l f a c t o r s h a s n e c e s s i t a t e d a " d o u b l e - a s p e c t t h e o r y "

r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e i d e a l i s m . T h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s o f r a c e ,

R o s e n b e r g d e c l a r e s , a r e t h e e x t e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s o u l ,

a n d t h e s o u l i s s a i d t o b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r

2 5 3

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254 NO COMPROMISE

v i e w e d i n t r o s p e c t i v e l y . S i m i l a r l y D r . H e y s e , a p r o f e s s o r o f

p h i l o s o p h y , s p e a k i n g a t G o t t i n g e n U n i v e r s i t y o n J u n e 1 o ,

1 9 3 8 , b e f o r e t h e A c a d e m y o f t h e N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t L e a g u e

o f U n i v e r s i t y T e a c h e r s , e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e N a z i W e l t a n -

s c h a u u n g i s o p p o s e d t o t h e d i v i s i o n o f e x i s t e n c e i n t o s o u l

a n d b o d y , i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l , h i s t o r y a n d n a t u r e . The

p r e s e n t r e g i m e i n G e r m a n y , h e d e c l a r e d , c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s o l e

m e a n s o f " r e g a i n i n g t h e N o r d i c - G r e c i a n t o t a l i t y , " i n w h i c h

p h y s i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l u n i t e a s a s p e c t s o f a n i n d i v i s i b l e h a r -

m o n y . 3

U p o n a l e s s a b s t r a c t p l a n e , t h e G e r m a n a n d I t a l i a n F a s -

c i s t s a r e a l i k e i n o p p o s i n g " m a t e r i a l i s m . " T h e m a t e r i a l c o n -

d i t i o n s o f l i f e a n d p r o d u c t i o n - i n t h e s e n s e o f p h y s i c a l e n -

v i r o n m e n t , e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s

- a r e s a i d t o b e l e s s f u n d a m e n t a l a n d l e s s v a l u a b l e t h a n a r t ,

r e l i g i o n , p a t r i o t i s m , a n d o t h e r " t h i n g s o f t h e s p i r i t ." We

s h a l l u s e t h e t e r m " i d e a l i s m " t o d e s i g n a t e t h i s b e l i e f i n t h e

p r i m a c y o f " s p i r i t u a l " f a c t o r s.

T h i s i d e a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n i n v o l v e s a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e " m a -

t e r i al i s t i c i n t e rp r e t a t i on o f h i s t o r y . " M u s s o l i n i h i m s e l f h a s

d e n o u n c e d t h e d o c t r i n e " a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e h i s t o r y o f

h u m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n c a n b e e x p l a i n e d s i m p l y t h r o u g h t h e c o n -

f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t s a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s s o c i a l g r o u p s a n d b y t h e

c h a n g e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e m e a n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s o f

p r o d u c t i o n . " " F a s c i s m , " h e s a y s , " b e l i e v e s i n h o l i n e s s a n d i n

h e r o i s m ; t h a t i s t o s a y , i n a c t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d b y n o e c o n o mi c

m o ti v e , d i r e c t o r i n d i re c t . " I t d e n i e s t h a t c l a s s w a r c a n b e a

p r e d o m i n a n t f o r c e i n s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a n d " r e p u d i a t e s

t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f ` e c o n o m i c ' h a p p i n e s s " w h e r e b y " t h e s o r -

r o w s a n d s u f f e r i n g s o f t h e h u m b l e s t " w o u l d b e a l l e v i a t e d .

T h e s e " m a t e r i a l i s t c o n c e p t i o n s " M u s s o l i n i a t t r i b u t e s t o K a r l

M a r x 4 H e h a s g r o t e s q u e l y d i s t o r t e d t h e t h e o r i e s o f M a r x ,

w h o m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s a r e t h e m o s t f u n d a -

m e n t a l a n d d e c i s i v e , b u t b y n o m e a n s t h e o n l y i m p o r t a n t ,

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 255

h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s . H i s u t t e r a n c e s , h o w e v e r , d o r e f l e c t t h e o f f i c i a l

F a s c i s t i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f h i s t o r y .

Hitler similar ly announces that economic factors are of

m i n o r s i g n i f i c a n c e :

By economic means nothing can be achieved . E c o n o m i c s a r e

o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . W o r l d h i s t o r y t e a c h e s u s t h a t n o p e o p l e

b e c a m e g r e a t t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c s , b u t p e r i s h e d b e c a u s e o f i t .

They died when their r ace was destroy ed . G e r m a n y , t o o , d i d

n o t b e c o m e g r e a t t h r o u g h e c o n o m i c s . - '

R o s e n b e r g l i k e w i s e m a i n t a i n s t h a t " a g e n u i n e r e n a i s s a n c e i s

n e v e r a q u e s t i o n o f p o l i t i c s a l o n e ; s t i l l l e s s i s i t a q u es t i o n o f

economic recovery as so me nitwits presumptuously believe ;

i t m e a n s a p e r s o n a l s o u l e x p e r i e n c e , t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a h i g h -

e s t v a l u e . " 6 Thus th e Fascists, whether in Ital y or i n Ger-

m a n y , r e g a r d " s p i r i t u a l " f a c t o r s a s t h e b a s i c f o r c e s i n h i s t o r y ,

a n d i n t h e o r y s u b o r d i n a t e m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o " i d e a l "

purposes .

F a s c i s t " i d e a l i s m " i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n t h e v a g u e a n d t u r g i d

m y s t i c i s m w h i c h a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y i n t h e a u t h o r i z e d l i t -

e r a t u r e . James Drennan, the Briti sh Fas cist, unmis takab ly

captures the tone of much Fascist thought in the following

p a s s a g e , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l

f o r c e s :

C i v i l i z a t i o n i s t h e s u p e r o r g a n i s m o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d , a n d a s

N a t u r e h a s i t s s p i r i t u a l m y s t e r y w h i c h w e c a l l a s o u l , s o t h e c o r -

p o r a t e s o u l o f m a t e r i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n n o w e m e r g e s i n t h e a r d e n t ,

s e e k i n g w i l l - t o - m a s t e r y o f a m o d e r n m a n h o o d . C i v i l i z a t i o n i s n o t

s u p e r m a n , b u t r a t h e r s u p e r - m a t e r i a l , a n d o u t o f t h e s t o n e d e s e r t

o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e c o r p o r a t e m a n h o o d w h i c h i s s u p e r m a n b r e a k s

f o r t h t o c l a i m a n d t o a s s e r t f u l l l o r d s h i p o v e r m a t t e r . ?

Drennan's emphasi s upon "will- to-ma stery," rather th an

r e a s o n , s e r v e s t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h i s t y p e o f i d e a l i s m f r o m t h a t

o f H e g e l , w h o i s t h e g r e a t e s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o p o n e n t o f t h e

i d e a l i s t i c t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y . "The only tho ught w hich philos -

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256 NO COMPROMISE

o p h y b r i n g s w i t h i t t o t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f h i s t o r y , " d e c l a r e s

H e g e l , " i s t h e s i m p l e c o n c e p t i o n o f Reas on ; t h a t R e a s o n i s

the Sovereign of the World ; t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d ,

t h e r e f o r e , p r e s e n t s u s w i t h a r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . "s

G o d i s e s s e n -

t i a l l y r a t i o n a l , a n d t h e d i v i n e r a t io n a l i t y i s i m m a n e n t i n n a -

t u r e a n d h i s t o r y ; h e n c e t o t r a c e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f l o g i c i s t o

t r a c e t h e p l a n o f t h e w o r l d . R o s e n b e r g d i s a g r e e s w i t h H e g e l

o n t h i s s c o r e . H e q u o t e s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t

" l o g i c i s t h e s c i e n c e o f G o d , " a n d c o m m e n t s : "This wo rd

[ ' l o g i c ' ] i s a f i s t - t h r u s t i n t h e f a c e o f a n y t r ue N o rd i c r e l i g i o n

and any true Germanic . . . s c i e n c e . " s

T h e v o l u n t a r i s t i c i d e a l i s m o f F i c h t e i s p e r h a p s t h e e a r l i e s t

c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e F a s c i s t p o s i t i o n . W i l l a n d n o t r e a s o n i s

t h e s u b s t a n c e o f F i c h t e ' s u n i v e r s e . A l l " n o n s p i r i t u a l l i f e , " h e

m a i n t a i n s , " i s o n l y a n e m p t y s h a d o w , " a n d t h e e s s e n c e o f

s p i r i t u a l l i f e i s a c t i o n a n d m o r a l s t r u g g l e . E v e n " r e a s o n " b e -

c o m e s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f w i l l a n d a c t i v i t y :

T h e w h o l e e n d o f r e a s o n i s p u r e a c t i v i t y , a b s o l u t e l y b y i t s e l f

a l o n e . . . . T h e w i l l i s t h e l i v in g p r i n c i p l e o f r e a s o n - i s i t s e l f r e a -

s o n , w h e n p u r e l y a n d s i m p l y a p p r e h e n d e d ; t h a t r e a s o n i s a c t i v e

b y i t s e l f a l o n e , m e a n s t h a t p u r e w i l l , m e r e l y a s s u c h , l i v e s a n d

r u l e s . 1 o

F i c h t e ' s " p h y s i c a l w o r l d " i s a m e r e o b s t a c l e w h i c h t h e U n i -

v e r s a l W i l l c r e a t e s f o r t h e s a k e o f m o r a l s t r u g g l e ; a n d a l l h i s -

t o r y i s a r e c o r d o f s u c h s t r u g g l e . M a n ' s v o c a t i o n i s t o r e m a i n

t r u e t o t h e c o s m i c W i l l o f w h i c h h e i s a p a r t ; i t i s t o f e e l t h e

p u l s e o f t h e m o r a l o r d e r , w h i c h i s t h e v e r y s u b s t a n c e o f n a -

t u r e a n d h u m a n l i f e . " D o i n g , d o i n g i s w h a t w e a r e h e r e f o r , "

s a i d t h i s G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r , a n d " d o i n g " i n t h e i n t e r e s t s

o f " t h e s p i r i t " i s w h a t t h e F a s c i s t s l i k e w i s e d e m a n d . I s h a l l

n o t u n d e r t a k e t o t r a c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G e r m a n i d e a l i s m

f r o m t h e t i m e o f F i c h t e u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t ; b u t t h e r e c a n b e

n o d o u b t t h a t m a n y t h i n k e r s h a v e h a n d e d o n t h e t o r c h .

The famous It alian patri ot, Giuseppe Mazzini (180

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 2 57

1 8 7 2 ) , a d v a n c e d i d e a s a k i n t o t h o s e o f H e g e l a n d F i c h t e . The

social and economic environment is fo r him only "the mani-

f e s t a t i o n o f t h e m o r a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f h u m a n i t y

a t a g i v e n p e r i o d , a n d a b o v e a l l o f i t s f a i t h . " 1 1 H i s t h e o r y o f

h i s t o r y i s t h o r o u g h l y i d e a l i s t i c :

I d e a s r u l e t h e w o r l d a n d i t s e v e n t s . A R e v o l u t i o n i s t h e p a s s a g e

o f a n i d e a f r o m t h e o r y t o pr a c t i ce . W h a t e v e r m e n h a v e s a i d , m a -

t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s n e v e r h a v e c a u s e d , a n d n e v e r w i l l c a u s e , a R e v o -

l u t i o n . E x t r e m e p o v e r t y , f i n a n c i a l r u i n , o p p r e s s i v e o r u n e q u a l

t a x a t i o n , m a y p r o v o k e r i s i n g s t h a t a r e m o r e o r l e s s t h r e a t e n i n g

o r v i o l e n t , b u t n o t h i n g m o r e . R e v o l u t i o n s h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n i n

t h e m i n d , i n t h e v e r y r o o t o f l i f e ; n o t i n t h e b o d y , i n t h e m a t e -

r i a l o r g a n i s m . A R e l i g i o n o r a p h i l o s o p h y l i e s a t t h e b a s e o f

e v e r y R e v o l u t i o n . T h i s i s a t r u t h t h a t c a n b e p r o v e d f r o m t h e

w h o l e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f H u m a n i t y .1 2

L i k e F i c h t e , M a z z i n i s t r e s s e s t h e w i l l . Mussolini was quick

t o a p p r e c i a t e t h i s p h a s e o f t h e M a z z i n i a n c r e e d . W e f i n d t h e

follow ing entry in Mussolini's diary writ ten during the

Wo r l d W a r :

I h a v e m a d e t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e o f s e v e r a l s o l d i e r s o f t h e M i n -

i n g E n g i n e e r s . O n e o f t h e m . . . g a v e m e a v o l u m e o f t h e " W r i t -

i n g s " o f G i u s e p p e M a z z i n i . . . . I h a v e d e v o u r e d h i s " L e t t e r t o

C a r l o A l b e r t o . " I r e a d i t w h e n I w a s a s t u d e n t . T h e r e i s s o m e -

t h i n g p r o p h e t i c i n t h i s w o r k o f M a z z i n i . I h a v e c o p i e d s o m e o f

i t i n m y n o t e b o o k . . . .

" G r e a t t h i n g s a r e n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p r o t o c o l s , c e r t a i n l y n o t

i n t h i s c e n t u r y . T h e s e c r e t o f P o w e r i s i n t h e W i l l . " . . .

W h a t a w o n d e r f u l t h i n g f o r t h e f i g h t i n g m a n t o t a k e w i t h h i m ,

t h e s e w r i t i n g s o f M a z z i n i l13

A l t h o u g h t h e F a s c i s t s d i f f e r f r o m M a z z i n i i n m a n y r e s p e c t s ,

t h e y h a v e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y b e e n i m p r e s s e d b y h i s e t h i c a l v o l -

u n t a r i s m a n d h i s i d e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y .

A m o r e r e c e n t w r i t e r , w h o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i d e a l i s t i c o u t l o o k

a d op te d b y F a sc i s m, i s Alf re d o O r i an i, w h o w r o t e f o r a

l i m i t e d p u b l i c i n t h e f i r s t t w o d e c a d e s o f t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y .

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258 NO COMPROMISE

H e w a s a l o n e l y a r i s t o c r a t , i n t e n t u p o n f o r m u l a t i n g a n h e r o i c

moral creed. M u s s o l i n i i n 1 92 6 s p o n s o r e d a c o m p l e t e e d i -

t i o n o f h i s w o r k s a n d w r o t e a p r e f a c e t o h i s b o o k , The Idea l

Revol t, w h i c h h a d o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d i n 1 907- I n t h i s p r e f -

a c e , I l D u c e l a v i s h l y p r a i s e d t h e a u t h o r a s a " p r e c u r s o r o f

F a s c i s m ," " a n ex a l t e r o f I t a l i a n e n e r g i e s ," a n d a n a d v e r s a r y

o f " t h e p o l i t i c s o f m a t e r i a l i s m a n d p o s i t i v i s m ." Or i a n i ' s e m-

p h a s i s u p o n t h e m o r a l i m p o r t o f h i s t o r y i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g l o f t y a n d n e b u l o u s , b u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , p a s s a g e :

T h e i d e a l a f f i r m a t i o n , w h i c h m u s t s h a p e i n t o c h i v a l r o u s p h a -

l a n x e s w i t h o u t c a p t a i n o r s t a n d a r d t h e n e w a r i s t o c r a c y d i s p e r s e d

a m o n g a l l s o c i a l g r o u p s, s h a l l b e a n e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e , a s t r u e

y e s t e r d a y a s t o d a y, t h e a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t h i s t o r y a n d l i f e c a n n o t

b e c h a n g e d i n e s s e n c e b u t m u s t c o n t i n u a l l y b e e n n o b l e d i n t h e i r

v a r i o u s f o r m s : that lif e is a tragedy and history a poem ; that in

t h e o n e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u c c u m b s i n h i s o w n p r e s e n c e , w h i l e i n

the other he sacrifices himself to the continuity of th e race . . . .

I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a f f i r m t h a t l o v e i s t h e m o t i v a t i n g p o w e r o f g e n -

eration, and that lovers m ust be transm uted into parents, sacri-

f i c i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e d e v o t i o n f o r t h e i r o f f s p r i n g ; we must

a f f i r m t h a t a l l t h a t c o m p r i s e s o u r s p i r i t i s h i s t o r y ' s l e g a c y t o t h e

g ener a t i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e, a nd t h a t, t h e r e f o r e, o u r i n t e r e s t i n t h e

p r e s e nt i s o n l y a n e c h o o f t h e p a s t a n d s h a l l b e c o m e i n t u r n t h e

v o i c e o f t h e f u t u r e . As e a c h f o r m o f h u m a n c o o p e r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s

i n i m p o r t a nce, i t i nc r e a s e s a l s o i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y, s i nce s u pe r i o r -

i t y i m p l i e s o n l y t h e r i g h t t o s u f f e r o n a h i g h e r p l a n e, t o t h i n k

f o r t h o s e w h o d o n o t t h i n k , t o l o v e f o r t h o s e w h o d o n o t l o v e ,

t o w o r k f o r t h o s e w h o a r e n o t a b l e t o w o r k . Th e g r e a t n e s s o f

t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t o b e m e a s u r e d b y t h e n u m b e r o f s o u l s h e c a n

a b s o r b a n d t o w h i c h h e c a n g i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e ; no individual ha s

a n y t h i n g t o s a y s o l o n g a s h e s p e a k s a b o u t h i m s e l f . 1 4

I n v i e w o f t h e p r e d a t o r y c h a r a c t e r o f F a s c i s m , s o m e o n e

m a y w o n d e r w h y I l D u c e p r a i s e s a n a l t r u i s t s u c h a s O r i a n i .

T h e a n s w e r, o f c o u r s e , i s t h a t M u s s o l i n i d e s i r e s a n i d e a l i s t i c

m a s k f o r a m o v e m e n t w h i c h i s n o n i d e a l i s t i c i n m a n y o f i t s

f e a t u r e s . I n d e e d , t h e r e i s m u c h i n O r i a n i ' s w o r k w h i c h i s o p -

p o s e d t o F a s c i s m : es p e c i a l l y h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o w a r, i m p e r i a l -

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 2 5 9

i s m , d i c t a t o r s h i p , a n d o v e r w e e n i n g n a t i o n a l i s m . M u s s o l i n i

w a s w i l l i n g t o o v e r l o o k m a n y p a s s a g e s f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e

r e l i g i o u s a n d m o r a l i d e a l i s m w h i c h p e r v a d e s O r i a n i ' s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i on o f h i s t o r y a n d s o c i e t y .

G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e , t o m e n t i o n a l i v i n g c o n t r i b u t o r t o F a s -

c i s m , s y n t h e s i z e s t h e i d e a l i s t i c t r a d i ti o n o f I t a l y a n d t h e m e ta -

p h y s i c a l d o c t r i n e s o f G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h y i n a c r e e d t h a t h a s

b e e n a c c e p t e d a s s e m i o f f i c i a l . I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e h a s p r a i s e d

M a z z i n i a s " t h e E z e k i e l o f t h e n e w I t a l y , " w h o f o u g h t w i t h

" a p o s t o l i c a r d o r " a g a i n s t " t h e u t i l i t a r i a n , m a t e r i a l i s t i c a n d

h e n c e e g o i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f l i f e . " B u t p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y h e i s

e v e n c l o s e r t o F i c h t e ; b o t h m e n a d o p t a f o r m o f i d e a l i s m

i n w h i c h w i l l a n d a c t i v i t y a r e s t r e s s e d .

G e n t i l e ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e o r i g i n of F a s c i s m i s b r i e f l y a s f o l -

l o w s : T h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e k n o w n a s t h e R i s o r g i m e n t o ,

w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d a f r e e a n d u n i t e d I t a l y , f o u n d i t s m a i n i n -

s p i r a t i o n i n a d e e p l y r e l i g i o u s a n d i d e a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f

l i f e , a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h e m a i n b y A l f i e r i , F o s c o l o , L e o p a r d i ,

M a n z o n i , a n d , o f c o u r s e , M a z z i n i . A f t e r 1 8 7 0 , w h e n t h e I n -

d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s i n f u l l s w i n g , t h e c o u n t e r f o r c e o f

m a t e r i a l i s m m a d e i t s e l f f e l t a n d e v e n t u a l l y p r e c i p i t a t e d a

v e r y g r a v e c r i s i s . I t a l y w a s t o r n b e t w e e n t w o a n t i t h e t i c a l

f o r c e s : t h e i d e a l i s m i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e R i s o r g i m e n t o a n d

t h e m a t e r i a l i s m s p r i n g i n g f r o m t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n .

T h e c o n f l i c t e v e n t u a l l y c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r I t a l -

i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e W o r l d W a r . T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s

t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t , r e g a r d l e s s o f m a t e r ia l i n j u r i e s o r m il i -

t a r y u n p r e p a r e d n e s s , t h e n a t i o n m u s t b e p l u n g e d i n t o t h e

W a r , e i t h e r o n G e r m a n y ' s s i d e o r a g a i n s t h e r , i n o r d e r t h a t

I t a l y , " w h i c h c a m e i n t o b e i n g m o r e b y a c c i d e n t t h a n b y t h e

w i l l o f i t s c i t i z e n s , m i g h t b e c o m p l e t e l y u n i t e d . " T h e i r s w a s

" a m o r a l r e a s o n , i n t a n g i b l e , i m p a l p a b l e , i n c a p a b l e o f m e a s -

u r e m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o a n y m a t e r i a l s c a l e . " T h e n o n i n t e r -

v e n t i o n i s t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e m o t i v a t e d b y p u r e l y

m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a n d t h e r e f o r e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e

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260 NO COMPROMISE

n a t i o n c o u l d p r o f i t m o s t b y r e m a i n i n g n e u t r a l . A f t e r t h e w a r ,

w i t h t h e r e t u r n t o p o w e r o f P r e m i e r G i o l i t t i , m a t e r i a l i s m

o n c e a g a i n b e c a m e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t f o r c e , a n d a n e w c r i s i s

w a s p r e c i p i t a t e d . F a s c i s m w a s n e c e s s a r y t o r e s o l v e t h i s p o s t -

w a r c r i s i s , a n d t o " l i b e r a t e I t a l y f r o m t h e d u a l i s m b y w h i c h

s h e w a s l a c e r a t e d a n d p a r a l y s e d . " B y i t s f r e s h b u r s t o f i d e a l -

i s m , i t g a v e I t a l y a s i n g l e s o u l , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n d i t i o n s

o f l i f e a n d a c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o G e n t i l e , F a s c i s m , i n i t s v e r y

i n c e p t i o n , w a s a s p i r i t u a l i s t i c m o v e m e n t . 1 5

A s a t h i n k e r o f g r e a t p r e s t i g e a n d a s f o r m e r M i n i s t e r o f

E d u c a t i o n , G e n t i l e h a s d o n e m u c h t o s h a p e t h e i d e a l i s t i c

d o c t r i n e s o f F a s c i s m . T h e r e a l w o r l d , h e c o n t e n d s , i s p u r e l y

a s p i r i t u a l p r o c e s s , a n d a s s u c h , i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h h i s t o r y .

T h e r e i s n o t h i n g b e y o n d t h e a c t o f t h o u g h t , a n d n o t h i n g i n

t h i s a c t i s s t a t i c :

R e a l i t y i s s p i r it ; a n d s p i r i t n e v e r i s b u t i s a l w a y s c o m i n g t o

b e , n o t s o m e t h i n g g i v e n b u t a f r e e a c t i v i t y . T h a t i s wh a t d i s t i n -

g u i s h e s i t f r o m n a tu r e , a n d , s u c h b e i n g i t s e s s e n c e , s p i r i t , w h i c h

i s i d e n t i c a l w it h r e a l i ty , i s h i s t o r y , o r t h e p r o c e s s o f s e l f - r e al i z a -

t i o n . 1 6

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s p a s s a g e , w e m u s t r e a l i z e t h a t " n a t u r e , "

a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m s p i r i t , i s r e g a r d e d a s a m e r e f i g m e n t o f

the mind ; a n d s i n c e n a t u r e is u n r e a l , s p i r i t a l o n e i s r e a l . T h e

m i n d t h e r e f o r e h a s n o r e a l p h y s i c a l o r e c o n o m i c e n v i r o n -

m e n t t o l i m i t o r c o n d i t i o n i t . The conception of the ma -

t e r i a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y i s s i m p l y a v u l g a r e r r o r .

G e n t i l e m e a n s b y " s p i r i t , " m o r e o v e r , n o t t h e s e p a r a t e a n d

i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n m i n d , w h i c h h e r e g a r d s a s a n u n r e a l a b -

s t r a c t i o n , b u t t h e " o n e u n i v e r s a l P e r s o n " t o w h i c h w e a l l

belong : " t h e o n e m a n i n w h o m a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a r e u n i t e d a n d

w i t h w h o m t h e y a r e a l l i d e n t i f i e d . " H e a c c o r d i n g l y e x a l t s t h e

c o l l e c t i v e m i n d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m :

I n t h e w a y o f c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , i t m a y b e s a i d t h a t I , a s a c i t i -

z e n , h a v e i n d e e d a w i l l o f m y o w n ; b u t t h a t u p o n f u r t h e r i n v e s -

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 261

t i g a t io n m y w i l l i s f o u n d t o c o i n c i d e e x a c t l y w i th t h e w i l l o f t h e

S t a t e , a n d I w a n t an y t h i n g o n l y i n s o f a r a s t h e S t a t e w a n ts m e

t o w a n t i t . 1 7

H e n c e h e " e m p h a s i z e s t o t h e c i t i z e n h i s d u t y r a t h e r t h a n h i s

r i g h t . "

T h e " o n e u n i v e r s a l P e r s o n " i s u n a c c o u n t a b l y i d e n t i f i e d

w i t h t h e S t a t e ; a n d t h e S t a t e is d e c l a r e d t o b e " a s o u l , a p e r -

s o n , a p o t e n t w i l l , c o n s c i o u s o f i t s e n d s , a n d v a s t l y s u p e r i o r

t o in d i v i d u a l s . " 1 8 G e n t i l e h a s n e v e r m a d e c l e a r w h y t h e u n i -

v e r s a l m i n d s h o u l d n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a l l m a n k i n d i n -

s t e a d o f w i t h t h a t s e g m e n t o f t h e h u m a n r a c e w h i c h i s i n -

c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e I t a l i a n S t a t e . A p h i l o s o p h y t h a t b e g i n s b y

i n s i s t i n g u p o n t h e i n d i v i s i b i l i t y o f a l l h u m a n b e i n g s e n d s i n -

c o n s i s t e n t l y b y r e j e c t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m a n d e n d o r s i n g n a -

t i o n a l i s t i c d i v i s i o n s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , G e n t i l e i s f o l l o w i n g t h e

l e a d o f H e g e l , t o w h o m h e i s m a i n l y i n d e b t e d f o r h i s t h e o r y

o f t h e S t a t e .

U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e m o r e t e c h n i c a l p h a s e s o f G e n t i l e ' s

" A c t u a l I d e a l i s m " h a v e h a d l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e u p o n p r a c t i c a l

m e n l i k e M u s s o l i n i . B u t h i s b r o a d i d e a s a r e e a s i l y g r a s p e d :

h i s c o n t e n ti o n t h a t h i s t o r y i s t h e s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e h u m a n

s p i r i t , h i s b e l i e f t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s a r e u n r e a l a p a r t f r o m t h e

g r o u p m i n d , h i s d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e S t a t e , a s a n " e t h i c a l " b e i n g ,

i s t h e h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s s o c i a l m e n t a l i t y , a n d h i s i n -

s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e d r a w s i t s v i t a l i t y a n d w o r t h

f r o m i t s s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e . A l l o f t h e s e i d e a s h a v e b e e n e m -

b r a c e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a c t i v i s t i c n a t u r e o f

t h i s p h i l o s o p h y h a s b e e n w e l c o m e d b y F a s c i s t o p p o r t u n i s t s .

J u s t a s G e n t i l e f i n d s r e a l i t y a n d v a l u e o n l y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e

a c t i v i t y o f t h o u g h t f r o m w h i c h a l l f i x i t i e s a r e e x c l u d e d , s o

M u s s o l i n i a n d h i s B l a c k s h i r t s d e l i g h t i n t h e i m m e d i a c y o f

e x p e r i e n c e a n d r e f u s e t o a p p l y a b i d i n g s t a n d a r d s t o m o r a l s

a n d p o l i t i c s . E a c h h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t c o n t a i n s i t s o w n i m m a n e n t

s t a n d a r d , a n d t h e r e i s n o t r a n s c e n d e n t n o r m t o w h i c h a n a p -

p e a l c a n b e m a d e . I n s u c h a p h i l o s o p h y , 1 1 D u c e f i n d s a r a -

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262 NO COMPROMISE

t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r h i s a m a z i n g r e c o r d o f i n c o n s i s t e n c y , w h i c h

G a u d e n s M e g a r o h a s l a i d b a r e i n h i s b i o g r a p h y , M u s s o l i n i

in the Making .

T o s u m m a r i z e , t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y i s b a s e d u p o n a n a c t i v -

i s t i c i d e a l i s m , w h i c h r e l e g a t e s m a t e r i a l a n d e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s

t o a s u b s i d i a r y s t a t u s . A l t h o u g h i t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o m e n -

t i o n o t h e r t h i n k e r s w h o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e F a s c i s t i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y , s u c h a s V i c o , G i o b e r t i , a n d S p e n g l e r , w e

h a v e s u f f i c i e n t l y i n d i c a t e d t h e g e n e r a l n a t u re o f t h e s e i n f l u -

e n c e s .

O b v i o u s l y t h e r e i s n o w a y o f p r o v i n g o r d i s p r o v i n g t h i s

i d e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f h i s t o r y w i t h o u t a n e x t e n s i v e a r g u -

m e n t . T h e c a u s a l f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n h i s t o r y a r e e x t r a o r d i -

n a r i l y c o m p l e x , a n d t h e p r o b l e m i s r e n d e r e d m o r e d i f f i c u l t

b y t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l i s s u e o f i d e a l i s m v e r s u s m a t e r i a l i s m .

S i n c e a n a d e q u a t e d i s c u s s i o n w o u l d f i l l a g o o d - s i z e d b o o k ,

w e c a n d o n o m o r e t h a n s u m m a r i l y d i s c u s s t h e p r o b l e m .

A m a t e r i a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y i s d e m o n s t r a b l y

f a l s e i f p r e s s e d t o o f a r . A r t , s c i e n c e , r e l i g i o n , n a t i o n a l p a -

t r i o t i s m , p e r s o n a l i n t r i g u e s , q u i r k s o f c h a r a c t e r , a n d c o u n t -

l e s s a c c i d e n t s p l a y a p a r t i n d e t e r m i n i n g e v e n t s . M e n o f t e n

a c t c o n t r a r y t o t h e i r e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s o r w i t h o u t e c o n o m i c

m o t i v e s . N o i n t e l l i g e n t p e r s o n w o u l d d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

n o n e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o r t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s .

A l t h o u g h m a n d o e s n o t l i v e f o r b r e a d a l o n e , b r e a d i s n e c -

e s s a r y t h a t h e m a y l i v e f o r o t h e r t h i n g s . A l l a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n -

d i t i o n e d u p o n s u b s i s t e n c e ; a n d w i t h o u t e c o n o m i c g o o d s m e n

a r e f e t t e re d i n a l l t h e i r p u r s u i t s . I f t h e e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m

w e r e s o l v e d , i t w o u l d i n d e e d b e p o s s i b l e t o d e v o t e m o s t h u -

m a n e n e r g i e s t o l o v e a n d s c i e n c e a n d a r t a n d p l a y . M a n k i n d

w o u l d t h e n p a s s f r o m t h e k i n g d o m o f n e c e s s i t y t o t h e k i n g -

dom of freedom . B u t t h e e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m i s n o t s o l v e d ; i t

i s v e r y a c u t e . T h e m o s t r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t e t h a t w e a l t h

a n d e c o n o m i c p o w e r a r e b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d i n f e w e r a n d

f e w e r h a n d s . T h e r e i s c o n t i n u a l l y m o r e i n v e s t m e n t i n p l a n t

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 2 6 3

a n d m a c h i n e r y a n d r e l a t i v e l y l e s s i n v e s t m e n t i n w a g e s ; men

a r e d i s p l a c e d b y m a c h i n e s . T h e s m a l l e m p l o y e r o f t e n c a n n o t

a f f o r d t o b u y t h i s m a c h i n e r y , a n d h e i s t h e n e l i m i n a t e d b y

t h e b i g e m p l o y e r w h o c a n a v a i l h i m s e l f o f t h e e c o n o m i e s o f

l a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n . D u r i n g d e p r e s s i o n s , t h e r i c h , h a v i n g

g r e a t e r r e s o u r c e s , a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n s o l v e n t a n d t o

o b t a i n t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e l o s e .

H e n c e t h e b u l k o f t h e w e a l t h g r a v i t a t e s i n t o t h e h a n d s o f

r e l a t i v e l y f e w p e o p l e , a n d a n i m m e n s e a r m y o f u n e m p l o y e d

i s c r e a te d. U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t

t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s o v e r p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o d e m a n d , a n d

u n d e r p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o n e e d . T h e e m p t y b e l l i e s p o s s e s s

o n l y e m p t y p u r s e s ; i n a s y s t e m t h a t r u n s f o r p r o f i t , t h e y c a n -

n o t m a k e t h e w h e e l s o f i n d u s t r y t u r n . T h e r e i s a s i m u l t a n e o u s

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f p r o d u c t i o n , a n d a s e v e r e

r e s t r i c t i o n u p o n t h e u s e s o f t h i s p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m f o r t h e

m e e t i n g o f f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n n e e d s . T e r r i b l e w an t p e r s i s t s

i n t h e m i d s t o f w h o l e s a l e w a s t e . T h i s i s a p r o f o u n d e vi l t h a t

t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e e c o n o m i s t s m u s t r e c o g n i z e , h o w e v e r

t h e y m a y a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n i t .

T o t h e l e s s c o n s e r v a t i v e e c o n o m i s t s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t c a p i t a l -

i s t i c i n t e r e s t s , f i n d i n g t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t i m p o v e r i s h e d , a r e

d r i v e n t o a f e v e r i s h s e a r c h f o r n e w m a r k e t s a n d f i e l d s o f e x -

p l o i t a t i o n ; a n d t h e r e s u l t i s i n t e n s e i m p e r i a l i s m a nd t h e c o n -

s t a n t t h r e a t o f w a r . M e n a r e f i n a l l y g o a d e d t o d e s p e r a t i o n b y

p o v e r t y a n d m a s s s l a u g h t e r , a n d a p e r i o d o f r e v o l u t i o n

d a w n s . T h e i n t e r e s t s t h a t p r o f i t f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r s u b -

s i d i z e a n d s u p p o r t b l o o d y d i c t a t o r s h i p s t o c u r b t h e f o r c e s o f

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e . T h u s t h e w o r l d i s r a p i d l y d i v i d i n g i n t o

a r m e d a n d o p p o s i n g c a m p s , a n d t h e r e i s g r e a t d a n g e r o f a

g e n e r a l c o n f l i c t .

W h a t e v e r b e o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n - c o n s e r v a t i v e o r r a d i c a l -

o f t h e p r e s e n t e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l c r i s i s , t h e r e i s n o d e n y i n g

i t s s e r i o u s n e s s . G i v e n t h i s p r o f o u n d c r i s i s , t h e e c o n o m i c

problem i s f u n d a m e n t a l . N o g o o d p u r p o s e i s s e r v e d b y t e l l i n g

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264 NO COMPROMISE

m e n t h a t e c o n o m i c s a r e n o w o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . S u c h

s t a t e m e n t s o n l y o b s c u r e t h e i s s u e . S o l o n g a s a g r e a t m a n y

p e o p l e a r e d r e a d f u l l y p o o r , t h e d e f e n d e r s o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g

e c o n o m i c o r d e r m u s t s t r e s s n o n m a t e r i a l f a c t o r s .

I t i l l b e f i t s t h e f a t a n d w e l l f e d , h o w e v er , t o t e l l t h e h u n g r y

m a s s e s t h a t m a n d o e s n o t l i v e b y b r e a d a l o n e . A s p e e c h o f

t h e r o t u n d G e n e r a l G o r i n g h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d a s f o l l o w s :

" I h a v e g i v e n u p e a t i n g s o m u c h b u t t e r , " s a i d t h e G e n e r a l

amid sympathetic cheers which became uproarious when he

a d d e d , " a n d t h e r e s u l t i s t h a t I h a v e l o s t o v er a s t o n e a n d a h a l f .

O u r L e a d e r i s b u i l d i n g u p a s t r o n g n a t i o n . I f w e e at t o o mu c h

w e s h a l l g e t t oo f a t . I a m e a t i n g l e s s m y s e l f a n d I a l w a y s r e m e m -

b e r o u r L e a d e r e a t s n o b u t t e r a n d n o m e a t . W h a t h e c a n d o , w e

c a n . " 1 9

M e n a r e w i l l i n g t o u n d e r g o t r e m e n d o u s s a c r i f i c e s f o r t h e s a k e

o f u l t i m a t e j u s t i c e ; b u t i f t h e y r e a l i z e t h e t r u e s i t u a t i o n , t h e y

a r e u n wi l l i n g t o r i d t h e m s e l v e s o f t h e l u x u r i ou s h a b i t o f e a t -

i n g m e a t a n d b u t t e r f o r t h e s a k e o f a t y r a n n i c a l a n d m i l i t a r i s -

t i c d i c t a t o r s h i p .

T h e " i d e a l i s m " o f t h e F a s c i s t s c o n s t a n t l y t e n d s t o c h a n g e

i n t o e t h i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m . When Gentile defends the bl ack-

j a c k a n d d e c l a r e s t h a t " e v e r y f o r c e i s a m o r a l f o r c e , " w h e n

M u s s o l i n i s p e a k s o f t h e g l o r i e s o f t h e m a c h i n e - g u n a n d t h e

b o m b i n g a i r p l a n e , w h e n t h e N a z i s r e v e r t t o a t r i b a l i s m w h i c h

m a k e s s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s d e p e n d u p o n t h e " b l o o d , " w h e n F a s -

c i s t s r e g i m e n t a r t , s c i e n c e , a n d r e l i g i o n i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f n a -

t i o n a l i s t i c e x p a n s i o n , t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o qu e s t i o n t h e q u a l i t y

o f t h e i r i d e a l i s m .

R e p e a t e d l y i n F a s c i s t l i t e r a t u r e w e s t u m b l e u p o n a c r u d e

n a t u r a l i s m w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t r i g h t r e p r e s e n t s o n l y t h e f o r c e

o f t h e s t r o n g e r . Thus Dr . H e l m u t N i c o l a i , N a z i l e g a l a u t h o r -

i t y , p r o c l a i m s:

T h e s t r o n g h a s a r i g h t a g a i n s t t h e w e a k ; h e h a s a c l a i m t h a t

t h e w e a k m a k e w a y f o r h i m . . . . B u t h o n o r a b l e s t r u g g l e d e c i d e s

a s t o s t r e n g t h , a n d F a t e d e c i d e s w h o t h e v i c t o r is , w h o t h e v i c t o r

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 2 6 5

m u s t b e , i f t h e l i f e o f t h e b e t t e r a n d s t r o n g e r i s n o t t o b e s t u n t e d .

T h e r e i n l i e s t h e d i v i n e j u s t i c e w h i c h i n t h e e n d c l a i m s t h e v i c -

t o r y f o r t h e v a l i a n t a n d t h e f o r c e f u l . 2 0

A s i m i l a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m i g h t a n d r i g h t i s t o b e f o u n d i n

H i t l e r ' s p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n f l i c t a s e m b o d i e d i n M e i n K a m p f .

T h r o u g h o u t n a t u r e , w e a r e t o l d , t h e r e i s a c e a s e l e s s s t r u g g l e

f o r s u r v i va l . T h e f e w s t r o n g a n d f i t s u r v i v e ; n a t u r e i t s e l f i s

b a s e d u p o n a r i s t o c r a t i c a n d w a r l i k e p r i n c i p l e s . M a n a l s o i s a

f i g h t i n g a n i m a l : i n w a r m a n k i n d h a s b e c o m e g r e a t . T h e r a c e

i s t h e n a t u r a l f i g h t i n g u n i t ; i t s c o m b a t i v e p o w e r d e p e n d s

u p o n i t s p u r i t y a n d s o l i d a r i t y , a n d i t s r e j e c t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c

p r i n c i p l e s . I f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e h a d r e a l i z e d i n t i m e t h e i m -

p o r t a n c e o f a c h i e v i n g a h e r d l i k e u n i t y , G e r m a n y w o u l d n o w

b e m a s t e r o f t h e e a r t h .

F a s c i s t " i d e a l i s m " d e p i c t s " n a t u r e " a s r e d w i t h t o o t h a n d

c l a w , a n d i d e n t if i e s w h a t i s w i t h what ought to be . I n s t e a d

o f r e al i z i n g t h e i d e al , i t s e e k s t o i d e a l i z e th e r e al . I f m a t er i a l

t h i n g s a r e s a i d t o b e t h e o f f s p r i n g o f t h e s p i r i t a n d p e r v a d e d

w i t h d i v i n i t y , t h e r e i s a r e a d y e x c u s e f o r d o t i n g o n b l o o d

a n d i r o n . T h e " i d e a l i s t " w h o r e g a r d s t h e s p i r i t a s t h e s o u r c e

o f e v e r y t h i n g i s i n c l i n e d t o d e f e n d t h o s e g r o s s m a t e r i a l e v i l s

w h i c h f e t t e r a n d m a i m t h e v e r y l i f e o f t h e s p i r i t .

2 . T h e F a s c i s t T h e o r y o f R e l i g i o n

T h e d u p l i c i t y t h a t i s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f F a s c i s m i s n o -

w h e r e m o r e o b v i o u s t h a n i n t h e f i e l d o f r e l i g i o n . T h e r e -

l i g i o u s s t r a i n i n F a s c i s m i s t e r m e d " C h r i s t i a n i t y , " b u t w e

m a y d o u b t t h e p r o p r i e t y o f t h e n a m e . I t i s t r u e t h a t w e m a y

d i s c o v e r m a n y s w e e t d e c l a r a t i o n s s u c h a s t h a t o f H e r r K e r r l ,

R e i c h M i n i s t e r f o r R e l i g i o n : " T h e e s s e n c e o f N a t i o n a l S o -

c i a l i s m i s f a i t h , i t s d e e d s a r e l o v e , a n d N a t i o na l S o c i a l i s t p o s i -

t i v e C h r i s t i a ni t y i s l o v e f o r t h e n e i g h b o r . " 2 i B u t t h e w a y i n

w h i c h s u c h s t a t e m e n t s a r e o f f i c i a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d i s m a d e c l e a r

b y H e r r G o e b b e l s , M i n i s t e r o f P r o p a g a n d a : " T o b e C h r i s -

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266 NO COMPROMISE

t i a n m e a n s : L o v e t h y n e i g h b o r a s t h y s e l f . M y n e i g h b o r i s m y

r a c i a l c o m r a d e . I f I l o v e h i m , I m u s t h a t e h i s e n e m i e s . Who

thinks German must despise the Jews . " 2 2 There woul d ap-

pear to be many such restrictions in the application of

b r o t h e r l y l o v e . T h e b o m b a r d m e n t o f c i v i l i a n s i n B a r c e l o n a ,

M a d r i d , a n d A d d i s A b a b a , t h e r u t h l e s s p u n i s h m e n t i n f l i c t e d

i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s a n d o n L i p a r i I s l a n d , a n d t h e e x -

t r e m e p e r s e c u t i o n o f r a c i a l a n d r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i e s d o n o t

p r e c i s e l y h a r m o n i z e w i t h C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h y .

T h e F a s c i s t s , i t i s t r u e , a d m i t i n t h e i r m o r e c a n d i d m o -

m e n t s t o a n o u t l o o k t h a t i s n o t w h o l l y C h r i s t i a n o r i d e a l i s t i c .

M u s s o l i n i , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s b a l d l y a c c e p t e d t h e c r e e d t h a t

" m a n i s a w o l f t o m a n " :

H u m a n i t y i s s t i l l a n d a l w a y s a n a b s t r a c t i o n o f t i m e a n d s p a c e ;

m e n a r e s t i l l n o t b r o t h e r s , d o n o t w a n t t o b e a n d e v i d e n t l y c a n

n o t b e . P e a c e i s h e n c e a b s u r d , o r r a t h e r i t i s a p a u s e i n w a r .

T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t b i n d s m a n t o h i s d e s t i n y o f s t r u g g l i n g ,

e i t h e r ag a i n s t h i s f e l l o w s o r h i m s e l f . T h e m o t i v e s f o r t h e s t r u g -

g l e m a y c h a n g e i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e y m a y b e e c o n o m i c , r e l i g i o u s ,

p o l i t i c a l , s e n t i m e n t a l , b u t t h e l e g e n d o f C a i n a n d A b e l s e e m s t o

b e t h e i n e s c a p a b l e r e a l i t y , w h i l e " b r o t h e r h o o d " i s a f a b l e w h i c h

m e n l i s t e n t o b e t w e e n t h e b i v o u a c a n d t h e t r u c e . . . . T h e C h r is -

t i a n a n d s o c i a l i s t " m e n b e b r o t h e r s " i s a m a s k f o r t h e e t e r n a l a n d

immutable " h o m o h o m i n i l u p u s " . . . A n d m a n w i l l c o n t i n u e

t o b e a w o l f a m o n g w o l v e s f o r a b i t o f l a n d , f o r a t r i c k l e o f w a t e r ,

f o r a c r u m b o f b r e a d , f o r a w o m a n ' s k i s s , f o r a n e c e s s i t y o r a

c a p r i c e . 2 3

T h e u n d e r l y i n g c r e e d o f F a s c i s m h e r e s t a n d s f o r t h i n a l l i t s

n a k e d n e s s . M u s s o l i n i b o a s t s , n o t w h o l l y w i t h o u t f o u n d a t i o n ,

t h a t t h e " F a s c i s t h a b i t " i s t o t e l l " t h e b r u t a l t r u t h , " 2 4 t h a t

i s t o s a y , t h e t r u t h a s t h e F a s c i s t s s e e i t .

J u s t a s o b v i o u s l y u n c h r i s t i a n a s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f M u s s o -

l i n i i s t h e N a z i d o c t r i n e o f r a c i a l d e t e r m i n i s m , w h i c h e v e n

t h e I t a l i a n F a s c i s t s h a v e n o w a d o p t e d . F a r f r o m t h i s b e i n g

i d e a l i s t i c , i t i s r e a l l y a h i g h l y m a t er i a l i s t i c d o c t r i n e , s i n c e i t

m a k e s m i n d a n d s p i r i t m e r e b y - p r o d u c t s o f m a n ' s b i o l o g i c a l

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 267

c o n s t i t u t i o n . W h e n r a c i a l f a n a t i c i s m i s c o n j o i n e d w i t h j i n g o -

i s m , i t m u s t t a k e a g o o d d e a l o f p r o p a g a n d a t o c o n v i n c e p e o -

p l e t h a t a n y s u c h f u s i o n r e p r e s e n t s g e n u i n e C h r i s t i a n i t y . A s

H i t l e r ' s p e r s i s t e n t c o n f l i c t s w i t h t h e r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s i n d i c a t e ,

a g o o d m a n y C h r i s t i a n s a r e s t i l l f a r f r o m c o n v i n c e d . B o t h

C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y c r i t i c i z e d t h e H i t -

l e r r e g i m e , a n d t h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y r e t a l i a t i o n s . Thou -

s a n d s o f C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t c l e r g y m e n h a v e b e e n s u b -

j e c t e d t o e x t r e m e i n s u l t o r i m p r i s o n e d . 2 5 Some of t hem, it

a p p e a r s , h a v e b e e n g r o s s l y a b u s e d e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f d e a t h ,

a s i n t h e c a s e o f D r . W e i s s l e r , a l e a d e r o f t h e C o n f e s s i o n a l

Church, who peri shed in a concentra tion cam p in March,

1 9 3 7 .

B y v a r i o u s c o e r c i v e m e a s u r e s t h e N a z i g o v e r n m e n t h a s o b -

t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f m o s t o f t h e c h u r c h e s . On Ju ne 24, 1 9 3 3 ,

H i t l e r a p p o i n t e d H e r r J a e g e r a s " S t a t e C o m m i s s i o n e r " f o r

t h e P r u s s i a n c h u r c h e s . J a e g e r ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f r e l i g i o n i s i n d i -

c a t e d b y h i s r e m a r k , " T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f J e s u s i s a t b o t -

t o m a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c N o r d i c e b u l l i t i o n . "2 6

O n J u l y 2 3 , 1 9 3 3 ,

c o m p u l s o r y e l e c t i o n s w e r e h e l d t o r a t i f y H i t l e r ' s s e l e c t i o n o f

Bishop Ludwig Muller as coor dinator of t he German Evan-

g e l i c a l C h u r c h . I n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e e l e c t i o n , t h e c h u r c h

m e m b e r s w e r e w a r n e d t h a t i t w o u l d b e d a n g e r o u s n o t t o v o t e

f o r M u l l e r a n d h i s N a z i c o w o r k e r s . O n e l e a f l e t s t a t e d :

H e w h o d o e s n o t v o t e f o r t h e " G e r m a n C h r i s t i a n " l i s t , i s o u r

ene m y . H e w h o i s o u r e n e m y i s t h e e n e m y o f t h e S t a t e . T h e

e n e m y o f t h e S t a t e w i l l b e p u t o n t h e " B l a c k L i s t " a n d f i n d h i m -

s e l f i n a c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p 2 7

T h u s i n s t r u c t e d , t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e v o t e r s c a s t t h e i r b a l l o t s f o r

t h e N a z i c a n d i d a t e s . T h e o u t l o o k o f B i s h o p M u l l e r i s i n d i -

c a t e d b y a s e r m o n o f M a r c h 1 4 , 1 9 3 7 , i n w h i c h h e d e c l a r e d :

W e h a v e a b s u r d i d e a s a b o u t C h r i s t . C h r i s t w a s b y n o m e a n s

f i l l e d w i t h l o v e a n d p i t y , b u t w i t h w i l d w r a t h a g a i n s t t h e J e w s .

H e n e v e r t h o u g h t o f f o u n d i n g a c h u r c h . A c h u r c h i s a f o r e i g n

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268 NO COMPROMISE

b o d y a m o n g s t t h e A r y a n G e r m a n p e o p l e . . . . M y a i m i s t o p r o -

m o t e a g e n e r a l p o p u l a r ( v o l k i s c h ) r e l i g i o s i t y . . . . I s h a l l b u i l d

a n e w G e r m a n C h u r c h w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h o s e 8 o p e r c e n t o f t h e

G e r m a n p e o p l e w h o r e j e c t p r e s e n t - d a y C h r i s t i a n i t y . 2 8

I s h a l l n o t a t t e m p t t o t r a c e t h e m a n y s u b s e q u e n t m e a s u r e s

w h i c h w e r e u n d e r t a k e n t o b r i n g r e l i g i o n s e c u r e l y u n d e r t h e

d o m i n i o n o f t h e P a r t y d i c t a t o r s h i p . S o m e r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s

h a v e f l e d t h e c o u n t r y , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s

t h e o l o g i a n , K a r l B a r t h , w h o d e c i d e d t o a c c e p t a c h a i r a t

B a s l e U n i v e r s i t y , S w i t z e r l a n d , r a t h e r t h a n t o b e g i n h i s l e c -

t u r e s a t B o n n U n i v e r s i t y e a c h d a y b y r a i s i n g h i s a r m a n d

s a y i n g , " H e i l H i t l e r ! " 2 9 Those who have remained in Ger-

m a n y , a n d w h o w e r e n o t f i n e d , i m p r i s o n e d o r o t h e r w i s e p e -

n a l i z e d w e r e f o r c e d t o b o w t o t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p . I n A p r i l , 1 9 3 8 ,

the Government announced that Protestant minis ters must

t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g o a t h o f o b e d i e n c e t o H i t l e r , o n p a i n o f

d i s m i s s a l w i t h o u t p e n s i o n :

I s w e a r t h a t I w i l l b e l o y a l t o t h e F t i h r e r o f t h e G e r m a n R e i c h

a n d n a t io n , A d o l f H i t l e r , o b s e r v e t h e l a w s a n d f u l f i l l m y p a s t o r a l

d u t i e s , s o h e l p m e G o d . 3 o

T h i s o a t h h a s b e e n r e s i s t e d b y m a n y p a s t o r s a n d h a s b e e n

t a k e n b y o t h e r s w i t h m e n t a l r e s e r v a t i o n s ; b u t i t h a s b e e n

u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a s a b a s i s f o r d i s m i s s a l a n d d i s c r i m -

i n a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f s u c h r e p r e s s i o n , H e r r K e r r l , t h e N a z i

M i n i s t e r f o r C h u r c h A f f a i r s , h a s s o l e m n l y d e c l a r e d : "The

S t a t e h a s b u t a s i n g l e o b j e c t i v e a n d t h a t i s t o e n s u r e c o m -

p l e t e l i b e r t y o f c o n s c i e n c e . " 31

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s n e w f a n g l e d " l i b e r t y , " a s o - c a l l e d " p o s i -

t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y " i s b e i n g s u b s t i t u te d i n p l a c e o f t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l " n e g a t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y . " I t g o e s w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t

t h e h i g h p r i e s t s o f t h i s p o s i t i v e r e l i g i o n a r e n o o t h e r t h a n t h e

P a r t y l e a d e r s . D r . P a u l G o e b b e l s a f f i r m s : " I n t h e i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l e x p e d i e n c y w e h o l d o u r s e l v e s t o b e t h e

instrument of God . " 3 2 H i t l e r , i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s e l e v a t e d t o

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 269

t h e r a n k o f a s u p r e m e r e l i g i o u s o r a c l e . R e i c h s m i n i s t e r K e r r l

has announced : " A n e w a u t h o r i t y h a s a r i s e n a s t o w h a t C h r i s t

a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y r e a l l y a r e - A d o l f H i t l e r . " 3 3 Th e " G e r m a n

C h r i s t i a n " D r . E n g e l k e h a s g o n e s o f a r a s t o s a y : "God h as

m a n i f e s t e d H i m s e l f n o t i n J e s u s C h r i s t b u t i n A d o l f H i t -

l e r . " 3 4 T h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e L a b o r F r o n t , D r . L e y , h a s c o n -

f e s s e d : " I b e l i e v e i n n o o n e o n t h i s e a r t h e x c e p t A d o l f H i t l e r .

I believe in a Lord God who creat ed me and who guides

u s ; a n d I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s L o r d G o d h a s s e n t u s A d o l f H i t -

l e r . " 3 5 N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m i s e v i d e n t l y a n e w s t a t e r e l i g i o n ,

a n d H i t l e r i s i t s p r o p h e t a n d h i g h p r i e s t . H e h i m s e l f i s d e e p l y

i m p r e s s e d w i t h h i s r e l i g i o u s r o l e . S p e a k i n g i n V i e n n a o n t h e

e v e o f t h e p l e b i s c i t e , a f t e r t h e A n s c h l u s s , he announced that

h e w a s i n d e e d t h e s e l e c t i n s t r u m e n t o f A l m i g h t y P r o v i d e n c e :

I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s w a s G o d ' s w i l l - t o s e n d a b o y i n t o t h e

R e i c h , t o l e t h i m b e c o m e i t s L e a d e r , i n o r d e r t o b r i n g h i s h o m e

c o u n t r y i n t o t h e R e i c h . ( L o u d c h e e r s , a n d c r i e s o f " W e t h a n k

o u r L e a d e r . " ) O t h e r w i s e o n e m u s t d o u b t P r o v i d e n c e. T h e r e i s

a h i g h e r D e s t i n y o f w h i c h w e a l l a r e t o o l s . When Her r Schu-

s c h n i g g b r o k e h i s w o r d I k n e w i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y t h a t t h i s w a s t h e

c a l l o f P r o v i d e n c e . I n t h r e e d a y s t h e L o r d d e f e a t e d t h e m , b u t

I w a s g r a n t e d t h e g r e a t g r a c e t o l e a d m y c o u n t r y b a c k - o n t h e

v e r y d a y o f t r e a s o n . ( C h e e r s , a n d s h o u t s o f " W e t h a n k o u r

L e a d e r . " ) . . . May every German tomorro w (the day of th e

p l e b i s c i t e ) b o w b e f o r e t h e A l m i g h t y w h o p e r f o r m e d a m i r a c l e . 3 6

O b v i o u s l y H i t l e r r e g a r d s h i m s e l f a s a v e s s e l o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h:

h e h a s b e e n s e t a s i d e b y t h e D e i t y t o s a v e t h e G e r m a n r a c e .

T h i s c o n v i c t i o n n o d o u b t i s t h e s o u r c e o f m u c h o f h i s f a n a t -

i c i s m a n d r u t h l e s s e n e r g y . H e i s " s e i z e d a n d p o s s e s s e d " b y a

" h i g h e r P o w e r " - t h o u g h i t i s u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h i s P o w e r

b e G o d o r W o t a n .

T h e f u s i o n o f r e l i g i o n a n d p a t r i o t i s m i s b a s i c t o t h e N a z i

religious movement . "Germania" is the su preme object of

worship ; e v e n G o d i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h G e r m a n y . The Rei ch

Y o u t h L e a d e r , B a l d u r v o n S c h i r a c h , s u m s u p t h i s p h a s e o f

t h e N a z i c r e e d :

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270 NO COMPROMISE

O n e c a n n o t b e a g o o d G e r m a n a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e d e n y G o d,

b u t a n a v o w a l o f f a i t h i n t h e e t e r n a l G e r m a n y i s a t t h e s a m e

t i m e a n a v o w a l o f f a i t h i n t h e e t e r n a l G o d . F o r u s t h e s e r v i c e o f

G e r m a n y i s t h e s e r v i c e o f G o d . If we act as true Germa ns, we

a c t a c c o r d i ng t o t h e l a w s o f G o d . Wh o e v e r s e r v e s Ad o l f H i t l e r,

the Fthrer, serves Germany, and whoever serv es Germany s erves

God .3 7

" Po s i t i v e Ch r i s t i a n i t y " i s t h u s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h "Germanic

Chr i s t i a ni t y," and r el i g i o n, l i ke s ci ence a nd a r t, i s deni ed

a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . In Rosenber g, this r eligi ous na-

t i o na l i s m dr o ps i t s Ch r i s t i a n di s g u i s e, a s t h e f o l l o w i ng pa s -

s a g e i n d i c a t es :

Th e i d e a o f h o n o r - o f n a t i o n a l h o n o r - t o u s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g

and the end of our thinking and action . I t d o e s n o t t o l e r a t e b e -

s i d e i t a n y c e n t e r o f f o r c e o f w h a t e v e r k i n d, n e i t h e r Ch r i s t i a n

l o v e, n o r F r e e m a s o n i c h u m a n i t a r i a n i s m, n o r Ro m a n p h i l o s o p h y .

A G e r m a n r e l i g i o u s m o v e m e n t w h i c h a s p i r e s t o b e c o m e a

church of the people must declare that the ideal of lo ve for one's

n e i g h b o u r h a s t o b e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e i d e a o f n a t i o n a l h o n o r;

n o a c t i o n m a y b e a p p r o v e d b y t h e G e r m a n c h u r c h w h i c h d o e s

n o t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e s e r v e t o g u a r a n t e e t h e n a t i o n a l w e a l . 3 8

In such statem ents of Rosenberg, religion rev erts to into l-

er a nt t r i b a l i s m . "Nordic b lood," he tel ls u s, replaces the "an-

c i e n t s a c r a m e n t s ." H e i s a w a r e t h a t h i s t o r i c a l Ch r i s t i a n i t y i s

o p p o s e d t o t h i s e x c l u s i v e r a c i a l e m p h a s i s ; t h e O l d T e s t a -

m e n t, h e i n s i s t s, i s u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e N a z i s, a n d t h e J e w i s h

a n d O r i e n t a l " r u b b i s h " o f t h e N e w Te s t a m e n t m u s t a l s o b e

e l i m i n a t e d . He freq uently cites, it is true, the medi eval Chris-

t i a n m y s t i c , Ec k h a r t , b u t h e d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h i s G e r -

man master. Eckh a r t ' s m y s t i ci s m i s co nv er t ed i nt o " t h e r e-

ligion of the blood," a mere tribal creed .

A number of new sects have sprung up to embody the

N a z i e m p h a s i s u p o n r a c e a n d n a t i o n . O n e o f t h e s e i s t h e

"German National Church" founded by the philosopher,

Er n s t B e r g m a n n o f L e i p z i g . Be r g m a n n c o n t e n d s t h a t a N a z i

c a n b e a Ch r i s t i a n o n l y "f i g u r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g ." "T h e G e r -

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 271

m a n , " h e d e c l a r e s , " h a s h i s o w n r e l i g i o n . . . e x p r e s s i n g t h e

p e c u l i a r i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y o f o u r r a c e . " A n " o t h e r - w o r l d l y

G o d " i s r e j e c t e d a s e s s e n ti a l l y S e m it i c . M a n i s n o t a d u a l i t y;

t h e r e i s o n l y t h e c o n c r e t e u n i t y o f b o d y - s o u l , w h i c h e x -

c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n s p i r i t a n d f l e s h .

T h e G e r m a n r e l i g i o n c l i n g s t o a n " h e r o i c e t h i c s " b a s e d o n

" t h r e e a n c i e n t G e r m a n v i r t u e s : b r av e r y , c h i v a l r y a nd f i d e l -

i t y , a l l o f w h i c h s p r i n g f r o m h o n o r . "3 0 O n J u n e 1 4 , 1 9 3 8 ,

B e r g m a n n ' s " N a t i o n a l C h u r c h " i s s u e d a m a n i f e s t o w h i c h d e -

c l a r e d " t h a t A d o l f H i t l e r ' s b o o k , Mein Kampf, e x p r e s s e s t h e

p u r e s t e t h i c s , a n d t h a t t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e m u s t c o n t i n u a l l y

f i n d i t s i n s p i r a t i o n i n t h i s b o o k . The Ger m an Nat i o na l

C h u r c h r e m o v e s f r o m i t s a l t a r s t h e C r o s s , t h e B i b l e a n d v a r i -

o u s r e l i g i o u s i m a g e s , a n d p l a c e s i n t h e i r s t e a d t h e b o o k o f t h e

F i i h r e r a n d t h e s w o r d . " 4 0 T h u s r e l i g i o u s i d e a s a r e s e c u l a r -

i z e d , G o d i s n a t i o n a l i z e d , a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y i s d i s m i s s e d a s ,

" i n o u r s e n s e , n o l o n g e r a r e l i g i o n . " 4 1

Q u i t e a s u n c h r i s t i a n i s t h e n e o - A r y a n c u l t s p o n s o r e d b y

t h e l a t e G e n e r a l L u d e n d o r f f a n d h i s w i f e . T o F r a u L u d e n -

d o r f f , C h r i s t w a s a " J e w a n d t h u s t h e s o u r c e o f e v e r y i l l . "

C h r i s t i a n i t y m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e w o r s h i p o f

"German bl ood" and the "holy German ear th . " T h i s s e c t ,

f o u n d e d b y a n a d v o c a t e o f " t o t a l w a r f a r e , " w o r s h i p s " b l o o d

a n d s o i l " w i t h s t r a n g e , n e o p a g a n r i t e s . A l t h o u g h t h e L u d e n -

d o r f f s e c t i t s e l f i s d e c l i n i n g , t h e c o m b i n e d i n f l u e n c e o f m o v e -

m e n t s o f t h i s t y p e - t h e " G e r m a n C h r i s t i a n s , " t h e " G e r m a n

F a i t h M o v e m e n t , " e t c . - i s v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e .

H i t l e r h a s f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t o l e r a t e d b u t n o t e n d o r s e d

s u c h r e l i g i o u s t e n d e n c i e s . H i s o w n p o s i t i o n i s s o m e w h a t a m -

b i g u o u s . H e h a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e N a z i g o v e r n m e n t n e e d s t h e

s u p p o r t o f a l l C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h a t t h e r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t ie s o f

P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o l i c s w i l l n o t b e t o u c h e d. T h o s e p r i e s t s

a n d c l e r g y m e n w h o " m e d d l e " i n p o l i t i c s a n d d e n o u n c e N a -

t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m a s a n t i c h r i s t i a n a r e s a i d t o b e m e r e p e r v e r t -

e r s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . R e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e to b e l e f t a l o n e

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2j2 NO COMPROMISE

s o l o n g a s t h e y d o n o t m e d d l e , b u t t h e y m u s t b e b r o u g h t

u nder a b s o l u t e co nt r o l i f t h ey o f f er r es i s t a nce t o Na zi pr a c-

t i c e s . Al t h o u g h n o m i n a l l y a Ch r i s t i a n , H i t l e r h a s w a g e d a

c o n t i n u o u s w a r a g a i n s t g e n u i n e Ch r i s t i a n s w h o c o u l d n o t

o t h e r w i s e b e s i l e n c e d .

T h e r e a r e m a n y i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t H i t l e r ' s r e a l c o n v i c t i o n s

a r e n o t Ch r i s t i a n . I n a s p e e c h m a d e a t t h e 1 93 8 N a z i p a r t y

rally a t Niirnberg, as reported in the M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n o f

November 1 1 , 1 93 8, H e r r Ro s e n b e r g d e c l a r e d :

In the answer to questions whi ch I am going to give I am in ful l

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e F i i h r e r ' s i d e a s . . . . I do not hesitate to say,

and I believe that I can speak in the Fii hrer's name as well, that

the Cathol ic Church an d the Protes tant Confess ional Church as

it is today will hav e to disappear from the life of our nation . . . .

The s pl i nt er s o f Ca t h o l i c y o u t h m o v em ent s w h i ch a r e b u s t l i ng

a b o u t w i l l b e a b s o r b e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e . The H i t l er Yo u t h

i s l i k e a s p o n g e w h i c h s u c k s e v er y t h i n g w i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e . And ,

f u r t h e r, t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f a l l c a t e g o r i e s i n o u r s c h o o l s h a s a l -

r e a d y b e e n s o f a r r e - f o r m e d i n a n a n t i -Ch r i s t i a n a n d a n t i - J e w i s h

s p i r i t t h a t t h e g e n e r a t i o n w h i c h i s g r o w i n g u p w i l l b e p r o t e c t e d

f r o m t h e b l a c k s w i n d l e .

T h e s e r e m a r k s p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t t h e r e a l o p i n i o n s o f H i t l e r

m o r e a ccu r a t el y t h a n h i s "Chr i s t i a n" u t t er a nces . A t l e a s t , t h e

offensive against Christiani ty is continuing on a great scale .

On February 1 0 , 1939, th e Manchester Guardian r e p o r t e d :

F o l l o w i n g o n t h e b l o w s d e a l t a t t h e Ch u r c h y o u t h o r g a n i z a -

tions , bot h Protes tant and Cath olic, and to th e Cath olic Confes-

s i o n a l s c h o o l s, o n e o f t h e l a s t v e s t i g e s o f a c t i v e Ca t h o l i c w o r k

outside church walls is to be brou ght to an end shortly by a Gov -

er nm ent o r der f o r t h e w i ndi ng u p o f t h e Ca t h o l i c Yo u ng Men' s

Association .

T h e a r t i c l e p o i n t s o u t t h a t s i g n s a r e n o t l a c k i n g, e v e n i n H i t -

l e r ' s Re i c h s t a g s p e e c h o f J a n u a r y 30, 1939, t h a t t h e r e l i g i o u s

p e r s e c u t i o n w i l l b e c o m e e v e n m o r e i n t e n s e .

T h e I t a l i a n F a s c i s t s a r e l e s s h e t e r o d o x t h a n t h e N a z i s . The

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 2 ' 7 3

p r e d o m i n a n t l y C a t h o l i c s e n t i m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e

p o l i t i c a l v a l u e o f c o n c i l i a t i n g t h e V a t i c a n h a v e k e p t t h e m o n

t h e b e a t e n t r a i l s ; y e t t h e a n t i c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r o f I t a l i a n

F a s c i s m i s e v i d e n t t o a l l e x c e p t t h e m o s t o b t u s e . M u s s o l i n i ,

a s G a u d e n s M e g a r o h a s s h o w n i n h i s b i o g r a p h y , w a s f o r m a n y

y e a r s a " d e f a m e r o f G o d a n d r e l i g i o n , " a n d t h e r e i s n o e v i -

d e n c e t h a t h e i s n o w m o r e t h a n n o m i n a l l y a C a t h o l i c . A s

l a t e a s M a y , 1 9 2 9 , t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h V a t i c a n p o l i c y w a s s o i n -

t e n s e t h a t P o p e P i u s X I i s s u e d a b i t t e r a t t a c k i n w h i c h h e

r e f e r r e d t o M u s s o l i n i a s t h e d e v i l .4 2

1 1 D u c e a n d t h e P o p e , h o w e v e r , p a t c h e d u p a t r u c e , s u p -

p o s e d l y t o t h e i r m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e . W h e n t h e E t h i o p i a n W a r

b r o k e o u t , m o s t o f t h e w o r l d c o n d e m n e d M u s s o l i n i ; b u t t h e

P o p e w a s s i l e n t , a n d e v e n p e r m i t t e d b i s h o p s p u b l i c l y t o

s u p p o r t I t a l i a n a r m s 4 3 H e e v e n o p e n l y b l e s s e d t h e r e v o l t o f

F r a n c o , w h o h a s u n m i s t a k a b l y d e c l a r e d h i s F a s c i s t i n c l i n a -

t i o n a n d h a s a l l i e d h i m s e l f w i t h N a z i s , B l a c k s h i r t s , a n d

Moors . T h i s a i d t o t h e F a s c i s t c a u s e i s h a r d l y c o n s i s t e n t wi t h

t h e l a t e P o p e ' s r e p e a t e d a t t a c k s u p o n N a z i r a c i a l a n d r e l i -

g i o u s d o c t r i n e s a n d u p o n I t a l i a n e x p r e s s i o n s o f r a c i a l i s m a n d

n a t i o n a l i s m . H e e v i d e n t l y f e l l v i c t i m t o t h e a s s i d u o u s l y f o s -

t e r e d m y t h t h a t t h e r e v o l t o f F r a n c o w a s n e c e s s a r y t o s a v e t h e

C a t h o l i c C h u r c h f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n . 4 4 H e e i t h e r d i d n o t k n o w ,

o r h e f a i l e d t o b e a r i n m i n d , t h a t t h e N a z i s w e r e i n l a r g e

m e a s u r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o u t b r e a k a n d p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h e

w a r .

D o c u m e n t a r y p r o o f o f t h i s f a c t i s a v a i l a b l e . O n t h e t h i r d

d a y o f t h e r e b e l l i o n , t h e L o y a l i s t m i l i t i a in B a r c e l o n a c a r r i e d

o u t a t h o r o u g h s e a r c h o f N a z i h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d s u b s i d i a r y

o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e c a p t u r e d d o c u m e n t s r e v e a l a n a m a z i n g

p l o t . B y t h e y e a r 1 9 3 5 , a s m a n y a s f i f t y S p a n i s h p e r i o d i c a l s ,

i n c l u d i n g s o m e o f t h e l a r g e s t n e w s p a p e r s i n S p a i n , w e r e s e -

c r e t l y a c t i n g a s d i s s e m i n a t i n g a g e n t s o f t h e N a z i p r o p a g a n d a

machine . T h e m e t h o d s o f b r i b e r y , c o e r c i o n , a n d i n t r i g u e

w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e s e n e w s o r g a n s u n d e r c o n t r o l w e r e a p -

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274 NO COMPROMISE

p l i e d l i k e w i s e t o t h e c i n e m a , t h e r a d i o , a n d o t h e r p r o p a -

g a n d a a g e n c i e s . T h e N a z i a g e n t s a c t i v e l y a i d e d t h e f o r c e s

b e h i n d t h e r e v o l t , a n d e v e n d e l i v e r e d G e r m a n m i l i t a r y s u p -

p l i e s t o t h e f u t u r e r e b e l s . T h e r e v o l t w a s n o t o n l y e f f e c t i v e l y

s u p p o r t e d , b u t w a s a c t i v e l y f o m e n t e d , b y t h e N a z i s . 4 5 P o p e

P i u s X I a n d t h e C a t h o l i c h i e r a r c h y , i t n o w b e c o m e s c l e a r ,

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e n o u n c e d H i t l e r i s m a n d a i d e d H i t l e r ' s i n -

t r i g u e s b y s u p p o r t i n g F r a n c o . T h e y t h e r e b y a l s o a s s i s t e d M u s -

s o l i n i , w h o h a s b e e n v e r y d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e S p a n i s h

War .

I l D u c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s s u p p o r t e d t h e C h u r c h o n l y

when he has found it convenient . When Cathol icism con-

f l i c t s w i t h F a s c i s t p o l i t i c a l a i m s , i t i s C a t h o l i c i s m t h a t m u s t

b e s a c r i f i c e d . I n M a y , 1 9 3 8 , w h e n t h e P o p e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t

t h e h o i s t i n g o f t h e S w a s t i k a ( " a n o t h e r c r o s s t h a t i s n o t t h e

c r o s s o f G o d " ) o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f H i t l e r ' s v i s i t t o I t a l y , h e

w a s s c o l d e d b y M u s s o l i n i ' s n e w s p a p e r , t h e P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a :

I f i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s p e a k c l e a r l y , w e w o u l d l i k e t o s a y t o th e

F a t h e r o f a l l o f u s C a t h o l i c s . . . t h a t t o d a y i t i s v e r y d a n g e r o u s

t o s p e a k o f a n d w a v e t h e c r o s s o f C h r i s t a s i f i t w e r e a w e a p o n

a n d t h e n t o f i n d o n e s e l f i n t h e m e n a c i n g a n d s m i r k i n g c o m p a n y

o f M a s o n i c a n d B o l s h e v i s t u s u r e r s w i t h o u t a n y l o n g e r h a v i n g i n

o n e ' s h a n d s e v e n t h e w h i p w h i c h s c o u r g e d t h e m f r o m t h e T e m p l e

o f G o d . 4 6

P a r t i a l i t y t o w a r d s t h e N a z i s i s a g a i n r e v e a l e d i n t h e s e c r e t

g o v e r n m e n t i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e I t a l i a n p r e s s i n t h e s p r i n g o f

1 9 3 7 :

A p r i l 28 : G o c a r e f u l l y a b o u t t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e V a t i c a n

a n d G e r m a n y a n d s t a y n e u t r a l . I n a n y c a s e , i n c l i n e t o t h e s i d e

o f G e r m a n y b u t w i t h o u t e v e n r e p r o d u c i n g n e w s a b o u t t h e t r i a l s

o f p r i e s t s a c c u s e d o f i m m o r a l i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e p r e s s i s f u l l 4 7

W h e n t h e C h u r c h i s s u b j e c t t o v i r u l e n t a t t a c k i n G e r m a n y ,

I t a l i a n F a s c i s m s i d e s w i t h t h e N a z i s a n d a g a i n s t t h e V a t i c a n .

T h e l a t e P o p e h i m s e l f c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h e u n c h r i s t i a n

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 2'75

ch a r a ct er o f Fa s ci s m . A V a t i c a n d o c u m e n t l i s t s t h e h e r e s i e s o f

National Socialism as follows :

i . The h u m a n r a c e s a r e, i n t h e i r n a t u r a l a n d u n a l t e r a b l e c o n -

dition, so widely differi ng from each ot her, that th e lowest is as

f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e h i g h e s t a s i t i s f r o m t h e m o s t h i g h l y d e -

v e l o p e d a n i m a l .

2 . The strength of race and the purity of bloo d must be pro-

t e c t e d a n d f o s t e r e d b y e v e r y m e a n s . Whatever serv es this end is

good and permissible .

3. The ch i ef s o u r ce a nd o r i g i n o f a l l h u m a n, spi r i t u a l a nd

m o r a l q u a l i t i e s i s t h e b l o o d i n w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d t h e c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r a c e .

4 . The chief objective of education s hould be t o develop racial

characteristics and to fill the soul with a burning love for its own

race, as the hig hest good .

5 . Religio n also is su bordina te to race, and must be adapt ed to

i t .

6. Th e o r i g i n a n d h i g h e s t s t a n d a r d o f e v e r y s y s t e m o f j u s t i c e

i s t h e r a c i a l i n s t i n c t .

7 . O n l y t h e Co s m o s e x i s t s, t h e l i v i n g u n i v e r s e . A l l t h i n g s , i n -

c l u d i n g m a n k i n d , a r e b u t v a r y i n g a n d p r o g r e s s i v e l y s i m p l i f y i n g

aspects of the living Whole .

8 . The i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s o n l y t h r o u g h a n d f o r t h e S t a t e . What -

ev er r i g h t s h e m a y exer ci s e a r e m er el y co nceded t o h i m b y t h e

S t a t e 4 8

I t i s t o b e n o t e d t h a t t h e e i g h t h i t e m i n t h e a b o v e q u o t a -

t i o n a p p l i e s e v e n m o r e c l e a r l y t o F a s c i s t I t a l y t h a n t o N a z i

Germany . As s t a t e d , t h i s t h e o r y o f p o l i t i c a l t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m

w a s f i r s t pr a ct i ced i n It a l y, a nd h a s no m i na l l y b een r eject ed

b y t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s , t o b e a d o p t e d b y t h e m u n d e r t h e

di s g u i s e o f t h e "Totales Volk" ("Tota l Peo ple "), and tr ans -

f o r m e d i n t o a n e v e n m o r e d r a s t i c t o t a l i t a r i a n c r e e d . T h e

s e v e n t h i t e m a l s o a p p l i e s t o c e r t a i n I t a l i a n F a s c i s t p r o n o u n c e -

m e n t s, a s, f o r e x a m p l e , t o t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f G e n t i l e . Eve n th e

o t h e r s i x i t e m s a p p l y i n c r e a s i n g l y t o M u s s o l i n i ' s r e g i m e : in

July , 1938, for ex ample, the Itali an Fa scist s endor sed an ex-

t r em e a nt i -S em i t i c a nd r a ci a l cr eed, s i m i l a r i n es s ent i a l s t o

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276 NO COMPROMISE

t h e N a z i i d e o l o g y . T h e P o p e v i g o r o u s l y d e n o u n c e d t h i s " d i s -

g r a c e f u l i m i t a t i o n " o f G e r m a n y , a n d d e c l a r e d : " T o b e C a t h -

o l i c m e a n s t o b e u n i v e r s a l - n o t r a c i a l , n o t n a t i o n a l i s t i c , n o t

s e p a r a t i s t i c . " 4 9 M u s s o l i n i a n d h i s d i s c i p l e s r e p l i e d t o t h e

P o p e ' s c r i t i c i s m w i t h w o r d s a n d a c t s o f d e f i a n c e .

I t a l i a n a n d G e r m a n F a s c i s m a r e b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e

i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , a n d F r a n c o i s p l a y i n g t h e s a m e g a m e u n -

d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s . T h e r e a re , o f c o u r s e ,

d i f f e r e n c e s : G e r m a n F a s c i s m i s s p e c u l a t i v e a n d m y s t i c a l ; I t a l -

i a n F a s c i s m i s p r a g m a t i c a n d c y n i c a l ; S p a n i s h F a s c i s m i s b i g -

o t e d a n d s a n c t i m o n i o u s . B u t t h e y a r e a l l i e d , a n d b y d i f f e r -

e n t m e a n s t h e y p u r s u e t h e s a m e r u t h l e s s e n d s . b 0 No Pope can

b e t r u e t o h i s C a t h o l i c p r i n c i p l e s u n l e s s h e t a k e s a n u n e -

q u i v o c a l s t a n d a g a i n s t a l l F a s c i s t m o v e m e n t s - G e r m a n , I t a l -

i a n , S p a n i s h , a n d e v e r y o t h e r . A n e w P o p e , P i u s X I I , h a s

n o w a s s u m e d o f f i c e ; a n d i t i s s u r e l y h i s C h r i s t i a n d u t y t o b e

m o r e u n e q u i v o c a l i n o p p o s i t i o n t o F a s c i s m t h a n w a s h i s p r e d -

e c e s s o r . I f t h i s i s h i s s t a n d , h e w i l l r e c e i v e th e e n t h u s i a s t i c

s u p p o r t o f t h e v a s t m a j o ri t y o f C a t h o l i c s .

S o m e o f t h e m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d o f C a t h o l i c s a d v o c a t e s u c h

a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n t i - F a s c i s t p o l i c y . E s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o rt h y i s

t h e p o s i t i o n o f J a c q u e s M a r i t a i n , p e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t l i v i n g

C a t h o l i c p h i l o s o p h e r , a s s t a t e d i n h i s p r e f a c e t o A l f r e d M e n -

d i z i b a l ' s r e m a r k a b l e b o o k , Th e M a r t y r d o m o f S p a i n . With

t r u e C a t h o l i c p i e t y a n d g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l a c u m e n , M a r i t a i n

a r g u e s t h a t F r a n c o ' s a t t a c k u p o n t h e l e g a l S p a n i s h g o v e r n -

m e n t , w h i c h h e t h i n k s h a s b e e n f a r f r o m g u i l t l e s s , c a n n o t

p o s s i b l y b e r e g a r d e d a s a h o l y w a r . E v e n i f a l l o f F r a n c o ' s

c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e R e p u b l i c a r e t r u e , M a r i t a i n c o n t e n d s ,

t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n w o u l d s t i l l b e u n j u s t i f i e d , s i n c e t h e r e v o l t

d e l i b e r a t e l y u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e R e b e l s w a s f a t e d " t o b r i n g

a b o u t i n a f e w m o n t h s o f f r a t r i c i d a l w a r m o r e r u i n , m o r e

a b o m i na t i on s a n d l o s s o f h u m a n l i f e t h a n y e a r s o f c i v i c s t r i f e

u n d e r t h e w o r s t o f c o n d i t i o n s . " 6 1 L i k e o t h e r g r e a t C a t h o l i c s

- s u c h a s C a r d i n a l M u n d e l e i n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , C a r d i n a l

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 277

Verdier i n France, Cardina l Fau lhab er in Germa ny, and

C a n o n R o c a f u l i n S p a i n - M a r i t a i n , a l t h o u g h n o t a r a d i c a l ,

i s u n w i l l i n g f o r C a t h o l i c i s m t o b e c o m e a n a l l y o f r e a c t i o n .

T h e p r o g r e s s i v e C h u r c h l e a d e r s w h o r e g a r d F a s c i s m a s

a n t i c h r i s t i a n a r e o b v i o u s l y r i g h t . I t s " p h i l o s o p h y " d e r i v e s

f r o m s u c h t h i n k e r s a s M a c h i a v e l l i , t h e a d v o c a t e o f r u t h l e s s -

n e s s ; N i e t z s c h e , t h e p r o p o n e n t o f t h e w i l l t o p o w e r ; Cha m-

b e r l a i n , t h e s p o k e s m a n o f a r m e d i m p e r i a l i s m ; S o r e l , t h e t h e -

o r i s t o f v i o l e n c e ; P a r e t o , t h e e x p o n e n t o f f o r c e a n d d e c e i t ;

a n d G o b i n e a u , t h e p r o p h e t o f r a c e p r e j u d i c e . I t s h e r o e s a r e

r o m a n t i c m i l i t a r i s t s l i k e D ' A n n u n z i o ; P r u s s i a n d r i l l m a s t e r s

l i k e V o n M o l t k e ; a g g r e s s i v e d e s p o t s l i k e t h e R o m a n C a e s a r s ;

s a v a g e g o d s l i k e t h e p a n t h e o n o f V a l h a l l a . I t s e x a g g e r a t ed n a -

t i o n a l i s m i s a p e r p e t u a l d a n g e r t o w o r l d p e a c e . I t r e j e c t s t h e

i d e a l s o f s h a r i n g a n d o f u n i v e r s a l b r o t h e r h o o d w h i c h a r e

b a s i c t o C h r i s t i a n e t h i c s . M a n y t h o u s a n d s h a v e a l r e a d y s u f -

f e r e d v i o l e n t d e a t h s b e c a u s e o f i t s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s . I f C h r i s t

w e r e a l i v e t o d a y , h e w o u l d s u r e l y s i d e w i t h t h e h u n g r y m a s s e s

and not with the warmakers . T h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s , w e

d a r e s a y , w i l l o n l y s u r v i v e i f t h e y c h o o s e l i k e w is e .

3 . T h e F a s c i s t T h e o r y o f A r t

F a s c i s t " i d e a l i s m " i s m a n i f e s t e d a l s o i n t h e s p h e r e o f a r t .

T h e b a s i c i d e a s e m b o d i e d i n t h e F a s c i s t a p p r o a c h t o a r t s e e m

t o b e t w o : f i r s t , a r t i s a n " i d e a l " c o n c e r n , w h i c h s t a n d s i n

c o n t r a s t t o m a t e r i a l i s t i c i n t e r e s t s ; a n d s e c o n d , a r t s h o u l d b e

s u b j e c t e d t o a p a t r i o t i c a n d m o r a l p u r g i n g .

A r t , i t i s c o n t e n d e d , i s e s s e n t ia l l y a s p i r i t u a l , a s o p p o s e d

t o a n e c o n o m i c o r m a t e r i a l , a c t i v i t y . T h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i s

i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e s t h e t i c t h e o r i e s o f t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l I t a l i a n

p h i l o s o p h e r s , C r o c e a n d G e n t i l e . A l t h o u g h C r o c e i s o p p o s e d

t o F a s c i s m , h i s i d e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t h a s u n q u e s -

t i o n a b l y i n f l u e n c e d F a s c i s t e s t h e t i c s . A r t , h e m a i n t a i n s , i s

" i n t u i t i o n " : t h e m e r e i n w a r d s y n t h e s i s o f i m a g e s , e m o t i o n s

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278 NO COMPROMISE

a n d d e s i r e s . T h e a r t i s t ' s " f e e l i n g s " a r e f o r m u l a t e d i n i m a g e s .

E x p r e s s i o n i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s i s n o t a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n ; i t i s a

p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y , a n d n o t , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , a r t a t a l l . E v e n

f r o m t h e c o n t e m p l a t o r ' s s t a n d p o i n t , t h e p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s -

e . g . , t h e s t a t u e , t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e w r i t t e n p o e m , t h e m u s i c a s

sound-are not to be confused with art . They are simply

" m e m o r a n d a , " p h y s i c a l s t i m u l a n t s f o r i m a g i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y

u p o n t h e p a r t o f t h e b e h o l d e r . B y s e p a r a t i n g a r t f r o m t h e

s p h e r e o f a c t i o n , b y d e n y i n g i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c r a f t a n d

the immediate sensible world, by emphasizing i ts unique

and incommunicable elements at the expense of its com-

municabl e and broadly h uman elements, Croce makes a rt,

i n e f f e c t , e s o t e r i c a n d s u b j e c t i v e . H i s r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t i t i s a

p r i m i t i v e a n d u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n s c a r c e l y c o m p e n s a t e s f o r

t h i s s u b j e c t i v e e m p h a s i s .

G e n t i l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y a s t u d e n t a n d d i s c i p l e o f C r o c e .

Later he broke away from his master and became the most

d i s t i n g u i s h e d o f F a s c i s t p h i l o s o p h e r s . H i s t h e o r y o f a r t , n e v e r -

t h e l e s s , r e t a i n s C r o c e ' s e m p h a s i s u p o n s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d f e e l -

i n g . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e r e p r e s e n t s h i s o p i n i o n s d u r i n g

t h e p e r i o d w h e n F a s c i s m w a s i n p r o c e s s o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n :

A r t i s t h e s e l f - r e a l iz a t i o n of t h e s p i r i t a s s u b j e c t . M a n b e c o m e s

e n f o l d e d i n h i s s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d h e a r s b u t t h e v o i c e o f l o v e o r

other inward summons . L i v i n g w i t h o u t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h

t h e w o r l d , h e r e f r a i n s f r o m a f f i r m in g a n d d e n y i n g w h a t e x i s t s a n d

w h a t d o e s n o t e x i s t . H e s i m p l y s p r e a d s o u t o v e r h i s o w n a b s t r a c t

i n t e r i o r w o r l d , a n d d r e a m s ; a n d a s h e d r e a m s , h e e s c a p e s f r o m

t h e o u t e r b u s t l e i n t o t h e s e c l u s i o n o f h i s e n c h a n t e d r e a l m , w h i c h

i s t r u e i n i ts e l f u n t i l h e i s s u e s f r o m i t a n d d i s c o v e r s i t t o b e a

f i g m e n t o f h i s p h a n t a s y . T h i s m a n i s t h e a r t i s t , w h o , w e m i g h t

s a y , n e i th e r c o g n i s e s n o r a c t s , b u t s i n g s . 5 2

I n h i s l a t e r w o r k s , G e n t i l e s t i l l c l i n g s t o a " s p i r i t u a l " i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f a r t . T h e a r t i s t e x p r e s s e s h i s f e e l i n g i n f u s e d i n t o

i m a g e s a n d t h o u g h t s . A r t i s " p u r e s u b j e c t i v i t y . " T h i s t h e o r y

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 2'79

i s d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m ,

w h i c h d e n i e s u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y t o t h e p h y s i c a l o r d e r .

An t o n i o M a r a i n i , t h e s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l o f t h e F a s c i s t S y n -

d i c a t e o f Ar t i s t s , a g r e e s w i t h G e n t i l e t h a t a r t i s a s p i r i t u a l

a c t i v i t y . H e h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a n i n t e r e s t i n a r t i s a n e c e s -

s a r y c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e n e w i d e a l i s m :

F a s c i s m b e i n g t h e o u t c o m e o f a r e v o l u t i o n p r o f o u n dl y e t h i c a l

in character, and filled with ideals whi ch stress the valu e of the

spirit abov e material gains, could not disinterest itself from ar-

tistic problems, whether from the point of view of the q uali ty of

t h e w o r k p r o d u c e d o r f r o m t h a t o f t h e g o o d o f t h e a r t i s t . 5 3

H i t l e r a l s o b e l i e v e s t h a t " t h e v a l u e o f t h e s p i r i t " i s t o b e

s t r e s s e d "a b o v e m a t e r i a l g a i n s . " I n a l e c t u r e o n a r t a n d c u l -

t u r e , a t t h e N u r n b e r g P a r t y C o n g r e s s , S e p t e m b e r 7, 1 93 7, h e

p o i n t e d o u t t h a t n a t i o n a l w e a l t h c o n s i s t s a b o v e a l l i n a r t i s t i c

t r e a s u r e s :

The artist's achievements are to b e celebrated . .. a s t h e h i g h -

e s t a c c o m p l i s h m en t s o f a n a t i o n . Th e m a t e r i a l w e a l t h p r o d u c e d

by the individual nations is absolutely insig nificant as compared

w i t h t h e v a l u e s o f t r u e c u l t u r a l a c h i e v e m e n t s . If a m a g i c p o w e r

r e m o v e d t o d a y e v e r y t h i n g f r o m o u r c o u n t r y w h i c h t h e " r a b b i t

h o r i z o n " o f t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n o f t h e w o r l d c h a r a c t e r i s e s a s

w o r t h l e s s a r t o r a r t b y m e a n s o f w h i c h o n e c a n no t e a r n o n e ' s

b r e a d , o u r t o w n s w o u l d t h e n s u d d e n l y c o l l a p s e . Cath edra ls , min -

s t e r s, t h e m a g n i f i c e n t s t r u c t u r e s o f o u r c o u r t - a n d c i v i c - b u i l d -

i n g s , m u s e u m s a n d t h e a t r e s w o u l d d i s a p p e a r j u s t a s w o u l d t h e

l a s t s t r ee t l i g h t o r t h e w a l l s o f o u r h o u s e s, t h e g l a s s o f o u r w i n -

d o w s a n d t h e p i c t u r e s o n o u r w a l l s : i n o ne w o r d , o u r r i c h a n d

b e a u t i f u l w o r l d w o u l d b e - a v o i d l

Be i n g a s p i r i t u a l a f f a i r , a r t d o e s n o t s p r i n g f r o m " t h e o r d i -

n a r y c i t i z e n s o f t h e w o r l d," b u t f r o m a n a r t i s t i c e l i t e :

A t r u e e p o c h - m a k i n g a r t i s t i c a c c o m p l i s h m e n t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e ,

o n l y b e t h e w o r k o f a n i s o l a t e d , g i f t e d m a n , a p r o p h e t f a r i n

a d v a n c e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s, i t c a n n e v e r b e t h e r e s u l t o f a n

o r d i n a r y, a v e r a g e c o l l ec t i v e e f f o r t .

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280 NO COMPROMISE

O n c e w e g r a s p t h e f a c t t h a t a r t i s t h e w o r k o f t h e " c r e a t i v e

i n d i v i d u a l , " w e w i l l b e a b l e t o " s e e h o w l i t t l e a r t i s t i c c a p a c -

i t y h a s t o d o w i t h t h e a c t u a l g i v e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f m a n a n d

h o w e x p r e s s i v e a g i f t i t i s f o r a f e w g i f t e d n a t i o n s a n d t h e i r

e s p e c i a l l y b l e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l s . " T h e b a s i s o f t h e a r ti s t i c l i f e

o f t h e n a t i o n , H i t l e r c o n t i n u e s , i s t o b e f o u n d i n " a r e a l

c o m m u n i t y s p i r i t , " r a t h e r t h a n i n " t h e c e a s e l e s s u r g e t o -

w a r d s e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s , p r o f i t o r d i v i d e n d s . " G r e a t w o r k s

o f a r t w i l l a r i s e t o c e l e b r a t e " t h e g r e a t c o m m u n i t y o f t h e

n a t i o n , " w h i c h t o w e r s a b o v e e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s . " T h e S t a t e

s h a l l n o t b e a p o w e r w i t h o u t c u l t u r e , n o r a f o r c e w i t h o u t

b e a u t y . F o r e v e n t h e d e f e n s e o f a n a t i o n i s o n l y t h e n m o r a l l y

j u s t i f i e d w h e n i t i s t h e s h i e l d a n d s w o r d o f a h i g h e r m i s -

s i o n . "54

Although Hit ler condemns the worldly outl ook of the

o r d i n a r y m a n , h i s i d e a o f a r t i s n o t f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e

p o p u l a r c o n c e p t . W h e n t h e w o r d a r t i s m e n t i o n e d , t h e a v e r -

a g e p e r s o n t h i n k s o f a p i c t u r e , o r a t m o s t , o f t h e f i n e a r t s ,

s u c h a s s c u l p t u r e , p a i n t i n g , a n d m u s i c . H e i s a p t t o l o o k

u p o n t h e a r t i s t a s a n u n w o r l d l y c h a p , a n d t o c o n t r a s t h i m

w i t h t h e w o r k e r o r t h e b u s i n e s s m a n . He would probably

a g r e e w i t h t h e F a s c i s t s t h a t a r t r e p r e s e n t s t h e s p i r i t u a l

r a t h e r t h a n t h e m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s o f m a n .

T h i s v i e w o f a r t i s b a s e d p a r t l y u p o n a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

A r t i s s p i r i t u a l , i f y o u p l e a s e , b u t o n l y b e c a u s e i t u n i t e s

b o d y a n d s p i r i t . I n s o d o i n g , i t r e c o n c i l e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

a s p e c t s o f m a n ' s n a t u r e - t h e s p o n t a n e o u s a n d t h e o r d e r l y ,

t h e s e n s u o u s a n d t h e r a t i o n a l . H e n c e i t i s n e e d e d t o r e s t o r e

t h e s e r e n i t y a n d w h o l e n e s s o f m a n ' s n a t u r e . I n s o f a r a s i t

a c h i e v e s t h i s f u n c t i o n , i t i s n o t o n l y t h e f o u n d a t i o n , b u t t h e

c u l m i n a t i o n , o f a l l c u l t u r e . I t b e l o n g s w i t h f i r s t a n d l a s t

t h i n g s . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i s i s o f t h e a r t s i s n o t t o b e r e -

s o l v e d b y p l a c i n g t h e a r t i s t u p o n a n i d e a l i s t i c p e d e s t a l . T h e

b a s i c n e e d i s a c l o s e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f a r t an d l i f e .

N o d o u b t t h e F a s c i s t s w o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e y a r e a c h i e v -

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 281

i n g t h i s c l o s e r i n t e g r a t i o n . H i t l e r , f o r e x a m p l e , i n d i c a t e s i n

t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n s t h a t a r t i s b a s i c t o t h e n a t i o n a l w e a l t h ;

a n d h e c a n p o i n t t o a g i g a n t i c b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m w h i c h i s

b r i n g i n g a R o m a n s p l e n d o r t o t h e c i t i e s o f G e r m a n y . B u t a s

Thom a s Mann dec l a re s :

T h e i m p u l s e o f t h i s r e g i m e t o g l o r i f y i t s e l f i n l u x u r i o u s a n d

e n o r m o u s p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s t h a t a r e j u s t a s m o r b i d l y a m b i t i o u s

a s t h e y a r e a r t i s t i c a l l y w r e t c h e d i s a n o b s e s s i o n o f a d e c i d e d l y

a b n o r m a l k i n d . I t h a s s o m e t h i n g m a n i a c a l a b o u t i t a n d c a l l s t o

m i n d t h a t a b u i l d i n g m a n i a i s c l i n i c a l l y a w e l l - k n o w n s y m p t o m. 5 5

S p e n g l e r a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e t e n d e n c y t o e r e c t m o n -

s t r o u s s t r u c t u r e s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a d y i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n . A n -

o t h e r t y p i c a l f o r m o f N a z i a r t , w h i c h i s p e r h a p s m o r e i n t e -

g r a l t o t h e n e w l i f e o f G e r m a n y , i s t h e g r o u p r i t u a l . The

Storm Troopers , for example, have a "dawn ceremo ny" en-

t i t l e d " M e n , F i g h t e r s , S o l d i e r s . " T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e a b a n d

o f m u s i c , a m a l e s p e a k i n g c h o i r , a n d t h r e e p r i n c i p a l s p e a k e r s ,

namely , the Believer, the D oubt er, and t he Caller . The

D o u b t e r r e c o u n t s t h e d e f e a t s i n G e r m a n h i s t o r y , w h e r e u p o n

h e i s i n e v i t a b l y s i l e n c e d , f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , w i t h t h e d a t e

o f s o m e v i c t o r y . S p e e c h e s a n d m u s i c a l t e r n a t e i n a g l o r i f i c a -

tion of the German past . The Hitler You th and other or-

g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e s i m i l a r r i t u a l s : " c a n t a t a s , " " f e s t i v a l s , "

" c h o r a l p o e m s , " a n d " c o n s e c r a t i o n p l a y s . " S p e c i a l c e r e m o -

n i e s a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d f o r c h r i s t e n i n g s , m a r r i a g e s , f u -

n e r a l s , a n d s o o n . I t i s t o o s o o n t o e s t i m a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h i s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y N a z i a r t f o r m , b u t i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t s u c h

r i t u a l i s m h a s n o p e r m a n e n t v a l u e . I n g e n e r a l , t h e a r t s h a v e

s u f f e r e d v e r y s e r i o u s l y u n d e r F a s c i s m , e s p e c i a l l y i n G e r -

m a n y . 5 6

T h e b a s i c d i f f i c u l t y i s n o t t h a t H i t l e r h a s a d v a n c e d a f a l s e

t h e o r y o f a r t : i t i s r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e i s a h o p e l e s s c o n t r a d i c -

t i o n b e t w e e n v a l i d e s t h e t i c o b j e c t i v e s a n d t h e v u l g a r o b j e c -

t i v e s o f t h e F a s c i s t r e g i m e s . F a s c i s m , a s w e h a v e a b u n d a n t l y

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282 NO COMPROMISE

i n d i c a t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , i s a d e c a d e n t f o r m o f s o c i e t y :

t h e r e c a n n o t b e a f r u i t f u l b o n d o f s y m p a t h y b e t w e e n g e n u -

i n e l y h e a l t h y a r t i s t s a n d t h e d e c a d e n t o v e r l o r d s o f t h e t o t a l i -

t a r i a n S t a t e s . N o t b e i n g a b l e t o c o m m a n d t h e g e n u i n e a r t i s t s ,

t h e d i c t a t o r s m u s t r e l y u p o n o s t e n t a t i o u s c e r e m o n i a l i s m a n d

b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m s t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e i r r e a l a r t i s t i c p o v -

e r t y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e y r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r f a i l u r e genu-

i n e l y t o i n t e g r a t e a r t a n d l i f e b y a n n o u n c i n g t h a t a r t i s

e x c l u s i v e l y s p i r i t u a l a n d t h a t i t i s f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e

" r a b b i t h o r i z o n " o f t h e o r d i n a r y m a n .

I n o p p o s i t i o n t o H i t l e r a n d t h e F a s c i s t e s t h e t i c i a n s , w e

v e n t u r e t o s a y t h a t a r t s h o u l d b e p a r t o f t h e d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e

o f m a n : t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f j o y i n l a b o r , t h e s i g n o f a h a p p y

l i f e . I t s h o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h e c o n o m i c s , t e c h n o l o g y ,

a n d t h e f o r c e s o f s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n p r e p a r i n g a n e w

l i f e : t h e o n l y r e a l l y g o o d l i f e p o s s i b l e t o t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d .

T h e a r t i s t i c p h a s e m u s t e n t e r c o n t i n u a l l y i n t o e n g i n e e r i n g ,

i n d u s t r y , a n d c i t y p l a n n i n g . A r t i s t s m u s t j o i n i n p l a n n i n g

t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s i n o u r c i t i e s , t h e a p p e a r an c e o f

t h e b u i l d i n g s i n s i d e a n d o u t , t h e f u r n i t u r e a n d t h e u t e n s i l s

u s e d t h e r e i n , a n d a l l t h e d e t a i l s o f e q u i p m e n t , s u c h a s d o o r -

k n o b s a n d l i g h t - f i x t u r e s . A r e v i v a l o f c r e a t i o n , i n t h e f o r m o f

v a r i o u s a m a t e u r p u r s u i t s , w i l l b e p o s s i b l e w h e n a s o u n d e c o -

n o m i c o r d e r b r i n g s t o t h e p e o p l e l e i s u r e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y .

T h e r e m u s t a l s o b e a n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m a d e q u a t e t o e v o k e

t h e e s t h e t i c c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e p e o p l e .

W h a t I s a y , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t n e w - i t i s s a i d w i t h a b u n d a n t

a m p l i f i c a t i o n a n d c o n c r e t e s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n L e w i s M u m -

f o r d ' s T e c h n i c s a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n and T h e C u l t u r e o f C i t i e s .

M u m f o r d e n v i s a g e s a n e w d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , c l e a n l i n e s s , o r -

der, and beaut y, made poss ible by modern techni cs and

m a c h i n e r y . H e i s q u i t e a w a r e t h a t m a c h i n e c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s

t e n d e d t o c u t o u t t h e r o m a n t i c o v e r t o n e s o f l i f e ; t o p r o d u c e

p e o p l e w h o a r e n a r r o w l y e f f i c i e n t . B u t h e a l s o s h o w s i n d e -

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 28

t a i l t h a t w e h a v e t h e t e c h n i c a l m e a n s t o a g r e a t n e w l i f e : a t

l a s t s e t t i n g f r e e t h e s p i r i t o f m a n . H e d i s c o v e r s a n e w i m a g -

i n a t i v e w o r l d i n m o d e r n m a t e r i a l s a n d t e c h n i c s , i n g l a s s ,

c o n c r e t e , s t e e l , e l e c t r i c i t y , r a p i d t r a n s i t , c o m m u n i t y p l a n -

n i n g . H e c o n t e n d s t h a t t h i s e s t h e t i c r e v o l u t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n

a f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i n g a d e m o -

c r a t i c a n d p l a n n e d e c o n o m y .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r e i s a t r a d i t i o n , e m -

b o d i e d i n t h e w o r k s o f m e n l i k e R u s k i n , M o r r i s , W r i g h t ,

G r o p i u s , a n d M u m f o r d , w h i c h i n s i s t s u p o n t h e d e m o c r a t i c ,

f u n c t i o n a l , a n d c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e o f a r t . I f w e a c c e p t t h i s

t r a d i t i o n , w e m u s t r e j e c t F a s c i s t e s t h e t i c s a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a

f a l s e , o n e - s i d e d " i d e a l i s m . " W e c a n s t i l l a g r e e w i t h C r o c e

t h a t a r t i s e s s e n t i a l l y i m a g i n a t i v e , b u t w e m u s t i n s i s t t h a t

i m a g i n a t i o n o n l y c o m p l e t e s i t s e l f t h r o u g h e m b o d i m e n t i n a

c o n c r e t e , e x t e r n a l o b j e c t . W e c a n a l s o a g r e e w i t h G e n t i l e

t h a t t h e a r t i s t " d r e a m s " a n d t h r o u g h h i s d r e a m s a c h i e v e s

" s e l f - r e a l i z a t io n " ; b u t w e s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t

a r t i s t s c o n n e c t t h e i r d r e a m s w i t h t h e w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m .

T h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t i s n o t t o i s o l a t e t h e a r t i s t o r h i s p u b l i c

f r o m l i f e ; i t i s t o o r g a n i z e e x p e r i e n c e m o r e m e a n i n g f u l l y ,

m o r e i n t e n s e l y , m o r e c o h e r e n t l y , m o r e v i v i d l y , t h a n o r d i -

n a r y l i f e p e r m i t s . A r t y i e l d s a h e i g h t e n e d , a r t i c u l a t e d s e n s u -

o u s e x p e r i e n c e , i n w h i c h u n i v e r s a l h u m a n v a l u e s s h i n e f o r t h

w i t h a ' p e c u l i a r l u s t e r. T h e F a s c i s t s , b e c a u s e t h e y d e n y a n d

d e s t r o y t h e s e u n i v e r s a l v a l u e s , a r e u n d e r m i n i n g t h e v e r y

b a s i s o f a r t .

T h e i r e s t h e t i c " i d e a l i s m " i s f a l s e e v e n w h e n j u d g e d f r o m

t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f i t s i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y . H i t l e r s p e a k s o f

a r t a s e x c l u s i v e l y a " s p i r i t ua l " a c t i v i t y ; y e t h e p r o p o s e s t h a t

i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s o f

r a c e . H e a n d M u s s o l i n i p r a i s e i t a s a g r e a t e n d i n i t s e l f ; y e t

t h e y d e g r a d e i t t o t h e s t a t u s o f a m e r e t o o l , a n i n s t r u m e n t

o f p r o p a g a n d a , a m e a n s t o a p o l i t i c a l e n d . G r e a t a r t c a n h a v e

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284 NO COMPROMISE

a politi cal content, but only if i t is sincere, unforced, and

r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e c r e a t i v e f o r c e s i n s o c i e t y . The artis t cannot

p r o f i t a b l y s e r v e t h e f o r c e s o f s o c i a l d e ca y .

In the following passage, Hitler indicates that a rt must be

r i g i d l y s u b o r d i n a t e d t o N a z i r a c i a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t i c p o l i -

c i e s :

S i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h i s p o l i t i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n o f o u r p u b l i c

l i f e, t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e Re i c h w i l l u n d e r t a k e a t h o r o u g h

m o r a l pu r g i ng o f t h e b o dy co r po r a t e o f t h e na t i o n . The enti re

educati onal sy stem, the thea tre, the cinema, liter atur e, the press

a n d t h e w i r e l e s s - a l l t h o s e w i l l b e u s e d a s m e a n s t o t h i s e n d a nd

v a l u e d a c c o r di n g l y . Th e y m u s t a l l s e r v e f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n ce o f

the eternal values present in the essence of our nationality . A r t

will alway s remain the expression and the reflection of the long-

ings and the realities of a n era . The neutral international atti-

t u d e o f a l o o f n e s s i s r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g . H e r o i s m i s c o m i n g

f o r w a r d a r d e n t l y a n d w i l l i n t h e f u t u r e s h a p e a n d l e a d p o l i t i c a l

destiny . It is the task o f art to be the expression of th is deter-

mining spirit of the age . Blood and rac e will once mo re become

the source of artistic intuition .5 7

S o "a d r a s t i c p u r g e " o f a r t w a s u n d e r t a k e n , a n d e v e n t u a l l y

H i t l er w a s a b l e t o b o a s t :

I am ma ster of German ar t, and henceforth I, personally , shall

s u p e r v i s e a l l a r t d e v e l o p m e n t i n G e r m a n y, t o a s s u r e u s t h a t G e r -

m a n a r t o f t h e f u t u r e w i l l a p p e a l t o t h e b e t t e r i n s t i n c t s o f t h e

p e o p l e . 5 8

The man who thus became the dictator of German art is

h i m s el f a v er y i nf er i o r a r t i s t . P r o p a g a n d a M i n i s t e r G o e b -

b e l s, n o a r t i s t a t a l l , h a s b e e n h i s d o u g h t y l i e u t e n a n t i n u p -

r o o t i n g " t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i a o f e l e m e n t s a l i e n t o o u r

p e o p l e a n d r a c e ," 5 9 a n d h a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t " t h e p r i n c i p l e

o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p w i l l d e f i n e t h e r a n g e w i t h i n

w h i ch t h e a r t i s t i s t o m o v e . " 1 1 0 T o p r e v e n t a n y u n a u t h o r i z e d

i d e a s f r o m a r i s i n g i n t h e e s t h e t i c s p h e r e , G o e b b e l s d e c r e e d

o n No v em b er 27, 1936, t h a t cr i t i cs i n a l l f i el ds o f a r t m u s t

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 285

c e a s e t o p r a i s e o r b l a m e , a n d m u s t c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h

m e r e d e s c r i p t i o n .

As a r es u l t o f s u ch r es t r i ct i o ns, a r t b eco m es s u b o r di na t ed

t o " t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e b l o o d ," a n d t h e N a z i s a n n o u n c e t h e

n e e d o f a " r a c i a l e s t h e t i c s," ju s t a s t h e y h a v e a l s o a n n o u n c e d

t h e n e e d o f a " r a c i a l s c i e n c e " a n d a " r a c i a l m o r a l i t y ." Ros en -

berg declares :

Alm o s t a l l o f t h e ph i l o s o ph er s w h o h a v e w r i t t en a b o u t "es -

thetic form" and about v alues in art, have overlooked the fact of

a racial ideal of beauty . . . . It is self- evident, howev er, that i f

one should speak at all ab out the character and effect of art, the

pu r el y ph y s i ca l r epr es ent a t i o n o f a G r eek, f o r exa m pl e, m u s t

have a different effect upon us than, let us say, the picture of a

Ch i n e s e e m p e r o r . Each line i n China has a different function

f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l i n e i n G r e e c e, a l i n e w h i c h c a n n e i t h e r

b e expl a i ned no r "es t h et i ca l l y" a ppr eci a t ed w i t h o u t kno w l edg e

o f t h e f o r m a t i v e , r a ci a l l y - c o n d i t i o n e d w i l l . Fu r t h er m o r e, a n y

w o r k o f a r t h a s a s o u l c o n t e n t . As i d e f r o m i t s f o r m a l t r e a t m e nt,

even this content can be understood only on the basi s of different

r a c i a l s o u l s. ' - '

I n p r a c t i c e , t h i s m e a n s, f o r e x a m p l e, t h a t H e i n r i c h H e i n e ' s

" J e w i s h " p o e m s a r e c o n s i g n e d t o t h e f l a m e s a n d t h a t p e r -

f o r m a n c e s o f M e n d e l s s o h n ' s "J e w i s h " m u s i c a r e p r o h i b i t e d .

I t m e a n s, i n g e n e r a l, a n i n t e n s e a n d i n t o l e r a n t n a t i o n a l i s m

in art . M a n y a r t i s t s a r e e x i l e d, m a n y b o o k s a r e b u r n e d, m a n y

p a i n t i n g s a r e r e m o v e d f r o m g a l l e r i e s , m a n y w o r k s o f m u s i c

a r e b a n n e d .

T h e p u r g a t i o n e x t e nd s n o t o n l y t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f

J e w i s h a n d S o c i a l i s t i c a r t i s t s , b u t e v e n t o w o r k s w h i c h a r e

u n c o n v e n t i o n a l f r o m a p u r e l y e s t h e t i c s t a n d p o i n t . Su c h a n

" Ar y a n " c o m p o s e r a s P a u l H i n d e m i t h i s b a n i s h e d b e c a u s e

h i s m u s i c i s o f a n e x p e r i m e n t a l n a t u r e . Similar att acks upon

e x p e r i m e n t a l p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e, a r c h i t e c t u r e, a n d l i t e r a -

t u r e h a v e o c c u r r e d . Th e c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t u n c o n v e n t i o n a l

art has been intensif ied since Hitler, in a speech on July 1 8 ,

1 93 7, p r o c l a i m e d t h e e n d o f m o d e r n a r t . Real art , he d e-

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286 NO COMPROMISE

G l a r e d , w a s e t e r n a l , a n d h e n c e c o u l d n o t b e m o d e r n ; s o -

c a l l e d m o d e r n a r t h a d b e e n i n v e n t e d b y t h e J e w s f o r t h e

p u r p o s e o f e x p l o i t i n g s t u p i d p e o p l e . T h e f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e

" M o d e r n s " w a s t o b e u n r e l e n t i n g , a n d s o i t h a s b e e n .6 2

N o o n e w i l l d i s a g r e e w i t h H i t l e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s w i t n e s s e d a n a r t i s t i c r e v o l t o f m i x e d

v a l u e . T h i s i n s u r g e n c y i s a s u r e in d i c a t i o n o f d i s o r i e n t a t i o n

a n d t r a n s v a l u a t i o n : t h e s h o c k o f d i s a s t e r a n d t h e t h r e a t o f

d i r e c a t a s t r o p h e h a v e p r o f o u n d l y s t i r r e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f

m a n k i n d . A s a r e s u l t , t h e w o r k o f m a n y a r t i s t s i s o v e r t e n s e

a n d u n d i s c i p l i n e d : " e m o t i o n " c a n n o l o n g e r b e " r e c o l l e c t e d

i n t r a n qu i l l i t y . " S u c h c r e a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s a n e c e s s a r y p h a s e

o f t r a n s i t i o n , a n d i s f a r b e t t e r t h a n a n e s c a p i s t a r t o r i e n t at e d

o n l y t o w a r d s t h e p a s t . I n d e f e n d i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l a r t , I a m

n o t t h i n k i n g p r i m a r i l y o f t h e m o r e e x t r e m e p r o d u c t s o f o u r

a g e : " m u s i c " t h a t i s s o u n d a n d f u r y , " p a i n t i n g " t h a t i s a n

e x p l o s i o n o f " s u b c o n s c i o u s " f e e l i n g s , " l i t e r a t u r e " w i t h o u t

s e n s e o r s y n t a x . T h e " F u t u r i s m " o f M a r i n e t t i a n d h i s c o l -

l e a g u e s , p e r h a p s t h e m o s t h y s t e r i c a l m o v e m e n t o f a l l , w a s a n

i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t o f I t a l i a n F a s c i s m .

S o m e o f t h e s e w o r k s o f a r t w e c o u l d s p a r e ; t h o u g h p o l i t i -

c i a n s a r e n o t t r u s t w o r t h y c e n s o r s e v e n o f t h e s e m o r e e x t r e m e

c r e a t i o n s .

T h e s a f e s t p l a n i s t o l e a v e t h e a r t i s t s f r e e t o d o a s t h e y

c h o o s e . T h e y t e n d t o p r o v i d e a n i n t u i t i v e r e c t i f i c a t i o n f o r

t h e e v i l s o f s o c i e t y . T h e i r f u n c t i o n i s t o e x p l o r e n e w v a l u e s ;

t h e y w i t h d r a w f r o m b l i n d a l l e y s a n d s e e k f r e s h a v e n u e s o f

e x p r e s s i o n . I f s o m e t i me s t h e y l o s e t h e i r w a y , t h e y m o r e o f t e n

f i n d n e w o u t l e t s f o r t h e h e m m e d - i n f o r c e s o f l i f e . C e n s o r s h i p

m a k e s t h e m c e a s e t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n , a n d i m p o s e s u p o n t h e m

t h e f o r m s o f p a r a l y s i s w h i c h s e i z e d e c a d e n t i n s t i t u t io n s . T h e

r e m e d y f o r a r t i s t i c i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i s

n o t F a s c i s t r e p r e s s i o n .

T o d a y i t a p p e a r s t h a t a rt , o u t s i d e o f t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r ie s ,

h a s e n t e r e d a m o r e c o n s t r u c t i v e p h a s e . A r t i s t s a r e d e d i c a t i n g

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t h e m s e l v e s t o n e c e s s a r y t a s k s . T h e b e s t o f t h e m a r e l e a r n i n g

t o s u b s t i t u t e , i n p l a c e o f a n o i s y e x h i b i t i o n i s m , t h e q u i e t

g e s t u r e s o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y . T h e y a r e b e g i n n i n g t o r e a l i z e t h a t

s o u n d e s t h e t i c i d e a l s c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y r e a l i z e d w i t h i n a

d e c a d e n t s o c i a l o r d e r ; t h e b e s t i n t er e s t s o f a r t , t h e y p e r c e i v e ,

a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f m a n . Most m en of

a r t i s t i c g e n i u s , t h e r e f o r e , s y m p a t h i z e w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e o f

P i c a s s o , w h o a n n o u n c e d h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o S p a n i s h F a s c i s m

i n t h e s e w o r d s :

M y w h o l e l i f e a s a n a r t i s t h a s b e e n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a c o n -

t i n u o u s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t R e a c t i o n a n d t h e d e a t h o f a r t . How

c o u l d a n y b o d y t h i n k f o r a m o m e n t t h a t I c o u l d b e i n a g r e e -

m e n t w i t h R e a c t i o n a n d d e a t h , a g a i n s t t h e p e o p l e , a g a i n s t f r e e -

d o m ? 8 3

T h i s b r a n d o f i d e a l i s m i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e F a s c i s t .

4 . The Fascist Praise of Rural Lif e

T h e " i d e a l i s t i c " e m p h a s i s o f F a s c i s m i s a l s o a p p a r e n t i n a

p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a s o p p o s e d t o t h e c i t y . F a s c i s t

l i t e r a t u r e i s f u l l o f p a n e g y r i c s t o t h e s p i r i t u a l c h a r a c t e r o f

r u r al l i f e . T h e m e t r o p o l i s , i n c o n t r a s t , i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e

d e n o f m a t e r i a l i s m . J a m e s D r e n n a n , t h e B r i t i s h F a s c i s t , c o n -

t r a s t s t h e h e a l t h y s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y w i t h t h e

d i s e a s e d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e c i t y :

T h e e m p h a s i s o f b o t h F a s c i s t s a n d N a z i s i s o n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e

p e a s a n t f a m i l y , o n m a n h o o d a n d t r u e w o m a n l i n e s s - o n a l l t h e

o l d v a l u e s w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e s u b j e c t s f o r t h e e p i l e p t i c g i g g l i n g

a n d t h e i d i o t w i t t i c i s m s o f t h e d e c a d e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e

M e g a p o l i s . 6 4

T y p i c a l o f t h e F a s c i s t " e m p h a s i s " i s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f M u s -

s o l i n i :

T h e G o v e r n m e n t l o o k s o n t h e p e a s a n t s , i n w a r a n d i n p e a c e ,

a s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f o r c e s o n w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y r e l i e s f o r i t s s u c -

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288 NO COMPROMISE

c e s s . . . . A s b e t w e e n t h e c i t y a n d t h e v i l l a g e , I a m f o r t h e v i l -

l a g e . . . . T h e t i m e f o r a p r e v a l e n t l y u r b a n p o l i c y h a s p a s s e d . . . .

I h a v e w i l l e d t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e t a k e f i r s t p l a c e i n t h e I t a l i a n e c o n -

o m y . 6 5

S i m i l a r a r e t h e w o r d s o f H i t l e r , s p o k e n s o o n a f t e r h e a s -

s u m e d o f f i c e : " I f t h i s r e g i m e c a n c a r r y t h r o u g h t h e o b j e c -

t i v e s w h i c h I h a v e l a i d b e f o r e y o u , t h e n t h e p e a s a n t r y w i l l

become the supporting fou ndation for a new Kingdom of

B l o o d a n d S o i l . "66

W i t h t h i s a i m i n m i n d , H i t l e r a p p o i n t e d W a l t h e r D a r r e ,

a n a r d e n t r u r a l i s t , a s M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e . Darre ha d

a l r e a d y b e c o m e t h e o f f i c i a l t h e o r i s t o f t h i s p h a s e o f t h e N a z i

m o v e m e n t . I n h i s b o o k s a n d s p e e c h e s , h e h a s d e p i c t e d t h e

p e a s a n t a s t h e c u s t o d i a n o f e t h i c s , t h e c o n s e r v e r o f t h e g o o d

o l d t r a d i t i o n s , t h e k e e p e r o f m o r a l i t y a n d r e l i g i o n . H e c o n -

t r a s t s t h e s o r d i d m a t e r i a l i s m o f a m o n e y - e c o n o m y w i t h t h e

s o a r i n g i d e a l i s m o f a l a n d - e c o n o m y . L i k e S p e n g l e r , h e t h i n k s

o f t h e s o i l a s t h e s o u r c e o f p o e t r y a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d o f t h e

c i t y a s t h e b r e e d i n g g r o u n d o f s c e p t i c i s m a n d g r e e d .

H e a l s o c o n t r a s t s t h e " p e a s a n t " a s a t y p e w i t h t h e " n o -

m a d , " t h e f o r m e r b e i n g " c r e a t i v e , " a n d t h e l a t t e r " d e s t r u c -

t i v e . " T h e p e a s a n t i s s e l f - r e l i a n t a n d p l a n s f o r t h e f u t u r e , t h e

n o m a d i s f a t a l i s t i c , w i t h " n o c a r e f o r t h e m o r r o w . " I n c o n -

t r a s t t o t h e p e a s a n t s , t h e n o m a d s a r e p a r a s i t i c a n d d e s t r u c -

t i v e : "How well the Arabs," for exa mple, "know how to

d e s t r o y c a n b e s t b e s e e n i n t h e S u d a n e s e p r o v e r b , t h a t e v e n

t h e g r a s s m u s t w i t h e r w h e r e t h e A r a b s p l a n t t h e i r f e e t . "67

A l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t a r e t h e N o r d i c s , w h o a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a g -

r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s : " W h e r e v e r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n k i n d t h e

N o r d i c r a c e a p p e a r s , i t i s a l w a y s c r e a t i v e , i t n e v e r d e s t r o y s

c u l t u r e . " 6s

T h e e a r l y N o r d i c s w e r e n o t a n i m a t e d b y a n o m a d i c s p i r i t ,

b u t b y a d e s i r e t o c o n q u e r a n d s e t t l e i n a n e w a m p l e a b o d e .

T h e i r " a c k n o w l e d g e d l o v e o f t h e s w o r d " w a s t h e r e s u l t o f

t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e s o i l . S i m i l a r l y , t h e m i l i t a r i s t i c t e n d -

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THE I D EALI ST IC MASK 289

e n c i e s o f t h e N o r d i c s i n m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s s p r i n g f r o m t h e i r

d e s i r e t o g a i n n e w , o r t o d e f e n d o l d , s o i l . E v e n t h e i r s p a c e

c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a s r e f l e c t e d i n v a r i o u s f o r m s o f a r t , i s t h e r e -

s u l t o f l i v i n g i n t h e o p e n . T h e N o r d i c r a c e a l o n e , w e a r e

t o l d , i s t h e r e a l c r e a t o r o f a r t i s t i c t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n , a n d " t h e d r y i n g u p o f N o r d i c b l o o d i n a r t c a n b e s t

b e s e e n w h e n m a s t e r y o v e r s p a c e a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e o b -

j e c t i s d i m i n i s h e d . "0 9

A g a i n , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e n t o f t h i s

r a c e i s t r a c e a b l e t o i t s r u r a l p r e d i l e c t i o n s :

A t r u e p e a s a n t r y .. . h a s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a t t i t u d e , a n d b y n a -

t u r e a t r u e p e a s a n t i s a p h i l o s o p h e r . T h e m o s t e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c o f a p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h r e s t s u p o n a n a g r i c u l t u r a l l i f e

c o n s i s t s i n i t s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e n a t ur e o f t h i n g s , i . e . w i t h

t h e l a w s a n d o r g a n i c r e l a t i on s h i p s o f t h i s w o r l d . A n a g r i c u l t u r a l

p h i l o s o p h y a l w a y s i s a p h i l o s o p h y o f c o g n i t i o n w h i c h t o u c h e s

m o r e t h a n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h i n g s . H e r e i n l i e s t h e k e y t o t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e N o r d i c r a c e a l o n e is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o g r e s s o f m a n -

k i n d i n t h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h y o f c o g n i t i o n . 7 0

In contrast to the rur al Nordics stand the urban and

nomadic Jews . T h e u t t e r d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o r a c e s

i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i r d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e p i g .

Whereas the Jews loathe everything connected with pigs,

t h e N o r d i c s h o l d t h e p i g i n s p e c i a l e s t e e m . T h e y s e e i n t h i s

d o m e s t i c a n i m a l t h e l i v i n g s y m b o l o f t h e i r s e t t l e d a g r i c u l -

t u r a l e x i s t e n c e . D a r r e h a s w r i t t e n a t l e n g t h u p o n t h e i m p o r -

t a n c e o f t h e p i g i n t h e l i f e o f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e . H i s m a i n

t h e m e , o f c o u r s e , i s t h e s u p r e m e v i r t u e o f " b l o o d a n d s o i l , "

o f w h i c h t h e p i g i s b u t a l o w l y s y m b o l .

R u r a l i s m i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f F a s c i s m o u t s i d e o f G e r -

m a n y . (For example, the Norwegian no velist , Knut H am-

s u n , w h o r e a c t s a g a i n s t u r b a n l i f e i n f a v o r o f a g r a r i a n p r i m i -

t i v i s m , h a s b e c o m e a n a r d e n t F a s c i s t ; and the "Southern

A g r a r i a n s " i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o c c a s i o n a l l y d i s p l a y F a s c i s t

t e n d e n c i e s . ) T h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r r u ra l l i f e i s n o a c c i d e n t : i t

i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n t r a s t i n e c o n o m i c o u t l o o k b e t w e e n c i t y

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290 NO COMPROMISE

and country . T h e w o r k e r s c o n g r e g a t e i n t h e l a r g e c i t i e s a n d

t h e r e l e a r n t h e m e t h o d s o f m a s s s t r u g g l e a n d t h e i d e a l s o f

r e v o l u t i o n a r y S o c i a l i s m . T h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i s u s u a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e o r e v e n r e a c t i o n a r y . The

peasants of th e Vendee combat ed the French Revolut ion,

t h e k u l a k s o f R u s s i a r e s i s t e d t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e , a n d t h e l a n d -

l o r d s a n d p e a s a n t s o f S p a i n p r o v i d e d F r a n c o w i t h h i s m a i n

n a t i v e s u p p o r t . H i t l e r h a s u n m i s t a k a b l y d e c l a r e d t h a t h e

f a v o r s t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o

r a d i c a l i s m :

B u t f o r t h e c o u n t e r p o i s e o f t h e G e r m a n a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s , t h e

communistic madness would already have overrun Germany,

a n d t h u s f i n a l l y r u i n e d G e r m a n b u s i n e s s . W h a t t h e w h o l e o f

b u s i n e s s . . . owes to the sound commonsense of the German

a g r i c u l t u r is t s c a n n ot b e r e p a i d b y a n y s a c r i f i c e o f a b u s i n e s s n a -

t u r e . W e m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , d e v o t e o u r g r e a t e s t s o l i c i t u d e i n t h e

f u t u r e t o p u r s u i n g t h e b a c k - t o - t h e - l a n d p o l i c y i n G e r m a n y . 7 1

S i m i l a r l y , t h e l e a d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l e c o n o m i s to f I t a l i a n

F a s c i s m , A r r i g o S e r p i e r i , " v a l u e s t h e s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -

t w e e n t h e w o r k e r a n d t h e l a n d t h a t h e c u l t i v a t e s " :

T h u s w e c a n h a v e i n t h e c o u n t r y , n o t n o m a d i c c a s u a l l a b o r e r s ,

f o r e v e r u n c e r t a i n o f t h e n e x t d a y , f o r e v e r a g i t a t e d i n t h e s e a r c h

o f a h i g h e r w a g e r e n d e r e d i l l u s o r y b y u n c e r t a i n e m p l o y m e n t , b u t

g e n u i n e p e as a n t s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s o i l , l o v i n g t h e s o i l , w h o d o n o t

a s k t h e i m p o s s i b l e , w h o k n o w h o w t o c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s , c e r t a i n

i n a n y c a s e o f t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e . 7 2

H e r e i s a t l e a s t o n e r e a s o n w h y t h e F a s c i s t s l i k e r u r a l a t t i -

t u d e s : t h e p e a s a n t s a r e m o r e m a n a g e a b l e t h a n t h e i n d u s t r i a l

w o r k e r s ; t h e y a r e l e s s a p t t o b e i n f l a m e d w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y

a r d o r .

The many Fascist tribu tes to the peasants do not mean

t h e y a r e t o b e a l l o w e d a f r e e h a n d i n d e t e r m i n i n g a g r i c u l -

t u r a l p o l i c y . D a r r e m a k e s v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h e y m u s t o c c u p y

a s u b o r d i n a t e s t a t u s , a n d t h a t d e c i s i o n s s h o u l d r e s t w i t h a

l a n d e d e l i t e . A n I t a l i a n a u t h o r i t y l i k e w i s e m a i n t a i n s :

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THE IDEALISTIC MASK 291

T h e l a n d o w n e r s h a v e n o t o n l y t h e r i g h t , b u t a l s o t h e F a s c i s t

d u t y , o f r e m a i n in g i n t h e i r s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n s a s l e a d e r s . I t i s

t h e i r d u t y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r h i e ra r c h i c a l p o s i t i o ns a g a i n s t a l l c h a l -

l e n g e r s . . . . A n d t h e y m u s t b e i n t r a n s i g e a n t i n m a t t e r s o f d i s c i -

p l i n e , r e s p e c t , o b e d i e nc e , e s t e e m .7 3

T h e S p a n i s h F a s c i s t s , w e s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t , c a m e t o t h e r e s -

c u e o f t h e g r e a t l a n d l o r d s w h e n t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t G o v e r n -

m e n t b e g a n t h e r e d i v i s i o n o f t h e l a n d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e

p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n p e a s a n t s .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s c o n d e m n t h e c i t y f o r i t s

"mammonism" they defend the economic system which has

b r e d t h i s e v i l . E v e n t h e i r r u r a l p o l i c i e s , m o r e o v e r , a r e n o t

e s p e c i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l . Profess or Stephen H . Robert s, who

s e e m s n o t t o e x a g g e r a t e , s p e a k s o f " t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f i a s c o "

u n d e r H i t l e r ' s r u l e ; a n d t h e f l i g h t o f p e a s a n t s f r o m t h e

G e r m a n c o u n t r y s i d e t o i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s h a s p e r s i s t e d o n a

g r e a t s c a l e . P r o f e s s o r C a r l T . Schmidt, who h as ma de a

s e a r c h i n g s t u d y o f M u s s o l i n i ' s r u r a l p o l i c y , c o n c l u d e s t h a t

I t a l i a n F a s c i s m h a s n o t a l l e v i a t e d t h e d r e a d f u l p o v e rt y o f t h e

I t a l i a n p e a s a n t s . 7 4 T h e n o v e l s o f I g n a z i o S i l o n e , F o n t a m a r r a

and B r e a d a n d W i n e , u n f o r g e t t a b l y p o r t r a y t h e e x t r e m e s u f -

f e r i n g o f t h e p e a s a n t s u n d e r I l D u c e ' s r u l e .

A r e a s o n a b l e r u r a l p o l i c y , i n c o n t r a s t t o F a s c i s t a g r a r i a n -

i s m , w o u l d m e a n t h e p l a n n e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c

p o w e r , b i o c h e m i s t r y , g e n e t i c s , a n d t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e p r o d u c -

t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l a b u n d a n c e u n d e r a s y s t e m o f d e m o c r a t i c

s h a r i n g . T h i s s h o u l d b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y " a w i d e r d i f f u s i o n

o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s a n d p r o c e s s e s o f a h i g h h u m a n c u l t u r e ,

and . . . t h e i n f u s i o n i n to t h e c i t y o f t h e l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g e n -

v i r o n m e n t a n d l i f e - d i r e c t e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . "75

T h e d i r e c t i o n o f a d v a n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n o u t l i n e d b y S i r

Ebenezer H owa rd, Patr ick Geddes, and Lewis Mumfo rd.

T h e r e i s m u c h s o u n d a d v i c e f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r u r a l

a n d u r b a n l i f e i n M u m f o r d ' s b o o k , T h e C u l t u r e o f C i t i e s .

T h e e n t i r e p r o g r a m a s h e o u t l i n e s i t i s n o n - F a s c i s t i n c h a r a c -

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292 NO COMPROMISE

t e r , a n d h i s m o r e r e c e n t b o o k , Men Mu st Act, is a v i g o r o u s

demand for uncompromising resistance to Fascism .

I d o n o t m e a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g f i n e a b o u t

F a s c i s t i d e a l i s m . No doubt many disillu sioned and unhappy

i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e f o u n d i n t h i s m o v e m e n t a s o u r c e o f h o p e

and enthusias m . There has been a genuine res urgence of

n a t i o n a l s p i r i t , e s p e c i a l l y i n G e r m a n y . M e n h a v e b e e n w i l l -

i n g t o s a c r i f i c e m a n y t h i n g s f o r w h a t s e e m e d t o t h e m t h e

g l o r y o f t h e n a t i o n . I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e g a i n s a r e s u c h a s

t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e d a n g e r s a n d t h e l o s s e s ; b u t i t w o u l d

b e n i g g a r d l y t o d e n y t h a t t h e F a s c i s t s h a v e e x c i t e d a g r e a t

d e a l o f i d e a l i s t i c a r d o r . I f t h i s w e r e n o t s o , F a s c i s m w o u l d

not be so great a menace . A c r e e d t h a t i s u t te r l y f a l s e i s

m e r e l y s i l l y , a n d i t c a n n o t t a k e p o s s e s s i o n o f m i l l i o n s o f

m i n d s .

T h e r e a l p r o b l e m i s t o e n l i s t s u c h h u m a n i d e a l i s m , p u r g e d

o f i t s e l e m e n t s o f h a t e a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n , i n a s o u n d a n d c o n -

s t r u c t i v e p r o g r a m . We must consider tw o quest ions . A f t e r

a l l t h e e v i l s a n d a l l t h e h e a r t b r e a k d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e s e n t

b o o k , i s t h e r e a n y l e g i t i m a t e g r o u n d f o r h o p e ? I f w e d e c i d e

t h a t o u r s i t u a t i o n i s b y n o m e a n s h o p e l e s s , t h e r e i s a s e c o n d

question that we mus t ponder . W h a t i s t h e r e a s o n a b l e p r o -

g r a m f o r t h e s a l v a g i n g o f h u m a n v a l u e s ? T h e r e m a i n d e r o f

the book will be devoted mainly to answering these two

q u e s t i o n s .

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IX

THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERNCULTURE

M a n i s i n t h e m a k i n g ; but henceforth he must make himself . T o t h a t

point Nature has led him, out of the primeval sl ime . She has g iven

h i m l i m b s, s h e h a s g i v e n h i m b r a i n, s h e h a s g i v e n h i m t h e r u d i m e n t

o f a s o u l . Now it is for hi m to make or mar th at splendid torso . L e t

h i m l o o k n o m o r e t o h e r f o r a i d ; f o r i t i s h e r w i l l t o c r e a t e o n e w h o

h a s t h e p o w e r t o c r e a t e h i m s e l f . I f h e f a i l , s h e f a i l s ; b a c k g o e s t h e m e t a l

to the pot; and the great process b egins anew . I f h e s u c c e e d s , h e s u c -

c e e d s a l o n e . His fate is in his own hands .- G . LOWES DICKINSON 1

i . S p e n g l e r ' s R e l a t i o n t o F a s c i s m

No ONE w h o h a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e i n t h e p r e c e d i n g

c h a p t e r s c a n d o u b t t h a t w e a r e l i v i n g i n a m a d a g e . T h e

s h o c k o f c r i s i s h a s t o r n p r i m o rd i a l i m p u l s e s l o o s e f r o m th e i r

r a t i o n a l m o o r i n g s : t h e r e h a s b e e n a s t a r t l i n g i n c r e a s e i n

s u p e r s t i t i o n, j i n g o i s m , J e w - b a i t i ng , v i o l e n c e , a n d w a rf a r e . A

g r e a t m a n y p e o p l e a r e t e r r i b l y p o o r , y e t t h e n a t i o n s a r e e n -

g a g e d i n a w i l d o r g y o f m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e . O u r d e l i c a t e l y

i n t e r d e p e n d e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n m a y n o t b e a b l e t o e n d u r e t h e

v e r y u n e q u a l r a t e o f a d v a n c e m e n t b e t w e e n m o r a l s a n d m e -

c h a n i c s ; t h e e n t i re p a t t e r n o f o u r c u l t u r e m a y a t l a s t b e s h a t -

t e r e d . T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e n o t u n d u l y a l a r m i s t . T h e y a r e

j u s t w h a t w i s e m e n h a v e b e e n s a y i n g , a n d w h a t e v e n t h e

m o s t h u m b l e h a v e b e e n t h i n k i n g. O s w a l d S p e n g l e r ' s p r o p h -

e c y o f d o o m , T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , h a s e c h o e d t h e w h o l e

w o r l d ' s f e a r s .

I s S p e n g l e r t o o p e s s i m i s t i c ? T h i s i s a q u es t i o n of d e e p i n -

t e r e s t . I t i s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r o u r c u l t u r e h a s i r r e v e r s i b l y

e n t e r e d t h e s t a g e o f d e c l i n e . I f s o , s u c h c u l t u r a l d e c a y a s

e x e m p l i f i e d b y F a s c i s m w o u l d b e i n e v i t a b l e .

S p e n g l e r , h o w e v e r , i s n o t o n l y a p r o p h e t o f d e c l i n e , b u t

a l s o a p h i l o s o p h e r o f F a s c i s m . A s e a r l y a s t h e w r i t in g o f Th e

D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , o f w h i c h t h e f i r s t d r a f t w a s c o m p l e t e d

293

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294 NO COMPROMISE

befor e the World War, he fores aw and w e l c o m e d the main

a s p e c t s o f F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s h i p . W h e n t h e N a z i r e g i m e w a s a t

l a s t e s t a b l i s h e d , h e d e c l a r e d : " N o o n e c a n h a v e l o o k e d f o r -

w a r d t o t h e n a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n o f t h i s y e a r w i t h g r e a t e r

l o n g i n g t h a n m y s e l f . " 2 E v e r y t h i n g o f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e t h a t

h e h a d w r i t t e n s i n c e t h e G e r m a n R e p u b l i c w a s e s t a b l i s h e d ,

h e d e c l a r e s , w a s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e o v e r t h r o w o f S o c i a l

D e m o c r a c y . H e g r e e t s t h e v i c t o r y o f H i t l e r a s a n i n d i c a t i o n

that Germany may resume the masterful ro le it played in

B i s m a r c k ' s d a y , 3 a n d l i k e w i s e l o o k s w i t h f a v o r u p o n M u s s o -

l i n i , t h e " m a s t e r m a n , " w h o m h e c o m p a r e s w i t h o n e o f h i s

f a v o r i t e h e r o e s , F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t . 4 H e c r i t i c i z e s F a s c i s m ,

i t i s t r u e , b u t p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e i t i s t o o " d e m o c r a t i c " I

S p e n g l e r h a s e x e r c i s e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f F a s c i s m . H e w a s f o r y e a r s o n f r i e n d l y t e r m s

w i t h G r e g o r S t r a s s e r , o n e o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r i s t s i n

the early phases of the Nazi movement . H e i s f r e q u e n t l y

q u o t e d b y F a s c i s t w r i t e r s , a s f o r e x a m p l e b y O s w a l d M o s l e y ;

a n d h e i s e c h o e d e v e n w h e n h e i s n o t d i r e c t l y q u o t e d . H i t l e r

h i m s e l f m a d e a s t u d y o f The D e c l i n e o f t h e We s t . Al t h o u g h

h e d i d n o t f i n d t h e b o o k e n t i r e l y t o h i s l i k i n g , h e a n d S p e n -

g l e r a r r a n g e d a t w o h o u r s ' t e t e - a - t e t e i n M a r c h , 1 9 3 3 .

C e r t a i n p a s s a g e s i n Th e H o u r o f D e c i s i o n p r o b a b l y r e -

f l e c t i t s a u t h o r ' s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h t h i s i n t e r v i e w , a s f o r

e x a m p l e t h e s t a t e m e n t :

T h e s e i z u r e o f p o w e r t o ok p l a c e i n a c o n f u s e d w h i r l o f s t r e ng t h

a n d w e a k n e s s . I s e e w i t h m i s g i v i n g t h a t i t c o n t i n u e s t o b e n o i s i l y

c e l e b r a t e d f r o m d a y t o d a y . I t w e r e b e t t e r t o s a v e o u r e n th u s i a s m

f o r a d a y o f r e al a n d d e f i n it i ve r e s u l t s - t h a t i s t o s a y , o f s u c c e s s e s

i n f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s , w h i c h a l o n e m a t t e r . 5

T h e f a c t i s t h a t S p e n g l e r , i f h e h a d l i v e d , w o u l d h a v e w e l -

comed a more ruthless form of dictatorship . In his own

s t a t e m e n t o f i d e a l s , h e p r e s a g e s t h e n e x t s t a g e o f d e c a y : t h e

p e r i o d o f d e s p e r a t i o n w h e n t h e F a s c i s t s m u s t a b a n d o n t h e

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 295

m y t h o f a c u l t u r a l r e n a i s s a n c e , a n d r e p l a c e t h e i r c r u m b l i n g

m a s s - b a s e b y a n a k e d m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p . T h u s S p e n g l e r ' s

w o r k s p r o m i s e t o b e c o m e t h e m a i n t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n ,

n o t o f p r e s e n t - d a y F a s c i s m , b u t o f t h e m o r e e x t r e m e t y r a n n y

o f t h e f u t u r e .

" T h e F a s c i s t f o r m a ti o n s o f t h i s d e c a d e , " h e d e c l a r e s , " w i l l

p a s s i n t o n e w , u n f o r s e e a b l e f o r m s , a n d e v e n p r e s e n t - d a y n a -

t i o n a l i s m w i l l d i s a p p e a r . T h e r e r e m a i n s a s a f o r m a t i v e p o w e r

o n l y t h e w a r l i k e , ` P r u s s i a n ' s p i r i t - e v e r y w h e r e a n d n o t i n

G e r m a n y a l o n e . . . . C a e s a r ' s l e g i o n s a r e r e t u r n i n g t o c o n -

s c i o u s n e s s . "6

T h e t a s k o f t h e n e w C a e s a r s i s n o t h i n g s h o r t

of world conquest : "He whose swo rd compels victor y . . .

w i l l b e t h e l o r d o f t h e w o r l d . T h e d i c e a r e t h e r e r e a d y f o r

t h i s s t u p e n d o u s g a m e . W h o d a r e s t o t h r o w t h e m ? "7

B u t t h e

h a z a r d c a n b e w on o n l y b y a d i c t a t o r s h i p t h a t p u r g e s i t s e l f o f

e v e r y t a i n t o f D e m o c r a c y . T h e f u t u r e C a e s a r s m u s t s h o w l e s s

t e n d e r n e s s f o r " t h e p e o p l e " t h a n H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i :

F o r F a s c i s m i s a l s o a t r a n s i t i o n . I t h a d it s o ri g i n i n t h e c i ty

m o b s a n d b e g a n a s a m a s s p a r t y w i t h n o i s e a n d d i s t u r b a n c e a n d

m a s s o r a t o r y . L a b o u r - S o c i a l i s t t e n d e n c i e s a r e n o t u n k n o w n t o i t .

B u t s o l o n g a s a d i c t a t o r s h i p h a s " s o c i a l s e r v i c e " a m b i t i o n s , a s -

s e r t s t h a t i t i s t h e r e f o r t h e " w o r k e r' s " s a k e , c o u r t s f a v o ur i n t h e

s t r e e t s , a n d i s " p o p u l a r " , s o l o n g i t r e m a i n s a n i n t e r i m f o r m .

T h e C a e s a r i s m o f t h e f u t u r e f i g h t s s o l e l y f o r p o w e r , f o r e m p i r e ,

a n d a g a i n s t e v e r y d e s c r i p t i o n o f p a r t y . 8

A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t - d a y F a s c i s t s d o n o t m e a s u r e u p t o

S p e n g l e r ' s i d e a l s , t h e y f r e q u e n t l y s h a r e t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s e n t h u -

s i a s m f o r C a e s a r . I n a n a d d r e s s o n " T h e P h i l o s o p h y o f F a s -

c i s m , " S i r O s w a l d M o s l e y s p e a k s o f C a e s a r i s m a s " t h e m i g h t i -

e s t e m a n a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n s p i r i t i n h i g h e n d e a v o r t o w a r d s

e n d u r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t , " a n d r e f e r s t o F a s c i s m a s " t h e l a s t

g r e a t w o r l d - w a v e o f t h e i m m o r t a l , a n d e t e r n a l l y r e c u r r i n g ,

Caesar ian movement . "0

M u s s o l i n i ' s a d m i r a t i o n f o r C a e s a r

i s t r e m e n d o u s . " I l o v e C a e s a r , " h e h a s e x c l a i m e d , " . . . t h e

g r e a t e s t m a n t h a t e v e r l i v e d . "10

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2 9 6 NO COMPROMISE

T h e F a s c i s t t h e o r i s t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e j e c t t h e S p e n -

g l e r i a n t h e o r y o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e d e c l i n e o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e .

According to J ames Dr ennan, the spokes man of Mos ley's

p a r t y : " F a s c i s m i s t h e c o n s c i o u s r e vo l t o f a g e n e r at i o n d e t e r -

m i n e d t o e s c a p e i t s o v e r h a n g i n g d o o m i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f a

n e w d e s t i n y . F a s c i s t t h o u g h t , e v e n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t a c -

c e p t s t h e S p e n g l e r i a n an a l y s i s a s a r e l a t i v e l y i n c o n t r ov e r t i b l e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p a s t h i s t o r y , r e p u d i a t e s t h e p e s s i m i s m o f

t h e g r e a t G e r m a n ' s c o n c l u s i o n s . " 1 1 H i t l e r h a s l i k e w i s e d e -

c l a r e d : " W e l i v e i n t h e f i r m c o n v i c t i o n t h a t i n o u r t i m e w i l l

b e f u l f i l l e d n o t t h e d e c l i n e b u t t h e r e n a i s s a n c e o f t h e W e s t .

That Germany may ma ke an imperishable contribution to

t h i s w o r k i s o u r p r o u d h o p e a n d o u r u n s h a k a b l e b e l i e f . "1 2

M u s s o l i n i a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s h a v e s i m i l a r l y s p o k e n o f t h e

g r e a t " a w a k e n i n g " o f F a s c i s t I t a l y .

T h e F a s c i s t m y t h o f a c u l t u r a l r e n a i s s a n c e , h o w e v e r , h a s

b e e n q u a l i f i e d b y m o r e p e s s i m i s t i c u t t e r a n c e s s i m i l a r t o

S p e n g l e r ' s . " W e d o n o t b e l i e v e i n p r o g r a m s , i n p l a n s , i n

s a i n t s o r a p o s t l e s , " a n n o u n c e s M u s s o l i n i , " a b o v e a l l w e b e -

l i e v e n o t i n h a p p i n e s s , i n s a l v a t i o n , i n t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d . "1 3

H e h a s r e p e a t e d l y s t a t e d t h a t h a p p i n e s s i s u n r e a l i z a b l e . T h e

N a z i l e a d e r s h a v e l i k e w i s e t o l d t h e G e r m a n w o r k e r s t h a t

t h e y m u s t l e a r n t o e n d u r e p o v e r t y . The com mon peopl e,

w e g r a n t , h a v e b e e n p r o m i s e d a r e b i r t h o f t h e n a t i o n i f

g u n s a r e s u b s t i t u t e d i n p l a c e o f b u t t e r , b u t e v e n S p e n g l e r ,

t h e " p e s s i m i s t , " t h i n k s t h a t " C a e s a r i s m " w i l l b r i n g a p a r t i a l

" r e j u v e n a t i o n , " a n d s p e a k s o f " t r e m e n d o u s t a s k s " y e t t o b e

f u l f i l l e d .

D e s p i t e i t s s u p e r f i c i a l o p t i m i s m , F a s c i s m s p r i n g s o u t o f

t h e s o i l o f p e s s i m i s m . I t i s a p h e n o m e n o n o f s o c i a l d e c a y ,

a n d i t c a n t h r i v e o n l y w h e n m e n d e s p a i r o f a g e n u i n e s o c i a l

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n. I t t r i u m p h s , n o t s o m u c h t h r o u g h i t s o w n

s t r e n g t h , a s t h r o u g h t h e w e a k n e s s o f i t s o p p o n e n t s . P e o p l e

a c c e p t i t w h e n t h e y f e e l t h a t t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t f o r c e s h a v e

n o t h i n g t o o f f e r a n d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a l m o s t h o p e l e s s .

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 2 9 7

I n p o s t w a r G e r m a n y , t h e r e w a s d i r e s u f f e r i n g a n d a p r o -

f o u n d s e n s e o f h u m i l i a t i o n a n d i n s e c u r i t y . B e f o r e t h e v i c -

t o r y o f t h e N a z i s , p e o p l e w e r e s a y i n g , " N o t h i n g c o u l d b e

w o r s e t h a n t h e p r e s e n t . " I n I t a l y t h e s i t u a t i o n wa s l e s s d e s -

p e r a t e , b u t t h e r e w a s t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e c o u n t r y h a d " w o n

t h e w a r b u t l o s t t h e p e a c e , " a n d t h a t p u b l i c a f f a i r s w e r e

d r i f t i n g d a n g e r o u s l y . T h e r e w a s a l s o a g r e a t d e a l o f p o v e r t y ,

w h i c h h a s o f c o u r s e c o n t i n u e d . T h e m o o d o f c o n f u s i o n a n d

d i s c o u r a g e m e n t i n b o t h G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y w a s s k i l l f u l l y

u t i l i z e d b y t h e F a s c i s t l e a d e r s . T h e p e o p l e f e l t t h e n e e d o f

a M e s s i a h , a n d H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i w e r e g l a d t o a s s u m e t h e

r o l e .

T h e n e w r e g i m e s , a l t h o u g h o p t i m i s t i c o n t h e s u r f a c e , d i d

n o t f a i l t o m a n i f e s t p a t h o l o g i c a l s y m p t o m s . F r o m t h e v e r y

b e g i n n i n g , t h e F a s c i s t s e x h i b i t e d a d i s g u s t w i t h c i v i l i z a t i o n

a n d u r b a n l i f e , a n d a t e n d e n c y t o r e v e r t t o b a r b a r i c p r a c -

t i c e s . I n m a n y w a y s , F a s c i s m r e p r e s e n t s a n a t a v i s t i c m o v e -

m e n t a n d a r e v o l t a g a i n s t c i v i l i z a t i o n , s u c h a s o n l y s u f f e r i n g

a n d b i t t e r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t c o u l d e n g e n d e r . E v e n t h e c r u e l t y

o f t h e F a s c i s t b o m b e r s , s q u a d r i s t s a n d J e w - b a i t e r s , b e t r a y s

t h e i r u n h a p p i n e s s . A s t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t J u n g h a s r e m a r k e d ,

t h o s e w h o w i l l f u l l y i n j u r e o t h e r s a r e u s u a l l y s u f f e r i n g t h e m -

s e l v e s .

I n I t a l y , m o r e o v e r , t h e e a r l y m o o d o f o p t i m i s m h a s g r a d -

u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p h a s b e c o m e i n c r e a s -

i n g l y g r i m . A c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f t h e Manc he s te r G u a rd i an

w r i t e s : " A n e n t i r e l y n e w f a c t , p e s s i m i s m , d e s p i t e a p p e a r -

a n c e s , i s o v e r t a k i n g t h e u p p e r h i e r a r c h y o f t h e r e g i m e . "1 4

T h e i n i t i a l a f f l a t u s o f t h e m o v e m e n t i n G e r m a n y , o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , h a s n o t b e e n e x h a u s t e d , b u t t h e r e a r e m a n y

s i g n s o f u n e a s i n e s s a n d a p p r o a c h i n g d i f f i c u l t y . A s t h e p l i g h t

o f t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s g r o w s w o r s e , t h e l e a d e r s h i p d r a w s

c l o s e r t o t h e m o o d o f S p e n g l e r .

I n o n e r e s p e c t , h o w e v e r , t h e h i s t o r i a n d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y

f r o m t h e F a s c i s t s : h e i s o p p o s e d t o t h e i r r a c i a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s -

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298 NO COMPROMISE

t i c b i a s e s . H e d e c l a r e s t h a t " r a c i a l f e e l i n g s , " a l t h o u g h " d e e p

a n d n a t u r a l , " c a n n o t s e r v e a s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r g r e a t p o l i t i c s ,

a n d t h a t " d o l i c o c e p h a l i c h e a d s d o n o t c o u n t ; w h a t c o u n t s

i s w h a t i s i n t he m . " 1 6 He looks forward to a world-wide

u n i f i c a t i o n :

W e G e r m a n s o f t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , w i t h o u r b e i n g i n t e r -

w o v e n wi t h t h e F a u s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , h a v e r i c h a n d u n u t i l i z e d

p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n u s a n d t r e m e n d o u s t a s k s b e f o r e u s . T o t h e i n t e r-

n a t i o n a l o r d e r w h i c h irrevocably p r e p a r e s i t s e l f , w e h a v e to c o n -

t r i b ut e t h e i d e a o f t h e w o r l d - o r g a n i z a ti o n o f t h e W o r l d S t a t e , t h e

E n g l i s h t h e s y s t e m o f w o r l d - t r u s t s a n d w o r l d - e x p l o i t a t i o n , a n d

t h e F r e n c h h a v e n o t h i n g t o o f f e r . ' 6

W h a t e v e r m a y b e S p e n g l e r ' s i n c i d e n t a l p r e j u d i c e s , h e d o e s

n o t s e e e y e t o e y e w i t h t h e N a z i s . Y e t a s w e s h a l l s e e , h i s

h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i s m l e a d s h i m , o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , t o c o n -

c l u d e t h a t " w o r l d - c i t i z e n s h i p " i s a m i s e r a b l e s l o g a n .

T h e N a z i s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e t h e i r o w n r e s e r v a t i o n s . T h e i r

a t t i t u d e i s re f l e c t e d i n S p e n g l e r s We l t p o l i t i s c h e s S y s t e m a n d

der Nati onal soz iali smu s (1934), a b o o k b y a N a z i p a r t y s p o k e s -

man, Johann vo n Leers . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r g e s m a d e b y t h e

a u t h o r a r e a s f o l l o w s : S p e n g l e r ' s t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y i s t o o d e -

t e r m i n i s t i c . H e i g n o r e s " t h e s c i e n c e o f r a c e , " a n d i s u n w i l l -

i n g t o e m b r a c e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n a l i s m . H e s t i l l

b e l i e v e s i n l a i s s e z f a i r e c a p i t a l i s m . ( S p e n g l e r , a s a m a t t e r o f

f a c t , r e g a r d s m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m a s a n e c e s s i t y . ) H e c o n -

fuses Communism, which he r ightly denounces, with any

f o r m o f s o c i a l p l a n n i n g . H i s " C a e s a r i s m " e v a d e s r e s p o n s i b i l -

i t y t o t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r w e l f a r e , a n d d o e s l e s s t h a n j u s t i c e

t o t h e i d e a l o f c o m r a d e s h i p b e t w e e n l e a d e r s a n d f o l l o w e r s .

He has made slighting remarks about Fascism : t h a t i t i s

t r a ns i t o r y , t h a t i t i s t o o d e m o c r a t ic , t h a t i t i s t o o s p e c t a c u l a r ,

e t c . ' 7 D e s p i t e t h i s c r i t i c i s m , w e m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t m u c h o f

S p e n g l e r ' s d i v e r g e n c e s i m p l y i n d i c a t e s a m o r e r u t h l e s s a n d

u n d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y . H e s i m p l y g o e s t h e F a s c i s t s o n e b e t te r .

A n a t t a c k s o m e w h a t l i k e t h a t o f L e e r s i s t o b e f o u n d i n

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 299

t h e i n c i d e n t a l c r i t i c i s m s o f S p e n g l e r i n A l f r e d R o s e n b e r g ' s

b o o k , Bl o o d a n d H o n o r . T h e a u t h o r c o n t e n d s t h a t S p e n g l e r

l a c k s t h e t r u e F a u s t i a n s p i r i t , t h e h e r o i c a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e

w i l l . T h e h i s t o r i a n i s w r o n g i n m a i n t a i n i n g " t h a t i n s o m e

m y s t e r i o u s a n d p r o v i d e n t i a l m a n n e r t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y

is predetermined and unchangeable . " 1 8 H i s d e t e r m i n i s t i c

s c h e m e o f h i s t o r y , w e a r e t o l d , b e l o n g s p u r e l y t o t h e n i n e -

teenth centur y, and has been "overcome" in the present

c e n t u r y b y t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s , w h o s e a c c e p t a n c e o f " t h e

vital com mandments of the German man" presage the re-

n e w a l o f c u l t u r e . E v e n i n c o n c e i v i n g o f h i s t o r y a s " n o n r e -

v e r s i b l e , " S p e n g l e r h a s f a i l e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e f o r c e s o f h i s

t i m e w h i c h r e a l l y a r e n o n r e v e r s i b l e , n a m e l y , b l o o d a n d s o i l .

A s a r e s u l t o f n e g l e c t i n g t h e s e c o n s t a n t s o f h u m a n h i s t o r y ,

h e h a s f a i l e d t o s e e t h a t t h e d e c l i n e o f a c u l t u r e c a n b e

a r r e s t e d . T o s e c u r e t h e r e n a i s s a n c e o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e ,

the German people must look to the factors sli ghted by

Spengler-the return to country life a nd the upsurge of

r a c i a l i s m - a n d n o t t o t h e S p e n g l e r i a n p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r a p a r -

t i a l r e v i v a l , n a m e l y , t h e r u l e o f t h e C a e s a r s o v e r t h e d e p e r -

s o n a l i z e d m a s s e s .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t R o s e n b e r g r e j e c t s " t h e r e t u r n o f

t h e C a e s a r s , " h e c o m m e n d s S p e n g l e r f o r h i s p r a i s e o f M o l t k e ,

a s a s p e c i m e n o f t h e P r u s s i a n m i l i t a r i s t i c s p i r i t . 1 9 S p e n g l e r

h a d w r i t t e n :

P r u s s i a n i s m i s a v e r y s u p e r i o r t h i n g w h i c h s e t s i t s e l f a g a i n s t

e v e ry s o r t o f m a j o r it y - a n d m o b - r u l e ; a b o v e a l l , a g a i n s t t h e d o m i -

n a n c e o f t h e m a s s c h a r a c t e r . M o l t k e , t h e g r e a t e d u c a t o r o f t h e

G e r m a n o f f i c e r , t h e f i n e s t e x a m p l e o f t r u e P r u s s i a n i s m , w a s t h u s

c o n s t i t u t e d . C o u n t S c h l i e f f e n s u m m e d u p h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e

m o t t o : " T a l k l i t t l e , d o m u c h , b e , r a t h e r t h a n s e e m . " 2 0

R o s e n b e r g , i n s e l e c t i n g t h i s p a s s a g e f o r s p e c i a l c o m m e n d a -

t i o n , i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e i s n o t s o f a r f r o m t h e i d e a l o f C a e s a r -

i s m a s h i s w o r d s s e e m t o i m p l y . H e p r e f e r s t o s y m b o l i z e t h e

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300 NO COMPROMISE

i d e a l o f m i l i t a r i s m a n d d i c t a t o r s h i p b y t h e G e r m a n i c f i g u r e

o f a P r u s s i a n d r i l l m a s t e r , r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e a l i e n f i g u r e o f

a Roman c on q ue r o r .

S p e n g l e r a n d t h e F a s c i s t s a r e a k i n i n c e r t a i n o t h e r r e -

s p e c t s . T h e y a g r e e , f o r e x a m p l e , i n e x t o l l i n g t h e v i r t u e s o f

w a r . " W a r i s t h e c r e a t or o f a l l g r e a t t h i n g s , " d e c l a r e s S p e n -

g l e r . " A l l t h a t i s m e a n i n g f u l i n t h e s t r e a m o f l i f e h a s e m e r g e d

t h r o u g h v i c t o r y a n d d e f e a t . " 2 1 W a r , h e a d m i t s , i s g r o w i n g

f a r m o r e f r i g h t f u l ; b u t h e b e l i e v e s t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o

a v o i d , a n d t h a t t h e n o b i l i t y o f l i f e c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d u p o n

n o o t h e r t e r m s . " E v e n i f a t i r e d a n d s o u l l e s s m a n k i n d , " h e

c o n t e n d s , " s h o u l d r e n o u n c e p o l i t i c s a n d w a r , l i k e t h e C l a s s i -

c a l m a n o f t h e l a t e r c e n t u r i e s o r t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e C h i n e s e

o f t o d a y , i t w o u l d o n l y b e c o m e a v i c t i m i n s t e a d o f a m a k e r

o f w a r s , a v i c t i m a n d p r e y o f t h e w a r s m a d e b y o t h e r s . " 2 2 I t

i s f a r b e t t e r t o a c c e p t w a r a s n e c e s s a r y a n d b e n e f i c e n t :

A g a i n a n d a g a i n b e t w e e n t h e s e c a t a s t r o p h e s o f b l o o d a n d t e r -

r o r t h e c r y r i s e s u p f o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e s a n d f o r

p e a c e o n e a r t h . . . . E s t e e m a s w e m a y t h e w i s h t o w a r d s a l l t h i s ,

w e m u s t h a v e t h e c o u r a g e t o f a c e f a c t s a s t h e y a r e - t h a t i s t h e

h a l l m a r k o f m e n o f r a c e - q u a l i t y a n d i t i s b y t h e b e i n g o f t h e s e

m e n t h a t a l o n e h i s t o r y i s . L i f e , i f i t w o u l d b e g r e a t , i s h a r d ; i t

l e t s c h o o s e o n l y b e t w e e n v i c t o r y a n d r u i n , n o t b e t w e e n w a r a n d

p e a c e , a n d t o t h e v i c t o r y b e l o n g t h e s a c r i f i c e s o f v i c t o r y . 2 3

S u c h g r i m s e n t i m e n t s a p p e a r i n s c o r e s o f F a s c i s t b o o k s .

S p e n g l e r i s a l s o t h o r o u g h l y l i k e t h e F a s c i s t s i n c e l e b r a t i n g

t h e " i n s t i n c t s o f t h e b l o o d " a s o p p o s e d t o t h e s o b e r e x e r c i s e

o f t h o u g h t . " T h e m i n d n e e d s t h e b l o o d , " h e d e c l a r e s , " b u t

the blood does not need the mind . " 2 4 The "beat of cosmi c

c y c l e s " p u l s a t e s i n t h e b l o o d , a n d e s t a b l i s h e s " t h e one grand

f e l t h a r m o n y . " 2 5 T h i s i n s t i n c t i v e r a p p o r t w i t h n a t u r e g u i d e s

t h e m a n o f a c t i o n . Compar ed with hi m, the ma n of tho ught

i s u t t e r l y i n e f f e c t u a l :

F o r , i n t h e l a s t r e s o r t , o n l y t h e a c t i v e m a n , t h e m a n o f d e s t i n y ,

l i v e s i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d , t h e w o r l d o f p o l i t i c a l , m i l i t a r y a n d

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 301

e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n s , i n w h i c h c o n c e p t s a n d s y s t e m s d o n o t f i g u r e

o r c o u n t . H er e a s h r e w d b l o w i s m o r e t h a n a s h r e w d c o n c l u s i o n,

a n d t h e r e i s s e n s e i n t h e c o n t e m p t w i t h w h i c h s t a t e s m e n a n d

s o l di er s o f a l l t i m es h a v e r eg a r ded t h e " ink- s l i ng er" a nd t h e

"b o o k w o r m " w h o t h i n k s t h a t w o r l d - h i s t o r y e x i s t s f o r t h e s a k e

of the intell ect or science or even art . Let us say it frankly and

w i t h o u t a m b i g u i t y : t h e u nder s t a ndi ng di v o r ced f r o m s ens a t i o n

is onl y one, and not the decis ive, side of li fe . A hist ory of West-

er n t h o u g h t m a y no t co nt a i n t h e na m e o f Na po l eo n, b u t i n t h e

history of actuality Archimedes, for all his scientific discoveries,

w a s p o s s i b l y l e s s e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h a t s o l d i e r w h o k i l l e d h i m a t

t h e s t o r m i n g o f S y r a c u s e .2 6

S uch s t a t em ent s co ns t i t u t e t h e i nt el l ect u a l s t o ck i n t r a de o f

F a s c i s m . F o r e x a m p l e , J a m e s D r e n n a n , w h o h a s c a u g h t t h e

t o n e o f F a s c i s t l i t e r a t u r e, d e c l a r e s :

The intellect of t he cities is exhausting itself, and intellectual

politics utterly discredit themselves . " M e n o f a c t i o n" - p h y s i c a l

men "of the blood" in contrast to th e exhausted intellectua ls-

a l o ne h a v e t h e ca pa ci t y t o m a s t er ev ent s a nd t o a r r i v e a t t h e

c o n t r o l o f t h e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e m e g a p o l i t a n s t a t e . It is the phase

o f t h e P o m p e y s a n d t h e Cae s a r s , t h e M u s s o l i n i s a n d H i t l e r s . 2 7

Even t h e t er m i no l o g y o f S peng l er i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e

Fascists . As e a r l y a s l g 1 g , i n h i s Preussentum a n d So z i a l i s -

m u s , h e u s e d t h e t e r m " S o c i a l i s m " i n a m a n n e r v e r y s i m i l a r

t o i t s e m p l o y m e n t b y t h e N a z i s . H e l i k e n e d S o c i a l i s m t o

P r u s s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e t h e o r y o f a c r u e l , d o m i n e e r i ng

e l i t e . "W e n e e d h a r d n e s s ," h e a n n o u n c e d , " w e n e e d a c l a s s

o f S o c i a l i s t n a t u r a l l o r d s . . . . M i g h t , m i g h t , a n d e v e r m o r e

m i g h t . '1 2 8

Th e t e r m S o c i a l i s m i s h e r e q u i t e o p p o s e d t o t h e

classless society of Marxian theory ; t h e t a s k o f t h e new a g e,

h e a n n o u n c e s , i s " t o l i b e r a t e G e r m a n s o c i a l i s m f r o m M a r x . "

"Socia lism , as I under stan d it," he proceeds to e xpla in, "pre-

s u p p o s e s i n d i v i d u a l p r o p r i e t o r s h i p w i t h i t s o l d - G e r m a n e n -

j o y m en t o f p o w e r a n d b o o t y . " 2 9

H i s c o n c e p t i o n o f " P r u s s i a n S o c i a l i s m " i s q u i t e a s a u -

t h o r i t a r i a n a n d u n d e m o c r a t i c a s t h a t o f t h e N a z i s :

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302 NO COMPROMISE

T h e G e r m a n , o r t o b e m o r e e x a c t , t h e P r u s s i a n i n s t i n c t w a s

t h a t t h e p o w e r b e l o n g s t o t h e w h o l e . T h e i n d i v i d u a l s e r v e s i t .

T h e w h o l e i s s o v e r e i g n . . . . E v e r y b od y i s p u t i n h i s p l a c e . T h e r e

a r e c o m m a n d s a n d t h e r e i s o b e d i e n c e . T h i s , s i n c e t h e e i g h t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , i s a u t h o r i t a r i an s o c i a l i s m , w h i c h i s i l l i b e r a l a n d a n t i -

d e m o c r a t i c , a s c o m p a r e d w i t h E n g l i s h l i b e r a l i s m a n d F r e n c h

d e m o c r a c y . B u t i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e P r u s s i a n i ns t i n c t i s a n t i -

r e v o l u t i o n a r y . 3 0

T h e s e w o r d s a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s y s -

t e m .

E v e n S p e n g l e r ' s e c o n o m i c p r o p o s a l s b e a r a m a r k e d r e s e m -

b l a n c e t o t h e m e a s u r e s a d o p t e d b y t h e N a z i s . S t r i k es , h e a s -

s e r t s , m u s t b e p r o h i b i t e d , s i n c e t h e y a r e " a p r i v a t e e c o n o m i c

m e a s u r e a n t i - S t a t e i n c h a r a c t e r . " 3 1 A l t h o u g h p r o p e r t y s h o u l d

b e r e t a i n e d b y t h e e m p l o y e r , w a g e s s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d b y

a n e c o n o m i c c o u n c i l r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e S t a t e . P r o p e r t y i t s e l f

s h o u l d b e s o r e g u l a t e d t h a t i t b e c o m e s i n e f f e c t " a k i n d o f

h e r e d i t a r y f i e f " w i t h c e r t a i n r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s a t t a c h i n g t o

i t a s i n f e u d a l t i m e s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n s h o u l d

n o t b e t o e s t a b l i s h s o c i a l e q u a l i t y , b u t t o m a i n t a i n a d i v i s i o n

based upon the Prussi an system of "command and obedi-

ence . " 3 2 I n m a k i n g s u c h p r o p o s a l s a s e a r l y a s i g i g , S p e n g l e r

f o r e c a s t t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e s o f H i t l e r .

M a n y o f t h e b a s i c t e n e t s o f F a s c i s m a r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h e

h i s t o r i a n ' s p a g e s : o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i n t e l l e c t , t o t h e c i t y ;

hatr ed of libera lism , democracy , and genuine S o c i a l i s m ;

i d e a l i z a t i o n o f w a r a n d M a c h t p o l i t i k ; ' a n e x t r e m e v o l u n t a r i s -

t i c e t h i c s , a n d a n " i d e a l i s t i c " t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y ; b e l i e f t h a t

t h e m a c h i n e a n d m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y a r e o p p o s e d t o a r t a n d

o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f a l i b e r a l c u l t u r e . Even w hen Speng ler

d i v e r g e s f r o m F a s c i s m , h e o f t e n p r e s a g e s t h e n e x t s t a g e o f

d e c a y .

W h a t a r g u m e n t d o e s h e p r e s e n t i n s u p p o r t o f h i s F a s c i s t

i d e a l s ? V e r y l i t t l e , i t w o u l d s e e m . O f a s c i e n c e o f v a l u e s , h i s

p a g e s a f f o r d n o t a t r a c e . O f a r e a s o n e d t h e o r y o f e c o n o m i c s ,

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 303

t h e r e i s n o t m u c h i n d i c a t i o n . T o t h i s e x t e n t , h i s i d e a l s l a c k

a d e f e n s e . B u t h e d o e s p r e s e n t o n e a r g u m e n t , w h i c h i s b y

n o m e a n s u n i m p r e s s i v e . U p o n t h e b a s i s o f h i s v a s t h i s t o r i c a l

e r u d i t i o n , h e c o n t e n d s t h a t h i s p r o g r a m o f f e r s t h e o n l y p r a c -

t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e i n o u r a g e o f c u l t u r a l d e c l i n e . " T h e e s s e n -

t i a l , " h e d e c l a r e s , " i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e t i m e f o r which one

i s b o r n . " 3 3 H i s t o r y i s i r r e v e r s i b l e , a n d t h e g r e a t m e n o f

e a c h a g e a r e t h o s e w h o m o s t f u l l y e m b o d y t h e s p i r i t o f t h e i r

t i m e s . " T h e g e n u i n e s t a t e s m a n i s i n c a r n a t e h i s t o r y , i t s d i -

r e c t e d n e s s e x p r e s s e d a s i n d i v i d u a l wi l l a n d i t s o rg a n i c l o g i c a s

c h a r a c t e r . "34

N o w o u r a g e i s s a i d t o b e a k i n t o i m p e r i a l R o m e ; a n d

S p e n g l e r u n q u a l i f i e d l y a d v i s e s , " W h e n i n R o m e , d o a s t h e

Ro m a n s d o . " I t w o u l d b e f o o l i s h t o t h i n k t h a t w e c a n a n y

l o n g e r s u c c e e d w i t h a m e n t a l p u r s u i t s u c h a s a r t :

W e a r e c i v i l i z e d , n o t G o t h i c o r R o c o c o , p e o p l e ; w e h a v e t o

r e c k on w i th t h e h a r d c o l d f a c t s o f a l a t e l i f e , t o w h i c h t h e p a r a l -

l e l i s t o b e f o u n d n o t i n P e r i c l e s ' s A t h e n s b u t i n C ae s a r ' s R o m e .

O f g r e a t p a i n t i n g o r g r e a t mu s i c t h e r e c a n n o l o n g e r b e , f o r W e s t -

e r n p e o p l e , a n y q u e s t i o n . T h e i r a r c h i t e c t ur a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s h a v e

b e e n e x h a u s t e d t h e s e h u n d r e d y e a r s . O n l y e x t e n s i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

a r e l e f t t o t h e m . 3 5

C o n s e q u e n t l y " m e n o f t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n " s h o u l d " d e v o t e

t h e m s e l v es t o t e c h n i c s i n s t e a d o f l y r i c s , t h e s e a i n s t ea d o f t h e

p a i n t - b r u s h , a n d p o l i t i c s i n s t e a d o f e p i s t e m o l o g y . B e t t e r t h e y

c o u l d n o t d o . "36

T h i s a r g u m e n t , a t b e s t , h a s o n l y a l i m i t e d v a l i d i t y . T h e

p r i n c i p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e a r g u m e n t i s t h a t m e n s h o u l d t a k e

o n t h e c o l o r o f t h e i r t i m e a n d p l a c e : t h e y s h o u l d b e " i n c a r -

n a t e h i s t o r y . " B u t i f t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s a c c e p t e d w i t h o u t l i m i -

t a t i o n , p r o p o s i t i o n s s u c h a s t h e s e l o g i c a l l y f o l l o w : "Whe n

a m o n g t h i e v e s , b e a t h i e f a l s o. " " I f d r u n k e n n e s s p r e v a i l s ,

be a d r un ka rd . " " W h i l e a m o n g c u t t h r o a t s , d o n o t h e s i t a t e

to murder . " " I n a t i m e o f d e c a d e n c e , b e n o t a b l y d e c a d e n t . "

I n o t h e r w o r d s , S p e n g l e r o v e r l o o k s t h e f a c t t h a t i t m i g h t

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304 NO COMPROMISE

b e b e t t e r t o p r o d u c e p o o r a r t t h a n a t e c h n i c a l l y v e r y f i n e

m u r d e r e v e n i n a p e r i o d w h e n v e r y s k i l l f u l m u r d e r s a b o u n d .

Now we would not accuse Spengler of ha rboring murderous

i m p u l s e s ; b u t h e d o e s r e c o m m e n d t h e p o l i c y o f i m p e r i a l i s t i c

c o n q u e s t , e n t a i l i n g w h a t m a n y p e r s o n s w o u l d r e g a r d a s m a s s

m u r d e r , a n d h e h a s l i t t l e u s e f o r e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a i n d i s t i n -

g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n w h a t a m a n s h o u l d o r s h o u l d n o t d o .

T h e a r g u m e n t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t e n d e n c y t o s u b s t i t u t e " f a c -

t u a l i s m " i n p l a c e o f e t h i c s , t h e " i s " i n p l a c e o f t h e " o u g h t , "

t h e w i l l - t o - p o w e r i n p l a c e o f t h e w i l l - t o - t h e - g o o d . S p e n g l e r

r e p e a t e d l y b o a s t s t h a t p u r p o s e s , i d e a l s , a n d v a l u e s a r e o f

l i t t l e o r n o i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s a m is t a k e , h e i n s i s t s , t o s u p p o s e

t h a t l i f e h a s a n y o b j e c t i v e :

L i f e h a s n o " a i m . " M a n k i n d h a s n o " a i m . " . . . L i f e i s t h e b e -

g i n n i n g a n d t h e e n d , a n d l i f e h a s n o s y s t e m , n o p r o g r a m , n o

r e a s o n ; i t e x i s t s f o r i t s e l f a n d b y i t s e l f , a n d t h e d e e p o r d e r in

w h i c h i t r e a l i z e s i t s e l f m a y o n l y b e s e e n a n d f e l t - a n d t h e n p e r -

h a p s i t m a y b e d e s c r i b e d , b u t i t c a n n o t b e d i s s e c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o

g o o d o r b a d , r i g h t o r w r o n g , u s e f u l a n d d e s i r a b l e . 3 7

F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f s u c h e t h i c a l n i h i l i s m , i t i s " s u c c e s s "

j u d g e d i n t e r m s o f p o w e r t h a t c o u n t s . " I n h i s t o r y , " d e c l a r e s

S p e n g l e r , " i t d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h e t h e r o n e i s r i g h t o r w r o n g .

S u c c e s s i s d e c i d e d b y t h e f a c t w h e t h e r o n e i s p r a c t i c a l l y s u -

p e r i o r t o t h e o p p o n e n t o r w h e t h e r o n e i s n o t . " 3 8 The sol e

p r o b l e m i s t o b e o n t o p o f t h e h e a p : t o b e m a s t e r o f w h a t -

e v e r t e n d e n c i e s h a p p e n t o b e p r e d o m i n a n t i n o n e ' s t i m e a n d

p l a c e . I n t h e f a c e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " p u r p o s e l e s s n e s s " o f l i f e ,

h u m a n i s t i c m o r a l i t y i s d i s c a r d e d , a n d a r e l a t i v i s t i c c r e e d o f

" a c t i o n " i s s u b s t i t u t e d :

W e a r e n o t " h u m a n b e i n g s per se . " T h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e i d e o l -

o g y o f t h e p a s t . W o r l d c i t i z e n s h i p i s a w r e t c h e d p h r a s e . W e a r e

h u m a n b e i n g s o f a c e n t u r y , o f a n a t i o n , o f a c i r c l e , o f a t y p e .

T h e s e a r e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s b y w h i c h w e c a n b e m e n o f

a c t i o n , e v e n t h r o u g h w o r d s t o b e m e n o f a c t i o n . T h e m o r e f u l l y

w e e x h a u s t t h e s e g i v e n l i mi t s , t h e f a r t h e r o u r e f f e c t r e a c h e s .

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 3 0 5

P l a t o w a s A t h e n i a n , C a e s a r R o m a n , G o e t h e G e r m a n : t h a t t h e y

w e r e t h a t w h o l l y a n d p r i m a r i l y w a s t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r

w o r l d h i s t o r i c e f f e c t a s

W e s u s p e c t t h a t P l a t o a n d G o e t h e , a n d e v e n C a e s a r , w o u l d

h a v e d e c i s i v e l y r e j e c t e d S p e n g l e r ' s r e l a t i v i s m i n f a v o r o f a

m o r e u n i v e r s a l i s t i c o u t l o o k . T h e S p e n g l e r i a n c r e e d i s n o t

t h a t o f t h e g r e a t m e n o f t h e p a s t , b u t o f m e n w h o r u t h l e s s l y

b o m b c i v i l i a n s b e c a u s e i t i s t h e w a y t o h a v e a " w o r l d h i s t o r i c

e f f e c t , " a n d t o b e " p r a c t i c a l l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e o p p o n e n t . "

T h e r e d u c t i o n o f v a l u e s t o t h e p u r e l y f a c t u a l p l a n e i s n o t

o n l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f S p e n g l e r , b u t r e p r e s e n t s a p e r v a s i v e

t e n d e n c y o f F a s c i s m . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , w e r e m a r k e d

a s t r a n g e d u a l i t y i n t h e F a s c i s t t h e o r y : o n t h e o n e h a n d , i t

b o a s t s o f i t s " i d e a l i s m " a n d i t s " m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y " ; o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i t v a u n t s i t s " u n s e n t i m e n t a l " r e s p e c t f o r s h e e r

b r u t e p o w e r . I n t h i s m o o d , i t r e g a r d s t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f e t h i -

c a l c r i t e r i a a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w e a k ne s s . C o n d u c t i s r e g a r d e d

a s j u s t i f i a b l e i f i t a c c o r d s w i t h t h e c u r r e n t s o f t h e a g e o r t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e n a t i o n . We must not underestim ate

t h e p r a c t i c a l f o r c e o f t h i s p o s i t i o n . S o w i d e s p r e a d i s t h e i n -

c l i n a t i o n t o c l i m b o n t h e b a n d w a g o n , n o m a t t e r w h a t s o r t

i t i s , t h a t S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t h a s a l r e a d y m a d e , a n d w i l l

c o n t i n u e t o m a k e , a p o p u l a r a p p e a l . I n t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g

t h e M u n i c h s e t t l e m e n t , w h e n F a s c i s m i s o b v i o u s l y o n t h e

m a r c h , a n d d e m o c r a c y i s i n r e t r e a t , t h e r e i s g r e a t d a n g e r

t h a t m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e w i l l s w i n g t o F a s c i s m b e c a u s e " i t i s

t h e t h i n g t o d o . " W e a r e t h e r e f o r e j u s t i f i e d i n e x a m i n i n g

S p e n g l e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n s w i t h a l l d u e c a r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n v i e w

o f t h e f a c t t h a t h i s b o o k s a r e v e r y w i d e l y r e a d i n A m e r i c a

a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n .

2 . The Argum ent of "The Decline of the West"

L et u s no w ana l y z e t h e a r g u ment w hereb y Spengler

r e a c h e s h i s c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e n e r v e o f h i s r e a s o n i n g c o n s i s t s

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306 NO COMPROMISE

i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a c h c u l t u r e a s a n o r g a n i s m . T h i s

i d e a , f o r m o s t h i s t o r i a n s , i s o n l y a m e t a p h o r , b u t f o r S p e n -

g l e r i t s e e m s t o b e l i t e r a l l y t r u e . He uncompromisingly as-

s e r t s :

Cu l t u r e s a r e o r g a n i s m s , a n d w o r l d - h i s t o r y i s t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e

b i o g r a p h y . M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , t h e i m m e n s e h i s t o r y o f t h e C h i n e s e

o r o f t h e C l a s s i c a l C u l t u r e i s t h e e x a c t e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e p e t t y

h i s t o r y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a n , o r o f t h e a n i m a l , o r t h e t r e e , o r

t h e f l o w e r . . . . I f w e w a n t t o l e a r n t o r e c o g n i z e i n w a r d f o r m s

t h a t c o n s t a n t l y a n d e v e r y w h e r e r e p e a t t h e m s e l v e s , t h e c o m p a r a -

t i v e m o r p h o l o g y o f p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s h a s l o n g a g o g i v e n u s

t h e m e t h o d s . 4 o

H e n c e a c u l t u r e i s a " b o u n d ed a n d m o r t a l t h i n g . " " I t

b l o o m s o n t h e s o i l o f a n e x a c t l y - d e f i n a b l e l a n d s c a p e , t o

which plant-wise it remains bound . " I t d i e s w h e n i t " h a s

a c t u a l i z e d t h e f u l l s u m o f i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e s h a p e o f

p e o p l e s , l a n g u a g e s , d o g m a s , a r t s , s t a t e s , s c i e n c e s . " 4 1

S p e n g l e r e x a m i n e s c e r t a i n o f t h e s e c u l t u r e s i n d e t a i l : t h e

E g y p t i a n , t h e C h i n e s e , t h e I n d i a n ( H i n d u ) , t h e C l a s s i c a l

( G r e e k a n d R o m a n ) , t h e M a g i a n ( e a r l y C h r i s t i a n , A r a b , a n d

Persian), and th e Western (roughly Western Europe since

about 900 A . D . , i n c l u d i n g A m e r i c a s i n c e i t s c o l o n i z a t i o n ) .

O t h e r c u l t u r e s h e n o t e s b u t d o e s n o t s k e t c h : t h e B a b y l o n i a n ,

the Mexica n, and the nascent Russi an . E a c h c u l t u r e h a s a

" s o u l , " r e p r e s e n t e d b y i t s " p r i m e s y m b o l , " a n " i m a g e " o f

" d e p t h " o r " e x t e n s i o n . " " F o r t h e C l a s s i c a l w o r l d v i e w , " f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e p r i m e s y m b o l i s " t h e n e a r , s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d ,

s e l f - c o n t a i n e d B o d y ; for the Western infinitely wide and

i n f i n i t e l y p r o f o u n d t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l S p a c e ; f o r t h e A r a b ia n

the wor ld as a Cavern" ; f o r t h e C h i n e s e t h e l a n d s c a p e a s

someth ing to "wander" thro ugh . 4 2 T h i s s y m b o l i n d i c a t e s a

p e c u l i a r m o o d o r p e r s o n a l i t y f o r e a c h c u l t u r e , c o r r e s p o n d -

i n g t o a f u n d a m e n t a l s e n s e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n

w h i c h i s u n c o n s c i o u s l y s h a r e d b y a l l m e m b e r s o f t h e s o c i e t y .

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 307

T h e m o o d o f t h e c u l t u r e e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f

l i f e : i n a r t , m o r a l i t y , m a t h e m a t i c s , p o l i t i c s , c i t y s t r u c t u r e ,

a n d i n a t h o u s a n d a c t s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s . B e i n g i n t e r d e p e n d -

e n t , t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f a c u l t u r e f o r m a u n i q u e c o m p l e x . T h e

r e s u l t i s a n a b s o l u t e r e l a t i v i s m : ea c h c u l t u r e i s w h o l l y s e l f -

c o n t a i n e d . T h e r e i s n o u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d r e l i g i o n o r s c i e n c e

o r a r t o r e t h i c s , n o r a n y r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c u l t u r e s43

E a c h c u l t u r e u n i q u e l y d e v e l o p s i t s d e s t i n y o u t o f i t s o w n

n a t u r e , y e t e a c h d e v e l o p s a c c o r d i n g t o a g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f

y o u t h , g r o w t h , m a t u r i t y , a n d d e c a y . " W e k n o w i t ' t o b e t r u e

o f e v e r y o r g a n i s m , " S p e n g l e r p o i n t s o u t , " t h a t t h e r h y t h m ,

f o r m a n d d u r a t i o n o f i t s l i f e , a n d a l l t h e e x p r e s s i o n d e t a i l s

o f t h a t l i f e a s w e l l , a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f i t s

species . " 4 4 J u s t a s e v e r y t r e e, u n l e s s i t i s p r e m a t u r e l y k i l l e d ,

m u s t t r a n s c r i b e a s i m i l a r h i s t o r y o f m a t u r a t i o n a n d d e c a y , s o

e v e r y c u l t u r e , a s a n o r g a n i s m o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e , m u s t p a s s

t h r o u g h a p a r a l l e l c y c l e t o a n i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n : " t h e

t h i n g - b e c o m e s u c c e e d i n g t h e t h i n g - b e c o m i n g , d e a t h f o l l o w -

i n g l i f e , r i g i d i t y f o l l o w i n g e x p a n s i o n , i n t e l l e c t u a l a g e a n d

t h e s t o n e - b u i l t , p e t r i f y i n g w o r l d - c i t y f o l l o w i n g m o t h e r - e a r t h

a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l c h i l d h o o d o f D o r i c a n d G o t h i c . " 4 5 Th e

e a r l y p h a s e o f f e r m e n t a t i o n , t h e p e r i o d o f m y t h a n d l e g e n d ,

i s f o l l o w e d b y t h e d e f i n i t e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n , p h i l o s -

o p h y , a n d s c i e n c e . A r t a t f i r s t i s u n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ; p o l i t ic s a n d

e c o n o m i c s a r e a g r a r i a n . G r a d u a l l y t h e c u l t u r e p a s s e s i n t o

m a t u r i t y : t h e g r e a t c o n c l u s i v e s y s t e m s o f s c i e n c e a n d p h i l o s -

o p h y t a k e s h a p e , a r t a n d r e l i g i o n b e c o m e m o r e l a b o r e d ,

s o c i a l l i f e b e c o m e s m o r e u r b a n a n d m a t e r i a l i s t i c . T h e s t a g e

o f " c i v i l i z a t io n " s e t s i n : m o n e y i n s t e a d o f r e l i g i o n d o m i -

n a t e s s o c i e t y , i m p e r i a l i s t i c d i c t a t o r s h i p s s e i z e t h e c i t a d e l s o f

power . L i f e d e g e n e r a t e s i n t o a f i x e d s t o c k o f f o r m s ; t h e a p -

p e a l o f m e r e s i z e , o r b i z a r r e n e s s , o r m e c h a n i c a l e f f i c i e n c y

s u p e r s e d e s t h e u r g e t o i n t e n s i f y t h e i n w a r d l i f e . " P r i m i -

t i v e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n s s l o w l y t h r u s t u p t h r o u g h t h e h i g h l y

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308 NO COMPROMISE

c i v i l i z e d m o d e o f l i v i n g , " 4 f i a n d t h e e n d i s a t h a n d . A t l a s t

a n e w c u l t u r e , d e s t i n e d t o p a s s t h r o u g h a s i m i l a r c y c l e ,

s p r i n g s i n t o b e i n g .

W e w h o n o w l i v e i n t h e m i d s t o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e

i n t h e d e c l i n i n g p e r i o d o f o u r o w n c u l t u r e . T h e s i g n s o f

t h i s d e c l i n e a r e p a t e n t : s p r e a d o f S o c i a l i s m , d e c a y o f r e l i -

g i o n , d e g e n e r a t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e c l a s s -

r o o m , s e n s a t i o n a l i s m a n d e c l e c t i c i s m i n t h e a r t s , d o m i n a t i o n

o f s o c i e t y b y m o n e y a n d t e c h n i c s , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f " c r e a -

t i o n " i n a f e w b i g c i t i e s , f a l l i n g b i r t h r a t e s a m o n g t h e f i t t e r

s t o c k s , i n c r e a s i n g p o v e r t y a n d d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e d o l e , a n d

a r t i f i c i a l m e a n s o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e e c o n o m i c o r d e r . T h i s

d e c l i n e i s i n e x o r a b l e . " O n l y d r e a m e r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s

a w a y o u t . O p t i m i s m i s cowardice . "47

I n s o f a r a s t h e r e i s a l i m i t e d s a l v a t i o n p o s s i b l e , i t i s t o b e

a c h i e v e d b y a b a n d o n i n g a r t , s c i e n c e , a n d p h i l o s o p h y a n d

t u r n i n g i n s t e a d t o e n g i n e e r i n g , c o l o n i z a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l d i c t a -

t o r s h i p , i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n ; and on the side of pure

t h o u g h t , t o t h e w r i ti n g o f h i s t o r y . S p e n g l e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,

e n t e r t a i n s t h e h o p e o f a p a r t i a l r e v i v a l ; b u t C a e s a r i s m , i m -

p e r i a l i s t w a r , a n d a " s e c o n d r e l i g i o u s n e s s " ( i . e . , a r e c r u d e s -

c e n c e o f s u p e r s t i t i o n ? ) a r e a l l h e h o l d s o u t t o u s i n t h e w a y

o f h o p e .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t s k e t c h e d a b o v e i s s t r i c t l y n e c e s s a r y i n

i t s b r o a d o u t l i n e . A k i n d o f C a l v i n i s t i c p r e d e s t i n a t i o n g o v -

e rn s m an kind . T h e f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n a r e p r e d e t e r m i n e d

i n e v e r y p h a s e o f a c t i v i t y . A c u l t u r e m a y b e s t r a n g l e d t o

d e a t h ( e . g . , t h e A z t e c c u l t u r e ), b u t i f i t l i v e s o n , i t c a n o n l y

p a s s t h r o u g h t h e s t a g e s o f m a t u r a t i o n a n d d e c l i n e .

N o w t h e r e i s m u c h i n S p e n g l e r w i t h w h i c h w e m u s t a g r e e .

H e d o e s m a k e u s v i v i d l y a w a r e o f t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f

c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s : o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h a g r e a t w o r k o f a r t ,

f o r e x a m p l e , i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a l m o s t t h e w h o l e o f a c u l -

t u r e . H e a l s o a f f o r d s u s a t r e m e n d o u s b r o a d e n i n g o f h o r i -

z o n s . I n s o d o i n g , h e d e s t r o y s t h e " e m p t y f i g m e n t o f one

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 309

l i n e a r h i s t o r y , " c e n t er i n g i n t h e W e s t , a n d r i g h t l y s u b s t i t u te s

" t h e d r a m a o f a n u m b e r o f m i g h t y c u l t u r e s . "4 s He demol-

i s h e s t h e n a i v e c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y a s

confo rmi ng to the "Ancient- Medieva l-Moder n Scheme,"

which minimizes the autonomous contributions of non-

W e s t e r n c u l t u r e s , a n d d e p i c t s h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s a s l e a d i n g u p

t o , o r c u l m i n a t i n g i n , M o d e r n P r o g r e s s . H i s w h o l e a r g u -

m e n t , i n f a c t , t e n d s a g a i n s t W e s t e r n p r o v i n c i a l i s m a n d a

s u p e r f i c i a l o v e r v a l u a t i o n o f m o d e r n i t y . S p e n g l e r c a l l s t h i s

reori entati on "the Copernican Revolut ion in Histo ry" ;

a n d a s s u r e d l y w e m u s t a d m i t t h a t h i s b o l d e s c a p e f r o m t h e

o r d i n a r y l i m i t a t i o n s o f p e r s p e c t i v e a m o u n t s t o a v e r i t a b l e

r e v o l u t i o n i n o u t l o o k . W e m u s t a l s o g r a n t t h a t o u r W e s t e r n

c u l t u r e i s i n a c r i t i c a l s t a t e ; t h e S p e n g l e r i a n p a r a l l e l s b e -

t w e e n p r e s e n t d i s o r d e r s a n d t h e d e c a d e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f o t h e r

c u l t u r e s h a v e a n o b v i o u s , t h o u g h o n l y p a r t i a l , v a l i d i t y .

3 . H i s t o r y F i t t e d t o a P r o c r u s t e a n B e d

W h e n w e t u r n t o S p e n g l e r ' s e r r o r s , h o w e v e r , w e d i s c o v e r

t h a t h i s m i s t a k e s v i t i a t e m u c h o f h i s a r g u m e n t . W e a r e c o n -

s e q u e n t l y f o r c e d t o q u e s t i o n h i s e s t i m a t e o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f

W e s t e r n c u l t u re , a n d t o r e j e c t h i s u l t r a - F a s c i s t p r e s c r i p t i o n s ,

which are wor se than the disease they ar e designed to

a l l e v i a t e .

W e m u s t f i r s t c o n v i c t h i m o f h i s t o r i c a l i n a c c u r a c y . H i s

t h e o r y o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m i s t o o e x t r e m e t o b e d e m o n -

s t r a b l e , h i s c u l t u r e - o r g a n i s m s t o o i n d e p e n d e n t t o b e r e a l . H e

m a i n t a i n s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t C l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e l i v e d " i n -

t e n s e l y i n t h e p u r e s e n s u o u s p r e s e n t , " a n d s h u n n e d t h e

t h o u g h t o f t h e i n f i n i t e , t h e s p i r i t u a l , t h e d y n a m i c , t h e f u -

t u r e , a n d t h e r e m o t e p a s t. W e s t e r n c u l t u r e i s p r o p e r l y s y m -

b o l i z e d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b y t h e l e g e n d a r y c h a r a c t e r o f

F a u s t , t h e i n t r o s p e c t i v e m a g i c i a n , w h o t h i r s t e d f o r t h e i n -

f i n i t e .

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310 NO COMPROMISE

I n m a i n t a i n i n g t h i s s h a r p c o n t r a s t , h o w e v e r , S p e n g l e r i g -

n o r e s t h e i d e a o f i n f i n i t y a s i t f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n v a r i o u s

Greek phil osoph ers, such as Anaxim ander and Melissos ; h e

f a i l s t o n o t e P l a t o ' s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e c o r p o r e a l ' 4 9 o v e r l o o k s

t h e d i s e m b o d i e d s p i r i t s a n d i n c o r p o r e a l G o d o f A r i s t o t l e ,

a n d a r b i t r a r i l y s e v e r s t h e m y s t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y o f P l o t i n u s

f r o m i t s G r e e k s o u r c e s ; h e d i s c o u n t s t h e e v a n g e l i c a l s t r a i n i n

t h e O r p h i c r e l i g i o n , a n d " i g n o r e s t h e G r e e k e p i t a p h , t h e

G r e e k t o m b s t o n e , t h e e p h e b i c o a t h , t h e c u l t o f t h e v e s t a l s ,

a n d t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e m p l e s i t e s - a l l o f w h i c h w e r e

c l a s s i c a l m o d e s o f p e r p e t u a t i o n . " 5 0 H i s t h e o r i e s a l s o r u n

a f o u l s u c h e m i n e n t a u t h o r i t i e s o n G r e e k s c i e n c e a n d p h i l o s -

oph y as Rob in, Mil hau d, Burn et, and A . E . Tay lor , wh o

h a v e s h o w n t h a t P l a t o a n d t h e m a t h e m a t i c i a n s o f t h e A c a d -

emy anticipated many of the features of Western mathe-

m a t i c s . 6 1 I n P l a t o ' s d o c t r i n e o f " t h e d y a d o f t h e g r e a t a n d

s m a l l , " w e f i n d i m p l i c i t s e v e r a l n o t i o n s t h a t S p e n g l e r l o o k s

u p o n a s u t t e r l y u n - G r e e k i n c h a r a c t e r , n a m e l y , t h e c o n c e p t s

o f t h e s u r d , z e r o , n e g a t i v e q u a n t i t y , t h e i n f i n i t e s i m a l , t h e

c o n t i n u u m , a n d t h e v a r i a b l e . S i n c e S p e n g l e r r e g a r d e d m a t h -

e m a t i c s a s t h e a b s t r a c t f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l W e l t a n -

s c h a u u n g , t h e f o r m u l a o f t h e v e r y " s o u l " o f t h e c u l t u r e , h i s

mistaken conception of Greek mat hematics constitutes a

m a j o r e r r o r .

I f w e t u r n t o h i s a n a l y s i s o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , w e d i s c o v e r

t h a t h e s c a r c e l y n o t i c e s t h e l a r g e a m o u n t o f m a t e r i a l i s t i c

p h i l o s o p h y , t h e t r e m e n d o u s e f f e c t o f A r i s t o t l e o n t h e M i d d l e

A g e s , t h e f a c t t h a t w e h a v e k e p t C l a s s i c a l m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d

b u i l t u p o n t h e b a s i s o f C l a s s i c a l p h y s i c s . T h o u g h h e r e v e r e s

Goethe, the supreme poet of th e Faust legend, whom he

r e g a r d s a s t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m a n o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e ,

h e d i s r e g a r d s t h e m a t u r e p o e t ' s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e u n - F a u s t i a n

i d e a l o f S p i n o z a , t h e i m p e r s o n a l d e v o t i o n t o t h e a b i d i n g a n d

u n i v e r s a l . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , G o e t h e i s n e a r e r to P l a t o t h a n h e

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 311

i s t o t h e v o l u n t a r i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e modern O c c i -

dent .5 2

S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s a p p l y i n t h e f i e l d o f t e c h n i c s a n d i n -

v e n t i o n . Sp e n g l e r r e g a r d s o u r t e c h n o l o g y a s p e c u l i a r t o t h e

" F a u s t i a n " g e n i u s o f t h e W e s t . But Lewis Mumford, in his

h i s t o r y o f t e c h n i c s, h a s p o i n t e d o u t :

T h e w a t e r w h e e l , i n t h e f o r m o f t h e N o r i a , h a d b e e n u s e d b y

t h e Eg y p t i a n s t o r a i s e w a t e r, a n d p e r h a p s b y t h e S u m e r i a n s f o r

o t h e r p u r p o s e s ; certainly in t he early part o f the Christian era

w a t e r m i l l s h a d b e c o m e f a i r l y c o m m o n i n Ro m e . Th e w i n d m i l l

p e r h a p s c a m e f r o m P e r s i a i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . Paper, the m ag-

n e t i c n e e d l e , g u n p o w d e r, ca m e f r o m C h i n a, t h e f i r s t t w o b y w a y

o f t h e Ar a b s : a l g e b r a c a m e f r o m I n d i a t h r o u g h t h e Ar a b s , a n d

c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i o l o g y c a m e v i a t h e Ar a b s , t o o , w h i l e g e o m e -

try and mechanics had their or igins in pre-Christ ian Greece . T h e

steam engine owed its conception to the great inventor and scien-

tis t, Hero of Alexandria : it was the translations of his works in

t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t t u r n e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

t h i s i n s t r u m e n t o f p o w e r . I n sh o r t, m o s t o f t h e i m p o r t a nt i n v en -

t i o n s a n d d i s c o v e r i e s t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e n u c l e u s f o r f u r t h e r m e -

c h a n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t, d i d n o t a r i s e, a s S p e n g l e r w o u l d h a v e i t,

o u t o f s o m e m y s t i c a l i n ne r d r i v e o f t h e F a u s t i a n s o u l : t h e y w e r e

w i n d - b l o w n s e e d s f r o m o t h e r c u l t u r e s .5 3

S p e n g l e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e f a c t , p o i n t e d o u t b y M u m f o r d , t h a t

v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f o u r t e c h n o l o g y o r i g i n a t e d i n o t h e r c u l -

t u r e s , b u t h e i n s i s t s t h a t t h e W e s t h a s a p p l i e d t h e s e i n v e n -

t i o n s t o u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s . Th i s c o n t e n t i o n i s s o u n d

i n r e f e r e n c e t o g u n p o w d e r , w h i c h w a s u s e d i n a n c i e n t Ch i n a

for fireworks, but has been employed in the West mainly

for war and industry . Ce r t a i n o t h e r i n v e n t i o n s , h o w e v e r ,

c a n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h i s w a y : f o r e x a m p l e , p a p e r a n d

the waterwheel . Th e f a c t i s p a t e n t t h a t w e h a v e b o r r o w e d

m u c h f r o m o t h e r c u l t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e Cl a s s i c a l . Th i s c o n -

clusion is fully substantiated by the important work by

Alfons Dopsch, The Economic and Social Foundations of

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3 1 2 NO COMPROMISE

E u r o p e a n C i v i l i z a t i o n , w h i c h t r a c e s t h e v e r y r e a l c o n t i n u i t y

b e t w e e n G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d M e d i e v a l c u l t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n

r e s p e c t t o t e c h n i c s a n d e c o n o m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s. 5 4

O r i e n t a l s o c i e t i e s a l s o h a v e b o r r o w e d a g r e a t d e a l f r o m

the West . A s t r i k i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n i s t h e W e s t e r n i z a t i o n o f

J a p a n , w h i c h i n a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o

a h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d a n d m i l i t ar i s t i c c o u n t r y . S o t h o r o u g h

h a s b e e n t h i s W e s t e r n i z a t i o n t h a t J a p a n i s t o d a y e x h i b i t i n g

t h e s a m e s o r t o f F a s c i s t t r a i t s a s G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y . A n o t h e r

n o t a b l e e x a m p l e i s R u s s i a , o n c e l a r g e l y a n O r i e n t a l c o u n -

t r y . I t s W e s t e r n i z a t i o n , v i g o r o u s l y i n i t i a t e d b y P e t e r t h e

G r e a t , h a s b e e n r u s h e d f o r w a r d u n d e r S o v i e t r u l e . Th e

S o v i e t U n i o n i s n o t o n l y a d o p t i n g W e s t e r n m e t h o d s w i t h

a m a z i n g r a p i d i t y , b u t i s p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e e n t i r e

w o r l d w i t h i n n o v a t i o n s o f i t s o w n .

T h e s e e x a m p l e s s h o w t h a t t h e u n i t y o f a c u l t u r e i s n o t s o

a b s o l u t e a s S p e n g l e r b e l i e v e s . C u l t u r e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b y

e m p h a s e s a n d t r e n d s , n o t b y u t t e r d i s c o n t i n u i t y o r u n i q u e -

n e s s . T h e d e g r e e o f c o h e r e n c e a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f a c u l -

t u r e f a l l s s h o r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l u n i t y o f a p e r s o n a l i t y .

C u l t u r e s d o n o t h a v e " s o u l s , " o r t h e s a m e k i n d o f l i f e a s o r -

g a n i s m s .

S p e n g l e r i s a l s o h i s t o r i c a l l y i n a c c u r a t e i n h i s t h e o r y o f

d e f i n i te c y c l i c s t a g e s . W e m u s t q u e s t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , h i s

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t g r e a t a r t n e v e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e " w i n t e r

p e r i o d " o f a c u l t u r e . H e d a t e s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w i n t e r

p e r i o d i n I n d i a n c u l t u r e a s e a r l y a s 6 o o y e a r s b e f o r e C h r i s t ,

y e t t h e g r e a t e s t l i v i n g a u t h o r i t y o n I n d i a n a r t , A n a n d a K .

Cooma rasw amy, has wri tten : " W e c a n s a f e l y s a y t h a t t h e

f i r s t c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a r e p r e s e n t s t h e

m o s t c r i t i c a l p e r i o d i n t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t i n I n d i a , t h e s e c o n d

t o t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t o f t h e h i g h e s t a c h i e v e m e n t . "55

S i m i l a r l y , t h e S u n g p e r i o d ( 9 6 0 - 1 2 8 0 A . n . ) , w h i c h i s r e g a r d e d

b y e m i n e n t a u t h o r i t i e s a s t h e g r e a t e s t p e r i o d o f C h i n e s e

p a i n ti n g , f a l l s , i n t er m s o f S p e n g l e r ' s c h r o n ol o g y , i n t h e l a te

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 313

w i n t e r . T h e p e r i o d p e r h a p s s u p r e m e i n J a p a n e s e a r t , t h e

A s h i k a g a( 1 3 3 5 - 1 5 7 3 A . D . ) , i s e v e n l a t e r i n t h e p e r i o d o f

s u p p o s e d d e c a d e n c e a n d s t e r i l i t y . S o m e o f t h e g r e a t e s t a r t

w o r k s o f E g y p t , s u c h a s t h e c r e a t i o n s o f t h e N e w K i n g d o m ,

a p p e a r l a t e . T h e n o b l e p o e t r y o f V i r g i l a n d L u c r e t i u s , a n d

s o m e s u p e r b u t i l i t a r i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e ( v i a d u c t s , b r i d g e s , r a m -

p a r t s , e t c . ) b e l o n g , i n S p e n g l e r ' s a c c o u n t , t o t h e C l a s s i c a l

d e c a d e n c e56

F u r t h e r i n a c c u r a c i e s a r e t o b e d i s c o v e r e d i n S p e n g l e r ' s

p a g e s , b u t o u r s p a c e d o e s n o t p e r m i t a m o r e d e t a i l e d c r i t i -

c i s m . W h e n t h e t o t a l b o d y o f e v i d e n c e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e i s

l i t t l e g r o u n d f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t a l l c u l t u r e s d e v e l o p a c -

cording to one monotonous plan ; t h e i r l i f e s p a n s d i f f e r ,

t h e i r p h a s e s a r e o f t e n n o t p a r a l l e l , a n d t h e i r r a t e s o f d e -

v e l o p m e n t v a r y w i d e l y .5 7

4 . T h e W a r p i n g E f f e c t o f P r e j u d i c e s

E v e n w h e n S p e n g l e r ' s f a c t s a r e n o t i n q u e s t i o n , h i s s u p -

p l e m e n t a r y e v a l u a t i o n s a r e o f t e n d u b i o u s . E s p e c i a l l y i s t h i s

t r u e o f h i s d e p r e c i a t i o n o f m o d e r n a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . Our

a g e i s r e m a r k a b l e f o r i t s a c h i e v e m e n t s a s w e l l a s f o r i t s

f a i l u r e s . W e c a n n o t f o l l o w S p e n g l e r i n d e n y i n g o r l i g h t l y

d i s m i s s i n g m a n y f r e s h m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l e n e r g y , a s

f o r e x a m p l e : t h e c u r r e n t r e v o l u t i o n i n p h y s i c s , i n i t i a t e d b y

s u c h m e n a s E i n s t e i n , H e i s e n b e r g , a n d P l a n c k ; t h e m a t h e -

m a t i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s o f R i e m a n n , L o b a t c h e w s k y , a n d M i n -

k o w s k i ; t h e r e n o v a t i o n o f l o g i c b y W h i t e h e a d a n d R u s s e l l ;

t h e g r e a t n e s s o f s o m e o f o u r r e c e n t p o e t r y , s u c h a s H o u s -

m a n ' s e x q u i s i t e l y r i c s , H a r d y ' s m i g h t y D y n a s t s , o r A l e x a n -

d e r B l o k ' s s o m b e r p r o p h e c y , The T welv e ;s s

t h e e x c e l l e n c e

o f s o m e o f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y m u s i c , s u c h a s t h a t o f D e b u s s y ,

S i b e l i u s , a n d B a r t o k ; t h e p r e s e n t r ev i v a l i n s c u l p t u r e , a s i n

t h e w o r k s o f M a i l l o l , B o u r d e l l e , L e h m b r u c k , F a g g i , a n d E p -

s t e i n ; t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a n e w w o r l d a r c h i t e c t u r e , a s i n t h e

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3 1 4NO COMPROMISE

b u i l d i n g s o f G r o p i u s , L e C o r b u s i e r , a n d F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t ;

t h e g r e a t n e s s o f s o m e o f o u r m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , a s i n t h e b e s t

w o r k s o f C e z a n n e , R o u s s e a u , B r a q u e , O r o z c o , a n d R i v e r a ;

t h e s p i r i t u a l i m p o r t o f t h e w o r l d - w i d e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o -

n o m i c f e r m e n t , w h i c h i s b y n o m e a n s m e r e l y d e s t r u c t i v e ;

t h e t r e m e n d o u s c r e a t i v e f o r c e i n m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y , w h i c h

m a y b e e m p l o y e d f o r g o o d a s w e l l a s i l l . W h o s h a l l s a y t h a t

t h e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c r e a t i v e e n e r g y r e p r e s e n t n o t h i n g

b u t d e c a d e n c e ? T h e r e i s j u s t o n e o b j e c t i v e t e s t t h a t i s p o s -

s i b l e : n o t t h e o p i n i o n o f o n e m a n , b u t t h e c o n s e n s u s o f e x -

p e r t s . Y e t t h e e x p e r t s c e r t a i n l y d o n o t a g r e e ; t h e r e a r e m a n y

c o n n o i s s e u r s o f t h e a r t s a n d c r i t i c s o f W e s t e r n t h o u g h t w h o

f i n d o u r a g e e x t r e m e l y h a z a r d o u s , b u t f u l l o f s t r u g g l e a n d

p r o m i s e : a p e r i o d o f g r e a t u n c e r t a i n t y r a t h e r t h a n o f o b -

v i o u s a p p r o a c h i n g d o o m .

T h e p a g e s o f S p e n g l e r b e t r a y a r o m a n t i c b i a s t h a t w a r p s

h i s e s t i m a t e o f o u r s c i e n t i f i c a g e . L i k e t h e F a s c i s t s , h e r e -

g a r d s i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y a s a n o m e n o f d e c a d e n c e : f e e l i n g a n d

i n t u i t i o n a r e t h e t r u l y c r e a t i v e f a c t o r s . T h i s b i a s e x t e n d s t o

t h e p r o d u c t s o f s c i e n c e : m a c h i n e s a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o c -

e s s e s . H e i s u n a b l e t o c o n c e i v e t e c h n i c s b r o a d l y a s a n e l e -

m e n t i n h u m a n s o c i e t y , t o b e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a r t a n d e t h i c s ,

i n l a y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a g e n e r o u s e x i s t e n c e . T e c h n o l -

o g y a n d a r t a r e f o r h i m n e c e s s a r i l y a n t i t h e t i c a l ; t h e t r u e

a l l i e s o f t h e m a c h i n e a r e i m p e r i a l i s m a n d w a r . R e j e c t i n g t h e

i d e a l o f a c o o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t y , h e h a i l s t h e r e t u r n o f " C a e s a r -

i s m " a s o f f e r i n g a l i m i t e d s a l v a t i o n b y t h e s w o r d .

H e n c e i t w o u l d s e e m t o m a n y o f h i s r e a d e r s t h a t h e c a n -

n o t a p p r e c i a t e t h e m o r a l b a s i s o f a n y d e c e n t w o r l d o r d e r ,

a n d t h a t h e t h r o w s h i s i n f l u e n c e t o t h e s i d e o f s p i r i t u a l i m -

p o t e n c e a n d b r u t a l i t y . H e a d m i t s t h e a b s t r a c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a n e w c u l t u r e r i s i n g t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e p r e s e n t o n e , b u t

h e c o n d e m n s , a s t h e s y m p t o m s o f d e c a y , t h o s e v e r y f a c t o r s

t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e g r o u n d o f o t h e r m e n ' s h o p e s .

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 315

T o a p e r s o n o f m o r a l s e n s i t i v e n e s s , t h e r e i s s c a n t a p p e a l

i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t o f h i s c r e e d :

M a n i s a b e a s t o f p r e y . I s h a l l s a y i t a g a i n a nd a g a i n . All the

w o u l d - b e m o r a l i s t s a n d s o c i a l - e t h i c s p e o pl e w h o c l a i m o r h o p e

to be "beyond all tha t" are only beasts of prey with their t eeth

b r o k e n , w h o h a t e o t h e r s o n a c c o u n t o f t h e a t t a c k s w h i c h t h e y

t h e m s e l v e s a r e w i s e e n o u g h t o a v o i d . O n l y l o o k a t t h e m . T h e y

a r e t o o w e a k t o r e a d a b o o k o n w a r , b u t t h e y h e r d t o g e t h e r i n

the street to s ee an accident, letting th e blood and the screams

play on their nerves . And if even tha t is t oo mu ch for t hem, they

e n j o y i t o n t h e f i l m a n d i n t h e i l l u s t r a t e d p a p e r s . If I call man a

b e a s t o f p r e y, w h i c h d o I i n s u l t : m a n o r b e a s t ? F o r r e m e m b e r ,

the larger beasts of prey are n o b l e creatures, perfect of their kind,

a n d w i t h o u t t h e h y p o c r i s y o f h u m a n m o r a l s d u e t o w e a k n e s s59

S p e ng l e r o b v i o u s l y h a s n o p a t i e n c e w i t h " t h e t o o t h l e s s f e e l -

i n g o f s y m p a t h y a n d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n " ; a n d a c c o r d i n g l y i s g l a d

t h a t G e r m a n s h a v e r e g a i n e d t h e p o w e r o f h a t r e d :

W e f i na l l y h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t w h i c h I s h a l l o p e n l y t e l l y o u :

the ability to hate . W h o e v e r i s n o t a b l e t o h a t e i s n o t a m a n, a n d

h i s t o r y i s m a d e b y m e n . Its decisions are hard and cru el, and he

w h o b e l i e v e s t h a t h e c a n e v a d e t h e m t h r o u g h r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s n o t m a d e f o r p o l i t i c s . . . . That we Germans

f i n a l l y a r e a b l e t o h a t e, i s o n e o f t h e f e w r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t

time that augurs well for the future . 6 °

Anyone schooled in the humanism of Plato and Aristotle,

t h e m o r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f Ch r i s t i a n i t y , o r t h e n e w d i s c i p l i n e o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m , w i l l d i s t r u s t e v a l u a t i o n s b a s e d u p o n

s u c h a n a t t i t u d e .

T h e p l a u s i b i l i t y o f S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s i n c o n -

s i d e r a b l e m e a s u r e u p o n h i s e v a l u a t i o n s . He presumes to be

d e s c r i p t i v e , b u t h e i s f r e q u e n t l y n o r m a t i v e ; h e n c e t h e r e l e -

v a n c e o f a n a t t a c k u p o n h i s v a l u e s . The trouble with his

a r g u m e n t i s n o t t h a t h e e v a l u a t e s ( f o r p e r h a p s t h i s i s n e c e s -

s a r y ), b u t t h a t h i s v a l u e s r e s t u p o n u n c r i t i c i z e d a n d e v e n

n a s t y p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . The ultimate bases of judgment are

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3 1 6 NO COMPROMISE

n o t s c r u t i n i z e d ; t h e y r e m a i n h i d d e n b u t p e r v e r t t h e e n t i r e

argument . I n t h e r e a l m o f v a l u e s , S p e n g l e r i s a n u n m i t i -

g a t e d d o g m a t i s t . A c a r e f u l r e a d e r w i t h a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f

v a l u e s w i l l f i n d m u c h o f S p e n g l e r u n c o n v i n c i n g .

5 . M o r e T h a n O n e Ki n d o f An a l o g y

N e x t , w e m u s t q u e s t i o n S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t f r o m a n a l -

o g y , b a s e d u p o n t h e s u p p o s e d p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n t h e d e -

v e l o p m e n t o f o u r c u l t u r e a n d t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h e p a s t . L o g i -

c i a n s t e l l u s t h a t t h i s f o r m o f r e a s o n i n g i s t r e a c h e r o u s . We

s h o u l d n o t t r u s t i t u n l e s s t h e a n a l o g i e s a r e c l o s e , a n d t h e

e x a m p l e s s u f f i c i e n t l y n u m e r o u s t o a f f o r d a b a s i s f o r i n d u c -

t i o n .

D o e s S p e n g l e r , w e m a y a s k , p r e s e n t u s w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t

n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s t o w a r r a n t p r e d i c t i o n ? H e h a s c i t e d

s e v e n c u l t u r e s o t h e r t h a n o u r o w n , i f w e o m i t t h e R u s s i a n

w h i c h h e c o n c e i v e s as s t i l l l a t e n t. O n e o f t h e s e , t h e M e x i c a n ,

h e r e g a r d s a s n e v e r h a v i n g r e a c h e d t h e s t a g e o f " c i v i l i z a -

t i o n , " b e i n g t h r o t t l e d i n f u l l c a r e e r . A n o t h e r c u l t u r e , t h e

B a b y l o n i a n , h e d i s c u s s e s t o o b r i e f l y t o b u i l d u p a s i g n i f i c a n t

c o m p a r i s o n . O f t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r c u l t u r e s , o n e , t h e E g y p -

t i a n , h a r d l y b e a r s o u t S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t . I t e n d u r e d f o u r

t h o u s a n d y e a r s : o v e r t h r e e t i m e s a s l o n g a s o u r W e s t e r n

c u l t u r e h a s s o f a r l a s t e d . A n a l o g y w o u l d i n t h i s c a s e s u g g e s t

t h a t o u r s o c i e t y m a y a t t a i n a n e w l e a s e o f l i f e . 6 1 Two of the

r e m a i n i n g c u l t u r e s , t h e C h i n e s e a n d t h e I n d i a n , h a v e s u r -

v i v e d a f t e r a f a s h i o n d o w n t o t h e p r e s e n t a n d n o w s h o w

v i g o r o u s s i g n s o f r e v i v a l . A c u l t u r e t h a t i s a b l e t o m a n i f e s t

t h e g r e a t s o c i a l f e r m e n t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n a i s n o t m o r i -

b u n d ; a c u l t u r e t h a t c a n p r o d u c e a T a g o r e , a B h o s e , a

G a n d h i , a n d a N e h r u i s n o t d e a d . T h e r e r e m a i n o n l y t h e

C l a s s i c a l a n d t h e " M a g i a n " c u l t u r e s . B u t t h e M a g i a n i s i n

p a r t a c r e a t i o n o f S p e n g l e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n : i t i s a c u r i o u s

a m a l g a m o f P e r s i a n , A r a b i a n , J e w i s h , n e o - P l a t o n i c , B y z a n -

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 317

t i n e , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s . 6 2 T h e C l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e ,

t o b e s u r e , d i d m e e t i t s d o w n f a l l i n a m a n n e r s u g g e s t i v e o f

o u r o w n p o s s i b l e f a t e . B u t t h e a n a l o g y i n t h i s c a s e i s a g o o d

o n e i f , a n d o n l y i f , n o o u t s t a n d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e d i s -

c o v e r e d .

H e r e S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t b r e a k s d o w n . I n a n u m b e r o f

f u n d a m e n t a l r e s p e c t s , W e s t e r n c u l t u r e d i f f e r s f r o m t h e d e -

c l i n i n g C l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e a n d , i n f a c t , f r o m a n y o t h e r c u l -

t u r e of t h e p a s t : ( i ) t h e r a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t d i f f e r s , ( 2 ) m od-

e r n t e c h n o l o g y i s f a r m o r e a d v a n c e d , ( 3 ) t h e r e i s f a r l e s s

e x c u s e f o r e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , a n d ( 4 ) w e a r e

m o r e e n l i g h t e n e d a s t o d a n g e r s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s . W e s h a l l

e x a m i n e e a c h o f t h e s e d i v e r g e n c i e s .

F i r s t , S p e n g l e r f a i l s t o t a k e s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t o f t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e s p e e d o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s d i f f e r s g r e a t l y . The

m o d e r n r a t e o f c h a n g e h a s b e e n t r e m e n d o u s l y a c c e l e r a t e d .

I n c o n t r a s t i n g p r e s e n t - d a y E u r o p e w i t h d e c l i n i n g R o m e ,

J o h a n H u i z i n g a , t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d D u t c h h i s t o r i a n , r e m a r k s

t h a t " y e a r s s e e m t o h a v e r e p l a c e d c e n t u r i e s a s t h e y a r d s t i c k

of measurement . " 8 3 Likew ise, W . F . O g b u r n , t h e d i s t i n -

g u i s h e d A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g i s t , i n h i s f a m o u s b o o k , S o c i a l

Ch a n g e, n o t e s t h i s i n c r e a s i n g l y r a p i d p a c e a s o n e o f t h e

b a s i c f e a t u r e s o f o u r c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . S p e n g l e r a l s o i s

a w a r e o f t h e k i n e t i c n a t u r e o f m o d e r n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , b u t

h e f a i l s t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s f a c t o r u n d e r mi n e s a n y c l o s e a n a l -

o g y b e t w e e n p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e s t a t i c c u l t u r e s o f t h e

p a s t . H e n c e h e c o n f i d e n t l y e x p e c t s " t h e r e t u r n o f t h e C a e -

s a r s , " a n d e v e n a d v i s e s m e n t o d e s e r t o t h e r i d e a l s . O n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , H u i z i n g a c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n v a r i o u s r e s p e c t s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e r a t e o f a l t e r a t i o n , " t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f R o m a n

c i v i l i z a t i o n b e a r s l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e p r o c e s s e s o f o u r

t i m e . "

S e c o n d , t h e r e i s t h e f a c t t h a t W e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g y i s f a r

m o r e a d v a n c e d t h a n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f a n y o t h e r s o c i e t y .

T h i s t e c h n i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i s a h i g h l y d y n a m i c f a c t o r , w h o s e

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318 NO COMPROMISE

c r e a t i ve f o r c e i s w e l l - n i g h u n l i m i t e d i f w e l e a r n t o c o n t r o l i t .

P r o v i d e d w e u s e m a c h i n e r y t o f r e e , n o t k i l l o r e n s l a v e , w e

m a y s p e e d i l y e n d t h e p r e s e n t d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n w a s t e a n d

w an t . M a c h i n e s , i n s t e a d o f s o w i n g d e a t h i n w a r o r t h r o w i n g

m e n o u t o f w o r k , w i l l p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d m a t e r i a l

w e l l - b e i n g f o r a l l . I n a n y e v e n t , w e c a n a s s e r t , w i t h a c o n f i -

d e n c e a s w e l l f o u n d e d a s S p e n g l e r ' s , t h a t t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

o f o u r c u l t u r e c a n b e a r r e s t e d b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o s o c i a l

p r o b l e m s o f t h a t s a m e t e c h n i q u e o f s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g w h i c h

h a s a l r e a d y t r i u m p h e d i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y .

T h i r d , a l l p a s t c u l t u r e s w e r e b a s e d u p o n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n

o f a s u b j e c t c l a s s , b u t t h i s n e e d n o t b e t r u e o f W e s t e r n c u l -

t u r e i n t h e f u t u r e . T h e C l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s

b a s e d u p o n t h e s h a r p d i v i s i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n t o r i c h a n d

p o o r , f r e e m e n a n d s l a v e s . P r o f e s s o r R o s t o v t z e f f , i n h i s a u -

t h o r i t a t i v e h i s t o r y o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , p o i n t s o u t

t h a t " s l a v e r y a n d f i n a n c i a l r u i n " w e r e t h e p o r t i o n o f " t h e

l o w e r c l a s s e s , " a n d t h a t a " v e r y i m p o r t a n t c a u s e " o f c u l t u r a l

d e c l i n e w a s " t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c a n d e x c l u s i v e n a t u r e o f a n c i e n t

c i v i l i z a t i o n s . " 8 4 T h i s c o n d i t i o n w a s n e v e r c o r r e c t e d , d e s p i t e

r e v o l t s , p a l l i a t i v e s , a n d t h e a d v e n t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . N o w

t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n w h y m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n , w i t h i t s e x -

p a n d e d s y s t e m o f p r o d u c t i o n t h a t m a k e s p o v e r t y q u i t e u n -

n e c e s s a r y , s h o u l d s i m i l a r l y p e r p e t u a t e w a n t a n d o p p r e s s i o n .

A t p r e s e n t , i n f a c t , t h e r e i s a m i g h t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e -

m e n t t o e n d e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d t o b a s e o u r c u l t u r e u p o n a p -

p a r e n t l y s o u n d e c o n o m i c a n d m o r a l f o u n d a t i o n s . No o ne

c a n g a u g e t h e r e n o v a t i n g p o w e r o f t h i s r e v o l t o f t h e m a s s e s .

T h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a l l p a s t c u l t u r e s a n d o f m o d e r n c a p i t a l -

i s m h a v e b e e n u n j u s t ; t h i s m a y n o t b e t r u e o f t h e n e w s o -

c i e t y w h i c h i s e m e r g i n g .

F o u r t h , n o o t h e r c u l t u r e h a s p o s s e s s e d o u r k n o w l e d g e o f

h i s t o r y , a n d n o o t h e r h a s p r o j e c t e d i t s p l a n s s o v i g o r o u s l y

i n t o t h e f u t u r e . T h i s k e e n s e n s e o f t h e p a s t a n d f u t u r e ,

w h i c h a s S p e n g l e r c o n t e n d s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o n l y o f t h e

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 319

W e s t , d i f f e r e n t i a t e s u s f r o m a l l t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h e p a s t .

N e i t h e r R o m e n o r a n y o t h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s b e e n s o e n -

l i g h t e n e d a s t o t h e d a n g e r s t h a t b e s e t i t , n o r s o a m p l y s u p -

p l i e d w i t h t h e b l u e p r i n t s o f a n e w o r d e r . T h e e x t e n t o f

m a s s e d u c a t i o n , i n i t s e l f , i s a f a c t w h i c h r e n d e r s o u r c u l t u r e

un i que . I f o u r f a t e d e p e n d s , a s H . G . W e l l s h a s s a i d , u p o n a

r a c e b e t w e e n e d u c a t i o n a n d c a t a s t r o p h e , i t i s p e r h a p s t o o

s o o n t o p i c k t h e w i n n e r .

I f w e a r e t o r e a s o n f r o m a n a l o g y , m o r e o v e r , t h e r e i s m o r e

t h a n o n e a n a l o g y t h a t w e c a n e m p l o y . T h e c o m p a r i s o n b e -

t w e e n o u r o w n a g e a n d R o m e i s i n m a n y w a y s l e s s s i g n i f i -

c a n t t h a n t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n o u r p e r i o d a n d t h e d e -

c l i n i n g M i d d l e a g e s . I f a n y o n e d o u b t s t h a t t h e l a t e M i d d l e

A g e s e x e m p l i f i e d m a n y o f t h e s i g n s o f a r r e s t a n d d e c a y , h e

c a n n o t d o b e t t e r t h a n r e a d t h e b r i l l i a n t w o r k b y H u i z i n g a ,

T h e W a n i n g o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s . 8 5 T h e r e a d e r w i l l d i s c o v e r

t h a t t h e l a t e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d w a s m a r k e d b y a n a t m o s p h e r e

o f i mpend in g d o o m and t he s t r an ge s t g r o te s que r ie s o f

t h o u g h t a n d c o n d u c t . D y i n g f e u d a l i s m e x h i b i t e d m a n y o f

t h e s i g n s o f d e c a d e n c e t h a t w e f i n d t o d a y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

d y i n g c a p i t a l i s m . Y e t t h e i s s u e w a s n o t t h e d e a t h o f t h e c u l -

t u r e , b u t t h e r e n a i s s a n c e .

T h e a c c u r a c y o f t h i s a n a l o g y m a y b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d b y t h e

w o r k s o f m a n y h i s t o r i a n s . A m o r e s e n s a t i o n al a n d l e s s r e l i a b l e

d e p i c t i o n o f t h e e x t r e m e c r i s i s o f t h e l a t e M e d i e v a l c u l t u r e

i s p r e s e n t e d b y E g o n F r i e d e l l ( a n h i s t o r i a n w h o c o m m i t t e d

s u i c i d e w h e n H i t l e r a n n e x e d A u s t r i a ) , i n t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f

h i s C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y o f t h e M o d e r n A g e . P i t i r i m A . S o r o k i n,

i n h i s r e c e n t m o n u m e n t a l w o r k , S o c i a l a n d C u l t u r a l D y n a m -

i c s , s h o w s n o t o n l y t h a t c r i s i s - p h e n o m e n a f l a r e d t o a g r e a t

h e i g h t i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m M e d i e v a l i s m t o t h e R e n a i s -

s a n c e , b u t a l s o d u r i n g o t h e r s u c h p r o f o u n d t r a n s i t i o n s b e -

t w e e n o n e p h a s e o f c u l t u r e a n d a n o t h e r . A r n o l d J . T o y n b e e ,

i n h i s v a s t S t u d y o f H i s t o r y , i n d i c a t e s t h a t a n u m b e r o f s o -

c i e t i e s h a v e p a s s e d t h r o u g h s u c h p e r i o d s o f g r e a t t r o u b l e , t o

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320 NO COMPROMISE

e m e r g e a t l a s t u p o n a p l a n e o f h e i g h t e n e d d e v e l o p m e n t .

F i n a l l y , K a r l M a r x a n d " M a r x i a n " h i s t o r i a n s h a v e i n s i s t e d

u p o n t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t h e c u r r e n t t r a n s i t i o n f r o m " c a p i -

t a l i s m t o s o c i a l i s m , " a n d t h e p a s t t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m " s l a v e r y t o

f e u d a l i s m , " a n d f r o m " f e u d a l i s m t o c a p i t a l i s m . " U n t i l s u c h

a n a l o g i e s a r e e x a m i n e d , t h e p e s s i m i s m o f S p e n g l e r w o u l d a p -

p e a r t o r e s t u p o n v e r y i n a d e q u a t e f o u n d a t i o n s . D e s p i t e a l l

h i s e r u d i t i o n , h e i s l i k e a n y p s e u d o s c i e n t i s t w h o o v e r l o o k s

o r s l i g h t s a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e e v i d e n c e . ' 6

6 . A Disastrous Excursion i nto Mytholo gy

S p e n g l e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t c u l t u r e s a r e o r g a n i s m s i s a l s o

e x t r e m e l y v u l n e r a b l e . M o s t o f h i s t h e o r e t ic a l m i s t a k e s r e s u l t

f r o m a p p l y i n g l i t e r a l l y a m e t a p h o r b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e s c i e n c e

o f b i o l o g y . N o d o u b t t h e r e i s s o m e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n a c u l -

t u r e a n d a n o r g a n i s m , b u t S p e n g l e r p r e s s e s t h e a n a l o g y m u c h

t o o f a r . A f t e r p e r u s i n g T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , t h e r e a d e r

i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d t o i n q u i r e a s t o t h e s e x o f E g y p t i a n c i v i -

l i z a t i o n , o r t o a s k i f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e w a s s u c k l e d b y i t s

m o t h e r , o r i f i t h a s s u f f e r e d f r o m i n f l u e n z a ) A S t a t e o r r a c e ,

w e h a v e m a i n t a i n e d i n C h a p t e r V I I , c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s

a g e n u i n e o r g a n i s m , a n d t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h w e a d v a n c e d

a p p l y w i t h e q u a l f o r c e t o a n e n t i r e c u l t u r e . I f w e h a v e n o t

e r r e d , t h e r e f o r e , w e m u s t r e j e c t S p e n g l e r ' s t h e o r y t h a t c u l -

t u r e s a r e o r g a n i s m s .

S o m e o n e m i g h t o b j e c t t h a t t h e w o r d " o r g a n i s m " i s o f t e n

e m p l o y e d b r o a d l y t o i n c l u d e c i v i l i z a t i o n s o r c u l t u r e s . I t i s

t r u e t h a t t h e t e r m i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d v a g u e l y , b u t w e m a y

q u e s t i o n t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f s t r e t c h i n g t h e m e a n i n g t o t h i s

e x t e n t . I t w i l l n o t d o t o c a l l b o t h a s o c i e t y a n d a b i o l o g i c a l

o r g a n i s m b y t h e s a m e n a m e , a n d t h e n a p p l y t o a c u l t u r e t h e

c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f a p e r s o n o r a n i m a l ; y e t t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t

S p e n g l e r d o e s . W e s h o u l d e i t h e r c o n f i n e t h e t e r m " o r g a n i s m "

t o l i v i n g b o d i e s , o r r e c o g n i z e t h a t i t s o t h e r u s e s a r e m e t a -

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 321

phorical . W e c a n n o t s p e a k , i n a n y l i t e r a l s e n s e , o f a c u l t u r e -

s o u l , o r o f t h e " o l d a g e " o f a c u l t u r e .

As Huizi nga has s aid, Spengler's scheme of world his tory

now sta nds like "an empty, deserted maus oleum " ; and his

theory of social organisms is mainly to blame :

T h e o n e - s i d e d n e s s , t h e d i s t o r t i o n s , t h e a r t i f i c i a l a n a l o g i e s w h i c h

h e u t i l i z e d i n b u i l d i n g h i s s t r u c t u r e , m a d e i t , f r o m t h e b e g i n -

ning, an untenable home fo r histo ry . . . . The f un d a me n t a l

e r r o r o f h i s w o r k , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t l i e i n t h e g a p s o f h i s k n o w l -

e d g e , n o r i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s v i s i o n , b u t i n t h e f a c t t h a t ,

w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n , h e t r a v e l l e d t h e r o a d w h i c h l e a d s f r o m m o r -

p h o l o g y t o m y t h o l o g y . H i s p e r s o n i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n s , w h i c h , l i k e

t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l b e i n g s o f a l l t i m e s , l i v e d t h r o u g h y o u t h , m a -

t u r i t y a n d o l d a g e , h a v e s h a r e d t h e f a t e o f a l l i d o l s . 8 7

I f H u i z i n g a i s r i g h t w e c a n n o t s u p po s e t h a t a c u l t u r e,

m e r e l y a s s u c h , i s f o r c e d t o t r a n s c r i b e t h e c y c l e o f a n o r g a n -

ism, passing thr ough th e definite stages of chil dhood, youth ,

mat uri ty, and o ld age . It may instead, for example, be in-

corporated in a larger social organization withou t suffering

a decline . It is impossib le for one organism t o merge into

another, but we cannot say t hat of a society . O u r W e s t e r n

c u l t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , m a y b e m e r g e d i n t o a n e w i n t e r n a -

tional order which will represent a sy nthesis of Orient and

Occident . (Indeed, the int ermi ngli ng of East and West is o ne

o f t h e m o s t m o m e n t o u s f a c t s o f o u r a g e, an d i s c e r t a i n t o

h a v e a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t u p o n t h e d e v e l o p m en t o f c u l t u r e . )

On the other hand, even if Spengler is right in maintain-

i n g t h a t c u l t u r e s a r e o r g a n i s m s , h i s c o n c l u s i o n s a r e s t i l l n o t

c o g e n t . W h a t h e h a s d o n e , i n t h a t e v e n t , i s t o i d e n t i f y a n e w

s p e c i e s o f o r g a n i s m, b u t h e h a s e x a m i n e d o n l y s e v e n m e m -

bers o f the species (excluding Western cult ure), and some of

t h e s e o n l y c u r s o r i l y . A s a s c i e n t i s t , h e m u s t n e e d s b e c a u t i o u s

in defining the characteri stics of the type . (It once seemed

s a f e t o a s s e r t t h a t " a l l s w a n s a r e w h i t e , " b u t b l a c k s w a n s w e r e

f i n a l l y d i s c o v e r e d i n A u s t r a l i a .) H o w d o w e k n o w t h a t o u r

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322 NO COMPROMISE

own culture may not turn out to be exceptional? How can

w e b e s u r e t h a t W e s t e r n c u l t u r e m a y n o t s u r v i v e i t s p r e s e n t

c r i s i s ( l i k e a m a n w h o r e c o v e r s f r o m a d r e a d d i s e a s e ) , a n d

p e r h a p s a c h i e v e a f a r g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y t h a n t h e c u l t u r e s o f

t h e p a s t ?

I f i t i s t r u e t h a t a c u l t u r e i s a n o r g a n i s m , i t i s v e r y d i f f e r -

e n t f r o m a b i o l o g i c a l o r g a n i s m , a n d a s s u c h m i g h t p o s s e s s

m a n y s u r p r i s i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A man cou ld scar cely be

f a r t h e r r e m o v e d f r o m a n a m o e b a , t h a n a c u l t u r e - o r g a n i s m ,

i f s u c h e x i s t s , i s r e m o v e d f r o m a n i n d i v i d u a l m a n . A n e n t i r e

c u l t u r e , i n i t s i m m e n s e r a n g e a n d c o m p l e x i t y , i s a n " o r g a n -

ism" of almost incomparable scale . Hence, any a rgu ment

f r o m a n a l o g y w i l l p r o v e v e r y d a n g e r o u s . T h e s e s u p e r o r g a n -

i s m s m a y b e m o r e d i v e r s e i n c h a r a c t e r t h a n o t h e r k i n d s o f

o r g a n i s m s , a n d h e n c e l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e . O r t h e y m a y b e s u b -

j e c t t o c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s , w h i c h h a v e c u t s h o r t t h e l i v e s o f p a s t

c u l t u r e s , b u t w h i c h m a y n o t p r o v e f a t a l i n t h e f u t u r e . We

c a n n o t e l i m i n a t e s u c h p o s s i b i l i t i e s b y m e r e l y a r g u i n g u p o n

t h e b a s i s o f a n a n a l o g y b e t w e e n c u l t u r e s a n d a n i m a l s .

E v e n i f a l l t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b e b r u s h e d a s i d e , t h e r e i s

n o t h i n g i n S p e n g l e r ' s h y p o t h e s i s t o p r e v e n t t h e i m m e d i a t e

b i r t h o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r e w h i c h w i l l r a p i d l y u s u r p t h e p l a c e

o f o u r d e c a y i n g " F a u s t i a n " c i v i l i z a t i o n . A n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s

g i v e b i r t h t o o t h e r o r g a n i s m s l i k e t h e m s e l v e s ; s o f a r a s t h e

o r g a n i c a n a l o g y i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o

p r e v e n t a n e w c u l t u r e q u i c k l y s p r i n g i n g u p t o r e p l a c e t h e

o l d . T h e w o r l d i s i n t h e t h r o e s o f g r e a t a g o n y , a n d t h e r e i s

m u c h t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p a n g s s i g n i f y t h e a p p r o a c h i n g b i r t h

o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v i s t s o c i e t y .

7 . Three Philosophi es of History

The foregoi ng criticism o f Spengler must now be con-

f i r m e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o t w o o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s . S i n c e t h e p u b -

l i c a t i o n o f The De c l in e o f t h e We s t, Pitirim A . S o r o k i n ,

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professo r of sociol ogy at Ha rvard Univ ersity, and Arnold J .

Toynbee, professor of h istory a t the University o f London,

h a v e p u b l i s h e d w o r k s o f c o mp a r a b l e e r ud i t i on an d sc op e .

W e s h a l l t e s t t h e v a l i d i t y o f o u r c r i t i c i s m b y c o m p a r i n g

Spengler's conclusions with tho se advanced by the two later

h i s t o r i a n s .

S o r o k i n , i n h i s m a s s i v e w o r k , S o c i a l a n d Cul t u r a l D y n a m i c s,

ha s s u r v e y e d s o c i o c u l t u r a l t r e n d s i n t h e G r a e c o -Rom an a n d

We st er n s o ci e ty fr o m 6 00 B . C . t o t h e p r es e n t . He a l s o h a s

m a d e b r i e f e x c u r s i o n s i n t o Eg y p t i a n, Ba b y l o n i a n, H i n d u ,

Chinese, and Arabi an cul tures . Altho ugh he pays m uch less

a t t e n t i o n t h a n Sp e n g l e r t o n o n -Eur op e an c i v i l i z a t i o n s, he

has more exhaustively stu died "cultural fluctu ations" within

this smaller compass . His analysis embraces the fluctuations

o f a r t , s c i e n c e , p h i l o s o p h y , r e l i g i o n , e t h i c s , l a w , p o l i t i c s , e c o -

nomic aff airs, wars a nd internal distu rbances (riots, revolu-

t i o n s , e t c . ) . I n t h i s t a s k , h e h a s b e e n a s s i s t e d b y a f a i r l y l a r g e

s t a f f o f s c h o l a r s , w h o h a v e a t t i m e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y c h e c k e d h i s

conclusions . Th e m e t h o d f o l l o w e d h a s n o t b e e n a n i m p r e s -

s i o n i s t i c n o t i n g o f h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s , b u t t h e m o s t s y s t e m a t i c

quantitat ive and qualita tive research .

Sorokin and Spengler of cour se agree to a certain extent .

They both recognize that ou r culture is in a very critical

state, and that in ma ny phases it i s rapidly declining. The y

discover many of the same signs o f decline, such as th e tend-

e n c y t o s u b s t i t u t e m e r e q u a n t i t y i n p l a c e o f q u a l i t y , a s i n t h e

d i z z y p u r s u i t o f s p e e d o r i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f m a m m o t h s k y -

s c r a p e r s . Although Sorokin is more cautious in his interpre-

t a t i o n , h e a n d S p e n g l e r a l s o a g r e e i n f i n d i n g a h i g h d e g r e e o f

interdependence between the various as pects of a culture .

The d i s a g r e e m e n t s , h o w e v e r , a re f u n d a m e n t a l . I n t h e f i r s t

p l a c e , S o r o k i n r e j e c t s t h e S p e n g l e r i a n t h e s i s t h a t e a c h c u l t u r e

possesses a unique "soul" isolated from the "souls" of other

c u l t u r e s . Ce r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l t y p e s o f t h o u g h t a n d b e -

havior , he believes, are found not only in ou r own, but in

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324 NO COMPROMISE

e v e r y o t h e r c u l t u r e . H i s w o r k i s l a r g e l y a s t u d y o f w h a t h e

c a l l s " I d e a t i o n a l , " " S e n s a t e , " a n d " M i x e d " f o r m s o f m e n -

t a l i t y a n d c o n d u c t . T h e I d e a t i o n a l t y p e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

m y s t i c i s m o r r e l i g i o u s " r a t i o n a l i s m , " i d e a l i s m , e t e r n a l i s m ,

r e a l i s m ( a s o p p o s e d t o n o m i n a l i s m ) , a n e t h i c s o f a b s o l u t e

p r i n c i p l e s , f e w s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s a n d i n v e n t i o n s , s t a t i c

c h a r a c t e r o f s o c i a l l i f e , s y m b o l i c a n d a b s t r a c t t e n d e n c i e s i n

a r t , e t c . T h e S e n s a t e t y p e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y e m p i r i c i s m , m a -

t e r i a l i s m , t e m p o r a l i s m , d e t e r m i n i s m , n o m i n a l i s m , a n e t h i c s

o f h a p p i n e s s a n d u t i l i t y , m a n y d i s c o v e r i e s a n d i n v e n t i o n s ,

d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r o f s o c i a l l i f e , n a t u r a l i s m a n d s e n s u a l i s m

i n t h e a r t s , e t c . T h e M i x e d t y p e r e p r e s e n t s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n

t h e s e o p p o s i t e s , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f " o t h e r - w o r l d l i n e s s " a n d

" t h i s w o r l d l i n e s s . " ( T h e s c h e m e i s s o m e w h a t l i k e W i l l i a m

J a m e s ' w e l l - k n o w n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h o u g h t i n t o t h e " t e n d e r -

minded" and the "tough-m inded . "

S o r o k i n s h o w s t h a t t h e s e t y p e s o c c u r n o t o n l y i n W e s t e r n

c u l t u r e b u t i n o t h e r c u l t u r e s a n d e v e n a t p r i m i t i v e l e v e l s .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c i v i l i z a t i o n s i s l a r g e l y a m a t t e r o f

e m p h a s i s ; H i n d u c u l t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s b e e n p r e d o m i -

n a n t l y I d e a t i o n a l a n d t h u s s t a n d s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e m o r e S e n -

s a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a c h i e v e d i n t h e W e s t . T h i s a na l y s i s d i f f e r s

f r o m S p e n g l e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t " t h e r e i s a t b o t t o m e n t i r e

d i s c r e p a n c e " b e t w e e n t h e c u l t u r e s . I t i s t r u e t h a t S p e n g l e r

r e c o g n i z e s a g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y o ff o r m

b e t w e e n h i s e i g h t c u l -

t u r e s , b u t t h e content o f c u l t u r a l l i f e i s p r e s u m e d t o b e

u n i q u e i n e a c h c a s e . S o r o k i n n o w h e r e a d v a n c e s s u c h a s h a r p

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t e n t a n d f o r m , a n d l e a v e s t h e i m p r e s -

s i o n t h a t t h e c u l t u r e s a r e a g o o d d e a l a l i k e i n b o t h f o r m a n d

c o n t e n t .

I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , S o r o k i n r e j e c t s S p e n g l e r ' s t h e o r y t h a t

e v e r y c u l t u r e i s d e s t i n e d t o p a s s t h r o u g h c h i l d h o o d , y o u t h ,

m a t u r i t y , a n d o l d a g e i n a n u n a l t e r a b l e s e q u e n c e o f p h a s e s .

A c c o r d i n g l y , h e d o e s n o t t h i n k t h a t o u r c u l t u r e i s d o o m e d

t o p e r i s h b e c a u s e i t h a s a l r e a d y r e a c h e d o l d a g e . H e m a i n -

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 325

t a i n s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s r e p r e s e n t s a

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e S e n s a t e t o t h e I d e a t i o n a l p h a s e , j u s t a s

t h e l a t e M i d d l e A g e s r e p r e s e n t e d a c r i t i c a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

t h e I d e a t i o n a l t o t h e S e n s a t e p h a s e :

S u c h a p e r i o d i s a l w a y s d i s q u i e t i n g , g r i m , c r u e l , b l o o d y , a n d

p a i n f u l . I n i t s t u r b u l e nc e i t i s a l w a y s m a r k e d b y a r e v iv a l o f t h e

r e g r e s s i v e t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e u n i n t e g r a t e d a n d d i s i n t e g r a t e d m e n -

t a l i t y . M a n y g r e a t v a l u e s a r e u s u a l l y t h r o w n t o t h e w i n d s a n d

t r o d d e n u p o n a t s u c h a t i m e . H e n c e i t s q u a l i f i c a t i o n n o w as t h e

g r e a t c r i s i s . C r i s i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t e q u i va l e n t t o e i t h e r d e c a y o r

d e a t h , a s t h e S p e n g l e r i t e s a n d c y c l i c i s t s a r e p r o n e t o i n f e r . I t

m e r e l y m e a n s a s h a r p a n d p a i n f u l t u r n i n t h e l i f e p r o c e s s o f t h e

s o c i e t y . I t d o e s n o t s i g n i f y t h e e n d o f t h e t r a v el e d r o a d o r o f t h e

t r a v e l i n g i t s e l f . W e s t e r n c u l t u r e d i d n o t e n d a f t e r t h e e n d o f i t s

I d e a t i o n a l p h a s e . L i k e w i s e , n o w w h e n i t s S e n s a t e p h a s e s e e m s t o

b e e n d i n g , i t s r o a d s t r e t c h e s f a r b e y o n d t h e " t u r n " i n t o t h e i n -

f i n i t y o f t h e f u t u r e . 6 8

I n c o n t r a s t t o S p e n g l e r ' s r i g i d t h e o r y o f c y c l i c a l r e c u r -

r e n c e , S o r o k i n ' s t h e o r y i s b a s e d u p o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e -

c u r r e n c e a n d n o v e l t y , a s i n t h e t h e m a t i c v a r i a t i o n o f a m u s i -

c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . " S o c i o c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s , " h e b e l i e v e s , " a r e

a s m a n i f o l d i n p a t t e r n a s l i f e i t s e l f , a s r i c h a n d c r e a t i v e a s

t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e h i g h e s t h u m a n g e n i u s . " 6 9 H e r e j e c t s n o t

o n l y S p e n g l e r ' s p e r i o d i c i t y f o r t h e c u l t u r e a s a w h o l e , b u t

a l s o a n y s t r i c t p e r i o d i c i t y f o r a r t , s c i e n c e , r e l i g i o n , p h i l o s -

o p h y , p o l i t i c s , a n d a l l o t h e r d i v i s i o n s o f c u l t u r e . T h e " c r e a -

t i v e - e r r a t i c " n a t u r e o f h i s t o r y i s c o n c e i v e d a s u n i v e r s a l .

I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , t h e a n a l o g y w h i c h S o r o k i n f i n d s m o s t

i n s t r u c t i v e i s n o t t h a t b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s a n d t h e o l d

a g e a n d d e a t h o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s , b u t r a t h e r t h e a n a l o g y b e -

t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t c r i t i c a l t r a n s i t i o n a n d t h e e a r l i e r c r i t i c a l

t r a n s i t i o n s w i t h i n Western culture . He demonstrates that

c r i s i s p h e n o m e n a - i n m o r a l s , r e l i g i o n , p h i l o s o p h y , s c i e n c e ,

a r t , p o l i t i c s , e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y , e t c . - w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a b u n -

d a n t t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . A g r e a t m a n y s o c i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s - w a r s ,

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326 NO COMPROMISE

r i o t s , r e v o l u t i o n s , a n d o t h e r u p r i s i n g s - o c c u r r e d i n t h e t h i r -

t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . V e r y s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s

h o l d f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m I d e a t i o n a l t o S e n s a t e c u l t u r e ,

a n d f r o m S e n s a t e t o I d e a t i o n a l , i n t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d s . A r g u i n g u p o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e

a n a l o g i e s , S o r o ki n a r r iv e s a t d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h o s e

o f S p e n g l e r . H i s t h e o r y , a s w e h a v e s e e n , " d o e s n o t p r e d i c t

e i t h e r t h e d e a t h o r d e c a y o f t h e W e s t e r n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , "

b u t d o e s p o i n t " t o t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e p r e s e n t S e n s a t e p h a s e

a n d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a g r i m t r a n s i t i o n " t o a " n e w m a g n i f i -

c e n t " I d e a t i o n a l p h a s e . " S u c h a s t a n d p o i n t r a i s e s n o f e a r

o f t h e t e m p o r a r y d e c l i n e , n o r e v e n r e g r e t s i t . " 7 0

I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t m a y b e t h a t S o r o k i n f a l l s i n t o t h e e r r o r ,

j u s t o p p o s i t e t o t h a t o f S p e n g l e r , o f e x a g g e r a t i n g t h e l i n e a r

c h a r a c t e r o f W e s t e r n h i s t o r y . H e a p p a r e n t l y f i n d s n o p r o -

f o u n d e r t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e a n d

t h e e a r l y M e d i e v a l , t h a n b e t w e e n t h e M e d i e v a l a n d t h e R e n -

a i s s a n c e . T h u s C l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e i s n o t j u d g e d a s e p a r a t e

c u l t u r e , a s i n S p e n g l e r ' s i n t e r p r e ta t i on , b u t a s o n l y t h e f i r s t

p a r t o f a s i n g l e l i n e a r d e v e l o p m e n t . W e s h a l l n o t u n d e r -

t a k e t o d i s c u s s w h e t h e r S p e n g l e r o r S o r o k i n i s m o r e n e a r l y

r i g h t i n h is i n te r p r et at io n s ; b u t i t d o e s s e e m t o u s t h a t S p e n -

g l e r e x a g g e r a t e s t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n " C l a s s i c a l " a n d

" W e s t e r n " c u l t u r e , a n d t h a t S o r o k i n e x a g g e r a t e s t h e d e g r e e

o f c o n t i n u i t y .

T h e l a t t e r h i s t o r ia n a l s o d i f f e r s f r o m t h e f o r m e r a s t o w h a t

v a l u e s s h o u l d p r e d o m i n a t e i n t h e n e x t p h a s e o f s o c i e t y .

S p e n g l e r ' s c h o i c e o f t e c h n i c s , m i l i t a r i s m , d i c t a t o r s h i p , a n d

i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n r e p r e s e n t s p r e f e r e n c e s w h i c h t o S o r o -

k i n a r e m e r e l y t h e s i g n s o f d e c a y i n a n o v e r r i p e S e n s a t e

p h a s e . T o p e r s i s t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s s i m p l y t o s p r e a d t h e r ot -

t e n n e s s , a n d t o i m p a i r t h e g r o w t h o f t h e n e w f r u i t .

S o r o k i n ' s v a l u e s , h o w e ve r , a r e t h e m s e l v e s n o t e n t i r e l y s a t -

i s f a c t o r y . H i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o r e t r e a t f r o m s c i e n c e a n d e c o -

n o m i c p l a n n i n g i n t o a h a p h a z a r d s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m r e p r e s e n t s

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE3 2 7

a t e n d e n c y n o l e s s r e g r e s s i v e t h a n S p e n g l e r ' s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t ,

S o r o k i n re a l l y j o i n s f o r c e s w i t h t h e F a s c i s t s , s i n c e t h e r e v o l t

a g a i n s t r e a s o n a n d t h e r e a c t i o n t o w a r d s " i d e a l i s m " a r e b a s i c

c h a r a c t er i s t i c s o f F a s c i s m . Y e t o u r s h a r p d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h

t h i s p h a s e o f S o r o k i n ' s t h o u g h t , w h i c h w e d o n o t h a v e s p a c e

a d e q u a t e l y t o c r i t i c i z e , s h o u l d n o t b l i n d u s t o t h e e f f e c t i v e

a t t a c k h e h a s m a d e u p o n S p e n g l e r ' s a r g u m e n t .

L e t u s n o w e x a m i n e t h e t h e o r i e s o f T o y n b e e , w h o p o s -

s e s s e s , w e b e l i e v e , a s o u n d e r s c h e m e o f v a l u e s a n d a f i n e r

m e n t a l p o i s e t h a n e i t h e r S p e n g l e r o r S o r o k i n . I n h i s i m m e n s e

w o r k , A Study of History, 7 1 a t t h e p r e s e n t w r i t i n g s t i l l u n -

c o m p l e t e d , h e c o v e r s m u c h t h e s a m e g r o u n d a s S p e n g l e r , b u t

e v e n m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . H e i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s u r v e y i n g

t h e s u c c e s s i v e c i v i l i z a t i o n s o f m a n k i n d w i t h a n e x h a u s t i v e -

n e s s w i t h o u t p a r a l l e l : s t u d y i n g t h e g e n e s e s , g r o w t h s , b r e a k -

d o w n s , i n t e r a c t i o n s , r h y t h m s , a n d p r o s p e c t s o f h u m a n s o c i e -

t i e s .

T h e m a i n o b j e c t s o f h i s s t u d y a r e " c i v i l i z a t i o n s , " w h i c h

a r e l a r g e r u n i t s t h a n c i t i e s o r n a t i o n s , a n d l e s s s t a t i c a n d

p r i m i t i v e t h a n s a v a g e s o c i e t i e s . I n h i s t e r m i n o l o g y , a " c i v i -

l i z a t i o n " h a s a b o u t t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s a " c u l t u r e " i n t h e

l a n g u a g e o f S p e n g l e r , w h o i n c o n t r a s t t o T o y n b e e r e s e r v e s

t h e t e r m " c i v i l i z a t i o n " t o d e n o t e t h e s t a g e o f c u l t u r a l d e -

c a d e n c e . A s a r e s u l t o f a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d p e r h a p s

a s o m e w h a t w i d e r s u r v e y t h a n t h a t o f h i s G e r m a n c o n t e m -

p o r a ry , h e i d e n t i f i es t w en t y - o n e f u l l - f l e d g e d c i v i l i z a t i on s , a n d

s e v e r a l t h a t o n l y p a r t l y e m e r g e f r o m t h e i r p r i m i t i v e b a c k -

g r o u n d s , s u c h a s t h e i n c h o a t e s o c i e t i e s o f t h e P o l y n e s i a n s

a n d t h e e a r l y S c a n d i n a v i a n s a n d I r i s h . H e s u p p l i e s a n u n -

u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e b a s i s f o r h i s t o r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n .

H e a g r e e s w i t h S p e n g l e r t h a t o u r W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n i s

" r u s h i n g d o w n a s t e ep p l a c e i n t o t h e s e a . " 7 2 Y e t h e r e t a i ns h o p e

t h a t t h i s h e a d l o n g d e s c e n t c a n b e s t o p p e d , a n d s h o w s n o t r a c e

o f S p e n g l e r ' s f e e l i n g o f p r e d e s t i n a t i o n . O n e r e a s o n f o r h i s

d i f f e r e n t a t t i tu d e i s t h a t h i s p r e m i s e s a r e q ui t e d i f f e r e n t . H e

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3 2 8 NO COMPROMISE

r e j e c t s t h e S p e n g l e r i a n t h e s i s t h a t c u l t u r e s a r e , i n a l i t e r a l

s e n s e , o r g a n i s m s , a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g d o g m a t h a t t h e y l i v e

a n d d i e l i k e a n i m a l s . H i s " c i v i l i z a t i o n s " d o n o t d e v e l o p

u n i q u e s o u l s i n v a c u o l i ke t h e " c u l t u r e s " o f S p e n g l e r . R a t h e r ,

t h e y e v o l v e i n c o n f l i c t a n d c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , a n d

s h a r e f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . " T h e v a r i e t y t h a t i s m a n i -

f e s t e d i n H u m a n N a t u r e a n d i n h u m a n l i f e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , "

h e d e c l a r e s , " i s a s u p e r f i c i a l p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h m a s k s , w i t h -

o u t i m p a i r i n g , a n u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y . "73

T h i s s e n s e o f t h e u n i t y o f m a n ki n d , h e b e l i e v e s , i s t h e m a in

e l e m e n t i n a s t a t e o f m i n d p r o d u c e d b y t h e e m e r g i n g w o r l d -

o r d e r . " I n t h e n e w a g e , " h e p o i n t s o u t , " t h e d o m i n a n t n o t e

i n t h e c o r p o r a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o m m u n i t i e s i s a s e n s e o f

b e i n g p a r t s o f s o m e l a r g e r u ni v e r s e , w h e r e a s , i n t h e a g e w h i c h

i s n o w o v e r , t h e d o m i n a n t n o t e i n t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s

a n a s p i r a t i o n t o b e u ni v e r s e s i n t h e m s e l v e s . " 7 4 T h o u g h c a p i -

t a l i s t i c i n d u s t r i a l i s m a n d n a t i o n a l i s m a r e s t i l l v e r y p o w e r f u l

f o r c e s i n o u r W e s t e r n s o c i e t y , t h e n e w s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c

p r o c e s s e s h a v e d o o m e d t h e o l d o r d e r b y f a s h i o n i n g a c l o s e

w e b o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . M e n m u s t t h e r e f o r e s t r i v e f o r a

s y n t h e s i s o f f o r c e s , a n d t h i n k e r s m u s t s e e k " t o e n v i s a g e a n d

c o m p r e h e n d t h e w h o l e o f L i f e . '1 7 5 T o y n b e e t h u s s t a n d s a t

t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e f r o m S p e n g l e r : h e a p p a r e n t l y h a s n o n e o f

t h e l a t t e r ' s p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t a p l a n n e d c o o p e r a t i v e a n d i n -

t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m o n w e a l t h ; a l t h o u g h , l i k e m a n y l i b e r a l s , h e

d i s l i k e s s o m e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d t o a c h i e v e

S o c i a l i s m i n S o v i e t R u s s i a .

H i s c i r c u m s p e c t s u r v e y o f h i s t o r y d i f f e r s p r o f o u n d l y f r o m

w h a t h e r i g h t l y t e r m s t h e " o v e r e m p h a s i s a n d h y p e r - d o g m a -

t i s m " t h a t m a r S p e n g l e r ' s a c c o u n t . 7 6 T h o u g h h e d e t e c t s c e r -

t a i n g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , h e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t c i v i -

l i z a t i o n s d i f f e r g r e a t l y i n t h e i r c r i s e s a n d l i f e s p a n s . H e

promises to s how in a futur e volume that a "Time of

T r o u b l e s " h a s r e p e a t e d l y j e o p a r d i z e d c i v i l i z a t i o n s b u t w i t h

w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t c o n s e q u e n c e s : s o m e s o c i e t i e s h a v e b e e n

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 329

c r u s h e d a n d h a v e s u n k f r u i t l e s s l y t o t h e i r d e a t h ; o t h e r s h a v e

s u m m o n e d t h e e n e r g y t o m e e t t h e c h a l l e n g e , a n d i n t h e v e r y

a c t o f s t r u g g l e h a v e a c h i e v e d a r e n a i s s a n c e ; s t i l l o th e r s , i n

g o i n g d o w n t o d e s t r u c t i o n , h a v e g i v e n b i r t h t o v i g o r o u s c i v i -

l i z a t i o n s . H e n c e a c r i s i s l i k e t h a t o f W e s t e r n s o c i e t y n ee d n o t

p r o v e f a t a l ; o r i f i t d o e s , t h e o r d e a l o f d e a t h m a y b e a c c o m -

p a n i e d b y t h e t r a u m a o f b i r t h .

T h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s , w h i c h t h u s y i e l d s a r e n a i s s a n c e o r a

n e w c i v i l i z a t i o n , e x h i b i t s a r h y t h m i c a l p a t t e r n t o w h i c h

T o y n b e e g i v e s t h e n a m e " C h a l l e n g e - a n d - R e s p o n s e . " T h e i n -

t e g r a t i o n o f c u s t o m i s d i s t u r b e d b y a s e v e r e b l o w o r p r e s s u r e :

t h e r e s u l t i s t h a t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m i s s h a t t e r e d b y a d i f f e r e n -

t i a t i o n a n d c l a s h o f f o r c e s ; f i n a l l y , a f t e r m u c h s t r u g g l e , t h e

c o n f l i c t i s a b a t e d b y f r e s h e q u i l i b r a t io n t h a t g i v e s t o l i f e a

n e w e s s e n c e . " I n t h e l a n g u a g e o f M y t h o l o g y , w h e n o n e o f

G o d ' s c r e a t u r e s i s t e m p t e d b y t h e D e v i l , G o d H i m s e l f i s

t h e r e b y g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y - t o r e c r e a t e t h e W o r l d . " 7 7

T o y n b e e s h o w s t h a t t h i s i s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e l e g e n d o f

A d a m a n d E v e , o f J o b , o f J e s u s o f N a z a r e t h , o f F a u s t a n d

Gretch en, of Hippol ytus a nd Phaedra, and of Hoder and

B a l d e r . M a n y s o c i e t i e s h a v e s e n s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s

r h y t h m i c a l t e r n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t a t i c a n d t h e d y n a m i c , a n d

h a v e g i v e n t o t h e p r o c e s s s p e c i a l n a m e s t o d e n o t e i t s d u a l

p h a s e s : a s , f o r e x a m p l e , Y i n g a n d Y a n g , L o v e a n d H a t e , G o d

a n d D e v i l . T h o u g h T o y n b e e d o e s n o t r e m a r k t h e f a c t , t h i s

r h y t h m w a s de sc r i bed a t len g t h b y He ge l and Ma r x : h i s

" i n t e g r a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , r e i n t e g r a t i o n " c o r r e s p o n d t o

t h e i r " t h e s i s , a n t i t h e s i s , s y n t h e s i s . "

Y e t t h e E n g l i s h h i s t o r i a n h a s m a d e a u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n

i n e l u c i d a t i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f C h a l l e n g e - a n d - R e s p o n s e w i t h

a b u n d a n t e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e a n n a l s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . H e s h o w s

t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e s h a v e b e e n o f s u c h d i v e r s e t y p e s a s s l a v e r y ,

c a s t e , r e l i g i o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w a r a n d b o r d e r c o n f l i c t , m i -

g r a t i o n o v e r s e a s , t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t h a r d c o u n t r y , a n d t h e

s h i f t i n g o f c l i m a t i c z o n e s . The main advances occur when

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330 NO COMPROMISE

d a n g e r o r h a r d s h i p s h a t t e r m e n ' s c o m p o s u r e w i t h o u t s a p p i n g

t h e i r s t r e n g t h . G r e a t e x t r e m e s o f d i f f i c u l t y m a y b e j u s t a s u n -

f a v o r a b l e a s t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r em e s o f e a s e ; but if the strength

c a n b e s u m m o n e d t o m e e t a c r i s i s , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a f f o r d e d

is of great significance .

T h e r e i s o n e t y p e o f s t i m u l u s t h a t i s e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t t o

t h e cr i t i ca l pr o b l em o f Wes t er n ci v i l i z a t i o n . Wh e n a s o c i e t y

begins to decay, a challenge is presented to th e lower orders

w h o h a v e n o "s t a k e " i n t h e s t a t u s q u o :

. . . T h e a i l i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n p a y s t h e p e n a l t y f o r i t s f a i l u r e o f v i -

t a l i t y b y b e c o m i n g d i s i n t e g r a t e d i nt o a d o m i n a n t m i n o r i t y w h i c h

attempts to find a substitute fo r its vanishing leadership in a re-

g i m e o f f o r c e , a n d a p r o l e t a r i a t ( i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l ) w h i c h

responds to this challenge by becoming consci ous that it has a

s o u l o f i t s o w n a n d b y m a k i n g u p i t s m i n d t o s a v e i t s s o u l a l i v e .

The dominant minority 's will to repress evokes in the proletari at

a w i l l t o s e c e de ; a n d t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o w i l l s c o n -

tinues while the declining civilization verges to its fa ll .. . . I n

t h i s c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n a p r o l e t a r i a t a n d a d o m i n a n t m i n o r i t y . . .

w e c a n d i s c e r n o n e o f t h o s e d r a m a t i c s p i r i t u a l e n c o u n t e r s w h i c h

r e n e w t h e w o r k o f c r e a t i o n b y c a r r y i n g t h e l i f e o f t h e U n i v e r s e

o u t o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n o f a u t u m n t h r o u g h t h e p a i n s o f w i n t e r i n t o

t h e f e r m e n t o f s p r i n g . 7 8

T h r o u g h t h e s t r u g g l e s o f t h e pr o l et a r ia t , a n ew s o ci e ty i s

c o n c e i v e d a n d b o r n . As To y n b e e p r o m i s e s t o s h o w i n V o l u m e

Fi v e, t h i s m o de o f cr ea t i o n h a s b een r epea t edl y t es t ed o u t i n

t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f h i s t o r y . Th u s t o ci t e b u t a s i ng l e exa m pl e,

o u r W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n w a s c r e a t e d b y t h e Ch r i s t i a n s a n d

the Barbar ians, the "internal" and the "external" proletari at

o f t h e G r a eco -Ro m a n s o ci et y i n i t s l a s t ph a s e .

O n e h a r d l y n e e d s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t s u c h a c h a l l e n g e c o n -

f r o nt s t h e "pr o l et a r i a t" o f t o da y . Capitali stic civili zatio n is

i n h e a d l o n g d e c l i n e , a n d t h e r e v o l t o f t h e m a s s e s h a s c o m -

m e n c e d i n d e a d e a r n e s t . T h i s f a c t f u l l y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e c o n -

ditions that inspire Spengler's eloquent propheci es of disin-

t e g r a t i o n a n d d e a t h . Wh a t T o y n b e e r e v e a l s a n d S p e n g l e r

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 3 3 1

f a i l s t o p e r c e i v e i s t h a t t h e s e v e r y c o n d i t i o n s p r o v i d e a s u p e r -

lative challenge to the creativ e energies of our age . A l r e a d y

t h e f o r c e s a r e d i v i d i n g : t h e d o m i n a n t m i n o r i t y r e l y u p o n

f o r c e a n d d e m a g o g u e r y , t h e m a j o r i t y a r e s l o w l y a w a k e n i n g

t o n e w va l u e s a n d i d e a l s . W h a t t h e f i n a l r e s u l t w i l l b e n o o n e

c a n p r e c i s e l y f o r e t e l l , f o r " t h e o u t c o m e o f a n e n c o u n t e r c a n -

n o t b e p r e d i c t e d a n d h a s n o a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g p r e d e t e r -

m i n e d , b u t a r i s e s , i n t h e l i k e ne s s o f a n e w c r e a t i o n , o u t o f t h e

e n c o u n t e r i t s e l f . " 7 9 W e o n l y k n o w t h a t t h e v e r y f o r c e s t h a t

c r e a t e t h e d a n g e r a l s o c r e a t e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y .

I f w e t u r n f r o m T o y n b e e ' s a n a l y s i s o f o u r p r e s e n t c r i s i s ,

t o h i s h i n t s a s t o w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e , w e a g a i n f i n d h i m a t

v a r i a n c e w i t h S p e n g l e r . W h e r e a s t h e G e r m a n h a i l s t h e " r e -

t u r n o f t h e C a e s a r s " a s o f f e r i n g t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e r e l e a s e f o r

o u r e n e r g i e s , T o y n b e e p r o v e s t h a t m i l i t a r i s m , e v e n w h e n a c -

companied by geographical expansion, is th e commonest

c a u s e o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f c i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d o f t h e d e g r a d a -

t i o n of l i f e . 8 0 O n e o f h i s m o s t i n s t r u c t i v e c h a p t e r s r e c o u n t s

t h e p a r a l y s i s t h a t c r e p t o v e r t h e S p a r t a n s t a t e , w h o s e m i l i t a r y

s u c c e s s e s a n d F a s c i s t - l i k e d i c t a t o r s h i p d o o m e d i t t o m e d i -

o c r i t y a n d d e c a y . A s i m i l a r f a t e d e s t r o y e d t h e A s s y r i a n s t a t e,

t h e O t t o m a n e m p i r e , t h e l a t e E g y p t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d a

n u m b e r o f o t h e r s o c i e t i e s .

I n a n o t h e r w o r k , t h e Survey of International Affairs : 1 933,

T o y n b e e a t t a c k s G e r m a n F a s c i s m a s a r e v e r s i o n t o f o r c e a n d

" t r i b a l i s m . " H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e " p a g a n w o r s h i p o f a p a -

r o c h i a l c o m m u n i t y w h i c h w a s t h e r e l i g i o n o f H e r r H i t l e r a n d

h i s f o l l o w e r s , " h a s h a d t r a g i c p a r a l l e l s :

T h i s h a d b e e n t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e r e l i g i o n o f P r i m i t iv e M a n ;

a n d c e r t a i n h u m a n s o c i e t i e s h a d s e v e r a l t i me s c a r r i e d t h i s p r i m i -

t i v e r e l i g i o n w i t h t h e m - t h o u g h t h i s a l w a y s w i t h f a t a l c o n s e -

quences-after e n t e r i ng u p o n t h e e n t e r p r i s e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . 8 1

I n h i s c o m p a n i o n v o l u m e , S u r v e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s :

1935,h e i n d i c a t e s t h a t I t a l i a n a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t E t h i o p i a

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332 NO COMPROMISE

w a s a l s o a n e x p r e s s i o n o f c u l t u r a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s . T h e r e

c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n t h a t h e , u n l i k e S p e n g l e r , c o n d e m n s F a s -

c i s m a s a t y p e o f c u l t u r a l r e g r e s s i o n .

T h e t w o h i s t o r i a n s a l s o d i v e r g e i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

t e c h n o l o g y . S p e n g l e r r e g a r d s t e c h n i c s a s t h e b e s t r e f u g e f o r

t h e e n f e e b l e d i n t e l l e c t s o f t h e p r e s e n t a g e ; w h e r e a s T o y n b e e

b e l i e v e s t h a t m o r a l n e e d s , i n s t e a d o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e -

ments, are now param ount . W e h a v e t h e e s s e n t i a l t e c h n i c s

t h a t w e r e q u i r e ; o u r t r o u b l e i s t h a t " t h e n e w - w o n p o w e r s

a n d t h e n e w - m a d e a p p a r a t u s " a r e b e i n g p r o s t i t u t e d t o t h e

a n t i s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f " W a r a n d T r i b a l i s m a n d S l a v e r y a n d

P r o p e r t y . " S 2 W h a t o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n n e e d s , t h e r e f o r e , i s a

p r o f o u n d s p i r i t u a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n : l e s s s t r e s s u p o n q u a n t i t y

a n d m o r e u p o n q u a l i t y ; l e s s r e g a r d f o r b a r e m ec h a n i c a l e f f i -

c i e n c y , a n d m o r e c o n c e r n f o r e s t h e t i c a n d m o r a l s e n s i t i v e -

n e s s . T o y n b e e w a r n s u s t h a t t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i f

u n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d

r e f i n e m e n t , i s b u t t h e s y m p t o m o f s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n .

I f w e s h o u l d v e n t u r e t o c r i t i c i z e T o y n b e e , w e m i g h t q u e s -

t i o n h i s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e g o a l o f s o c i e t y . T h e i d e a l o f

g r o w t h i s n o t , a s h e h a s s a i d , t o s h i f t t h e a c t i o n f r o m " t h e

f i e l d o f t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t - w h e t h e r p h y s i c a l o r h u -

m an- t o t he f o r i n t e r i e u r o f t h e g r o w i n g p e r s o n a l i t y o r t h e

g r o w i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n . " 83 A w i s e r i d e a l , w e b e l i e v e , h a s b e e n

e n u n c i a t e d b y t h e G e r m a n e s t h e t i c i a n , K a r l B i i c h e r , w h o

h o p e s " t h a t i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o u n i t e t e c h n i c s a n d a r t i n a

h i g h e r r h y t h m i c a l u n i t y , w h i c h w i l l r e s t o r e t o t h e s p i r i t t h e

f o r t u n a t e s e r e n i t y a n d t o t h e b o d y t h e h a r m o n i o u s c u l t i v a -

t i o n t h a t m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e i r b e s t a m o n g p r i m i t i v e

p e o p l e s . " S 4 T h e u n i o n o f t h e i n n e r a n d t h e o u t e r , o f m a t t e r

a n d s p i r i t ; t h e i d e a l o f s a t i s f y i n g t h e w h o l e m a n t h r o u g h t h e

i n t eg r a t io n o f t e c h n i c s , s c i e n c e , a n d p o l i t ic s , w i th a r t , e t h i c s ,

a n d a n u n s u p e r s t i t i o u s r e l i g i o n : t h i s i s t h e r a t i on a l g o a l a n d

t h e l o g i c a l c u l m i n a t i o n o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n .

I n p u r s u i n g t h i s g o a l , w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t p a s t s o -

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THE PROSPECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE 333

c i e t i e s have also f a c e d supreme c r i s e s a n d d e s p a i r e d o f t h e

lives of their cultures . Ty p i c a l o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e M i d -

d l e Ag e s t o t h e Re n a i s s a n c e i s t h e d e s p a i r i n g c r y o f t h e

F r e n c h p o e t , D e s c h a m p s :

T i m e o f m o u r n i n g a n d o f t e m p t a t i o n, Ag e o f t e a r s, o f e n v y

a nd o f t o r m ent, Ti m e o f l a ng u o r a nd o f da m na t i o n, Age o f de-

cline nigh to the end, Time full of horro r which does all t hings

f a l s e l y, L y i n g a g e, f u l l o f p r i d e a n d o f e n v y, Ti m e w i t h o u t h o n -

o u r a nd w i t h o u t t r u e j udg m ent, Age o f s a dnes s w h i ch s h o r t ens

l i f e . 8 5

Bu t t h e h u m a n s p i r i t r a l l i e d f r o m s u c h p e s s i m i s m t o e n d u r e

the birth pangs of a new age . We m u s t o u r s e l v e s e n g a g e w i t h -

o u t f e a r i n a l i k e c r e a t i v e o r d e a l .

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X

THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS

No auguring mind can doubt that deeds which root

I n s t e a d i e s t p u r p o s e o n l y , w i l l e f f e c t

D e l i v e r a n ce f r o m a w o r l d - c a l a m i t y

As dark as any in the vault s of Time .

-THOMAS HARDY 1

i . Ei t h e r W e o r T h e y

THE f u t u r e e x i s t e n c e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n a n i m -

m e n s e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f n e w t h o u g h t a n d e n e r g y . M a n y o f t h e

o l d i d e a l s , s u r v i v i n g f r o m a p r e i n d u s t r i a l a g e , d o n o t f i t a n

e n v i r o n m e n t f a b r i c a t e d b y c o l o s s a l t r u s t s , c o m b i n e s , b u r e a u -

c r a c i e s , a g e n c i e s o f p r o p a g a n d a , i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s o f

l a b o r , a n d i m p e r i a l i s t i c a g g r e g a t i o ns o f c a p i t a l . P o l i t i c a l c o n -

t r o l i s s t i l l l a r g e l y m o d e l e d u p o n a p r e s c i e n t if i c p a t t e rn ; a n

e c o n o m y o f s c a r c i t y p e r s i s t s i n a n a g e o f p o t e n t i a l a b u n d a n c e;

m o r a l s h a v e n o t k e p t p a c e w i t h t h e f u r i o u s t e m p o o f m e c h a n -

i c a l a d v a n c e m e n t ; r e l i g i o n i s p o w e r l e s s t o s t e m t h e s a v a g e r y

o f w a r o r t h e r u t h l e s s n e s s o f e c o n o m i c s t r u g g l e . T e c h n o l o g -

i c a l c h a n g e h a s b e e n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r a p i d b u t s o c i a l i n s t i -

t u t i o n s h a v e r e m a i n e d r e l a t i ve l y s t a t i c ; t h e c o n s e q u e n c e i s a

f u n d a m e n t a l d i s h a r m o n y a t t h e v e r y h e a r t o f m o d e r n c i v i -

l i z a t i o n . M e n w o u l d l i k e t o r e l y u p o n t h e o l d m o r a l i z i n g

a g e n c i e s - t h e f a m i l y , t h e c h u r c h , t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d , a n d t h e

c o m m u n i t y ; b u t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e p e r h a p s m o r e i n s e c u r e

a n d i n e f f e c t i v e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e i n h i s t o r y . H e n c e t h e m i g h t

o f n e w i d e a l s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s m u s t b e e n l i s t e d t o c u r b t h e

b a tt al i on s o f d i s a s te r . W h a t I s a y i s t r i te , b u t s o l o n g a s m i l -

l i o n s p e r s i s t i n f o l l y , t h e f a c t s m u s t b e r e e m p h a s i z e d .

I n v i e w o f t h e e v i d e n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e , w e c a n n o t

l o o k t o F a s c i s m f o r t h e s a l v a g i n g o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . T h e

F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s h i p s , w e c a n s a f e l y c o n c l u d e , d o n o t p r o v i d e

t h e m e n t a l i t y w h i c h i s s o d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d e d ; t h e y i n s t e a d

3 3 4

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 335

c o n s t i t u t e t h e s u p r e m e t h r e a t t o c i v i l i z a t i o n - t h e e x p r e s s i o n

o f i r r a t i o n a l a n d u n b r i d l e d p o w e r u p o n a g r a n d s c a l e . M i l -

l i o n s a r e w o n d e r i n g i f t o m o r r o w t h e y s h a l l n o t b e c a l l e d

u p o n t o f i g h t a n d p e r h a p s t o d i e i n a w a r b r u t a l l y i n s t i g a t e d

b y i r r e s p o n s i b l e d i c t a t o r s . B y t h e t i m e t h i s p a g e i s r e a d , a n -

o t h e r v a s t w a r m a y b e r e a p i n g i t s g h a s t l y h a r v e s t . E v e n if w a r

i s t e m p o r a r i l y a v e rt e d , t h e t h r e a t o f w o rl d c a l a m i t y i s s o g r e a t

a n d s o s i n i s t e r t h a t i t c a n b e c h e c k e d o n l y b y t h e r e s o l u t e

a n d c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n o f a l l m e n o f g o o d w i l l . M a n k i n d h a s

n e v e r f a c e d a g r e a t e r c r i s i s .

T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l e s s e n c e o f t h i s c r i s i s c a n n o w b e b r i e f l y

summarized . T h e w o r l d i s c o n f r o n t e d b y a c l a s h b e t w e e n t w o

i r r e c o n c i l a b l e i d e a l s : hu m an i s m and an t i h u m an i s m . T h e h u -

m a n i s t i c i d e a l , w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t s o f

W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , i s b a s e d u p o n t h e G r e e k i d e a l o f i n t e l -

l e c t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n i d e a l o f d e m o c r a t i c

s h a r i n g . S c i e n c e p u t t o t h e s e r v i c e o f h u m a n w e l f a r e ; l i f e " m o -

t i v a t e d b y l o v e a n d g u i d e d b y k n o w l e d g e " - h e r e i s a n i d e a l

a s o l d a s c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d a s n e w a s t h e p e r p e t u a l l y s h i f t i n g

h o r i z o n o f e x p e r i e n c e . T h e a n t i h u m a n i s t i c i d e a l , w h i c h r e -

v i v e s a s n a t i o n s p l u n g e d o w n w a r d t o w a r d s b a r b a r i s m , i s b u t

t h e a n c i e n t c o d e o f t r i b a l i s m r e n d e r e d n o w m o r e d e a d l y b y

t h e h e l l i s h e f f i c i e n c y o f l e t h a l i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e p i t i l e s s

d i c t a t o r s h i p o f t h e P o w e r S t a t e . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s a n t i -

h u m a n i s t i c m o v e m e n t c a n b e a n a l y z e d a s f o l l o w s :

F i r s t , t h e F a s c i s t s d e n y t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t r u t h . The y

s e v e r e l y l i m i t o r r e j e c t t h e i d e a l o f s c i e n t if i c o b j e c t i v i t y a n d

s u b s t i t u t e t h e " w i l l a n d s t r e n g t h " e m b o d i e d i n " m y t h , " i n

" i n t u i t i o n , " i n " i n s t i n c t , " i n r a c i a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t i c p a s -

s i o n s . T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u b l i c o f l e a r n i n g , c r e a t e d b y

t h i n k e r s o f e v e r y r a c e a n d n a t i o n , i s r e n o u n c e d a n d e v e n r e -

v i l e d b y a u t h o r i t a t i v e F a s c i s t s p o k e s m e n . I n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e g -

r i t y i s s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e c u n n i n g a r t s o f t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t .

S e c o n d , t h e F a s c i s t s d e n y t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f v a l u e s . T h e y

d i s c a r d t h e i d e a l o f m o r a l o b j e c t i v i t y , a n d c o n d e m n t h e l i b -

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3 3 6NO COMPROMISE

e r a l a t t e m p t , b y m e a n s o f s c i e n c e a n d p e r s u a s i o n , t o c o m p o s e

t h e b i t t e r c o n f l i c t s i n h u m a n i d e a l s . T h e y d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e

o f v a l i d , u n i v e r s a l n o r m s ; t h e y r e f u s e t o b e j u s t a n d i m p a r -

t i a l ; t h e y e x a l t a n d a l m o s t w o r s h i p t h e i r o w n p r e j u d i c e s -

t h e b i a s e s o f r a c e , n a t i on , s e x , c l a s s , a n d c r e e d ; t h e y v i l i f y

a n d p e r s e c u t e t h o s e g r o u p s a n d i n t e r e s t s w h i c h b e l i e v e i n

f a i r n e s s , e q u al i t y , t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f f o r e i g n va l u e s , t h e u l t i-

m a t e u n i t y o f m a n k i n d .

T h i r d , t h e F a s c i s t s w o r s h i p t h e p a r o c h i a l c o m m u n i t y .

T h e y h a v e c r e a t e d a n e w c o l l e c t i v i s m , n a r r o w , i n t o l e r a n t ,

a n d r e p r e s s i v e . W h e t h e r t h e o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p b e c a l l e d t h e

S t a t e o r t h e R a c e , t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n " c o m m u n i t y " i s p r i m a r i l y

t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e s e l f i s h n e s s , o p p o s e d t o t h e s u p e r -

n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , a n d e q u a l l y o p p o s e d

t o t h e f r e e d o m o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s . F a s c i s m a f f o rd s n o

r i c h a n d i n c l u s i v e u n i t y , b u t a m o n o t o n o u s u n i f o r m i t y . O n l y

a s e r v i l e mi n d c o u l d r e g a r d t h i s s e r v i l e s o c i e t y a s t h e h i g h e s t

o f v a l u e s .

F o u r t h , t h e F a s c i s t s d e f e n d i n e q u a l i t y a n d c l a s s d i s t i n c -

t i o n s . T h e y c o n d e m n t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f r i g h t s , d u t i e s , a n d

p r i v i l e g e s w h i c h m u s t u n d e r l i e a n y s y s t e m o f d e m o c r a t i c

s h a r i n g . R e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e m b a t t l e d f o r c e s o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n -

i s m , t h e y r a n g e t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e s i d e o f t h e F e w a g a i n s t t h e

M a n y . T h e i r i l l i b e r a l t a c t i c s , m o r e o v e r , a r e u n r e d e e m e d b y

t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c v i r t u e s o f t h e s c i e n t i s t a n d t h e e x p e r t ; t h e i r

i d e a l i s l i k e t h a t o f a n c i e n t S p a r t a , t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f a m i l i -

t a r y e l i t e a n d t h e r u l e o f m a r t i a l l a w .

F i f t h , t h e F a s c i s t s r e v i ve t h e c u l t o f m i l i t ar i s m . N o t l o n g

a f t e r t h e m o s t t e r r i b l e w a r i n h i s t o r y , t h e y r e s o l v e u p o n

i m p e r i a l i s t i c e x p a n s i o n a s t h e g o a l o f t h e n a t io n a l i s t i c w i l l -

t o - p o w e r , a n d a g a i n a n d a g a i n p r o c l a i m t h a t w a r i s t h e d y n a -

m i s m b e h i n d s o c i a l a d v a n c e m e n t . A t n o o t h e r p e r i o d i n m o d -

e r n t i m e s h a s t h e r e l i g i o n o f w a r b e e n s o b r a z e n l y p r o f e s s e d .

T h e d a m a g e f r o m s u c h m i l i t a r i s m , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e t e r -

r i f i c s u f f e r i n g i n Et h i o p i a , S p a i n , a n d C h i n a , i s i n c a l c u l a b l y

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 337

g r e a t . E v e n i f a h u g e i n t e r n a t i o n a l w a r i s n a r r o w l y a v e r t e d ,

t h i s " p e a c e " i s a f r a u d a n d a c h e a t . I t i s a c c o m p a n i e d b y

c r i s i s a f t e r c r i s i s; b y t h e t e n s i o n a n d w a s t e o f a h u g e a r m a -

m e n t s r a c e ; b y w a r e n m i t y , w a r c e n s o r s h i p , w a r r e p r e s s i o n .

T h e a n t i h u m a n i s t i c o u t l o o k o f F a s c i s m i n e v i t a b l y f i n d s e x -

p r e s s i o n in s t r i f e .

S i x t h , t h e F a s c i s t s e m p l o y t h e m a s k o f i d e a l i s m t o c o n c e a l

t h e b i t t e r t r u t h . M u c h o f t h e a p p e a l o f F a s c i s m d e p e n d s u p o n

i t s s u p p o s e d o p p o s i t i o n t o m a t e r i a l i s m , b u t i t s i d e a l i s m i s

l i k e t h e e s p r i t o f a m i l i t a r y c o r p s : i t r e e n f o r c e s a g g r e s s i v e i n -

t e n t a n d o v e r w e e n i n g c h a u v i n i s m , a n d d i v e r t s a t t e n t i o n f r o m

m i s e r y a n d p r e d a t o r y i n t e r e s t s . I t s m e t a p h y s i c s , r e l i g i o n ,

e s t h e t i c s , a n d r u r a l i s m c a n n o t w h o l l y d i s g u i s e t h e p r i n c i p l e

u p o n w h i c h i t o p e r a t e s : "man a wol f to ma n . " U n d e r t h e

s y s t e m o f t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , n o a c t i v i t y , h o w e v e r " i d e a l i s t i c , "

is exempt fr om censorsh ip, regimentat ion, and triba l

d i s c i p l i n e .

I f w e s h o u l d t r y t o c o n d e n s e i n t o a s i n g l e f o r m u l a t h e

e s s e n c e o f F a s c i s m , w e s h o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t i t i s t h e d e n i a l

o f u n i v e r s a l i t y . T h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t r u t h , o f v a l u e , o f l a w ,

o f h u m a n r i g h t s - i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f m a n k i n d -

i s r e j e c t e d i n f a v o r o f t h e p a r t i s a n s h i p o f r a c e , n a t i o n , a n d

c l a s s . B y a d i a l e c t i c a l n e c e s s i t y , t h e h u m an i s t ic o r a n t i - F a s c i s t

f o r c e s m u s t d e f e n d t h e o p p o s i t e s t a n d p o i n t : t h e y m u s t p u t

t h e i r t r u s t i n h u m a ni t y , j u s t i c e , g o o d w i l l , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A s o p p o s e d t o t h e F a s c i s t " r e v o l t a g a i n s t r e a-

s o n , " t h e y m u s t d e f e n d t h e i d e a l o f c r i t i c i s m , o f o b j e c t i v i t y ,

o f p e r s u a s i o n , o f u n f e t t er e d r e s e a r c h , o f u n i v er s a l s c i e n c e . A s

o p p o s e d t o t h e d e f e n s e o f c l a s s s t r a ti f i c a t io n , t h e y m u s t s t r iv e

t o c r e a t e a t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e f u l l r e s o u r c e s

o f h u m a n i t y w i l l b e p u t t o t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e m a x i m u m w e l -

f a r e . T h e h u m a n i s t i c i d e a l m u s t b e t h e i n t e g r a l p e r s o n a l i t y

n o u r i s h e d b y t h e u ni v er s a l c u l t u r e : n a t i o n s n o l o n g e r a t l o g -

g e r h e a d s , p e o p l e s n o l o n g e r d i v i d e d i n t o e x p l o i t e r s a n d e x -

p l o i t e d , p e r s o n a l i t i e s n o l o n g e r m a i m e d b y w a n t o r t y r a n n y :

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338NO COMPROMISE

" t h e h a r m o n y o f e n d u r i n g i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s c o n n e c t e d i n t h e

u n i t y o f a b a c k g r o u n d . "

I f e a r t h a t t h i s c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n h u m a n i s m a n d a n t i -

h u m a n i s m , b e t w e e n t h e d e m o c r a t i c a n d t h e F a s c i s t i d e a l ,

m a y s e e m t o b e d r a m a t i c a l l y h e i g h t e n e d . Y e t a s o n e r e a d s H i t -

l e r ' s Mein Kampf, o r R o s e n b e r g ' s D e r M y t h u s d e s 2 0 . J a h r -

h u n d e r t s , o r M u s s o l i ni ' s a rt i c l e i n t h e E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a ,

t h e c o n t r a s t a p p e a r s q u i t e a s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a s I h a v e d e -

s c r i b e d i t . M y c o n c l u s i o n s , i n f a c t , a r e g r e a t l y r e i n f o r c e d b y

t h e b o o k o f A u r e l K o l n a i , The War Agai nst t he West? This

c o m p e n d i o u s w o r k , w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s t h e t h e o r y o f s c o r e s o f

a u t h o r i t a t i v e N a z i b o o k s , i s a v e r i t a b l e c h a m b e r o f h o r r o r s ,

c o m p a r e d w i t h w h i c h m y o w n d o c u m e n t a t i o n i s m i l d . I n d e -

s c r i b i n g t h e N a z i Weltanscha uung, K o l n a i i s i n d i c a t i n g t h e

m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f F a s c i s m ; f o r I t a l i a n F a s c i s m i s n o

l o n g e r i n t h e v a n g u a r d o f t h e F a s c i s t m o v e m e n t , a n d G e r m a n

F a s c i s m i s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m a i n t e n o r o f t h e m o v e m e n t . T h e

s l a v i s h w a y i n w h i c h t h e I t a l i a n s p o k e s m e n a r e i m i t a t i n g t h e

r a c i a l i d e a s i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s u p i n e m a n n e r i n w h i c h

M u s s o l i n i h a s a l l o w e d H i t l e r t o s e i z e A u s t r i a a n d t h e r e b y t o

d e s t r o y a f i e l d o f I t a l i a n i n f l u e n c e a n d e x p a n s i o n , a r e b u t

t w o i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t G e r m a n y i s n o w e x e r c i s i n g t h e p r i n c i -

p a l i n i t i a ti v e . Y e t e v e n b e f o r e H i t l e r b e c a m e t h e g e n e r a l i s -

s i m o o f t h e F a s c i s t c a m p , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n D e m o c r a c y

a n d F a s c i s m w a s e v i d e n t . M u s s o l i n i w a s b u t s t a t i n g a s o b e r

f a c t w h e n h e d e c l a r e d i n h i s f a m o u s P a l a z z o V e n e z i a s p e e c h

on Octob er 8, 1921 : "The strug gle between two wo rlds

[Democracy and Fascism] can permit no compromise . . . .

E i t h e r W e o r T h e y ! "

2 . The Need of Uni ted Actio n

E v e n i n " i s o l a t e d " A m e r i c a , w e m u s t n o t l u l l o u r s e l v e s

i n t o a f a l s e s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a n t i d e mo -

c r a t i c o f f e n s i v e i s wo r l d - w i d e , a n d t h a t i t th r e a t e n s f r e e i n s t i -

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 339

t u t i o n s w h e r e s o e v e r t h e y e x i s t . The regim e of Metaxas i n

G r e e c e , o f F r a n c o i n S p a i n , o f S a l a z a r i n P o r t u g a l , o f V a r g a s

i n B r a z i l ; t h e F a s c i s t m o v e m e n t s i n B e l g i u m , D e n m a r k , P o -

l a n d , R o u m a n i a , H u n g a r y , a n d a l l t h e B a l k a n S t a t e s ; t h e

m i l i t a r i s m a n d r e p r e s s i o n i n J a p a n ; t h e v e r y o m i n o u s t r e n d

t o w a r d s F a s c i s m a n d c i v i l w a r i n F r a n c e ; t h e p r o - F a s c i s t i n-

c l i n a ti o n of o f f i c i a l s i n t h e B r i ti s h g o v e r nm e nt ; t h e r e c u r re n t

d i c t a t o r s h i p s i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , t h e r e v o l t o f C e d i l l o i n M e x -

i c o , t h e r e p r e s s i o n i n Q u e b e c , t h e c u r t a i l m e nt o f c i v i l l i b e r t y

i n J e r s e y C i t y , t h e t e r r o r i s m i n H a r l a n a n d o t h e r A m e r i c a n

i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s - i n d i c a t e t h a t G e r m a n a n d I t a l i a n F a s c i s m

a r e s i m p l y t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a w o r l d - w i d e

t e n d e n c y . W e m u s t n o t d e l u d e o u r s e l v e s i n t o s u p p o s i n g t h a t

w e l i v e i n a s o c i a l v a c u u m : i f p e a c e o r d e m o c r a c y i s d e s t r o y e d

i n t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d , w e c a n n o t e s c a p e w i t h o u t c a t a s t r o p h e .

T h e r e i s n o g o o d r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s

i m m une f r o m F a sci s m . T h e t r a d i t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i s i n d i g -

e n o u s t o o u r c o u n t r y : w e h a v e h a d i n n u m e r a b l e c a s e s o f

l y n c h i n g , v i g i l a n t e t e r r o r i s m , s t r i k e - b r e a k i n g , i n d u s t r i a l

e s p i o n a g e , a n d f o r c i b l e s u p p r e s s i o n o f c i v i l l i b e r t ie s . O u r m u l -

t i m i l l i o n a i r e s a r e p o w e r f u l l y i n t r e n c h e d a n d s e e m d e t e r -

m i n e d t o r e t a i n c o n t r o l a t a l m o s t a n y c o s t s E c o n o m i c p r o b -

l e m s , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a r e f a r f r o m b e i n g s o l v e d , a n d t h e r e

i s e v e r y l i k e l i h o o d o f a c u t e c r i s e s i n t h e f u t u r e . T h e s t r u g g l e

b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o h a v e a n d t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t w i l l a l m o s t

c e r t a i n l y i n t e n s i f y ; m a n y d a n g e r s w i l l b e s e t u s b e f o r e a g e n -

u i n e e c o n o m i c d e m o c r a c y i s a c h i e v e d . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s , t h e t h r e a t t o d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s i s n o t a m a t te r

o f m o n t h s o r e v e n a f e w y e a r s : s o d e e p i s t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d

c r i s i s t h a t i t m a y r e q u i r e a c e n t u r y f u l l y t o r e c o v e r a n d t o

s a f e g u a r d p o p u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

T h e g r e a t es t d a n g e r i s t h a t f a c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l d i v i d e

t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e i n d e m o c r a c y ; f o r t h e t a c t i c s o f F a s c i s m ,

w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , a r e a l w a y s t h e s a m e : d i v i d e a n d c o n q u e r .

T h e d i s s e n s i o n a n d i r r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t f o r c e s i n

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340 NO COMPROMISE

G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y a l o n e p e r m i t t e d H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i t o

a t t a i n p o w e r . A u s t r i a , i n t u r n , b e c a m e a n e a s y p r e y o f t h e

N a z i s , b e c a u s e D o l l f u s s h a d e a r l i e r k i l l e d a n d i m p r i s o n e d

t h e S o c i a l i s t l e a d e r s a n d c u r b e d t h e w o r k e r s - w h o w e r e p a s -

s i o n a t e l y d e v o t e d t o d e m o c r a c y - a n d b e c a u s e t h e B r i t i s h

P r i m e M i n i s t e r h a d , i n e f f e c t , p u r s u e d a p o l i c y o f n o n r e s i s t -

a n c e t o F a s c i s t a g g r e s s i o n . T h e S p a n i s h G o v e r n m e n t , r e p r e -

s e n t i n g a c o a l i t i o n o f a n t i - F a s c i s t f o r c e s , m a i n t a i n e d i n d e e d

a n h e r o i c s t a n d a g a i n s t R i g h t i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n ; y e t t h e a g g r e s -

s i o n w a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e o n l y b e c a u s e o f i n d e c i s i o n

a n d l i n g e r i n g d i s s e n s i o n a m o n g t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t g r o u p s . T h e

o t h e r d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s , m o r e o v e r , d e s e r t e d a n d b e t r a y e d

S p a n i s h d e m o c r a c y ; w h e r e a s H i t l e r a n d M u s s o l i n i , a c t i n g i n

u n i s o n , u t i l i z e d t h e f a r c e o f " n o n i n t e r v e n t i o n " t o c r u s h a

l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y u n d e r a r e m o r s e l e s s s u p e r i o r i t y o f l e t h a l

m a c h i n e r y a n d i m p o r t e d b a t t a l i o n s . T h u s e n c o u r a g e d , H i t -

l e r d e m a n d e d t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f C z e c h o s l o v a k i a . I n t h i s

c r i t i c a l s i t u a t io n , B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e , i n s t e a d o f t a k i n g a f i r m

s t a n d , v i r t u a l l y b e c a m e t h e a c c o m p l i c e s o f t h e d i c t a t o r s i n

s m a s h i n g t h e c h i e f b a s t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e .

U n i t y a m o n g t h e a n t i - F a s c i s t s h a s n o t y e t b e e n a c h i e v e d i n

G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e B r i t i s h L a b o r P a r t y

h a s b e e n w e a k e n e d b y f a c t i o n a l i s m , a n d h a s b e e n u n a b l e t o

u n i t e w i t h t h e L i b e r a l s o n t h e r i g h t o r t h e r a d i c a l f o r c e s o n

t h e l e f t ; a T o r y g o v e r n m e n t h a s c o n s e q u e n t l y r e m a i n e d i n

p o w e r , t o t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d o b v i o u s d e l i g h t o f t h e F a s -

c i s t d i c t a t o r s . 4 I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e l a b o r g r o u p s , i n s t e a d

o f u n i t i n g t o d e f e n d a n d a d v a n c e d e m o c r a c y , h a v e f e r o c i o u s l y

a t t a c k e d o n e a n o t h e r ; a n d s i m i l a r d i v i s i o n s h a v e g r e a t l y

w e a k e n e d t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f o r c e s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l f i e l d . T h e

P r e s i d e n t , i t i s t r u e , h a s e l o q u e n t l y c h a m p i o n e d t h e p o l i c y

o f " q u a r a n t i n i n g " a g g r e s s o r n a t i o n s a n d o f r e s p e c t i n g i n -

t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s ; y e t h i s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d

a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h e S p a n i s h e m b a r g o , t h e e f f e c t o f w h i c h

w a s , f i r s t , t o " q u a r a n t i n e " a f r i e n d l y R e p u b l i c , d e f e n d i n g

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 3 4 1

i t s e l f a g a i n s t i n t e r n a l a n d f o r e i g n a g g r e s s i o n , a n d s e c o n d ,

t o v i o l a t e a s o l e m n t r e a t y d a t i n g f r o m 19o2 g u a r a n t e e -

i n g " f u l l a n d e n t i r e l i b e r t y o f c o m m e r c e a n d n a v i g a t i o n "

b e t w e e n S p a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . J a p a n , o b v i o u s l y a n

a g g r e s s o r a n d a t r e a t y - b r e a k e r , h a s b e e n a l l o w e d t o b u y i n

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f h e r m i l i t a r y

e q u i p m e n t , w i t h w h i c h s h e h a s f o u g h t a w a r a l m o s t u n p a r -

a l l e l e d i n t h e a m o u n t o f s u f f e r i n g i t h a s w r o u g h t . S u c h c o n -

t r a d i c t i o n s i n p o l i c y a n d d i v i s i o n s i n t h e r a n k s h a v e v e r y

s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r e d t h e s t r e n g t h a n d p r e s t i g e o f d e m o c r a c y .

T h e o p p o n e n t s o f c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n o f t e n e m p l o y t h e a r g u -

m e n t t h a t w e s h o u l d e n t e r i n t o n o g r o u p o r a l l i a n c e i n w h i c h

t h e r e c a n b e d e t e c t e d C o m m u n i s t i n f l u e n c e . T h i s c o n t e nt i o n ,

h o w e v e r , i s n o t a l w a y s d i s i n t e r e s t e d l y a d v a n c e d ; t h e f e a r o f

C o m m u n i s m , w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e a r g u m e n t , h a s b e e n a r t i -

f i c i a l l y s t i m u l a t e d b y t h e F a s c i s t s a n d t h e i r s y m p a t h i z e r s .

M u s s o l i n i h a s a s s i d u o u s l y f o s t e r e d t h e m y t h t h a t I t a l y w a s

m e n a c e d b y t h e " r e d s " a t t h e t i m e o f t h e M a r c h o n R o m e ;

y e t b e f o r e t h e e v e n t , t h e D u c e h i m s e l f w r o t e t h a t B o l s h e v i s m

w a s d e a d i n I t a l y ( E d i t or i a l , P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a , J une 2 , i g 2 1 ) .

T h e N a z i M i n i s t e r o f P r o p a g a n d a , H e r r G o e b b e l s , l i k e w i s e

e m p l o y s t h e C o m m u n i s t b o g e y a s h i s f a v o r i t e d e v i c e ; h e u s e s

i t t o e x c u s e t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f m i l d l i b e r a l s a n d e v e n d e c e n t

c o n s e r v a t i v e s . I n p r e p a r i n g f o r c i b l y t o p a r t i t i o n C z e c h o -

s l o v a k i a , t h e N a z i s d e n o u n c e d t h e l i t t l e R e p u b l i c a s u n d e r

t h e c o n t r o l o f M o s c o w ; y e t r e l i a b l e ne w s a g e n c i es , s u c h a s t h e

Manchester Guardian a n d t h e New York Times, h a v e b e e n

u n a n i m o u s i n r e p o r t i n g t h a t t h e s e c h a r g e s l a c k e d f o u n d a -

t i o n . M a n y a p o l o g i s t s f o r F r a n c o h a v e d e c l a r e d t h a t h e a n d

h i s F a s c i s t a l l i e s f o u g h t t o s a v e S p a i n f r o m C o m m u n i s m ,

a n d m i l l i o n s o f g o o d p e o p l e h a v e b e e n t h u s d e c e i v e d ; y e t a c -

c o r d i n g t o t h e R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s ( a

c o n s e r v a t i v e B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t y ) , t h e r e w e r e o n l y a b o u t f i f t y

t h o u s a n d C o m m u n i s t s i n t h e e n t i r e c o u n t r y w h e n t h e r e v o l t

b e g a n , 5 a n d a t n o t i m e h a v e t h e C o m m u n i s t s i n t h e g o v e r n -

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3 4 2 NO COMPROMISE

m e n t b e e n m o r e t h a n a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l m i n o r i t y . T h e J a p a -

n e s e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e l i k e w i s e t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e i r o w n

p e o p l e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d t h a t C h i n a m u s t b e r e s c u e d

b y m i l i t a r y a s s a u l t f r o m t h e " r e d p e r i l " ; a l t h o u g h t h e s e t a c -

t i c s h a v e c e r t a i n l y s t r e n g t h e n e d w h a t e v e r C o m m u n i s t i n f l u -

e n c e h a s e x i s t e d i n C h i n a , a n d h a v e d o o m e d m o r e t h a n a

m i l l i o n n o n - C o m m u n i s t s . M e t a x a s i n G r e e c e , a n d V a r g a s i n

B r a z i l , h a v e b o a s t e d t h a t t h e i r d i c t a t o r s h i p s h a v e " s a v e d "

t h e i r c o u n t r i e s f r o m C o m m u n i s m , y e t i n b o t h n a t i o n s t h e r e

h a s n o t b e e n t h e r e m o t e s t t h r e a t o f C o m m u n i s t c o n t r o l .

E v e n i n A m e r i c a , t h e r e i s n o t a n i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l c a m -

p a i g n i n w h i c h c e r t a i n l i b e r a l s a r e n o t d e n o u n c e d a s C o m -

munists or Communist sympath izers ; a n d r e p e a t e d l y c i v i l

r i g h t s h a v e b e e n s u p p r e s s e d a n d l a b o r u n i o n s h a v e b e e n a t -

t a c k e d a s a " p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t C o m m u n i s m . " A n a r g u m e n t

w h i c h i s s o o f t e n a b u s e d s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d w i t h s o m e c a r e .

S u r e l y a g o o d c a u s e s h o u l d n o t b e d e s e r t e d m e r e l y b e c a u s e

C o m m u n i s t s s u p p o r t i t . I n d e e d , i t w o u l d s e e m t o b e n o g r e a t

t r a g e d y t h a t C o m m u n i s t s , a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d , a r e n o w c o m -

b i n i n g w i t h t h e m i l d e r d e m o c r a t i c g r o u p s a g a i n s t F a s c i s m

a n d r e a c t i o n a n d i n d e f e n s e o f r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e r e

w o u l d s e e m t o b e m o r e o c c a s i o n f o r w o r r y i f t h e C o m m u -

n i s t s , w h o r e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a f o r c e o f i m m e n s e p o w e r ,

w e r e t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r i n f l u e n c e a g a i n s t d e m o c r a c y a n d i n s u p -

p o r t o f F a s c i s m .

T h e C o m m u n i s t s a n d t h e F a s c i s t s , i t i s w e l l t o r e m e m b e r ,

h a v e n o t o n l y b i t t e r l y o p p o s e d e a c h o t h e r , b u t h a v e p u r s u e d

v e r y d i f f e r e n t p o l i c i e s i n r e s p e c t t o S p a i n , C h i n a , C z e c h o s l o -

v a k i a , t h e J e w s , t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , t h e P o p u l a r F r o n t ,

c a p i t a l i s m , i m p e r i a l i s m , p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d e d u c a t i o n , t h e

s h a r i n g o f w e a l t h a n d p r i v i l e g e s , a n d c o u n t l e s s o t h e r m a t t e r s .

W i t h a l l i t s f a u l t s , t h e S o v i e t w o r k i n g - c l a s s d i c t a t o r s h i p ,

j u d g e d u p o n t h e b a s i s o f i t s p r o f e s s e d i d e a l s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d

r e c o r d , i s e x t r e m el y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s h i p .

W e s h a l l b e a b l e t o v i e w t h e s i t u a t i o n w i t h g r e a t e r c a l m -

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS343

n e s s i f w e r e m e m b e r t h a t c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d

E n g l a n d a r e q u i t e u n l i k e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h u s h e r e d i n

t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e. Russi a had long suff ered from blo ody

d e s p o t i s m , g e n e r a l i l l i t e r a c y , a n d d e s p e r a t e p o v e r t y . I n t h e

t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d , m o r e o v e r , t h e s e a n c i e n t e v i l s w e r e a g -

g r a v a t e d b y w o r l d w a r , e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e , b l o c k a d e , f a m i n e ,

c i v i l s t r i f e , a n d f o r e i g n i n t e rv e n t i o n . W i t h n o t o n l y t h i s h e r i t -

age from t he past but w ith new and ever-present dangers

t o c o m b a t , t h e R u s s i a n p e o p l e h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o a c h i e v e

a f u l l - f l e d g e d d e m o c r a c y . I t i s v e r y u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t t h e y

h a v e n o t , b u t i t w o u l d b e a m i r a c l e i f t h e y h a d .

N o w t h e C o m m u n i s t s h a v e t r u l y d e c l a r e d t h a t n o s u c h c o n -

d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n m o d e r n E n g l a n d a n d A m e r i c a a s i n p r e -

S o c i a l i s t R u s s i a , a n d t h a t n o s u c h d e s p e r a t e m e t h o d s n e e d b e

e m p l o y e d i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a s u n d e r t h e S o v i e t d i c t a t o r -

ships The Commu nists do b elieve, howev er, that during a

p e r i o d o f a c u t e s o c i a l c r i s i s , w h e n t h e v e r y b a s i s o f s o c i e t y i s

b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d , a p o w e r f u l l y i n t r e n c h e d m i n o r i t y w i l l

r e s i s t t h e w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y t o c r e a t e a n e w s o c i a l o r d e r ,

a n d t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s i n S p a i n , m a y r e a c h t h e e x t r e m e

o f F a s c i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n . They contend, with mor e reali sm

t h a n s o m e o f t h e i r c r i t i c s , t h a t c i v i l w a r a n d F a s c i s t v i c t o r y

c a n b e a v e r t e d a t t h i s s t a g e b y n o o t h e r m e a n s t h a n t h e s e v e r e

c u r t a i l m e n t o f t h e l i b e r t i e s o f t h o s e w h o s e p r i n c i p l e i s t h e

d e n i a l o f t h e l i b e r t i e s o f t h e m a j o r i t y .

M i n d f u l o f t h e C o m m u n i s t p o s i t i o n a n d o f t h e f a c t s w h i c h

g i v e i t w e i g h t , s i n c e r e l i b e r a l s m u s t g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e f a v o r i t e

propagandistic device of Fascism-th e bogey of Communism .

T h e y s h o u l d n o t b e f r i g h t e n e d o u t o f t h e i r w i t s b y t h e p r e s -

ence of a small Communist part y within th e nation . The y

s h o u l d n o t f a i l v i g o r o u s l y t o s u p p o r t p e a c e , d e m o c r a c y , c i v i l

r i g h t s , a n d a d e c e n t s t a n d a r d o f l i f e m e r e l y b e c a u s e C o m -

m u n i s t s l i k e w i s e s u p p o r t t h e m . I f t h e y d e s e r t g o o d c a u s e s

b e c a u s e o f s u c h f e a r s , t h e y n e e d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d i f t h e c o m -

m o n p e o p l e e v e n t u a l l y t u r n t o C o m m u n i s m a s m o r e r e s o l u t e

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344 NO COMPROMISE

a n d s i n c e r e , o r t o F a s c i s m a s m o r e a l l u r i n g . A demo cra cy

t h a t i s w e a k a n d v a c i l l a t i n g i s m e r e l y p r e p a r i n g i t s o w n f u -

n e r a l .

3 . F a s c i s t S t r a t e g y a n d t h e C o u n t e r - T a c t i c s o f D e m o c r a c y

T h e m a i n f e a t u r e s o f F a s c i s t s t r a t e g y s h o u l d n o w b e c l e a r .

B r i e f l y , t h e y a r e as f o l l o w s : T h e r e a l i s s u e s a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y

o b s c u r e d ; J e w s a n d o t h e r s c a p e g o a t s a r e b l a m e d f o r t h e i l l s

o f t h e n a t i o n ; " s t r o n g m e n " a r i s e w h o t r a d e u p o n e v e r y

g r i e v a n c e , a n d p r o m i s e a l l t h i n g s t o a l l p e o p l e . T h e f e a r o f

C o m m u n i s m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , i s e x p l o i t e d t o t h e u t m o s t ;

men and movements not really Communist ar e labeled as

s u c h ; a n d F a s c i s m i s a d v a n c e d a s t h e o n l y e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r

a g a i n s t C o m m u n i s t r e v o l u t i o n . A s s o o n as t h e F a s c i s t s a c h i e v e

m i l i ta r y s t r e ng t h , t h e f e a r o f w a r i s a l s o r e c k l e s s l y e x p l o i t e d ,

a n d t h o s e w h o o p p o s e F a s c i s t e x p a n s i o n a r e t h r e a t e n e d w i t h

m i l i t a r y a s s a u l t . H a t i n g a n d f e a r i n g w a r , t h e d e m o c r a t i c

p o w e r s a r e b r o u g h t t o c a p i t u l a t e ; t h e y a b a n d o n u n i t e d r e -

s i s t a n c e a n d a d o p t a p o l i c y o f " a p p e a s e m e n t . " T h i s p e r m i t s

t h e F a s c i s t s t o a t t a c k t h e i r v i c t i m s o n e b y o n e , a n d t h u s t o

w a g e a w a r o f a t t r i t i o n a g a i n s t d e m o c r a c y . N e w t e r r i t o r y i s

g e n e r a l l y a c q u i r e d b y f o m e n t i n g s t r i f e w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y

t o b e a t t a c k e d , a n d e m p l o y i n g m i l i t a r y t h r e a t o r a c t u a l

f o r c e t o " r e s t o r e o r d e r . " ( S u c h t a c t i c s h a v e b e e n u s e d a g a i n s t

C h i n a , S p a i n , A u s t r i a , a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , a n d h a v e b e e n

t r i e d a g a i n s t F r a n c e i n t h e C a g o u l a r d p l o t . ) I n c o n t r as t t o

t h e d i s u n i t y o f t h e i r e n e m i e s , t h e F a s c i s t s p r e s e n t a u n i t e d

f r o n t : t h e y s u p p o r t e a c h o t h e r i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g g r e s s i o n

( e . g . , t h e R o m e - B e r l i n - T o k y o t r i a n g l e ) , s t i r u p n a t i o n a l i s t i c

a n d r a c i a l p a s s i o n a s a m e a n s o f s o l i d i f y i n g " p a t r i o t i c " o p i n -

i o n , a n d p u t d o w n i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e b y c e n s o r s h i p a n d

t o t a l i t ar i a n r e p r e s s i o n . N o w t h e s e t a c t i c s h a v e p r o v e d a b o m -

i n a b l y s u c c e s s f u l , a n d t h e y c a n o n l y b e d e f e a t e d b y r e s o u r c e -

f u l c o u n te r - t a c t i c s .

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 345

T o s e t f o r t h a d e q u a t e l y t h e p r o p e r s t r a t e g y o f t h e d e m o -

c r a t i c f o r c e s w o u l d r e q u i r e a n o t h e r v o l u m e , b u t I c a n n o t

c o n c l u d e t h i s b o o k w i t h o u t s t a t i n g a f e w p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h

a l r e a d y c o m m a n d a l a r g e m e a s u r e o f a g r e e m e n t .

F i r s t , i t i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

s h o r t - r a n g e a n d l o n g - r a n g e o b j e c t i v e s , a n d t o u n i t e u p o n t h e

b a s i s o f t h e f o r m e r e v e n w h e n i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o a g r e e a b o u t

t h e l a t t e r . U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s a g r e e -

m e n t a m o n g a n t i - F a s c i s t s a s t o r e m o t e e n d s . Many people

w h o f a v o r p o l i t i c a l D e m o c r a c y a r e n o t y e t c o n v i n c e d t h a t i t

i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h g e n u i n e e c o n o m i c D e m o c r a c y . T h e

m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n

a re no t r ea d y f o r S o c ia l is m , y e t t h e y d o f a v o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e

o f o u r f u n d a m e n t a l c i v i l r i g h t s a n d o u r p r e s e n t d e m o c r a t i c

i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c f r o n t s h o u l d

d e p e n d u p o n t h e l a t t e r c o n v i c t i o n s a n d n o t t h e f o r m e r . T h e

t i m e is s h o r t , a n d t h e n e e d o f u n i ty i s p r e s s i n g . T o e m p h a s i z e

t h e m o r e r e m o t e o b j e c t i v e s , a b o u t w h i c h p e o p l e a r e d i v i d e d ,

a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e m o r e i m m e d i a t e o b j e c t i v e s w h i c h c o m -

m a n d g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t , i s s u r e l y t o c o u r t d i s u n i t y a n d d e -

f e a t . L e t u s u n i t e w h e n w e d o a g r e e a n d d i f f e r o n l y w h e n w e

m u s t .

C e r t a i n t h i n g s w e m u s t d e f e n d n o w : p e a c e , d e m o c r a c y ,

a n d t h e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d o f l i f e . T h e t a s k o f p r a c t i c a l l e a d -

e r s h i p i s t o e m b o d y t h e s e g r e a t c a u s e s i n p r o p o s a l s s o s i m p l e

a n d c o n c r e t e t h a t w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d m e n e v e r y w h e r e w i l l r a l l y

t o t h e i r d e f e n s e . I f m e n l e a r n t o w o r k t o g e t h e r f o r s u c h i m -

m e d i a t e e n d s , t h e y w i l l b e t h e m o r e n e a r l y p r e p a r e d t o w o r k

t o g e t h e r i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d c o o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t y o f t h e

f u t u r e . B u t o f c o u r s e , i n u n i t i n g u p o n t h e b a s i s o f i m m e d i a t e

o b j e c t i v e s , w e s h o u l d b y n o m e a n s c e a s e t o p o n d e r u l t i m a t e

g o a l s , a n d t h e s o o n e r w e r e a c h a g r e e m e n t a n d c l e a r u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g a b o u t t h e s e , t h e f e w e r d i s a s t r o u s m i s t a k e s w e s h a l l

make now and in the long run .

Second, the mov ement to adv ance democracy and check

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346 NO COMPROMISE

F a s c i s m m u s t h a v e a s o l i d f o u n d a t i o n i n t h e r a n k s o f l a b o r .

F o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s , l a b o r e x e r c i s e s d e c i s i v e p o w e r i n

a n y a nt i - F a s c i s t f r o n t . B o t h n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d h i g h d e -

g r e e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n r e n d e r i t e x t r e m e l y p o t e n t . S i n c e i t

m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d t r a n s p o r t s t h e s i n e w s o f w a r a n d d o e s m o s t

o f t h e f i g h t i n g , i t i s i n v o l v e d i n a n y e f f e c t i v e m o v e m e n t t o

p r e v e n t w a r a n d t o c h e c k F a s c i s t a g g r e s s i o n . I t s i n t e r e s t s a r e

s h a r p l y o p p o s e d t o t h e r e p r e s s i o n a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o f

t h e F a s c i s t s y s t e m , a n d m o s t f u l l y i n a c c o r d w i t h b o t h e c o -

n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y . N o o t h e r c l a s s i n t h e c o m -

m u n i t y s t a n d s t o g a i n s o m u c h f r o m a n e w e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i a l

o r d e r ; t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e w o r k e r s i s t h e r e f o r e t h e f u n d a -

m e n t a l d y n a m i c t h a t c a n l i f t s o c i e t y t o t h e l e v e l o f a c l a s s -

less humanism . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e i s n o o t h e r c l a s s

t h a t s t a n d s t o l o s e s o m u c h f r o m t h e i n e q u a l i t a r i a n p r a c -

t i c e s o f F a s c i s m ; c o n s e q u e n t l y n o o t h e r c l a s s c a n b e d e p e n d e d

u p o n t o o p p o s e s o r e s o l u t e l y t h e f o r c e s t h a t p e r p e t u a t e a n d

i n t e n s i f y s o c i a l o p p r e s s i o n . N o c o u n t r y i s s e r i o u s l y i n d a n -

g e r f r o m i n t e r n a l F a s c i s t d e v e l o p m e n t s s o l o n g a s l a b o r i s

u n i t e d , c l e a r a s t o i t s o w n i n t e r e s t s , a n d d e m o c r a t i c i n i t s

f o r m s o f c o n t r o l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n . A n t i - F a s c i s t s s h o u l d t h e r e-

f o r e d o a l l i n t h e i r p o w e r t o b u i l d u n i t y , s t r e n g t h , d e m o c -

r a c y , a n d c l a r i t y o f p u r p o s e w i t h i n l a b o r ' s r a n k s , a n d t o e n l i s t

a l l i e s i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d m i d d l e - c l a s s g r o u p s f o r t h e

w o r k e r s ' e f f o r t s i n b e h a l f o f p e a c e , d e m o c r a c y , a n d a n a d e -

q u a t e s t a n d a r d o f l i f e .

T h i r d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r d e m o c r a c y t o o f f e r a b e t t e r w a y

o f l i f e t o t h e p e o p l e i n t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s t h a n t h e i r o w n

d i c t a t o r s c a n p o s s i b l y a f f o r d . F a s c i s m w i l l n o t b e d e f e a t e d

u n t i l a g r e a t m a n y o f i t s o w n p e o p l e a n d i t s s y m p a t h i z e r s i n

t h e d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s s t o p s u p p o r t i n g i t . T o e f f e c t t h i s

c h a n g e o f o p i n i o n , t h e d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s m u s t d r a w u p s u c h

p l a n s a n d a c h i e v e s u c h v i c t o r i e s a s w i l l p r o v i d e a d e e p a p p e a l

t o c o m m o n p e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e .

W e m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e F a s c i s t c o u n t r i e s h a v e c e r t a i n

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 347

g r i e v a n c e s , w h e t h e r r e a l o r i m a g i n a r y , w h i c h h a v e w o n t h e m

a n e f f e c t i v e m e a s u r e o f s u p p o r t . C h i e f a m o n g t h e s e i s t h e

c h a r g e t h a t t h e i r l o w s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e

s e l f i s h p o l i c i e s o f r i v a l i m p e r i a l i s t P o w e rs i n r e f u s i n g t o t h e

F a s c i s t n a t i o n s a p l a c e i n t h e s u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s c o n t e n t i o n

i s b y n o m e a n s e n t i r e l y s o u n d ,7

t h e s t r i f e o f r i v a l i m p e r i a l -

i s m s i s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a m a j o r c a u s e o f F a s c i s m a n d w a r .

H e n c e , t h e p r o p e r a n s w e r t o t h i s c o m p l a i n t i s n o t t h e s u r -

r e n d e r o f c o l o n i a l p e o p l e s t o t h e c r u e l t y o f F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r -

s h i p a n d r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , b u t t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a s e l f i s h

i m p e r i a l i s t i c p o l i c y u p o n t h e p a r t o f t h e " d e m o c r a t i c " s t a t e s .

T h e r e a l f a c t s s h o u l d b e f r a n k l y a d m i t t e d : G r e a t B r i t a i n

i s ( w i t h i n l i m i t s ) a d e m o c r a c y , b u t t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e i s n o t ;

F r a n c e i s s i m i l a r l y a d e m o c r a c y , b u t t h e F r e n c h E m p i r e i s

n o t ; t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s l i k e w i s e a d e m o c r a c y , b u t i t h a s o p -

p o s e d d e m o c r a t i c m o v e m e n t s i n C u b a , S a n t o D o m i n g o , a n d

o t h e r d e p e n d e n c i e s a n d s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e . A s r a p i d l y a s

p o s s i b l e t h e p e o p l e i n t h e d e m o c r a c i e s s h o u l d b e w o n o v e r

t o a d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y : t o t h e s u r r e n d e r o f e x c l u s i v e n a t i o n a l

s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e c o l o n i a l t e r r it o r i e s , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f i n t e r n a ti o n a l c o n t r o l o f e s s e n t ia l r a w m a t e r ia l s , s o t h a t n o

n a t i o n w h i c h a g r e e s t o c o o p e r a t e s h a l l b e d e p r i v e d o f i t s

e q u i t a b l e s h a r e , a n d n o p e o p l e s h a l l b e r u t h l e s s l y e x p l o i t e d

f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f f o r e i g n m a s t e r s . E i t h e r c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n s

s h o u l d b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e d u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s a s w o u l d

b e j u s t t o t h e n a t i ve s , o r t h e y s h o u l d b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o s e l f -

g o v e r n i n g S t a t e s t o w h i c h t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n

w o u l d t h e n b e e x t e n d e d u p o n t h e b a s i s o f e q u a l i t y . U n q u e s -

t i o n a b l y a n y s u c h p l a n c a n n o t b e q u i c k l y r e a l i z e d , b u t n o

o t h e r p l a n i s f u l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p e a c e a n d d e m o c r a c y .

A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t t h e d e m o c r a c i e s a d v a n c e t o w a r d s

a j u s t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r , t h e y m u s t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a d -

v a n t ag e s o f a d e m o c r a t i c w a y o f l i f e i n t h e i r i n te r n a l p o l i c i e s .

D e m o c r a c y c a n n o t w i n b y a p u r e l y d e f e n s i v e c a m p a i g n ; i t s

s t r e n g t h l i e s i n d e v o t i o n t o p u b l i c w e l f a r e - i n a s t e a d y m o v e -

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3 4 8 NO COMPROMISE

m e n t t o w a r d s t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o v e r t y , i g n o r a n c e , a n d o p -

p r e s s i o n . E v e r y v i c t o r y i n s u c h a c a m p a i g n w i l l a d d t o t h e

a t t r a c t i v e ne s s o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c c r e e d , a n d d i m i n i s h t h e r i v a l

a p p e a l o f F a s c i s m .

F o u r t h , t h e d e m o c r a t s o f t h e w o r l d m u s t f o r t i f y t h e m s e l v e s

w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r u n i t e d s t r e n g t h a n d t h e r i g h t -

n e s s o f t h e i r c a u s e , a n d m u s t b r i n g t o a n e n d t h e p o l i c y o f

r e t r e a t a n d c o m p r o m i s e . I f w e c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h

o f t h e F a s c i s t a n d n o n - F a s c i s t S t a t e s , t h e d i s p r o p o r t i o n i s

t r u l y g r e a t . F r a n c e , G r e a t B r i t a i n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d

R u s s i a c o n t r o l t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e w e a l t h a n d p o w e r

o f t h e w o r l d . I t i s c o r r e c t a l s o t o i n c l u d e a m o n g t h e n o n -

F a s c i s t p o w e r s : t h e F r e n c h c o l o n i e s , t h e B r i t i s h D o m i n i o n s

a n d c o l o n i e s , C h i n a , a n u m b e r o f t h e s m a l l e r S t a t e s o f

E u r o p e , e s p e c i a l l y B e l g i u m , H o l l a n d , a n d t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n

c o u n t r i e s , a n d m o s t o f S o u t h a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Th e

F a s c i s t S t a t e s , d e s p i t e t h e i r g r e at g a i n s , a r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y

very weak in population and ill supplied with the raw

m a t e r i a l s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t a w a r . Germa ny and Italy

m u s t i m p o r t e i t h e r a l l o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f t h e i r r u b b e r ,

j u t e , c o t t o n , w o o l , o i l , g a s o l i n e , i r o n , z i n c , c o p p e r , n i c k e l ,

g o l d , t i n , b a u x i t e ( f r o m w h i c h a l u m i n u m i s e x t r a c t e d ) , t u n g -

s t e n a n d m o l y b d e n u m ( e s s e n t i a l f o r v a r i o u s m i l i t a r y p u r -

p o s e s ) . J a p a n i s l i k e w i s e l i m i t e d i n r e s o u r c e s , a n d i s a p -

p r o a c h i n g e x h a u s t i o n i n i t s w a r a g a i n s t C h i n a ; i t c a n n ot b e

e x p e c t e d e f f e c t i v e l y t o a i d G e r m a n y a n d I t a l y f o r a l o n g t i m e

to come .

O f c o u r s e , i f J a p a n c o n q u e r s a n d e x p l o i t s a l a r g e p a r t o f

C h i n a , a n d i f I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y a t t a i n c o n t r o l o f a l l C e n -

t r a l a n d S o u t h - E a s t e r n E u r o p e o r o t h e r r i c h t e r r i t o r i e s , t h e

b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s w i l l b e t r e m e n d o u s l y a l t e r e d . T h e r e i s s t i l l

t i m e f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l d e m o c r a t i c S t a t e s t o o r g a n i z e a g r e a t

P e a c e C o a l i t i o n , b a c k e d b y o v e r w h e l m i n g r e s o u r c e s ; b u t

w i t h e v e r y v i c t o r y o f t h e F a s c i s t p o w e r s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

g r o w s l e s s , a n d t h e d a n g e r o f a l o n g a n d t e r r i b l e W o r l d W a r

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 349

g r o w s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y g r e a t e r . Y e t o b v i o u s l y t h e p o l i c y o f

t h e d e m o c r a c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f E n g l a n d , h a s b e e n

t o a c q ui e s c e i n t h i s s h i f t o f f o r c e s . T h e J a p a n e s e a r m i e s h a v e

s e i z e d M a n c h u r i a , M u s s o l i n i h a s c r u s h e d E t h i o p i a , I t a l i a n

a n d G e r m a n F a s c i s t s h a v e i n v a d e d S p a i n , J a p a n e s e t r o o p s

h a v e a g a i n o v e r r u n C h i n a , G e r m a n s o l d i e r s h a v e o c c u p i e d

A u s t r i a , t h e N a z i s h a v e f o m e n t e d c i v i l s t r i f e i n C z e c h o s l o -

v a k i a a n d h a v e f o r c i b l y l i q u i d a t e d t h e l i t t l e R e p u b l i c . On

n o n e o f t h e s e o c c a s i o n s h a v e t h e d e m o c r a t i c p o w e r s m a d e

a d e t e r m i n e d s t a n d a g a i n s t a g g r e s s i o n ; a n d i t h a s b e c o m e i n -

c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r t h a t t h e F a s c i s t w a r o f a t t r i t i o n a g a i n s t d e -

m o c r a c y w i l l a c h i e v e v i c t o r y a f t e r v i c t o r y a n d t h e i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l a n a r c h y w i l l b e c o m e e v e r m o r e a c c e n t u a t e d s o l o n g a s

t h e T o r i e s o f F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d c o n t i n u e t h e i r p o l i c y o f

compromise . B u t t h e s e c o l l u s i v e s t a t e s m e n w i l l n o t f o r e v e r

s t a y i n o f f i c e , a n d e v e n n o w t h e r e a r e m i g h t y f o r c e s t o m o -

b i l i z e i n d e f e n s e o f d e m o c r a c y .

T h e e v e n t s f o l l o w i n g t h e M u n i c h P a c t i n d i c a t e t h e d i s -

a s t r o u s e f f e c t o f t h e p r o g r a m o f " a p p e a s e m e n t , " a n d t h e n e e d

o f a m u c h f i r m e r p o l i c y . T h e s a f e g u a r d s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l

l a w w e r e a l l b u t d e s t r o y e d b y t h e n e w w a v e o f b l a c k m a i l

a n d t r e a t y - b r e a k i n g ; m i n o r i t y p r o b l e m s w e r e c r e a t e d f a r

m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n t h o s e w h i c h e x i s t e d b e f o r e t h e P a c t w a s

s i g n e d ; P o l a n d a n d H u n g a r y , l i k e w o l v e s , s e i z e d t h e i r s h a r e

o f t h e p r e y ; C z e c h o s l o v a k i a w a s l o s t t o d e m o c r a c y , F r a n c e

a n d B r i t a i n s u f f e r e d a t e r r i f i c b l o w t o t h e i r p r e s t i g e a n d

p o w e r , t h e d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s w e r e w e a k e n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e

world ; G e r m a n y , i n c o n t r a s t , g a i n e d e n o r m o u s l y i n p s y -

c h o l o g i c a l , m i l i t a r y , a n d e c o n o m i c s t r e n g t h ; t h e N a z i s , t h u s

e n c o u r a g e d , i n t e n s i f i e d t h e i r p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e J e w s , r e -

v i v e d t h e i r c o l o n i a l d e m a n d s , a n d b e g a n a g r e a t p r e s s c a m -

p a i g n f o r t h e " l i b e r a t i o n " o f t h e U k r a i n e ; C e n t r a l a n d

S o u t h - E a s t e r n E u r o p e w e r e o p e n e d t o m o r e e f f e c t i v e G e r -

m a n p e n e t r a t i o n ; H u n g a r y a n d R i g h t i s t S p a i n j o i n e d t h e

F a s c i s t " A n t i - C o m i n t e r n " a l l i a n c e ; J a p a n , p e r c e i v i n g t h e

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350 NO COMPROMISE

w e a k n e s s o f B r i t a i n ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y , l a n d e d t r o o p s i n S o u t h

C h i n a , i s o l a t e d t h e B r i t i s h C r o w n C o l o n y o f H o n g K o n g , a n d

c u t o f f C h i n a ' s d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e s e a ; I t a l y , r a t t l i n g i t s F a s c i s t

s a b e r , b e g a n l o u d l y t o c l a m o r f o r T u n i s i a , J i b u t i , C o r s i c a ,

N i c e , a n d S a v o y ; L o y a l i s t S p a i n , a b a n d o n e d b y t h e d e m o -

c r a t i c p o w e r s , f e l l a t l a s t b e f o r e t h e r e e n f o r c e d l e g i o n s o f

t h e d i c t a t o r s ; t h e a r m a m e n t r a c e w a s a c c e l e r a t e d t o a d e g r e e

t h o u g h t i m p o s s i b l e a f e w m o n t h s p r e v i o u s , a n d t h e g r e a t e r

p a r t o f t h e w o r l d f a c e d t h e t w i n d a n g e r s o f w a r a n d e c o -

n o m i c c o l l a p s e . T o c a p t h e c l i m a x , H i t l e r u t t e r l y d e m o l i s h e d

t h e M u n i c h P a c t j u s t f i v e m o n t h s a f t e r h e h a d s i g n e d i t .

D e s p i t e h i s i n s i s t e n c e u p o n r a c i a l s e l f - d e t e rm i n a t i o n , d e s p i t e

h i s g u a r a n t e e o f t h e n e w b o u n d a r i e s o f C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , d e -

s p i t e h i s " r e n u n c i a t i o n " o f f u r t h e r t e r r i to r i a l a s p i r a t i o n s i n

E u r o p e , h i s g o v e r n m e n t a n d i t s v a s t a r m y s e i z e d t h e d e f e n c e -

l e s s n a t i o n o f C z e c h s a n d S l o v a k s . T h e I t a l i a n s , i n s p i r e d t o

d o l i k e w i s e , t h e r e u p o n i n v a d e d a n d s u b j u g a t e d A l b a n i a .

A t t h i s e l e v e n t h h o u r , C h a m b e r l a i n a n d D a l a d i e r , d i s c a r d -

i n g t h e i r p o l i c y o f " a p p e a s e m e n t , " b e g a n t o o r g a n i z e t h e

a n t i - F a s c i s t f o r c e s , w h i c h t h e y h a d e a r l i e r d o n e s o m u c h t o

d e s t r o y . T h e s e s t a t e s m e n m a y a g a i n c o m p r o m i s e a n d r e t r e a t ,

b u t t h i s m u c h i s e v i d e n t : t h e d e m o c r a c i e s c a n n o t c o n t i n u e

t o s u r r e n d e r t o t h e F a s c i s t d i c t a t o r s w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i z i n g

t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e . T h e y m u s t h a v e t h e c o u r a g e t o u n i t e

a n d s t a n d t h e i r g r o u n d.

U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e r e a r e r i s k s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s i n t h e

p o l i c y o f u n i f i e d r e s i s t a n c e ; b u t i t w o u l d b e f o l l y t o s u p p o s e

t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t g r e a t d a n g e r s a n d e x t r e m e l y g r e a t p e n a l -

t i e s i n s u r r e n d e r a n d p e r p e t u a l r e t r e a t . A r e w e n o t w i l l i n g

t o h a z a r d s o m e t h i n g f o r o u r b a s i c c o n v i c t i o n s ? A r e w e n o t

p r e p a r e d t o r u n s o m e r i s k s f o r t h e s a k e o f f r e e d o m , d e m o c -

r a c y , t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s o f t h e p a s t , a n d t h e h o p e s o f t o -

m o r r o w ? S h a l l w e p e r m i t a l l t h e c o u r a g e a n d r e s o l u t i o n t o

b e e x e r c i s e d b y t h e f o r c e s o f i n t o l e r a n c e ?

W e m u s t e n g a g e i n n o a c t s o f a g g r e s s i o n o u r s e l v e s , a n d b e

j u s t , c a l m , a n d h u m a n e i n t h e e x e r c i s e o f o u r p o w e r : s o t o

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THE PRESENT CLASH OF IDEALS 3 5 1

c o n d u c t o u r s e l v e s i s a s i g n o f m e n t a l s t r e n g t h . Yet we mu st

n o t f a l l p r e y t o f e a r s a n d h e s i t a t i o n s , a n d m u s t r e a l i z e t h a t a

g r e a t d e a l i s d e m a n d e d o f u s. A s K o l n a i p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e i s

n o s i m p l e o r e a s y s o l u t i o n :

R e s i s t a n c e c a n o n l y b e p l a n n e d s e n s i b l y a n d e f f e c t i v e l y b y a c -

t i o n i n m a n y f i e l d s a t o n c e . T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s a s i n g l e

remedy : t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s a n o s t r u m , p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r

p o l i t i c a l , w h i c h w o u l d w o r k a l o n e , s w i f t l y a n d i n f a l l i b l y . N o

a c t i o n e x c e p t a n i n t e g r a l o n e : s p i r i t u a l a n d p o l i t i c a l ; i d e o l o g i -

c a l , m o r a l , s c i e n t if i c , s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , d i p l o m a ti c , a n d i f n e e d

b e , m i l i t a ry ; i n w a r d a n d o u t w a r d a t t h e s a m e t i m e - w i l l b e o f a

s i z e t o m e e t t h e e m e r g e n c y . I n t e l l e c t u a l c r i t i c i s m a n d s e l f - r e a s s e r -

t i o n w i l l o n l y a t t a i n t o s p i r i t u a l s t a t u r e i f b a c k e d b y a d e t e r m i n a -

t i o n t o h o l d o u r g r o u n d i n e v e r y s e n s e . A r m a m e n t s a n d p r o t e c -

t i v e t re a t i e s w i l l b e c o n d e m n e d t o p o l i t i c a l v a c u i t y u n l e s s t h e r e

b e a s p i r i t u a l s u b s t a n c e t o d i r e c t a n d g u a r a n t e e t h e i r a p p l i c a -

t i o n . 8

W h a t e v e r a c t i o n b e t a k e n , A m e r i c a a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n w i l l

e x e r c i s e t h e d e c i s i v e r o l e . The immense r esources of the

U n i t e d S t a t e s w i l l b e a p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

outcome of any major contest. No aggress ors can hope to

w i n i n t h e e n d i f w e r e f u s e t h e m t h e a i d o f A m e r i c a n t r a d e

and credits and amply extend such aid to their vi ctims .

E q u i p p e d w i t h t r e m e n d o u s e c o n o m i c s t r e n g t h a n d p r o t e c t e d

b y i n c o m p a r a b l e n a t u r a l b a r r i e r s , w e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e f a t e

of the world under such conditions as to minimiz e the

d a n g e r o f o u r b e i n g p l u n g e d i n t o w a r . G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d i t s

Dominions are equa l to the United States in power and

p r e s t i g e ; t h e s e c o u n t r i e s u n i t e d u n d e r v i g o r o u s d e m o c r a t i c

l e a d e r s h i p , w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f F r a n c e a n d R u s s i a , a r e a b -

s o l u t e l y i n v i n c i b l e . A l l t h e o d d s a r e o n o u r s i d e , a n d w e a r e

p l a y i n g f o r t h e g r e a t e s t s t a k e s i n h i s t o r y . L e t u s a c t w i t h t h e

resolution tha t befits free men defending their freedom .

" T h e u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y , t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y o f t o m o r r o w , "

P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t h a s t r u l y d e c l a r e d , " i s with democracy

. . . f o r n o p e o p l e c a n b e k e p t e t e r n a l l y i g n o r a n t o r e t e r n a l l y

e n s l a v e d . " 9

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NOTEST i t l e m e r e l y f o l l o w e d b y d a t e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e w o r k h a s

b e e n c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y . P u b l i s h e r , c i t y , a n d d a t e a r e u s u a l l y

g i v e n w h e n t h e t i t l e o f a b o o k i s f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d .

CHAPTER I

i . J o h a n H u i z i n g a , I n t h e Shadow o f Tomorrow, N o r t o n ,

N e w Y o r k , 1 93 6, p . 16 .

2 . Cf . H e n r y A da m s , T h e Ed u c a t i o n o f H e n r y A d a m s , Hough-

to n Mif fl in, Bos to n, 1918, p . 498 .

3 . Benito Mus sol ini, T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m , V a l l ec h i, Fl o r -

en ce, 1936, p . 46 .

4 . G . A. Borge se, G o l i a t h : T h e M a r c h o f F a s c i s m , V i k i n g P r e s s ,

New York,1 937 ,

P P - 217-18 .

5 . M u s s o l i n i , o p . c i t . , p . 62 .

6 . Speech by Mu ss oli ni, May 26, 1937 . Bulletin of International

News, Roy a l I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s, V o l . X I V, p . 4 .

(Oct . 2 , 1 937 . )

7 . S p e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i , M a y 1 7 , 1 93 0 . D o c u m e n t s o n I n t e r -

nati onal Affairs : 1930, Oxford Univ. Pre ss , Lo ndo n, 1931, p . 116 .

8 . S p e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i , Au g . 2 4 , 1934 .D o c u m e n t s o n I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s: 1934,

Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1 935, P . 3 6 2.

9 . M u s s o l i n i ' s Ad d r e s s t o t h e G e n e r a l As s e m b l y o f t h e N a -

tio nal Council o f Corpo rat ions , March 23, 1936 . S o u r c e Bo o k o n

European Governments, Van Nostrand, New York,1 937 , P P -

111 - 84- 86 .

10 . Cf . Armaments Year Book, L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , G e o r g e

Allen & Unwin, London, 1937 ; a n d t h e s i m i l a r Year Book for

1938. Th e o u t l a y f o r 1 93 7 i s n e a r l y t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h a s t h e

w o r l d m i l i t a r y e x p e n di t u r e i n 1 91 3, a n d t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l

i n c r e a s e i n 1938 . Af t e r t h e M u n i c h S e t t l e m e n t i n S e p t ., 1938,

m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s h a v e g r e a t l y s p e e d e d u p .

1 1 . New York Times, Ma rc h 22, 1936 .

353

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354 NOTES

12 . S p e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i at U d i n e , Sept . , 1922 . Barone Ber -

n a r d o Qu a r a n t o di S a n S ev i r i n o , M u s s o l i n i As Re v e a l e d i n H i s

Po l i t i c a l Speech e s, D e n t , L o n d o n, 1923, p . 146 .

13 . Qu o t e d b y G e o r g e S e l d e s , You Can't Do That, ModernAg e Bo o k s , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 38, p . 192 .

14 . S e c t i o n s 7 a n d 9, "Th e L a b o r Ch a r t e r ," p a s s e d b y t h e

F a s c i s t G r a n d Co u n c i l , Ap r i l 2 1, 1 93 7 . Source Book on Euro-

p e a n G o v e r n m e n t s , 1937, PP . 1 11-45-46 .

15 . Sp e e c h b e f o r e t h e Re i c h s t a g o n M a r c h 2 3 , 1 93 3 . I b i d . ,

p . I V - 1 3o . I n t h e c o u r s e o f a d e b a t e i n Be r l i n i n M a y , 193 0,

H i t l e r a ls o d ec l a r ed : "I t i s a b s u r d t h a t w o r k e r s s h o u l d i n t e r -

f e r e w i t h t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f e co n o m i c a f f a i r s.

. . . Th e y h a v e n o

c l a i m t o a s h a r e i n p r o p e r t y ." F o r t h e t e x t o f t h i s d eb a t e , c f .

O t t o S t r a s s e r , M i n i s t e r s e s s e l o d e r Re v o l u t i o n ? Ber li n, 1930-

16 . Werner Sombart, D e u t s c h er S o z i a l i s m u s , 1 9 34, h a s a p -

peared in translation under the title, A N e w So c i a l P h i l o s o p h y ,

P r i n c e t o n U n i v . P r e s s , 1 937. Cf . PP . 49- 5 1 .

17 . Cf . San Sevirino , op. C i t . , p p . 284-85 .

18 . Speech of Hitler at Nii rnberg, Sept . 9 , 1 9 3 6 , I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Conci l i a t i o n , Ca r n e g i e En d o w m e n t f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e , No v . ,

1936, p . 552 .

1 g . Ch a r l e s M a u r r a s , Dilemme de Marc Sangnier, p . xiv .

Quoted by Julien Benda, "The Enemies of Democracy in

Fra nce," F o r e i g n Af f a i r s , Vol. XIII , p. 285 (Ja n. , 1 9 3 5 ) -

20 . Sa n Sev i r i n o, op . c i t . , p . 317 .

21 . Cf . Mussolini, G e r a r c h i a, Ma rc h, 1923, p . 803 . Re p r o d u c e d

in Herbert W . Schneider, M a k i n g t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e , Oxford

Univ . Pre ss , New Yo rk , 1928, p . 342 .

22 . Se e t h e a r t i c l e s o n t h e G e r m a n e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n b y

Tolischus, New York Times, M a y 1 6 - 1 g, 1938 . My q u o t a t i o n s

are from these articles .

23 . " Ca p i t a l i s m i n G e r m a n y , " Manchester Guardian Weekly,

Apr il 29, 1938 .

24 . R . W a l t h e r D a r r 6 , Neuadel aus Blut and Boden, J . F .

L e h m a n n, M u n i c h, 1930, p . 156 .

25 . Mussolini, "The Political a nd Social Doctr ine of Fa scism,"

International Conciliat ion, J a n ., 1935, p . 9 (t r a n s l a t i o n o f a n

a r t i c l e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e En c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a i n 1932 ; the

b e s t s h o r t o f f i c i a l s u m m a r y o f F a s c i s t t h e o r y a v a i l a b l e i n Eng l i s h) .

26 . "O f f i c i a l An n o u n c e m e n t g i v e n o u t b y t h e T r u s t e e f o r

L a b o r f o r t h e e c o n o m i c d i s t r i c t Br a n d e n b u r g ," q u o t e d b y Ro b -

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NOTES 3 5 5

e r t A . Brad y, The S p i r i t a n d S t r u c t u r e o f G e r m a n F a s c i s m ,

V i k i n g P r e s s, N e w Y o r k , 1937, PP - 1 32-3 3 -

2 7- Q u o t e d i n E v a n g e l i c a l C h u r c h L e t t e r S u b m i t t e d t o Ch a n -

c e l l o r H i t l e r i n J u n e , 193 6, I n t e r na t i o n a l Co n c i l i a t i o n , N o v . ,

1936, P. 5 6 3 -

28 . G e n e r a l H e r m a n n G o r i n g , Germany Reborn, Mathews &

M a r r o t, L o n d o n , 193 4, P P - 3 7 - 3 8 -

2 9 . P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a , Feb . 1 , 1921 ; r e p r o d u c e d i n H e r b e r t W .

S ch n ei d er, M a k in g th e Fa s c i st St a t e, 1928, p . 275 .

30. Adolf H itler , Mein Kampf, Zentralverlag der NSDAP,

M u n i c h , 1 9 3 6, p . 687 .

31 . Cf . M u s s o l i n i, T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m,1 93 6 , P 52 .

32 . Qu o t e d b y B r a d y , o p . c i t . , p . 150 . Br a d y ' s b o o k i s a c o n -

v i n c i n g d e m o ns t r a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f G e r m a n

F a s c i s m . The books of Gaetano Salvemini similarly demon-

s t r a t e t h e c a p i t a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f I t a l i a n F a s c i s m .

33 •S p e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i a t M i l a n , O c t . 4, 1922 . G i o a c c h i n o

V o l p e , H i s t o r y o f t h e F a s c i s t M o v e m e n t , S o c . An . Poligrafica

I t a l i a n a (no d a t e), p . 105 -

34. Em i l L u d w i g , T a l k s w i t h M u s s o l i n i , Lit tle, Brow n, Bos-

to n, 1933, p . 126 .

35 . Cf . H i t l e r , Mein Kampf, op . c i t . , p . 371 . Italics mine .

36 . J o s e p h G o e b b e l s , M y P a r t i n G e r m a n y ' s F i g h t , Hurst &

Bla cket t, Lon don , 1935, P . 149 . (Di ar y, Sept . 4 , 1 9 3 2 . )

37. M u s s o l i n i , M e s s a g g i e P r o c l a m i , M i l a n , 1 92 9, p p

. 3 8- 39 .

CHAPTER II

1 . Quoted by Hans Kohn, F o r c e o r Re a s o n , Harvard Uni-

vers ity Press , Cambr idge, 1 937 , P • 73. M ei n e c k e i s o n e o f t h e

g r e a t e s t o f m o d e r n G e r m a n h i s t o r i a n s .

2 . J a m e s D r e n n a n , B.U .F . : O s w a l d M o s l e y a n d Br i t i s h F a s c i s m,

M u r r a y , L o n d o n , 1 93 4 , p p. 2 1 2 -1 3 -

3 - M u s s o l i n i, "The P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m ,"

1 935 , pp . 6 - 7 -

4- Cf . N i et z s c h e, Beyond Good and Evil, Modern Library,

N e w Y o r k ( n o d a t e ) , p . 4 ; a n d Th e Wi l l t o P o w e r , M a cm i l l a n ,

L o n d o n, 1910, V o l . II, pp. 3 5 8- 5 9 -

5 . O n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f N i e t z s c h e o n M u s s o l i n i , s e e M a r g h e -

rita Sarfatti, The Life of Benito Mussolini, Frederick A .

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356 NOTES

Stokes, New Y o r k , 1925, pp . 141-43 ;and Gaudens M e g a r o ,

Mussolini in the Making, Houghton M i f f l i n , Bos t o n, 1938,

pp . 1 3 8 f f . Rosenberg pays tri bute to Nietz sche in Bl u t a n d E h r e ,

Ze n t r a l v e r l a g d e r N S D AP, M u n i c h , 1 986 , p . 297 ; a n d G e s t a l -

t u n g d e r I d e e, Ze n t r a l v e r l a g d e r N S D AP, M u n i c h , 1 93 7, p . 1 8 .

6 . Cf. Georg es Sorel , Reflecti ons on Violence (transl . from 3rd

French ed., 1912), B. W. Huebsch, New York (no date), pp .

130- 31-

7 . Ro s e nb e r g , G e s t a lt u n g de r I de e , 1 937, P . 149-

8 . S a r f a t t i , op . c i t . , p . 6o .

9 . Qu o t e d b y S i r H e r b e r t S a m u e l s , " Wa r s o f I d e a s ," Inter-

national Conciliat ion, May, 1937 , P- 475 .

10 . Herbert W . Schneider, M a k i n g t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e , 1928,

P 346 ; translated from Gentile, Ch e c o s a a i t F a s c i s m o , V a l l e c h i ,

Flo rence , 1925 .

1 1 . F r o m a s p e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i a t T r i e s t e , S e p t ., 1g2o . San

Sevirino, M u s s o l i n i As Re v e a l e d i n H i s P o l i t i c a l S p e e c h e s, 1923,

PP.11 4- 1 5 -

12 . F r o m t h e f a m o u s e s s a y b y W i l l i a m J a m e s , " Th e W i l l t o

Beli eve . "

13 . Em i l L u d w i g , T a l k s w i t h M u s s o l i n i, 1 933 , PP- 195, 208- 9 -

14 . H e n r i Be r g s o n , Cr e a t iv e Ev o l u t i on , H o l t , Ne w Y o r k , 1911,

p . 176 .

15 . Sp e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i a t N a p l e s , O c t . 24, 1922 . Qu o t e d b y

H e r m a n F i n e r , M u s s o l i n i ' s I t a l y, H o l t , N e w Y o r k , 1 93 5, p . 218 .

16 . Al f r e d Ro s e n b e r g , Der Mythus des 20 . J a h r h u n d e r t s ,

H o h e n e i c h e n - V e r l a g , M u n i c h , 19 35, p . 114 .

17 . Rose nberg , Bl u t a n d E h r e , 1936, p . 142 .

18 . Rose nberg , M y t h u s , 1935, p . 120 .

1 g . I b i d . , p .1 1 7 -

2o . I b i d . , p . 1 3 7 -

21 . Cf . Lion Feuchtwanger, "How Germany Persecutes

Writers ," N a t i o n , Jul y 24, 1 937-

22 . Cf . Edward Y. H a r t s h o r n e, G e r m a n U n i v e r s i t i e s a n d N a -

tional Socialism , Harvard Univ. P r e s s, Ca m b r i d g e , 1 937, PP .

7 2-73 , 93-95,100-101 . Th e n u m b e r o f d i s m i s s a l s h a s u n d o u b t -

e d l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e pu b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s b o o k ; i f w e i n cl u d e

t h e d i s m i s s a l s i n Au s t r i a a n d Cz e c h o s l o v a k i a s i n c e t h e a n n e x a -

t i o n s , t h e r e h a s b e e n a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e .

23 . Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1936, PP.468, 473 .

24 . Ro s e nb e r g , G e s t a lt u n g d er I d ee , 1 937, PP . 203, 214 .

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NOTES 357

25 . Ro s e n b e r g , Mythus, 1935, p . 28 .

26 . I b i d . , p . 8 1 .

2 7 . I b i d . ,PP- 57, 76 f f

.

28 . Cf . F r a n k f u r t e r Ze i t u n g , June 3o and July 1 , 1936, an d

New York Times, t h e s a m e d a t e s .

29 . N a t u r e , Apr il 24,1 937 , P 702 -

3o . N a t u r e , Jan. 18, 1936, p. 9 3 -

3 1 -I b i d . , p . 94-

32 . " H e i d e l b e r g , S p i n o z a a n d Ac a d e m i c F r e e d o m , " N a t u r e ,

F e b . 22, 1936, p. 3 0 3 -

3 3. D e u t s c h e M a t h e m a t i k , Jan., 1936 . Q u o t e d i n H a n s K o h n ,

o p . c i t . , p p . 133-34 .F o r f u r t h e r i nd i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f s c i ence

i n G e r m a n y , c f . Char les A. Be a r d, "Ed uc a t i o n U n d e r t h e N a z i s,"

Foreign Affair s, Vol . XIV ( 1 936), PP . 437-52 ; Dorothy Thomp-

s o n , " Cu l t u r e U n d e r t h e N a z i s ," i b i d., pp . 407-2 3 ; Ro b e r t A .

Brad y, The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism, 1937 ,

Chaps. II a nd III ; Edward Y. H a r t s h o r n e, o p . c i t . ; a n d t h e c o l -

l e ct i o n o f l et t e r s a nd c o mm e nt s, H e i d e l b e r g a n d t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s

o f Ame r i c a, V i k i n g P r e s s, N e w Y o r k , 1 93 6 .

34. Cf . d i s p a t c h f r o m L u c e r n e , S w i t z e r l a n d , i n New York

T i m e s , J a n . 9, 1938 . A volume o f speeches and officia l stat ements

b y P r e s i d e n t Ro o s e v e l t a n d e x - P r e m i e r S t a n l e y Ba l d w i n h a s b e e n

banned by the German Government . "It i s b e l i e v e d h e r e," t h e

dispatch sta tes, "that this i s the fi rst ti me any Western European

G o v e r n m e n t h a s b a r r e d o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s b y t h e h e a d o f a n -

o t h e r S t a t e w i t h w h i c h i t m a i n t a i n s d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s . "

35 . Cf . "Ber li n i n 1937," M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n W e e k l y , Sept .

3 , 1 937-

36. Mein Kampf, p . 198 .

3 7 .I b i d . , p . 200 .

38. H a m i l t o n F i s h Ar m s t r o n g , When There Is No Peace,

M a c m i l l a n , N e w Y o r k , 1 939, PP- 93-94. This b ook, by th e editor

o f Fore ign Affai rs, is an excellent analysis of the causes and con-

s e q u e n c e s o f t h e M u n i c h P a c t .

39 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , May 28,1 937-

40- Cf . a r t i c l e b y G a e t a n o S a l v e m i n i , Manchester Guardian

W e e k l y , J u l y3 0 ,

1937. Later evidence indica tes tha t the Cagou -

l a r d s , F r e n c h F a s c i s t g r o u p, a r e i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e m u r d e r s .

41 . New York Times, Oct. 1 1 , 1938 .

42 . Be n e d e t t o C r o c e , " Th e F u t u r e o f D e m o c r a c y ," New Re-p u bl i c, Ap r i l 7

. 1 937, P . 255 .

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358 NOTES

43 .Cf . Max Ascoli , "The F a s c i s t i ' s March on Schola rsh ip,"

Am e r i ca n S ch o l a r , Wi nt er , 1938, pp . 50-59 ; and Gaetano S a l -

v e m i ni , U n d er t h e Ax e o f F a s c i s m , V i k i n g P re s s , N ew Y o r k , 1936 ,

pp . 81-88 .

44. Ad d r e s s r e p r i n t e d i n Ri v i s t a I n t e r n a z i o n a l e d i F i l o s o f i a

d el D i r i t t o, V o l . V II I (1928), p p . 45 1 , 452- 53. Quoted by H.

Ar t h u r S t e i n e r , "T h e F a s c i s t Co n c e p t i o n o f L a w ," Columbia

Law Review, Vol. XXXVI, p . 1271, De c ., 1936 .

45. Em i l i o B od r e r o, " D i e G e s c h i c h t e a l s d y n a m i s c h e E le m e n t,"

Eu r o p a i s c h e R e v u e , V o l . III , p . 646 (No v . , 1 9 2 7 ) .

46 . Julien Benda, T h e G r e a t Be t r a y a l ( t r a n s l . o f L a T r a h i s o n

l e s C l e r c s ) , Rou t l e d g e, L o n d o n, 1928, p . 77 .

47. M u s s o l i n i , T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m, 1936 , P . 5 3 .

48 . Rose nberg , M y t h u s ,1935, P • 544-

49. Adam Muller, D i e El e m e nt e d e r St a at s ku n s t , G u s t a v

Fischer , Vol . I , p . 128 (June 1922) . (Orig inal ed ., Ber li n, 18og . )

50. Quoted by Jerome Davis, Contemporary Social Move-

m e n t s , Ap p l e t o n - C e n t u r y , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 30 , p p . 489-g o .

51 . Cf . H e r m a n F i n e r , M u s s o l i n i ' s I t a l y, 1935, p . 200 .

52 . Cf . s u m m a r y o f t h e " t h i r t e e n c o m m a n d m en t s " o f t h e N a z i

Party, New York Times, Jan. 16, 1938 .

53 . Cf. Fi ner , op . c i t . , p . 443-

54 . Ra b i n d r a n a t h T a g o r e , " Ea s t t o W e s t ," At l a n t i c M o nt h l y ,

Ju ne, 1927, pp .730-31 .

55 . Qu o t e d b y J o h n M o r l e y , a t h e a d o f t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r ,

"Of t h e P o s s i b l e U t i l i t y o f Er r o r ," o f On Compromise, p u b l i s h e d

in 1874 . Th i s c h a p t e r i s m u c h w o r t h r e a d i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n -

n e c t i o n. I h a v e r e s t a t e d i n b r i e f er f o r m s e v e r a l o f M o r l e y ' s a r -

guments.

56 . Rose nberg , o p . C i t . , p . 2 .

CHAPTER III

i . G e o r g e S a nt a y a n a , Re a s o n i n Sc i e nc e , S c r i b n e r , N e w Y o r k ,

1928, P. 3 1 9 -

2 . Cf . Mussolini, My Autobiography, S c r i b n e r , N e w Y o r k ,

1928, p .1 4 -

3- Cf. Ma r g h e r i t a S a r f a t t i, T h e L i f e o f Be n i t o M u s s o l i n i ,

1925, p . 101 .

4. Cf . G a u d en s M e g a r o , M u ss o l i ni i n t h e Ma k i ng , 1938, p . 115 .

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NOTES 359

5 . O n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Voce and its edi tor, Prez z olini, see

Peter M. Ricci o, On the Threshold of Fascism, Casa Itali ana,

Co l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , N e w Y o r k , 1 92 9, e s p e c i a l l y p p .162- 7 0 -

6 . P a r e t o p o i n t s o u t t h a t w h e n a n e c o n o m i s t s p e a k s o f " u t i l -

i t y " o r " v a l u e " h e d o e s n o t m e a n w h a t i s o b j e c t i v e l y v a l u a b l e ,

f r o m a n e t h i c a l s t a n d p o i n t . "Ex c h a n g e v a l u e " o r " m a r g i n a l u t i l -

i t y " h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h v a l u e i n t h e e t h i c a l s e n s e . If the

r e a d e r o f P a r e t o w i l l b e a r t h i s i n m i n d, h e w i l l f i n d n o c o n t r a -

d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e q u o t a t i o n s i n t h e p r e s e nt c h a p t e r a n d t h e

o c c a s i o n a l p a s s a g e s w h e r e P a r e t o i s d i s c u s s i n g " v a l u e " o r "u t i l -

i t y " (o r, t o u s e h i s o w n t e r m , " o p h e l i m i t y " ) f r o m t h e e c o n o m i c

p o i n t o f v i e w . Et h i c a l v a l u e, h e t h i n k s, c a n n o t b e o bj e c t i v e l y

d e t e r m i n e d , b u t e c o n o m i c v a l u e w i t h i n l i m i t s c a n b e , s i m p l y

because it is not ethical . Fo r a n i n t e r e s t i n g c r i t i c i s m o f "eq u i l i b -

r i u m e c o n o m i c s , " t o w h i c h P a r e t o a d h e r e s , s e e J o h n S t r a c h e y ,

T h e N a t u r e o f C a p i t a l i s t C r i s i s , Co v i c i - F r i e d e , N e w Y o r k ,1 935 ,

pp . 159-64 . Pa r e t o ' s h i g h l y s u bject i v i s t i c t h e o r y o f v a l u e i n v o l v e s

a n a b a n d o n m e n t o f a n y r e a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a n e c o n o m i c s o f

w e l f a r e . T h e p a r a d o x i ca l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s p o s i t i o n a r e i n d i -

c a t e d b y S t r a c h e y .

7 . Vilfr edo Pareto, The M in d an d S oc ie t y (Engli sh transl a-

tion of T r a t t a t o d i S o c i o l o g i a g e n e r a l e ) , H a r c o u r t, Br a c e, N e w

Yo rk , 1935, Vo l . I, p. 497. (F u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s w o r k o f

P a r e t o i n t h e n o t e s w i l l b e t o t h e v o l u m e s a n d p a g e n u m b e r s o f

this English transl ation .) Co m p a r e : "Arist otle . . . d e t e r m i n e s

w h a t s t a t e o n e o u g h t t o p r e f e r : `I f o n e w o u l d s o u n d l y a s c e r t a i n

what the best state is he must fi rst determine what the best life

i s .' With tha t, we leave the field of t he experimental relative to

g o w a n d e r i n g c o m p a s s l e s s i n t h e f i e l d o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l a b s o -

lute . I n r e a l i t y Ar i s t o t l e d o e s n o t d e t e r m i n e h i s a b s o l u t e - a

t h i n g t h a t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e . H e m er e l y fi n ds t h e s ol u t i o n

t o t h e p r o b l e m t h a t b e s t a c c o r d s w i t h h i s o w n s e n t i m e n t s(Vol . IV, p . 1458 . )

8 . Vol . I I I , p p . 1 24 1- 4 2 -

9. Vol . I , p

. 3 11 -

' 0 . Cf . Vol . I I , p p . 499-500 .

1 1 . V i l f r e d o P a r e t o, L e s S y s t e m e s S o c i a l i s t e s , 2nd ed., Marc el

Gi ar d, Par is, 1926, Vo l . I, p . 308 . Th e v i e w p o i n t o f t h i s b o o k ,

w h i c h M u s s o l i n i h a s p r a i s e d, i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e T r a t t a t o .

12 . Vol . III, pp . 1281-82 .

13 . Vol . I I I , p . 1293 .

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360 NOTES

1 4 . V o l . I I I , p . 1 3 4 5 -

1 5 - V o l . I I I , p . 1 4 0 2 .

1 6 . Moeller Va n den Bruck, Germa ny's Third Empire (trans -

latio n by E . O . Lorimer of Das D ritte Reich, 1923), George

All en & U nwi n, Londo n, 1934 P . 1 7 8 .

1 7 . R . W a l t h e r D a r r e , N e u a d e l a u s B l u t a n d B o d e n , 1 9 3 0 , P P -

205-6 . ( P a r t o f t h i s p a s s a g e , i n t h e o r i g i n a l , i s q u o t e d f r o m a n -

o t h e r w r i t e r , E d u a r d v o n S t a c k e l b e r g , b u t t h e i d e a s a r e a c c e p t e d

by Darre . )

1 8 . S a r f a t t i , o p . c i t . , p . 6 o .

l g . C f . S p i n o z a , E t h i c , 4 t h P a r t , P r o p o s i t i o n V I I : " A n a f f e c t

c an n o t b e r e s t r a i n e d n o r r e m o v e d e x c e p t b y a n o p p o s e d a n d

s t r o n g e r a f f e c t " ( W h i t e a n d S t e r l i n g t r a n s l ., Oxfor d Univ . P r e s s ,

1 9 3 0 . )

20. C f . H u m e, A Tre a t i s e o f H u m a n N a t u r e, e d . by

. A .

Selby- Bigg e, Oxfo rd Univ . P r e s s , 1 9 2 8 , p . 458. Compa re t he

statement by J eremy Bentham writt en to his disciple, Dumont,

Ma y 11, 1802 : "In the invention or choice of a fu ndamental

p r i n c i p l e f o r m o r a l s o r p o l i t i c s , w h a t w r i t e r s o f a l l p a r t i e s a n d

descriptions have aimed at hitherto has been the hitting upon

some cant word or short form of words, such as should serve

a s a s o r t o f h o o k o n w h i c h t o h a n g t h e o p i n i o n s o f w h i c h t h e i r

p r e j u d i c e s a n d p a s s i o n s h a v e b e e n p r o d u c t i v e " (Be n t h a m ' s

T h e o r y o f F i c t i o n s , e d . by

. K . Ogden, Harc ou rt , Bra ce, New

Yo rk, 1932, p . x x v i ) . Pareto would not only subscribe to this

s t a t e m e n t , b u t a d d t h a t a l l e t h i c s , n o w a n d i n t h e f u t u r e , c a n

a r i s e i n n o o t h e r w a y .

2 1 . P a s c a l , T h o u g h t s , P . F . C o l l i e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 g 1 o , p . 1 0 5 .

2 2 . L a w r e n c e D e n n i s, The Com i n g Ame r i c a n F a s c i s m , H a r -

per , New Yo rk, 1936, p . 1 0 5 -

2 3 - M u s s o l i n i , T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m , 1 9 3 6 , p . g .

2 4 . T h e E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s i s a w o r k o f i n -

ternational scholarship published by Macmillan . T h e r e p o r t o f

the President's Research Commit tee on Social Trends is sum -

mar ized in Recent Soci al Trends, McGra w-Hi ll, New Yo rk, 1932 .

2 5 . George Santa yana, The Genteel Traditio n at Bay, Scrib-

n e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 3 1 , p . 3 9.

2 6 . James Stra chey Barn es, Fas cis m, Hol t, New Yor k, 1931,

p p . 6 5 , 6 7 .

2 7 . Pareto, The Mind a nd Societ y, Vol . I , p . 3 6 n . P a r e t o ' s

h o s t i l i t y t o m e t a p h y s i c s , r e v e a l e d i n t h i s p a s s a g e a n d e l s e w h e r e ,

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NOTES 361

may a l s o b e c h a l l e n g e d ; b u t to d o s o wo u l d l ea d u s t o o f a r

a s t r a y .

28. Edward L . Th o r n d i k e , " Sc i e n c e a n d V a l u e s ," Sci ence,

J a n. 3 ,

1936, pp . 7-8 .

29. Pareto, Vol . I , p. 1 3 -

3 0- Q u o t e d b y T . V . Smith , P h i l o s o p h i c a l Re v i e w, V o l . XLV,

p. 117 (Ma rc h, 1936) .

31 . Rosenb erg, G e s t a l t u n g d e r I d e e , 1937 , P •

55 (Ros enbe rg 's

i t a l i c s ) .

32 . Pareto, Vol . I I I , p . 1269 .

33 . Mario Palmier i, T he P h i l o s o p h y o f F a s c i s m, D a n t e Al i g h i e r i

Soci ety , Chi cag o, 1936, p . 82 . T h i s b o o k w a s p u b l i s h e d u n d e r

t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e D a n t e Al i g h i e r i S o c i e t y, Ro m e , w i t h a n i n -

t r o d u c t i o n b y D r . G u i d o Co r n i , H o n o r a r y G o v e r n o r o f I t a l i a n

S o m a l i l a n d , a n d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f M u s s o l i n i . The transla -

t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t p a s s a g e f r o m I l D u c e i s t h e r e f o r e s e m i o f f i c i a l .

34. Cf . P i t i r i m A. Soro kin, S o c i a l a n d Cu l t u r a l D y n a m i c s ,

American Book Co ., New Yo rk , 1937, Vo l . III , p . 529, fo r a

s t a t e m e n t o f c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h a r e c o n t r a r y t o P a r e t o ' s a r r a i g n -

ment of human thought . S o r o k i n ' s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e b a s e d

u p o n a m u c h m o r e s y s t e m a t i c s u r v e y t h a n t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w s o f

P a r e t o , w h o d e p e n d s u p o n a n i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c j o t t i n g d o w n o f

e x a m p l e s a n d t a k e s n o a d e q u a t e n o t e o f n e g a t i v e i n s t a n c e s .

35. Karl Mannheim, I d e o l o g y a n d U t o p i a , H a r c o u r t, Br a c e ,

1936, p. 4 3 -

36. G a u d e n s M e g a r o , M u s s o l i n i i n t h e M a k i n g , 1 93 8 , P . 333 .

T h e pr e v i o u s q u o t a t i o n s f r o m M u s s o l i n i a p p e a r i n M e g a r o ' s

b o o k , p p . 6 6 , 8 6 , 1 4 6 , 3 1 9 , 329 , 330-

37. Pareto, Vol . IV, p . 1476 .

38 . Cf . Vol . I I I , p .103 2 -

39. Cf . Vol . IV , p . 1 477 .

40. Cf . t h e s u m m a r y o f t h i s a r t i c l e b y G i o a c c h i n o V o l p e , H i s -

t o r y o f t h e F a s c i s t M o v e m e n t (no da te), p . 81, f r o m w h i c h t h e

p h r a s e s q u o t e d h a v e b e e n t a k e n . V o l p e i s P r o f e s s o r o f H i s t o r y i n

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Ro m e, a n d a l e a d i n g F a s c i s t a p o l o g i s t .

41 . L a w r e n c e D e n n i s , op . c it . , p . 112 .

42 . I b i d ., pp . 142-44. D e nn i s g o e s o n t o a r g u e t h a t t h i s p o i n t

o f v i e w w i l l t e n d t o r e d u c e t h e u s e o f f o r c e ; b u t o n e m a y w e l l

q u e s t i o n h i s a r g u m e n t .

43. Th i s c o n c l u s i o n i s s o m e t i m e s d e n i e d b y h e d o n i s t s , w h o

m a i n t a i n t h a t p l e a s u r e c a n o c c u r e v e n w h e n i t i s n o t w a n t e d . For

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362 NOTES

an effective r eply to th is objection, cf . D e w i t t H . Parker, HumanV a l u e s , H a r p e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 93 1 , p p . 26-28 .

44 . H a r o l d J . L a s k i , T he St a t e i n T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e, V i k i n g

Pr es s, New Yo rk , 1935, p. 8 1 -

45- Q u o t e d b y G e o r g e H e r b e r t P a l m e r , T h e F i e l d o f Et h i c s ,

H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n , Bo s t o n, 1901, p . 212 .

46 . Pareto, Vol . I , p . 312 .

47 . I b i d ., Vo l . I I I , pp . 888-89 .

48 . O s w a l d S p e n g l e r, T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W es t , Knopf, New

Yo rk , 1928, Vo l . II, p. 368 . Qu o t e d b y J a m e s D r e n n a n , B . U .F . :

O s w a l d M o s l e y a n d Br i t i s h F a s c i s m , 1934, P . 183 .

49 . Camil lo Pelli zi, Fascismo Aristo craz ia, Alpes, Milan, 1925,

pp. 46-48 . Re p r o d u c e d b y S c h n e i d e r , M a k i n g t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e ,

1928, p . 241 .

50 . Sa n t a y a n a , o p . c i t ., pp . 73 - 74 .

51 . H a r o l d L o e b , P r o d u c t i o n f o r U s e , Bas ic Books , Inc ., Ne w

Yo rk , 1936, p . 1 7 . (This survey is descri bed more full y in Harol d

L o e b a n d a s s o c i a t e s , T h e Ch a r t o f P l e n t y , V i k i n g P r e s s , Ne w

Y o r k , 1 935 . )

52 . I b i d . , p . 18 .

53 .G. V . H a m i l t o n , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o O b j e c t i v e P s y c h o -

p a t h o l o g y , M o s b y , St . Lo ui s, 1925, P . 287 -

54. Wi l l i a m I . Th o ma s a nd F l o r i a n Zn a ni e ck i , Th e P ol i sh

P e a s a n t i n Eu r o p e a n d Am e r i c a , 5 vols ., Uni v . o f Ch i ca g o P r e s s ,

1918-20. A s h o r t e r e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o f t h e w i s h e s i s t o b e

f o u n d i n T h o m a s , T h e U n a d ju s t e d G i r l , Lit tle , Brow n, Bost on,

1 923 -

55. J o h n D e w e y , "V a l u a t i o n a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l K n o w l e d g e ,"

P h i l o s o p h i c a l Re v i e w , V o l . XXXI, p. 3 5 0 -

56. Plato, Meno (Jowett 's t ransla tion), # 86 .

CHAPTER IV

i . S t . Au g u s t i ne, De Civi tat e Dei, IV, 4 .

2 . Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1936, pp . 200-201 .

3 . I b i d . , p . 371 .

4 . Cf . H e n r y S i d g w i c k , T h e M e t h o d s o f Et h i c s , M a c m i l l a n ,

Lo nd o n , 1922, Cha p . I I I . I am indebted to Sidgwick in the fore-

g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n .

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NOTES 363

5 . David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, Selby-Bigge

ed ., O x f o r d U n i v . Pr es s, 1896, p . 581 .

6 . I b i d . , p . 472 .

7 . F . C . Sh ar p, Et h i c s, Cen t u r y C o ., New Y or k, pp . 109, 140- 41-

P r o f . S h a r p ' s e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f r i g h t c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e

p o i n t o f v i e w a d v a n c e d i n t h e p r e s e nt c h a p t e r .

8 . L o r d Sh a f t e s b u r y , Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M e n , M a n n e r s , O p i n -

i o n s, T i m e s, 5 t h e d ., 1732, Vo l . II, p . 33 . Qu o t e d b y S h a r p ,

o p . c i t . , p . 351 .

g . New York Times, Jan. 16, 1938 .

10 . Ro s e nb e r g , Bl u t a n d Eh r e , 1936, p . 380 .

11 . H i t l e r, Mein Kampf, p . 687 .

12 . Otto Koellreutt er, G r u n d r i s s d e r a l l g e m e i n e n S t a a t s l e h r e ,

T u b i n g e n , 1 93 2, p . 230 . Qu o t e d b y L a w r e n c e P r e u s s , " Na t i o n a l

S o c i a l i s t Con c e p t i o n s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w," Am e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l

S c i e n c e R e v i e w, V o l . XXIX, p. 598 (Au g . , 1 9 3 5 ) . Th i s a r t i c l e b y

P r o f . Preuss contains additional evi dence of nationali stic bias on

the part of the Nazis .

13 . P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a , Feb . 1 , 1821 . Reproduced in Herbert W .

Schneider, Ma k i n g t h e F a s ci s t S t a t e, 1928, p . 275 .

14 . Qu o t e d b y Wi l b u r F o r r e s t , New York Herald Tribune,

Jan. 26, 1926 .

15 . Qu o t e d b y W i l l a r d P r i c e , " J a p a n ' s D i v i n e M i s s i o n ," New

Re p u b l i c , Nov. 17 , 1 937, P . 4 0 .

16 . Carl Schmitt , D er Be gr i ff d es P ol i ti s ch en , H a n s e a t i s ch e

V e r l a g s - An s t a l t , H a m b u r g ,1 933 , P 7 -

17 .I b i d ., pp . 18, 35 - 36 .

18 . I b i d . , p . 8 .

1g . H i t l e r, Mein Kampf, p . 740 .

20 . D o c u m e n t s o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s : 1930, Oxford Univ .

Pr es s, Lond on , 1931, p . 116 .

21 . Sp e e c h b y M u s s o l i n i a t M i l a n , No v . 1 , 1936 . Documents

o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s : 1936, Oxford Univ . P r e s s , L o n d o n ,

1 937 , P • 344-

22 . M a n ch e st e r G u a r di a n We ek l y, J a n . 28, 1938 .

23 . Em i l L u d w i g , Ta l k s w i t h M u s s o l i n i, 1 93 3, p p . 6 9- 7 0 -

24 .M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , M a y 1 4, 1 938 .

25 . Cf . i b i d . , Feb . 1 1 , 1938, p . 103 .

26 . Quoted by Hermann F. R e i s s i g , Ad o l p h H i t l e r a n d F r a n -

c i s c o F r a n c o (p a m p h l e t ) , N e w Y o r k , 1939 , P 7 .

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364 NOTES

2 7 . I b i d . , p . 3 . Qu o t e d f r o m a d i s p a t c h o f D e c . i o , 1 9 3 8 , to

t h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s .

2 8 . N a t i o n a l s o z i a l i s t i s c h e M o n a t s h e f t e , N o v . ,1 9 3 7 -

2 9 . Ro s e n b e r g , D e r My t h u s d e s 20 . Jahrhunderts, 19 3 5 , p - 6 9 7 .

3 0 . Ca r l S c h m i t t , Staa t, Beweg ung, Vo lk, H a n s e a t i s c h e V e r -

l a g s -A n s t a l t, H a m b u r g, 1 9 3 3 , P • 4 5 -

3 1. Ne w Y o r k T i m e s, S e p t . 1 o , 1 9 3 7 .

3 2 . N e w s i n B r i e f , S e p t . 2 2 , 1 9 3 7 , PP- 154-55 .T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n

is issu ed in Berlin for th e benefit of foreig n journalis ts . H e n c e

the present translation is Nazi in origin .

3 3 . Manchester Guardian Weekly, March 1 2 , 1 9 3 7 -

3 4. Re p r o d u c e d b y F r i e d a W u n d e r l i c h , "Deutsch-Mann fiber

A l l e s , " A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , Winter 1 9 3 8 , p . 101 .

3 5 .The entire letter, from w hich I quo te, is repro duced in the

Ap p e n d i x t o H e n r i L i c h t e n b e r g e r , The T hi rd Reic h , G r e y -

s t o n e P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , 19 3 7 , P P . 3 1 9 - 2 5 . A g o o d a r t i c l e s u m -

m a r i z i n g t h e l e g a l m e t h o d s o f r u i n i n g a n d p e r s e c u t i n g t h e J e w s,

i s C u r t L . H e y m a n n , " G e r m a n L a w s Ag a i n s t t h e J e w s , " Curr ent

H i s t o r y , M a r c h , 1938 .

3 6 . Ne w Y o r k Ti me s, Nov . 1 6 , 1 9 3 9 .

3 7 .Arthur de Gobineau, The Inequal ity of H uman Races,

Heinemann, London, 1 9 1 5 , p . 2 1 0 .

3 8 . P u b l i s h e d i n H o u s t o n S t e w a r t Ch a m b e r l a i n , Ausw a h l a u s

seinen Werken, F e r d i n a n d H i r t, Bre s l a u, 1934, pp . 6 7 - 6 9 . T h i s

b o o k o f s e l e c t i o n s , c o m p i l e d b y t h e N a z i s , i s g l e a n e d f r o m

Cha m b e r l a i n ' s v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s .

3 9. I b i d . , p . 1 5 .

40. Ibid . , p . 1 7 .

4 1 . I b i d . , p . 2 0 .

4 2 . I b i d . , p p .47-48 .

43 .Ch a m b e r l a i n , P o l i t i s c h e I d e a l e , F . Bruckmann, Munich,

1 8 1 6 , p . 8 8 .

4 4 .Ro s e n b e r g , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 -

45 . I b i d . , p . 1 8 8 .

46 . I b i d . , p. 1 5 4 .

4 7. I b i d . , p p . 1 0 1 - 2 .

48 . I b i d . , p . 14 3 .

49 . I b i d . , p . 2 1 4 .

50 . Ro s e n b e r g , Blu t an d Ehre, 1936, p. 1 5 6 .

5 1 . See note 1 8 t o Ch a p . I .

5 2 . F o r a c r i t i c i s m o f t h e Ar y a n M y t h a n d r e l a t e d d o c t r i n e s ,

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NOTES 3 6 5

c o n s u l t J . B . S . Halda ne, Heredity and Politics, N e w Y o r k, 1938 ;

F. H . H a n k i n s, Raci a l Ba s i s o f Ci v i l i z a t i o n, N.Y . , 1926 ; J a c q u es

Ba r z u n , Race : A S t u d y o f M o d e r n S u p e r s t i t i o n , N.Y . , 1937 ;

O t t o K l i n e b e r g, Race Differences, N.Y . , 1935 ; A. C. Haddon and

J u l i a n H u x l e y , We Europeans: A S u r v e y o f Ra c i a l P r o b l e m s ,

N.Y . , 1936 ; Ma r g a r e t S c h l a u c h , Who Are the Aryans? N.Y . , no

d a t e ; P a u l R a d i n , The Racial Myth, N.Y . , 1932 ; F r a n z B o a s ,

An t h r o p o l o g y a n d M o d e r n L i f e , N.Y . , 1928 ; Boas , The Mind of

P r i m i t i v e Ma n , new ed . , N.Y . , 1938 ; and Boas , Aryans and Non-

Ar y a n s, N.Y . ,1 934-

53 . S p e e c h b e f o r e t h e Br i t i s h As s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Ad v a n c e -

m e n t o f S c i e n ce , q u o t e d i n t h e New York Times, S e p t. 6, 1937-

54 . Franz Boas , Ar y a n s a n d N o n - Ar y a n s (pamphle t), 1934 .

55 .T. R . Garth, Race Ps ychol ogy,, McGraw-Hill, New York,

1931-

56. Ka r l P e a r s o n , "O n O u r P r e s e n t Kn o w l e d g e o f t h e Re l a -

t i o n s h i p o f M i n d a n d Bo d y ," An n a l s o f Eu g e n i c s , V o l . I, pp .

382-406 (1925-26 ) .

57 . Cf. Franz Boas, "Changes in the Bodily Form of De-

s c e n d a n t s o f I m m i g r a n t s ," Am e r i c a n An t h r o p o l o g i s t , V o l . X I V,

PP. 530- 6 2 (1912) .

58. For an excellent discussion of this q uestion, cf . Arno ld J .

Toynbee, A S t u d y o f H i s t o r y, Oxford Univ. Pres s, Lond on , 1934,

V o l . I, pp . 2 4 3 f f . W. F . Og b u r n ' s f a m o u s b o o k , S o c i a l Ch a n g e ,

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m en t o f c u l t u r e o c c u r s w i t h o u t m u c h

if any attendant biological alteration . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f s t a n d -

a r d w o r k s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y a s s u m e t h e s a m e p o i n t o f v i e w . Such

w o r k s a t t a c k t h e p r e v a l e n t i d e a t h a t N e g r o e s, f o r e x a m p l e, m u s t

b e i nn a t e l y i n f e r i o r b ec a u s e t h e i r c u l t u r e i s l e s s h i g h l y de v e l o ped .

59 . Mein Kampf, pp . 437- 3 8 -

6 o . F r i e d a W u n d e r l i c h , o p . c it . , p . 95 .

61 . New York Times, Apr il 18, 1934-

62 . Mein Kampf, pp . 459- 60 .

63 . Quoted by Stephen H . Rober ts, The House That Hitler

Built , Methuen, London,1 937 , P • 22 9 .

64 . Cf . W u n d e r l i c h, o p . c i t . ; and Edward Y . Harts horne, G e r -

m a n U n i v e r s i t i e s a n d N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m,1937 , P 7 4 -

65 . Cf . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Jan. 13, 1939, p. 3 0 -

66 . These quotations from Rosenberg appear in his Der

M y t h u s d e s 20 . J a h r h u n d e r t s ,1 935 , PP - 482-83, 4 8 5 , 495 - 9

6 , 5 0 3 ;

a n d h i s Bl u t a n d E h r e , 1936, pp . 220, 223 .

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366 NOTES

67 . Emil Ludwig, Talks with Mussolini, 1933, pp . 112,1 7 0 -

6 8 . Man c he s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y, J a n . 14, 1938 .

69 . Cited b y Rober ts, o p . C i t . , p . 230 .

7 0 . Schwarz e Corps, No . 4 2 ; q u o t e d i n "Kultu rkampf ," NewsBu l l e t i n o f t h e Re l i g i o u s P o l i c y o f t h e T h i r d Re i c h , L o n d o n ,

Dec . 11,1937-

V . Rose nberg , G e s t a l t u n g d e r I d e e , 1937 , P 9 2 -

72 - M u s s o l i n i , Ad d r e s s t o t h e G e n e r a l As s e m b l y o f t h e N a -

t i o n a l Co u n c i l o f Co r p o r a t i o n s, q u o t e d i n So u r c e Boo k o n Eu-

ropean Governments,1 937 , P . 111-75 .

73. O s w a l d M o s l e y , Fascism : z o o Que s t i o n s Ask e d a n d An -

s w e r e d , B .U .F . Publications , Ltd ., Lo ndo n, 1936, qu est io n 8 .

74 . Cf . L a w r e n c e D e n n i s , T h e Co m i n g Am e r i c a n F a s c i s m,

1936 .

75. Ca r l T . Schmi dt, T h e Pl o u g h a n d t h e S w o r d, Columbia

Univ. Pre ss , New Yo rk , 1938, p . 173 . D r . P a u l H . D o u g l a s of t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f Ch i c a g o , a n o t h e r a u t h o r i t y o n e c o n o m i c c o n d i -

t i o n s i n I t a l y, r e v i e w i n g D r . Sc h m i d t ' s b o o k i n t h e N e w Re -

p u b l i c , Ju ly 13, 1938 (p . 287), decl a r e s t h a t "Sch m i d t ' s a n a l y s i s

g i v e s e v e r y e v i d e n c e o f b e i n g a c c u r a t e a n d t r u t h f u l , a n d i t

a g r e e s w i t h v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t I h a v e b e e n a b l e

t o g a t h e r . "

76 . Cf . G a e t a n o S a l v e m i n i, I t a l i a n F a s c i s m , G o l l a n c z , L o n d o n ,

1938 .

77. Robe rts , o p . c i t . , p . 168 . F o r a s u m m a r y o f N a z i l i t e r a t u r e

i n d i c a t i v e o f c l a s s b i a s a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o w o r k e r s ' r i g h t s, s e e

Au r e l Ko l n a i , The Wa r Aga i n s t t h e We s t, V i k i n g P r e s s , Ne w

Y o r k , 1938, Cha p . V I I a n d, i n d e e d, m u c h o f t h e b o o k.

78 . M a r g a r e t M e a d , " P r i m i t i v e S o c i e t y ," i n F i n d l a y M a c k e n -

zie (editor), Planned Society : Y e s t e r d a y , T o d a y, T o m o r r o w,

P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Ne w Y o r k ,1 937 , pp . 2 3 - 2 4. D r . Me a d i s a n a s -

s i s t a n t c u r a t o r o f e t h n o l o g y a t t h e Am e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l

H i s t o r y a n d a w e l l k n o w n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t .

79. Quoted by Nathaniel Cantor, "Prison Reform in Ger-

many-1933," J o u r n a l o f Cri m i n a l L a w a n d Cri m i n o l o g y , V o l .

XXV, p. 88 (May -J un e, 1934).

8o . Co m m u n i c a t i o n t o New Repub lic, Aug. 7 , 1 935 , P . 3 6 5 .

81 . Cf . Man c he s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y, Jan. 28, 1938 .

82 . Qu o t e d b y L a w r e n c e P r e u s s , " Th e P o s i t i o n o f Al i e n s i n

N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t P e n a l L a w Re f o r m ," Am e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f

International Law, Vol. XXIX, pp. 209-10 ( 1935) .

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NOTES 3 6 7

8 3 . Manchester Guardian Weekly, Aug . 2 3 , 1 9 3 5 -

8 4. H e i n r i c h G er l a nd, D e u t s c h e Juri sten-Zeitung , Vol .

XXXVII I, p . 8 6 o ( 1 9 3 3 ) . Quoted b y L a w r e n c e P r e u s s, o p . c i t . ,

p . 2 1 0 .

8 5 . N ew Y o r k Ti me s, May 1g, 1 934 .

8 6 . On the s ubject of Nazi justice and terr or, cf . Karl Bil-

l i n g e r , F a t h e r l a n d , N e w Yo r k , 1935 ; H e i n z L i e p m a n n , M u r d e r

M ad e in Ge r m an y, N e w Y o r k ,1 9 3 4 ; C

. Michael is, H . M i c h a e l i s ,

a n d O . W . S o n i n , Die Braune Kultur , Zuri ch, 1934 ; Y e l l o w S p o t ,

L o n d o n , 1 9 3 6 (on m a l t r ea t m ent o f J ew s) ; Stefan Lor ant, I Wa s

H i t l e r ' s P r i s o n e r , L o n d o n , 1 9 3 5 ; World Committee for theV i c t i m s o f G e r m a n F a s c i s m , The Bro w n Book o f t h e H i t l e r

T e r r o r , N e w Y o r k , 1933 ; S t e p h e n H . R o b e r t s , op. c i t . , Chap. IX ;

a nd t h e a r t i cl es b y La w r ence Pr eu s s, l i s t ed i n t h e a djo i ni ng

notes .

8 7 . H el l m u t Ni co l a i, D i e R a s s e n g e s e t z l i c h e R e c h t s l e h r e , V o l .

XXXIX, p . 2 7 ( 1 9 3 2 ) . Qu o t e d b y L a w r e n c e P r e u s s , " G e r m a n i c

L a w V e r s u s Ro m a n L a w i n N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t L e g a l T h e o r y , "

J o u r n a l o f Co m p a r a t i v e L e g i s l a t i o n a n d I n t e r na t i o n a l L a w,

Nov . ,1 9 3 4 , P . 2 7 2 .

8 8 . We stde ut s ch e Be ob a ch t er, Ma y s o , 1 9 3 8 ; r e p r o d u c e d i n

"Kult urk ampf ," May 2 3 , 1 9 3 8 .

8 9 . H o w a r d L e a g u e f o r P e n a l Re f o r m , The Acc u s e d : An In -

t e r n a t i o n a l S u r v e y , G e n e v a , 19 3 7 .

g o . H e r m a n n G o r i n g , Ge rm an y Rebor n, 1934, Pp . 1 2 4 - 2 5 .

9 1 . N a t u r e , Apri l2 4 , 1 9 3 7 , P • 7 0 3 -

9 2 . Cf. B u l l e t i n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e w s , V o l . X I I I , p . 8 5 1 (Apri l

3 , 1 9 3 7 ) .

9 3 . Qu o t e d b y N a t h a n i e l Ca n t o r , "T h e N e w P r i s o n P r o g r a m

o f I t a l y , " Journal of Criminal Law a nd Criminolog y, Vol . XXVI,

P . 2 2 0 ( J u l y ,1 9 3 5 ) -

94 . G i u l i o Batta glini , "The Fas cist Reform of t he Penal Law

i n I t a l y , " J o u r . of Crimina l Law and Crimino logy, Vol . XXIV ,

p . 2 5 2 (MayJune, 19 3 3 ) .

9 5 . Cf . M . E. Trac y, Our Country, Our People, and Theirs ,

M a c m i l l a n , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 3 8 , p p . 1 1 o - 1 8 ( s t a t i s t i c s c i t e d a r e f r o m

Tr acy); S a l v e m i n i ,

op.c i t . ,

Chap. I ; and Nat hani el Cantor, "The

Fascist Political Prisoners," J o u r . of Crimi nal La w and Crim i-

n o l o g y , V o l . XXVII, pp . 1 6 9 - 7 9 (J u l y -A u g . , 1 9 3 6 ) .

9 6 . U n a m u n o ' s s t a t e m e n t w a s t r a n s m i t t e d t o P a r i s a n d t h e r e

p u b l i s h e d . The present t ranslation is qu oted by Nancy Bedford

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368 NOTES

J o n e s , Students Under Arms : Ed u c a t i o n i n Re p u b l i c a n S p a i n

(pamp hl et), New Yor k, 1938, p . i i .

97 . Cf . Ru i z V i l a p l a n a , Bu r g o s J u s t i c e , Knopf, New York,

1938 .

98 . Cf . the articl e by Lawrence Fernsworth, New York Times,

J u n e 12, 1938 ; New Republic, Ju ne 22, 1938, pp . 170-71 ; F o r -

eign Policy Reports , Jan. 16, 1937, pp . 262-63 ; a n d t h e v e r y i m -

p o r t a n t b o o k b y G e o r g e s Be r n a n o s , L e s G r a n d s Ci m e t i e r e s s o u s

l a L u n e , Par is, 1938 . Bernanos, like Unamu no, is a g reat Cathol ic

i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d m a n o f l e t t e r s .

99 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , S e p t . 2 4 , 1 937 .

l o o . Qu o t e d b y F . L . S c h u m a n , T h e N a z i D i c t a t o r s h i p , 1 935 ,

p. 165 .

101 . Cf. note 84 to Chap . V .

102 . F r o m a M S . w h i c h , a t t h e p r e s en t w r i t i n g , i s u np u b l i s h ed .

103 . J u l i en Be nd a , Th e G r e a t Be t r a y a l , 1928, p . 137 .

CHAPTER V

1 . Al f r e d N o r t h W h i t e h e a d , Ad v e n t u r e s o f I d e a s, M a c m i l l a n ,

New York,1 933 , P • 105 -

2 . Pi t i r i m A. Soroki n, S o c i a l a n d Cu l t u r a l D y n a m i c s ,1 937 ,

V o l . I I I , p . 3 4 2 ( S o r o k i n ' s i t a l i c s ) .

3 . I b i d . , p . 308 -

4 .I b i d . , p . 339-

5 . Qu o t e d i n Ca t h o l i c Wo r l d , J u ne ,1 937 , P • 257 .

6. A f u l l a c c o u n t o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h i s m u r d e r, a n d a

b r i e f e r a c c o u n t o f o t h e r s o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e , m a y b e f o u n d i n

G a e t a n o S a l v e m i n i , T h e F a s c i s t D i c t a t o r s h i p i n It a l y, Henry

H o l t , N e w Y o r k , 1 92 7 .

7 . T he n u m b e r k i l l e d (w i t h o u t t r i a l) h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y e s t i -

mated. The Manchester Guardian c l a i m e d t o k n o w 2 82 . Kur t

Ludecke estimated that th ere were over five hundred Naz is killed

(I Kn e w H i t l e r , S c r i b n e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 93 7) . F r e d e r i c k L . Schu -

m a n , b a s i n g h i s e s t i m a t e u p o n " c o n f i d e nt i a l b u t p r o b a b l y r e -

l i a b l e s o u r c e s," g i v e s t h e n u m b e r o f "1,186 p e r s o n s m u r d e r e d o n

' Bl o o d y S u n d a y ' a n d d u r i n g t h e w e e k w h i c h f o l l o w e d " (The

N a z i D i c t a t o r s h i p , Knopf, New York,1 935 , P. 443) A s i m i l a r

e s t i m a t e i s g i v e n b y W i ck h a m S t e e d , New York Times Magazine,

Feb. 28, 1937, p . 1 . H i t l e r , co m m e n t i n g o n t h i s "b l o o d p u r g e " i n

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NOTES 369

t h e Rei ch s t a g, s t a t ed : " I f a n y o n e s h o u l d a s k w h y w e d i d n o t h a v e

t h e s e m e n t r i e d i n t h e u s u a l m a n n e r b y t h e c o u r t s o f j u s t i c e, I

c a n o n l y s a y t h a t i n t h a t h o u r I w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a t e o f

t h e G e r m a n n a t i o n , a n d t h u s I m y s e l f embodied the supremel e g a l a u t h o r i t y ." (Ko n r a d H e i d e n , A H i s t o r y o f Na t i o n a l So -

cialism, K n o p f , N e w Y o r k , 1 935, PP . 42 6 - 2 7 ) -

8. Th e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s p u t e a s t o t h e c i r c u m -

stances of the Kirov murder and of su bseq uent acts of v iolence in

t h e U . S . S .R . Th e S o v i e t G o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l a r g e b a n d

o f c o n s p i r a t o r s , l i n k e d pr i m a r i l y t o L e o n T r o t s k y a n d t h e g o v -

e r n m e n t s o f G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n , h a v e e n g a g e d i n m a n y a c t s o f

e s p i o n a g e , s a b o t a g e , a n d m u r d e r , a n d h a v e p l o t t e d a g r e a t m a n y

a d d i t i o n a l a c t s o f v i o l e n c e i n a n a t t e m p t t o o v e r t h r o w a n d d e -

s t r o y t h e e x i s t i n g r e g i m e . T h e s e "w r e c k e r s " a r e c h a r g e d w i t h

having deliberately or ganized at least fifteen major train wrecks,

and 1,500 minor ones, involving a considerable loss of l ife ; a n d

w i t h m a n y o t h e r c r i m i n a l a c t s . In t h e Ke m e r o v o m i n es , v e n t i l a -

t i o n t u b e s w e r e s h u t o f f, k i l l i n g t e n m i n e r s a n d w o u n d i n g f o u r -

t een o t h e r s ; e t c . Much of t he evidence is revealed in the verbatim

Re p o r t o f Co u r t P r o c e e d i n g s i n t h e Ca s e o f t h e An t i - S o v i e t

T r o t s k y i t e Ce n t r e, p u b l i s h e d i n En g l i s h b y t h e P e o p l e ' s Co m -

missariat of Justice of the U. S . S .R . , M o s c o w , 1937 ; a n d i n s i m i l a r

p r o c e e d i n g s r e p o r t i n g t h e t r i a l o f Bu k h a r i n a n d h i s "r i g h t i s t "

co - p l o t t e r s , pu b l i s h ed i n 1938 . D u r i n g t h e t r i a l s r ec o r ded i n t h e s e

r e p o r t s , P y a t a k o v, Rad e k, Buk h a r i n, a n d t h e i r f e l l o w " c o n s p i r a -

tors," confessed to many terror ist plans and acts which invo lved

t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f G e r m a n , J a p a n e s e , a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n a g e n t s,

a n d o f m a n y Ru s s i a n s n o t t h e n o n t r i a l . Tr o t s k y , D e w e y , a n d

o t h e r s h a v e c h a r g e d t h a t t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s a r e s p u r i o u s a n d h a v e

b e e n s e c u r e d b y t o r t u r e a n d t h r e a t s . (S e e t h e r e p o r t b y J o h n

D e w e y a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s, N o t G u i l t y , H a r p e r, N e w Y o r k , 1938 . )

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , D . M . P r i t t, f a m o u s Br i t i s h l a w y e r a n d M e m -

b e r o f P a r l i a m e n t, w h o w a s p r e s e n t a t t h e e a r l i e r t r i a l, i s c o n -

vinced that the evidence is g enuine ; a n d t h e s a m e m a y b e s a i d o f

W a l t e r D u r a n t y , New York Times correspo ndent (see his preface

to th e 1937 edition of his b ook, I Write As I Plea se) . T he a r t i c l e

b y t h e A m e r i c a n e n g i n e e r , J o h n L i t t l e p a g e , i n t h eS a t u r d a y

Ev e n i n g P o s t , J a n . 1 , 1938, mai ntai ns, upon th e basi s of per sona l

o b s e r v a t i o n , t h a t m o s t o f t h e m e n e x e c u t e d i n t h e p u r g e s w e r e

" g u i l t y a s c h a r g e d . " An o t h e r a r t i c l e w o r t h r e a d i n g i s W i c k h a m

Steed , "The Cris is in Russi a : Th e L o n g V i e w , " At l a n t i c M o n t h l y ,

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370NOTES

Aug . ,1 937, PP- 163-73

. Se e a l s o t h e c o m m e n t s b y S i d n e y a n d

Be a t r i c e W e b b , Soviet Communism : A New Civil izat ion, r e v . e d . ,

S c r i b n e r , Ne w Y o r k ,1 93 8 -

9. Cf. no te 39 to Cha p . I I .

1o . Em i l L u d w i g , Ta l k s w i t h M u s s o l i n i, 1933 , P . 5 1 . A simi lar

statement is made in Sarfatti's bi ography .

1 1 . G e r a r c h i a, Ap r i l, 1924 . Selections ar e reprinted in Sarfatti,

T h e L i f e o f Be n i t o M u s s o l i n i , 1925 ; p r e s e n t p a s s a g e, p . 129 .

(Sarfat ti gi ves th e date as May, 1924 ; b u t t h e d a t e i s g i v e n a s

Ap r i l, 192 4, i n M u s s o l i n i ' s c o l l e c t e d w r i t i n g s a n d d i s c o u r s e s -

s e e n o t e 1 6 b e l o w . )

12 . I b i d . , p . 131 .

13 . I b i d ., pp .1 3 1- 3 2 -

14 . T h e P r i n c e (tra nsl . W. K . M a r r i o t t ) , D u t t o n , Ne w Y o r k ,

19o8, Cha p . XVI I, pp . 1 34- 3 5 -

15 . I b i d. , P P - 4 8-49 .

16 . "P r el u di o a l M a ch i a ve l li ," G er a rc hi a , Ap r i l, 1924 . M u s -

s o l i n i , S c r i t t i e D i s c o r s i , Ulr ici Ho eple Edito re, Milan , 1934, PP-

108-9 .

17 . H e i n r i c h v o n T r e i t s c h k e , P o l i t i c s , M a c m i l l a n , N e w Y o r k ,

1916, p . 598 . Cf . S . K. Pa d o v e r, "Tr e i t s c h ke : F o r e r u n n e r o f H i t -

leri sm," P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l Re v i e w, V o l . I V, p p . 161-70 (Jun e,

1935)-

18 . Essay publi shed in I l P e n s i e r o Ro m a g n o l a , Romagna, 19o8 ;

e x c e r p t s a n d s u m m a r y i n S a r f a t t i , o p . c i t ., pp . 1 4 1 -4 3, a n d

M e g a r o , M u s s o l i n i i n t h e M a k i n g , 1938, pp . 138-40 .

1g . Al f r e d Ro s e n b e r g , Blut and Ehre, 1936, p . 297 ; and

G e s t a l t u n g d e r I d e e, 1937, p . 18 .

20. N i et z s c h e, T h u s S p a k e Za r a t h u s t r a , M a c m i l l a n , N ew Y o r k ,

1916, p . 6 3 . This cult of cruelt y finds a dis ciple in Barres ; c f . h is

D u S a n g , d e l a V o l u p t e e t d e l a M o r t . F o r S p e n g l e r ' s r a p t u r o u s

description of t he joy of plunging a knife into an enemy, cf . note

6 o t o Ch a p . IX .

21 . Nietz sche, T h e Wi l l t o P o w e r , M a c m i l l a n , 1 91 0, V o l . I I ,

p . 3 1 1 .

22 . I b i d . , p . 297 .

23 . I b i d . , p . 361 .

24 . Nietz sche, The Genealogy of Morals, Macmillan, New

Yo rk , 1924, p . 9 1 .

25 . I b i d ., pp . 29, 40, 41 . There is no justificat ion in anthro -

p o l o g y f o r N i e t z s c h e ' s m y t h o f a p r i m i t i v e r e g i m e o f f o r c e .

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NOTES3 7 1

Kr o p o t k i n ' s e m p h a s i s u p o n m u t u a l a i d , r a t h e r t h a n v i o l e n c e , i s

at least as close to the truth . See in this connection su ch books as

F r a n z B o a s , The Mind of Primitive Man, and B . M a l i n o w s k i ,

Cr i m e a n d Cu s t o m i n S a v a g e S o c i e t y .

26 . S o r e l d e c l a r e s t h a t t h e s e p a s s a g e s f r o m N i e t z s c h e a p p l y

p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e " H o m e r i c h e r o e s," a n d t h e n a d d s : " I t i s q u i t e

e v i d e n t t h a t l i b e r t y w o u l d b e s e r i o u s l y c o m p r o m i s e d i f m e n c a m e

t o r e g a r d t h e H o m e r i c v a l u e s a s s u i t a b l e o n l y t o b a r b a r i c p e o -

pl e s" (Reflections on Violence, 1912, p. 2 7 3 ) -

27 . G a u d e n s M e g a r o , M u s s o l i n i i n t h e M a k i n g , 1938, p . 242 .

Al t h o u g h S o r e l h a s b e e n a m a j o r i n f l u e n c e u p o n I t a l i a n F a s c i s m,

h e s e e m s t o h a v e h a d l i t t l e e f f e c t i n G e r m a n y . In 1926, Car l

S c h m i t t , a n i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t , w r o t e t h a t S o r e l w a s

" s c a r c e l y k n o w n " i n G e r m a n y . Bu t S c h m i t t , w h o h a s h a d s o m e

influence upon German Fascism, agrees with Wyndham Lewis

(The Art o f Being Rul ed, p . 128) that "George Sorel is th e key

t o a l l c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t . " (Ca r l S c h m i t t, Dieg e i s t e s g e s c h i c h t l i c h e L a g e d e s h e u t i g e n P a r l a m e n t a r i s m u s , Mu-ni ch , 1826, p . 7 8 ) .

28 . S o r e l , Reflecti ons on V iol ence, p . 295 .

29 . I b i d . , pp . 246-47,243-

3o . Pareto, T h e M i n d a n d So c i e t y , 1935, Vo l . IV, pp .1 534- 3 5 -

3 1 . I b i d . , p . 1 532 .

32 . Herbert W. Schneider, M a k i n g t h e F a s c i s t S t a t e , 1928,

pp . 261-62 , 265 . Se l e c t i o n s f r o m M a r i n e t t i a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e

Appendix, Part I, of Schneider's book .

33 .Mussol ini, "The Politi cal and Social Do ctrine of Fas cism,"

1 935 , P • 7 -

34 . Sp e e c h b e f o r e t h e Ch a m b e r o f D e p u t i e s, M a y 2 6, 1934 ;

q u o t e d b y H e r m a n F i n e r , M u s s o l i n i ' s I t a l y,1 935 , P • 1 75-

35. Asso ciat ed Press dispa tch, Aug . 11,

1 937-

36 . Speech of May 5, 1936 . The Times (L on d o n), M a y 6, 1936 .

37 . S p e e c h o f O c t o b e r 24, 1936 . Cu r r e n t H i s t o r y , Jan. , 1 9 3 7 ,

p . 3 5 -

38 . Sp e e c h a t M i l a n , O c t . 4, 1922 . Cf . Vol pe, H i s t o r y o f t h e

F a s c i s t M o v e m e n t (no dat e), pp . 103 - 4 .

39 . P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a , Ap r i l 1g, 1921 . Qu o t e d b y F i n e r , op . c i t . ,

p . 136 .

40 . S p e e c h t o t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f F i n a n c e , M a r c h 7 , 1 92 1 . In

Odon Por, F a s c i s m, transl . E. Townshend, Knopf, New York,

1923, p . 148 .

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372 NOTES

41 . M e g a r o , M u s s o l i n i i n t h e M a k i n g , 1938, P • 323-

42 . Cited by Arnold J. To y n b e e, S u r v e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Affai rs : 1933, Oxford Univ. Pre ss , Lo ndo n, 1934, p .1 49-

43. Hermann Goring, Germany Reborn, 1934, p .

67 -

44. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1936, p .

1 7 3 -

45 .I b i d . , p . 4 .

4 6 . I b i d . , p .1 73-

47 .I b i d . , p 1 77 .

48 . Cf . I b i d. , p p

. 7 1 4 -1 5 -

49 .I b i d . , p . 6 53-

5 0 -I b i d ., pp . 766 -67 . Cf . p. 699, w h e r e H i t l e r d e c l a r e s t h a t

"t h e i n e x o r a b l e m o r t a l e n em y o f t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e i s a n d w i l l

a l w a y s b e F r a n c e ," a n d p . 757, wher e he sta tes th at "no sacr ifi ce

s h a l l b e u n b e a r a b l e i f t h e r e s u l t a f f o r d s o n l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a

d e s t r u c t i o n o f o u r g r e a t e s t e n e m y ." The context clearly indicates

that "the greatest enemy" is France .

51 . I b i d . , P• 742 .

52 . I b i d ., pp . 315-16 .

53 .I b i d . , p . 689 .

54 .I b i d . , p . 749 .

55 .I b i d . , p . 195 .

56 . Quoted in R. B . M o w a t , Eu r o p e i n C r i s i s, Ar r o w s m i t h ,

Bris to l, 1936, p . 2 2 .

5 7 .D o c u m e n t s o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s : 1936, Oxford Univ .

Pr es s, 1937, p . 2 1 .

58 . Ap p r o v e d t r a n s l a t i o n, M . M U l l e r & S o h n, Be r l i n, 1936 .

59 . New York Times, O c t . 4, 1938 .

6o . Hitler, My Bat t l e (English translati on), Houghton Mifflin,

Bos t o n, 1 933, P • 271 . Cf . t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o

H i t l e r b y a f o r m e r c o n f i d a n t : " Ne v e r a nt a g o n i z e p o t e nt i a l e n e-

m i e s . At t a c k t h e m o n l y w h e n y o u c a n d e s t r o y t h e m " (Ku r t G . W.

L u d e c k e , I Kn e w H i t l e r ,1 937 , p . 59) . Cf . also the statement of

G e n e r a l Co n s t a n t i n H i e r l, h i g h N a z i o f f i c e r, w h o d e c l a r e s t h a t

" s h a m p a c i f i c i s m " i s u s e f u l i n " l u l l i n g t h e o p p o n e n t t o s l e e p "

w h i l e t h e c o u n t r y p r e p a r e s f o r w a r (G r u n d l a g e n e i n e r d e u t s c h e n

W eh r p o l i t i k , N a t i o na l So c i a l i s t Li b r a r y, N o . 12, 1929, p . 1 6 ) .

61 . Cf . t h e G e r m a n - J a p a n e s e Ag r e e m e n t o n C o m m u n i s m s i g n e d

at Berli n, Nov . 25, 1936 . This sta tes : "T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t i e s

o f b o t h h i g h c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s w i l l , w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f

e x i s t i n g l a w s, t a k e s t r i c t m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o, a t h o m e

o r a b r o a d , directly or indirectly, a r e a c t i v e i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e

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NOTES 373

Co m m u n i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l e o r l e n d a h e l p i n g h a n d t o i t s d i s r u p -

tive work" (my itali cs) . Th e t r e a t y a l s o s t a t e s t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t i n g

p a r t i e s a r e " co n v i n c e d t h a t t o t o l e r a t e t h e Co m m u n i s t I n t e r -

nationale's interference with the internal affairs of nati ons not

o n l y e n d a n g e r s t h e i r i n t e r n a l p e a c e a n d s o c i a l w e l l - b e i n g b u t

threatens world peace at large ." "Th i r d p a r t i e s" a r e a s k ed t o jo i n

i n t h e a g r e e m e n t, a n d I t a l y , H u n g a r y a n d S p a i n h a v e s i n c e d o n e

s o . How very loo sely the terms of th is treaty ar e apt to be inter-

p r e t e d i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y i n

t h e S p a n i s h w a r, w h i c h h a s b e e n d e p i c t e d a s a w a r a g a i n s t Co m -

munism. Y et a t t h e t i m e t h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n b e g a n t h e Co m m u n i s t s

h e l d o n l y 1 6 o u t o f473

se a t s i n t h e S p a n i s h C o r t e s, t h e r e w a s

n o t a s i n g l e S o c i a l i s t o r Co m m u n i s t i n t h e Ca b i n e t, a n d Az a n a,

t h e P r e s i d e n t, w a s a m o d e r a t e Re p u b l i c a n .

62 . Qu o t e d i n Cu r r e n t H i s t o r y, Jan. , 1937, P • 35 .

63 . Al f r e d Ro s e n b e r g , G e st a l tu n g d er Id e e, 1937, p . 363 .

Rosenberg apparently has in mind the famous aphorism of

H e r a c l i t u s , "Wa r i s t h e f a t h e r o f a l l a nd t h e k i n g o f a l l . "

64 . R . Wa l t h e r D a r r 6 , Neuadel aus Blut and Boden, 1930,

p . 2 2 2 .

65 . We r n e r H a v e r b e c k , " Au f b r u c h d e r j u n g e n N a t i o n , " Na-tionalsoz ial istische Monatshefte, Heft 35, p . 81 . Quoted byBrad y, T h e S p i r i t a n d S t r u c t u r e o f G e r m a n F a s c i s m , 1937, p . 189 .

66 . F o r a n e x p o s i t i o n i n En g l i s h o f L u d e n d o r f f ' s t h e o r y, c f .

L i d d e l l H a r t, Eu r o p e i n A r m s , Random House, New York, 1 937 ,

Chap. XVI .

67 . Ew a l d B an s e, G e r m a n y P r e p a r e s f o r W a r , H a r c o u r t, Br a c e,

New York, 1934, p . x x . An i n t e r e s t i n g a c c o u n t o f P r o f e s s o r

Ba n s e ' s p o s i t i o n a n d i n f l u e n c e i n G e r m a n y i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h epublisher's preface to this volume . The record indicat es that th e

G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t d es i r e s t o a v o i d s u s p i c i o n a b r o a d w h i l e r e -

t a i n i n g e x t r e m e m i l i t a r i s t s s u c h a s Ba n s e i n p o s i t i o n s o f r e s p o n s i -

b i l i t y . Cf . Aure l Kolnai , T h e Wa r Ag a i n s t t h e W e s t , 1938, pp .

411, 424 ff . , 6 3 9 f f .

68. O s w a l d S p e n g l e r, Po l i t i s c h e Sch r i f t en, C . H. Be c k , M u n i c h

an d Berl in , 1934, p . 129 .

69 . R . Wa l t h e r D a r r e , Das Bauerntum als Lebensquell der

N o r d i s c h e n Ra s s e , J . F . L e h m a n n s V e r l a g , M u n i c h , 1 92 9, p. 4 3 5 -

7o . Rosenb erg, Bl u t a n d E h r e , 1936, p . 7 2 .

71 . H e n r i L i c h t e n b e r g e r, T h e T h i r d Re i c h , 1937, p . 282 . D r .

N i c h o l a s M u r r a y Bu t l e r , pr e s i d e n t o f Co l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , i n

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374 NOTES

a foreword to this boo k, declares : "It is' safe to say that now here

e l s e w i l l t h e En g l i s h - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s f i n d a m o r e a c c u r a t e , a

m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e o r a m o r e j u s t e x a m i n a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r et a -

t i o n o f t h e G e r m a n y o f t o d a y . "

7 2 . Manchester Guardian Weekly, March 2 5 , 1 9 3 7 . The Italia ns,

a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s a r t i c l e , a d m i t t h a t a s m a n y a s 3 , o o o n a t i v e s

w e r e t h u s m a s s a c r e d , a n d o t h e r s p u t t h e n u m b e r a s h i g h a s

5 , 0 0 0 . F o r e v i d e n c e a s t o t h e e x t r e m e l y b r u t a l m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d

by the Fasci sts in the conq ues t of Ethiopia , see Geoffrey T . Gar-

r a t t , Mus sol ini 's Roman Empi re, 1938, Chap. VII .

7 3 .F o r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t, c f . N e w Y o r k T i m e s,

Ap r i l 2 8 and May 5 , 1 9 3 7 ; Ne w Y o r k H e r a l d T r i b u n e, May 6

and May1 3 , 1 9 3 7 ; and London Times, May 5 , 1 9 3 7 . T h e e v i -

d e n c e i m p l i c a t e s G e r m a n f l y e r s b e y o n d a p e r a d v e n t u r e o f d o u b t .

74 .Qu o t a t i o n s i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r e f r o m G e o r g e L . S t e e r ,

N e w Y o r k T i m e s c o r r e s p o n d e n t, w r i t i n g i n L on d on M e rc u r y,

Aug . , 1 9 3 7 -

75- Manchest er Gu ardian Weekly, May7 , 1 9 3 7 -

76 . Se e The Times (L o n d o n ), M a y 5 , 1 9 3 7 .

7 7 .T h e ne w s c o r r e s p o n d e n t J a y Al l e n g i v e s a v i v i d a c c o u n t

o f t h i s m a s s a c r e i n t h e Chica go Tribune, Aug . 3 0 , 1 9 3 6 . O t h e r

s i m i l a r m a s s e x e c u t i o n s h a v e t a k e n p l a c e a t G r a n a d a , S e v i l l e ,

S a r a g o s s a, a n d e l s e w h e r e . As to su ch practi ces, see dispa tch by

Frank L. Kl u c k h o h n , New York Times, O c t o b e r 11, 1 9 3 6 .

7 8 . Manchester Guardia n Weekly, May 7 , 1 9 3 7 -

7 9 -Cf. Foreig n Policy Associ atio n Repor ts, Vo l . X I I , N o s . 1 8 ,

2 0 , and 2 1 .

8 o . Manchester Guardian Weekly, S e p t . 10, 1 9 3 7 -

8 1 . Associ ated Pres s dis patch, Sept .2 5 , 1 9 3 7 -

8 2 . A s u m m a r y o f t h i s a r t i c l e i s p r i n t e d i n t h e N e w Y o r k

Times, Sept . 2 2 , 1 9 3 7 -

8 3. Ro o s e v e l t ' s s p e e c h i n Ch i c a g o, O c t . 5 , 1 9 3 7 . T h e s e s e n -

t e n c e s a r e a " p a r a p h r a s e o f a r e c e n t a u t h o r," b u t a r e a d v a n c e d

a s t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n v i c t i o n s . Th e a u t h o r i s J a m e s H i l t o n , a n d

t h e p a s s a g e p a r a p h r a s e d a p p e a r s i n Lost Horizon .

8 4 . Ro s e n b e r g , G e s t a l t u n g d e r I d e e , 1 9 3 7 , P • 4 3 .

8 5 . G i o a c c h i n o V o l p e , H i s t o r y o f t h e F a s c i s t M o v e m e n t , p . 1 0 5 ,

q u o t i n g f r o m M u s s o l i n i ' s s p e e c h a t M i l a n , O c t . 4 , 1 9 2 2 .

8 6 . L i d d el l H a r t , Eur op e in Arm s, 1937 ; f r o m t h e c h a p . o n t h e

S p a n i s h Wa r i n s e r t e d i n p a m p h l e t f o r m . Re p r i n t e d b y c o u r t e s y

of Random House, Inc .

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NOTES 375

87 . Balb o, D i a r i o d i . 1 9 2 2 , p . i g , q u o t e d i n Herman F i n e r ,

Mussolini's Italy, 1935, p .1 40 -

88. Ro s e n b e r g, D e r M y t h u s d e s 20 . J a h r h u n d e r t s , 1935, P • 78 .

89. Os w a l d M o s l ey , Th e Gr e at e r Br i t ai n , B .U . F . Pu b l i c a t i o n s,

L o n d o n , n o d a t e , p p . 28-29 .

g o . S a l v e m i n i , U n d er t h e Ax e o f F a s c i s m , 1936 , p p . 207, 210 .

Cf. L . Ro s e n s t o c k - F r a n c k, L ' Ec o n o m i e Co r p o r a t i v e F a s c i s t e e n

D o c t r i ne e t en F a i t, J . Gam ber , Par is, 1934 .

g 1 . P u b l i s h e d b y G o l l a n c z , L o n d o n , 193 8 .

92 . As s o c i a t e d P r e s s d i s p a t c h f r o m T o k y o, O c t. 7 , 1 937-

93. Associ ated Pres s dis patch, Oct . 6 , 1 937-

94 . Cur t . L . H e y m a n n , "G e r m a n y ' s Co l o n i e s ," Cu r r e n t H i s -

t o r y , Feb . ,1 937 , P • 40 -

95. N o r m a n An g e l l , Ra w M a t e r i a l s , P o p u l a t i o n Pr e s s u r e a n d

War, W o r l d P e a c e F o u n d a t i o n , Bo s t o n , 193 6 , p p . 14-15 . Mr .

An g e l l p r e s e n t s a n e f f e c t i v e r e b u t t a l t o t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e

" h a v e s " a n d t h e " h a v e - n o t s . "

96 . Cf . S i d n e y Br a d s h a w F a y, Th e O r i g i n s o f t h e W o r l d W a r ,

M a c m i l l a n , Ne w Y o r k , 1 92 8 .

97. Ernst Wiechert, "The Poet and His Times," address

deliv ered to s tudent s at t he Univ ersi ty of Munich , April 16, 1936 .

I t s p u b l i c a t i o n w a s f o r b i d d e n b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d i t w a s

circulated through typewritten copies . It i s p r i n t ed i n t h e A ppen-

d i x t o H e n r i L i c h t e n b e r g e r , The Third Reich . W i e c h e r t h a s

s i n c e b e en i m p r i s o n e d f o r h i s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e N a z i r e g i m e .

CHAPTER VI

1 . Al e x a n d e r M e i k l e j o h n , What Does America Mean? W. W .

N o r t o n & Co ., New Yo rk, 1 935 , P • 2 5 -

. - . H a r o l d J . Laski, "Democr acy," article in th e En c y c l o p a e d i a

of the Social Sciences .

3 . I m m a n u e l K a n t , P e r p e t u a l P e a c e , t r a n s l . by M Ca m p b e l l

S m i t h , L o n d o n, 1903, p p . 185, 195 .

4 . Speech by Muss oli ni at Berli n, Sept . 28, 1937 . News in Brief,

O c t. 5 , 1 937 , P • 1 73-

5 - Mein Kampf, p . 501 .

6 . Goring, Germany Reborn, 1934, PP - 37-3 8 -

7. Musso lini , "The Polit ical and Socia l Doctr ine of Fasci sm,"

1935, P. 16 .

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376 NOTES

8 . Cf . Hitler's address, "The Basi s of N a t i o n h o o d , " a t t h e

S e v e n t h N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t Con g r e s s, N i i r n b e r g, S e p t . 1 6 , 1 935 ,

pub . b y M M U l l e r & S o h n, Be r l i n, p p . 68-69 .

g . Plato, T h e Re p u b l i c , Bo o k V I I I , #548-549 (Jowett's transl . ) .

io . Mu s s o l i n i , o p . c i t . , p p . g ,1 3 -

i i . Fra ncesco Ercol e, D a l N a z i o n a l i s m o a l F a s c i s m o , Rome,

1928, p. 250. Cf. G e o r g e H . Sabin e, A History of Politi cal Theory,

H e n r y H o l t , N e w Y o r k ,1 937 , P • 748 : "T o e q u a t e f r e e d o m w i t h

caprice, to condemn both as egois m, and to represent th e pursuit

o f h a p p i n e s s a s a m e a n d e s i r e f o r s e l f i s h a d v a n t a g e s h a v e b e e n

s t o c k a r g u m e n t s w i t h i d e a l i s t h e r o - w o r s h i p p e r s s i n c e t h e d a y s o f

T h o m a s Ca r l y l e . "

12 . New York Times, M a r c h 2 , 1 9 38 .

13 . Qu o t e d b y J u l i e n Be n d a , " Th e En e m i e s o f D e m o c r a c y i n

Fra nce," F o r e i g n A f f a i r s, J a n. , 1 9 3 5 , P . 289 .

14 . Be n i t o M u s s o l i n i, Reden (ed . D r . Max H M e y e r ), K . F .

Koehl er, Lei pzi g, 1925, p . 2 3 2 -

15. H i t l e r , a d d r e s s i n g 50,000 "H i t l e r Y o u t h s " a t N U r n b e r g ,

Sept . , 1 9 3 5 . Qu o t e d b y A u r e l K o l n a i, T h e W a r Ag a i n s t t h e W e s t ,

1938, p . 321 .

16 . New York Times, Nov . 2 8 , 1 937 .

17 . F o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n

P l a t o ' s Re p u b l i c a n d t h e N a z i S t a t e, c f . R. F . Al f r e d H o e r n l e,

" Wo u l d P l a t o H a v e Ap p r o v e d o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t S t a t e ? "

P h i l o s o p h y , V o l . XIII , Apr il , 1938 . Hoernle is correct in noting

similarit ies, but he fai ls adeq uately to note the differences and

t h e c l o s e r p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w een t h e F a s c i s t a nd t h e Ti m o c r a t i c St a t e .

18 . V a l e r i o Ca m p o g r a n d o , L ' O r d i n a m e n t o d e l l o S t a t o I t a l i a n o

Fascista, La tt es, Turi n, 1928, p . 6 . Qu o t e d i n H e r b e r t W . Schneid er

a n d S h e p a r d B . Clou gh, M a k i n g F a s c i s t s, Univ . of Chicago Press,

1929, p . 101 .

1g . G o r i n g , Germany Reborn, pp . 79-80 . Cf . t h e f o l l o w i n g

s t a t e m e n t f r o m t h e V o l k i s c h e r B e o b a c h t e r, H i t l e r ' s n e w s p a pe r

and the central organ of the National Socialist Par ty : "T h e h e a d

o f t h e P a r t y, t h e c h i e f o f t h e w h o l e S t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e

s u p r e m e l o r d o f j u s t i c e, i s t h e F u h r e r, Ad o l f H i t l e r . Wh a t t h e

F u h r e r d o e s i s a l w a y s r i g h t ." This infalli bilit y, the arti cle de-

c l a r e s , e n t a i l s e n o r m o u s l e g a l c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r e v e r y G e r m a n

"racial comrade," because it is th e basis of Germa n justice . ( J u l y

16, 1936 ; c f . New York Times, Jul y 17, 1936, fro m w hich I qu ote . )

20 . V o l k i s c h e r Be o b a c h t e r, Feb. 12, 1938 . For further indica-

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NOTES3 7 7

t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r i s t i c a n d " Sp a r t a n " ch a r a c t e r o f G e r m a n e d u -

ca t i o n, s ee t h e i m p r e s s i v e s e r i e s o f q u o t a t i o n s f r o m o f f i c i a l t e x t s

a n d d e c r e e s i n Ed u c a t i o n i n Na z i G e r m a ny , f o r e wo r d b y No r -

m a n A n g e l l , K u l t u r k a m p f As s o c i a t i o n , L o n d o n , 1 93 8 .

21 . Qu o t e d f r o m t h e W e s t d e u t s c h e Be o b a c h t e r , i n " Ku l t u r -

k a m p f ," J a n. 5 , 1 93

8 .

22 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Nov . 1 9 ,1 937-

23 . Liddell Hart , Eu r o p e i n Ar m s , 1937, P . 48 .

24 . S a r f a t t i , T he L i f e o f Be n i t o M u s s o l i n i, 1925, P• 3 2 7 -

25- Quoted by Dr. H e ll m u t F i s c h er , D a s El i t e p r i nc i p d e s

F a s c h i s m u s , H. & J . Lech te , Ems det te n, 1935, p . 26 .

26 . Cf. M u s s o l i n i, My Autobiography, 1928, p . 213

. Al t h o u g h

t h i s " a u t o b i o g r a p h y " w a s w r i t t e n b y R i c h a r d Wa s h b u r n Ch i l d ,

i t r e c e i v e d M u s s o l i n i ' s s t a m p o f a p p r o v a l .

27 . Hitler, M y Ba t t l e (Eng l i s h t r a n s l .), 1933, p . 187 -

28 . O n I t a l i a n l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c f . G a e t a n o S a l v e m i n i ,

U n d e r t h e Ax e o f F a s c i s m , 1936, an d I t a l i a n F a s c i s m, 1938; an d

o n G e r m a n L a b o r , Ro b e r t A . Bra dy, The S p i r i t a n d S t r u c t u r e o f

G e r m a n F a s c i s m , 1937 .

29. Cf . t h e l e t t e r f r o m t h e Ex e c u t i v e o f t h e G e r m a n S o c i a l

D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y ( e x i l e d), Manchester Guardian Weekly, O c t .

29 , 1 937-

30- Cf. H a r o l d D . L a s s w e l l a n d Re n z o S e r e n o , " G o v e r n m e n t a l

a n d P a r t y L e a d e r s i n F a s c i s t I t a l y," Am e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n ce

Re v i e w , V o l . XXXI, pp . 914-929 (O c t . ,1 937)-

V. Germany : T h e L a s t F o u r Y e a r s , H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n, Bo s -

to n, 1937, PP - 74, 78 . Th i s b o o k, b a s e d u p o n N a z i s t a t i s t i c s a n d

i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n , w a s p r e p a r e d b y a g r o u p o f G e r m a n e c o n o -

m i s t s , s o m e o f w h o m o c c u p y h i g h p o s i t i o n s . For obviou s reasons,

t h e a u t h o r s a r e a n o n y m o u s .

32 . Cf . St e p h e n H . Robe rts , T h e H o u s e T h a t H i t l e r B u i l t ,

1937, esp eci all y p . 1 o 1 .

33 .H e l l m u t F i s c h e r , o p . c it . , p .

5 -

34. Lewis Mumford, Men Must Act, H a r c o u r t , Br a c e, N e w

Yo rk , 1939, p . 176 .

35 .Aure l Ko l n a i, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 ,

3 8 -

36 . Hermann Drahn, D a s W e r k S t e f a n G e o r g e s , 1925; q u o t e d

b y K o l n a i, i b i d . , p . 185 -

37 . M u s s o l i n i , My Autobiography, p . 25 . (See note 26 abo ve . )

38 . G u s t a v e L e Bo n, The Crowd: A S t u d y o f t h e P o p u l a r

Mind, T . F i s h e r U n w i n , L o n d o n , 1 896, p . 6 .

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378 NOTES

3 9. I b i d . , p . 2 1 5 -

40 . I b i d . , p . 2 7 .

4 1 . Le Bon . The Psychology of Revolution, Unwin, London,

1 9 1 3 , P . 3 2 5 .(T h e a r g u m e n t o f t h i s b o o k i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f

T h e Cr o w d . )

42 . The Cro wd , pp . 1 8 - 1 g . (Cf . Le Bon' s The P s y c h o l o g y of

S o c i a l i s m , Macmillan, New York, 1 8 9 9 , a w o r k w h i c h p r e d i c t s

utter ruin if democratic collectivism should be established . )

43 . I b i d . , p . 13 7 .

44 . I b i d . , p . 6 1 .

45 . Cf . Ibid . , p p . 7 6 - 7 7 , 2 2 1 .

46 . I b i d . , p . 1 5 9 .

47 .Mussolini, S c r i t t i e D i s c o r s i d a l 1 9 3 2 a l 1 9 3 3 , Ulrici Hoeple,

M i l a n , 1 9 3 4 , p . 2 2 6 .

4 8 . Cf. S o r e l , R e f l e c t i o n s o n V i o l e n c e , p . 1 3 1 ; a n d D e l ' U t i l i t e

du Pragmatisme, Paris, 1 9 2 8 , p p . 1 - 2 .

4 9 . Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia, H a r c o u r t, Br a c e ,

New York, 1 9 3 6 , p . 1 2 2 .

50-Pareto, The Mi nd a nd So ciet y, 1935, Vo l . IV, pp . 1 5 6 9 ,

1 5 7 3 -

5 1 - I b i d . , p . 1 5 1 5 -

5 2. I b i d . , p . 1 6 9 2 .

5 3 . I b i d . , p . 1 5 1 6 .

5 4 •P a r e t o , L e s S y s t e m e s S o c i a l i s t e s , 1 9 2 6 , V o l . I , p . 3 8 .

5 5. I b i d . , p p

. 3 0- 3 1 -

56. The Mind a nd Society , Vol. I V , p . 1

4 7 2 .

5 7. I b i d . , p p . l g o g n . , 1 9 1 2 .

5 8 . L e s S y s t e m e s S o c i a l i s t e s , V o l . I , p . 9 6 .

59 . I b i d . , p p . 6 1 - 6 2 .

6o . Cf . G a e t a n o M o s c a , The Ruli ng Class (transl . o f Elemen ti

d i S c i e n z a P o l i t i c a ), M c G r a w - H i l l , 1 9 3 9 , p p . 7 0 - 7 1 . (As to Mosca 's

i n f l u e n c e u p o n F a s c i s m, cf . P e t e r M . Ricc io, O n t h e T h r e s h o l d

o f F a s c i s m , 1 9 2 9 , p p . 1 6 2 - 7 o . )

61 . Cf . Mosca , The Rul ing Cla ss, p . 1 9 o .

6 2 . I b i d . , p . 3 2 5 -

63 . G a e t a n o M o s c a , " Th e Cr i s i s i n P a r l i a m e n t a r i s m a n d H o w

I t M a y Be O v e r c o m e ," i n The De ve l op me n t of t h e R e p r e s e n t -

ative System in Our Time, I n t e r p a r l i a m e n t a r y U n i o n , G e n e v a ,

1 9 2 8 , P p . 7 5 , 8 1 -

6 4. Ro b e r t M i c h e l s , P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s : A S o c i o l o g i c a l S t u d y o f

t h e O l i g a r c h i c a l T e n d e n c i e s of M ode rn De m oc r ac y , H e a r s t ' s I n -

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NOTES 3 7 9

terna tio nal L ibr ary , New Yor k, 1916, p . 2 5 . (Michels wa s form erly

p r o f e s s o r a t T u r i n , m o r e r e c e n t l y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P e r u g i a .

H e h a s w r i t t e n a n u m b e r o f c r i t i c a l b u t s y m p a t h e t i c s t u d i e s o f

F a s c i s m, i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s p r e - F a s c i s t w o r k f r o m w h i c h I q u o t e . )

65 . Cf . i b i d., pp. 4 07 - 8 -

66 . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l e c t u r e , " Th e H e r o As K i n g ,"

in Carly le, Heroes and Hero Worship . As to Carlyle 's Fasci st in-

clina tions , cf . Be n j a m i n Ev a n s L i p p i n c o t t , Victorian Critics of

D e m o c r a c y , Univ . o f M i n n e s o t a P r e s s, M i n n e a p o l i s, 193 8. Thea u t h o r p o i n t s o u t ( p . 48) that "editions of transla ted excerpts

f r o m Ca r l y l e a p p e a r e d i n I t a l y f r o m 192 o t h r o u g h 1922, a n d t h a t

300,000 c o p i e s o f s e l e c t i o n s w e r e s o l d i n G e r m a n y b e t w e e n 1926

an d 1932 . . . . Carlyle's lectures on hero es are prescribed reading

i n m a n y s c h o o l s i n G e r m a n y . "

67 . Carl yle, "Char acte ris tics ," Cr i t i c a l a nd M i s ce l l a ne o u s Es s a y s,

Scr ib ner , New Y or k, 1900, p. 2 5 -

68 . Cf . t h e q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e s e a n d o t h e r Am e r i c a n a u t h o r s

i n Ro b e r t A . Bra dy, T h e Sp i r i t a n d S t r u c t u r e o f G e r m a n F a s -

cism, 1 93 7, a n d i n t h e s a m e a u t h o r ' s " Th e F a s c i s t T h r e a t t o

D e m o c r a c y ," Science and Society, Spring , 1938 . M a n y o t h e r s u c h

q u o t a t i o n s c a n b e c u l l e d f r o m s u c h r i g h t - w i n g p e r i o d i c a l s a s t h e

American Review a n d t h e American Mercury .

6 g . Cf . Ro b e r t A . Bra dy, o p . c i t . , Chap. IV, for ev idence that

t h e N a z i s i d e n t i f y b o r n l e a d e r s h i p w i t h e c o n o m i c s u c c e s s .

70 . F o r a c r i t i q u e o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t " n a t u r e " t a k e s p r e c e d -

e n c e o v e r "n u r t u r e " i n d e t e r m i n i n g h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d a b i l -

ity, see the art icle by Raymond Pearl , American Mercury, Nov . ,

1927 ; H . J . M u l l e r, "T he D o m i n a n c e o f Ec o n o m i c s o v e r E u g e n i c s,"

Scientific Monthly, J u l y, 1933 ; a n d J . B . S . H a l d a n e , H e r e d i t y

a n d P o l i t i c s , Norton, New York, 1938 . Se e a l s o t h e s p e e c h b y

J u l i a n H u x l e y b e f o r e t h e Br i t i s h As s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Ad v a n c e -

m e n t o f S c i e n c e, New York Times, S e p t . 6 , 1937- P r o f . H u x l e y

p o i n t s o u t : " Se v e r a l y e a r s a g o a s t u d y w a s m a d e o f c h i l d r e n o f

the underprivil eged and their defects were attributed to the re-

s u l t o f h e r ed i t y . L a t e r d i s c o v e r y w a s m a d e o f t h e e f f e c t o f l a c k o f

vitami ns in the diet, with the resul t that tho se very defects were

f o u n d t o b e n o t a t a l l h e r e d i t a r y, b u t t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e w h o l l y

e l i m i n a t e d w i t h m i l k a n d s p i n a c h . "

71 . Ar n o l d J . To y n b e e , Su r v e y, o f In t e r n a t i o n a l Af f a i r s : 1 9 3 3 ,

Oxford Univ. Pre ss , Lo ndo n, 1934, p . 1 2 1 .

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380 NOTES

72 . S e e T o y n b e e , A S t u d y o f H i s t o r y , 1934, Vo l . III, pp. 5 0-

iii, 150, 167-6 8 .

73 . Goring , Germany Reborn,1 934, PP - 2 3- 2 4 -

74. Be r t r a n d Ru s s e l l , " Th e F u t u r e o f D e m o c r a c y ," New Re-

p u b l i c, May 5, 1 937 , P •

381 .

75 .Ben e d e t t o Cr o c e, "Th e F u t u r e o f D e m o c r a c y," New Re-

p u b l i c, Ap r i l 7, 1 937 , P . 255 .

CHAPTER VII

1 . The D e M o n a r c h i a o f D a n t e Al i g h i e r i , e d i t e d b y Au r e l i a

H e n r y , H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n , Bo s t o n , 19 04 , p. 4 5 -

2 . J o h n L o c k e , An Es s a y C o n c e r n i n g t h e T r u e , O r i g i n a l , Ex -

t e n t a n d En d o f Ci v i l G o v e r n m e n t , Chap. I X, # 124 -

3. Edmund Burke, T h o u g h t s a n d D e t a i l s o n S c a r c i t y . Cf .

H a r o l d J . La s k i ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f Bu r ke i n T he Ri s e o f L i b e r a l i s m,

H a r p e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 36 , p p . 229-31 . The interpretatio n of lib -

e r a l i s m w h i c h i s h e r e v e r y b r i e f l y s u m m a r i z e d i s d e v e l o pe d i n

L a s k i ' s e x c e l l e n t b o o k, t o w h i c h I a m i n d e b t e d .

4 . Qu o t e d b y L a s k i, ibid . , p . 253-

5- Si d n e y W e b b , "S o v i e t R u s s i a ' s N e w D e a l," N a t i o n , Nov. 2 1 ,

1 936 , P 597 .

6 . L u d w i g v o n M i s e s , Socialism : An Ec o n o m i c a n d S o c i o l o g i c a l

Ana l y s i s, Cap e, L o n d o n, 1936, p p . 398, 402 .

7 . Locke, op . c i t . , Chap . V, #40 .

8 . Ab r a h a m L i n c o l n , Co m pl e t e Wo r ks , e d . N i c o l a y a n d H a y ,

Ce n t u r y Co ., New Yo rk , 1920, Vo l . I , p . 9 2 .

9 . M u s s o l i n i , Th e D o c t r in e o f F a s ci s m , 1936, p p . 12-13 .

1o . S pe e c h b e f o r e t h e N a t i o n a l D i r e c t o r y o f t h e F a s c i s t P a r t y,

Apr i l 7, 1926, i n M u s s o l i n i, D i s c o r s i de l 1926, Alp es , Mi la n, 1927,

p. 120 .

i i . Ro s e n b e r g , Bl u t a n d E h r e , 1936, pp . 18o-8i .

12. Edmund Burke, Re f l e c t i o n s o n t h e Re v o l u t i o n i n F r a n c e ,

W a l t e r S c o t t, L o n d o n, n o d a t e, p . 120 .

13. Adam H. Mu l l e r , D i e El e m e n t e d e r S t a a t s k u n s t, ed . Jacob

Baxa , Gus tav Fis cher , Jena , 1922, Vol . I , p . 182 . (O r i g i n a l p u b -

lis hed i n Berlin, 18og . )

14 . I b i d . , I I , p p .1 47-

15. Muller, V e r s uc h e e i n er n eu e n Th e o ri e de s Ge l d es , e d .

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NOTES 381

H e l e n e R e s e r , G u s t a v F i s c h e r , J e n a , 1 9 2 2 , p p . 1 0 - 1 1 . ( O r i g i n a l

p u b l i s h e d i n L e i p z i g a n d A l t e n b u r g , 1 8 1 6 . )

1 6 . D i e E l e m e n t e d e r S t a a t s k u n s t, V o l . I , pp . 6 6 , 3 1 .

1 7 . Ib i d . , V o l . I I , p . 2 6.

1 8 . Ib i d . , V o l . I , p . 7 .

1 g . Ib i d . , V o l . I , p . 8 o .

2 0 . Ib i d . , V o l . I , p . 8 6 .

2 1 . B a x a ' s n o t e t o t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n ( t h e n o t e s a r e i n V o l .

I I ) .

2 2 . J o h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e , Ad d r e s s e s t o t h e G e r m a n N a t i o n

( t r a n s l . R . F . J o n e s a n d G . H . T u r n b u l l ) , O p e n C o u r t , C h i c a g o ,

1 9 2 2 , p p . 8 4 , 2 0 8 .

2 3 . C f . B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l , " T h e R e v o l t A g a i n s t R e a s o n , " At -

l a n t i c M o n t h l y, F e b . , 1 9 3 5 , p . 2 2 6 . T h e f a c t t h a t F i c h t e m a k e s

German superiority depend upon language rather than upon

b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d i f f e r e n t i a t e s h i m f r o m t h e N a z i s .

2 4 . F i c h t e , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 6 - 4 7 .

2 5 . C f . t h e q u o t a t i o n s f r o m F i c h t e ' s Principles of N a t u r a l

Ri g h t i n F . W . C o k e r , O r g a n i s m i c T h e o r i e s o f the Sta te, Colu m-

bia Univ . , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 1 0 , p p . 2 0 - 2 3 .

2 6 . C f . F i c h t e , S d m t l i c h e W e r k e, ed . J . H . F i c h t e , B e r l i n , 1 8 4 5 ,

Vol . V I I , p p . 3 7 - 3 8 ; Ad d r e s s e s t o t h e G e r m a n N a t i o n , p . 1 4 5 ;

and T he Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Pr es ent Age, i n T h e P o p u l a r

Wo r ks o f J o h a nn G o t t l i eb Fi ch t e, T r i i b n e r , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 9 , V o l .

I I , p . 1 6 8 .

2 7 . H i t l e r ' s s p e e c h t o t h e L a b o r F r o n t a t N i i r n b e r g , S e p t .

1 2 , 1 9 3 6 , N e w Y o r k T i m e s , S e p t . 1 3 , 1 9 3 6 .

2 8 . F i c h t e , Addr ess es, p . 1 3 3 , C f . S d m t l i c h e W e r k e, V o l . V I I ,

p . 4 6 .

2 9 . G. W . F . H e g e l , Ph i l o s o ph y o f Ri g h t ( t r a n s l . S . W . D y d e ) ,

B e l l , L o n d o n , 1 8 8 6 , p . x x v ii .

3 0 - M u s s o l i n i , T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m, 1 9 3 6 , P• 5 5 -

3 1. H e g e l , T h e P h i l o s o p h y o f H i s t o r y ( t r a n s l . J . S i b r e e ) ,

C o l o n i a l P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 0 0 , p . 3 9 .

3 2 . P h i l o s o p h y o f Rig ht , p . 336 .

3 3. I b i d . , p .

3 4 1 -

3 4. A r t i c l e o n H e g e l i n t h e Encycl o pa edi a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s .

3 5 .P h i l o s o p h y o f Ri g h t, p . 334 . Cf . P . 33 1 .

3 6 . P h i l o s o p h y o f H i s t o r y , p . 3 8 .

3 7 . J. M a c b r i d e S t e r r e t t ( t r a n s l a t o r ) , T h e Et h i c s o f H e g e l ,

G i n n , B o s t o n , 1 8 9 3 , p . 1 8 g .

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382 NOTES

38 . Mussoli ni, "The Politi cal and Social Do ctrine of Fas cism,"

p . 1 3 . J a m e s St r a c h e y Ba r nes, a p r o - F a s c i s t w r i t e r, h a s s a i d : "T he

notion of the State as an end in itself forms no part w hatever of

o r t h o d o x F a s c i s m " ( T h e U n i v e r s a l A s p e c t s o f F a s c i s m , W i l l i a m s

& N o r g a t e, L o n d o n , 1938, p . 95) . I f t h i s i s t r u e, a n u m b e r o f

F a s c i s t d e c l a r a t i o n s, i n c l u d i n g t h e p r e s e n t q u o t a t i o n f r o m M u s -

s o l i n i, a r e v e r y m i s l e a d i n g . Co m p a r e H e g e l ' s s t a t e m e n t : "The

State is the spirit, which abides in the world and there reali zes

itself consciously . . . . I n t h i n k i n g o f f r e e d o m w e m u s t n o t t a k e

o u r d e p a r t u r e f r o m i n d i v i d u a l i t y o r f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f -

co n s c i o u s ne s s, b u t f r o m t h e e s s ence o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ne s s . L e t m a n

be aware of it or not, this essence realizes it self as an independent

p o w e r , i n w h i c h pa r t i c u l a r p e r s o n s a r e o n l y p h a s e s . T h e St a t e

i s t h e m a r c h o f G o d i n t h e w o r l d ; i t s g r o u n d o r c a u s e i s t h e

p o w e r o f r e a l i z i n g i t s e l f a s w i l l . " (Philo sophy of Right, pp .

244- 45 . )

39 . Cf . H i t l e r , M e in Kamp f , 1936, PP.421, 433- 3 4 -

40 . P a u l d e L a g a r d e , D e u t s c h e S c h r i f t e n , D i e t e r i c h s c h e V e r -

l a g s b u c h h a n d l u n g , G o t t i n g e n , 1 892, p . 1 43 .

4 1 . Ibid . , p . 328 .

42 . I b i d .

43 . I b i d . , p . 127 .

44 . I b i d . , p . 289 .

45 .I b i d . , p . 9 6 .

46 . I b i d . , p. 2 3 -

47 .I b i d . , p .

1 33-

48 . I b i d . , p . 380 .

49 .I b i d . , p p . 183-84 .

50 . I b i d . , p . 364 .

51 . I b i d . , p . 110 .

5 2 . I b i d . , p . 1 6 .

53 . H e i n r i c h v o n T r e i t s c h k e , H i s t o r i s c h e a n d p o l i t i s c h e A u f -

s d t z e , S . Hir zel , Lei pz i g, 1911, Vol . I , p . 124 .

54 .Ibid . , p . 142 .

55. J o s e p h M a z z i n i , T h e D u t i e s o f M a n a n d O t h e r E s s a y s,

D u t t o n , N e w Y o r k, p. 3

23 -

56 . I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n c i l i a t i o n , O c t ., 1926, pp . 414-15 .

57 . Ibid .

58 . Enri co Corr adi ni, La Riform a Poli tica in Europe, Monda-

do ri , Mi la n, 1929, p . loo .

59 .Ibid . , p p . 103 -4

.

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NOTES3 8 3

6o . Al f r e d o Ro c c o , "L a T r a n s f o r m a z i o n e d e l l o S t a t o ," LaVoce, Rome, 1927 ; selection tr a ns l . by Herbert W . Sch nei der ,

Making the Fascist State, 1927, pp . 328-29-

61 . R . Wa l t h e r D a r r e , Das Bauerntum als Lebensquell derN o r d i s c h e n Ra s s e , 1929, p . 28

7 -

62 . H a n s G e r b e r , S t a a t s r e c h t l i c h e G r u n d l i n i e n d e s n e u e n

Re i ch e s , Ti i b i n ge n , 1933 , p . 1g . Ci t e d i n S c i e n c e a n d S o c i e t y,

W i n t e r ,1 937 , P • 222 -

63 . L . T. H o b h o u s e , Th e M e t a p h y s i c a l T h e o r y o f t h e St a t e,

M a c m i l l a n , N e w Y o r k , 1 91 8, p . 5 2 . See also p p. 5 3 - 54 .

64 . S p e e c h b e f o r e t h e S e n a t e , M a y 1 2, 1 92 8 . M u s s o l i n i , The

D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m, 1

93 6 ,PP- 57

- 58.

65. H o b h o u s e , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 32-33 .

66. Al f r e d o Ro c c o, "T h e P o l i t i c a l D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m," In -

t e r n a t i o n a l Co n c i l i a t i o n, O c t ., 1926, pp . 402-3 .

67. Alfr ed Rosenb erg, D e r M y t h u s d e s 20. J a h r h u n d e r t s ,1935,

p . 2 .

68 . Cf . J . McT. Elli s McTaggar t, Philosophical Studies, Long-m a n s, G r e e n, N e w Y o r k, 1934, p . l o g : " . . . W h a t ev e r a c t i v i t y

i t i s de s i r a b l e f o r t h e St a t e t o h a v e, i t w i l l o n l y b e de s i r a b l e a s

a m e a n s , a n d . . . t h e S t a t e i t s e l f c a n h a v e n o v a l u e b u t a s a

means. An d a r e l i g i o n w h i c h f a s t e n s i t s e l f o n a m e a n s h a s n o t

risen above fetish-worshi p . Co m p a r e d w i t h w o r s h i p o f t h e S t a t e ,

z o o l a t r y i s r a t i o n a l a n d d i g n i f i e d . A b u l l o r a c r o c o d i l e m a y n o t

have great i ntrinsic valu e, but it h as some, for it i s a conscious

b e i n g . Th e S t a t e h a s n o n e . I t w o u l d b e a s r e a s o n a b l e t o w o r s h i p

a s e w a g e p i p e , w h i c h a l s o p o s s e s s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e a s a

means." McTa g g a r t ' s e n t i r e e s s a y, f r o m w h i c h I q u o t e, i s w o r t h

r e a d i n g .

69 . H i t l e r, " Th e Re s t o r a t i o n o f G e r m a n L i b e r t y," a d d r e s s a t

t h e S e v e n t h N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t Co n g r e s s , N u r e m b e r g , S e p t . i i ,

1935 ( t r a n s l . pub . b yM Miill er & Sohn, Berli n,1 935), P . 1 5 .

70. M u s s o l i n i , T h e D o c t r i n e o f F as ci sm , 1936, p . 6 3 .

71 . Hegel , T h e P h i l o s o p h y , of History, 1go o, p . 2 1 .

72 . Hegel , P h i l o s o p h y o f Ri g h t, 1896, p . 266 .

7 3 . I b i d . , p . 270 .

74. Ro b e r t o F a r i n a c c i , " Re n d e r u n t o C a e s a r " ( t r a n s l . f r o m

Re g i m e F a s c i s t a, Cr e m o na F a s c i s t d a i ly ), L i v i n g Ag e , J a n . , 1 9 3 9 ,

p . 410 .

75 .M u s s o l i n i, T h e D o c t r i n e of Fascism, 1936, p . 5 7 ; a n d " T h e

Political a nd Social Doctrine of Fascism ,"1 935 , P. 1 5 .

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384 NOTES

76 . Ro s e n b e r g , Bl u t a nd Eh r e , 1936, p . 246 .

77 . H u g h Qu i g l e y , "F a s c is m F a i l s It a l y ," Cu r r en t H is t o r y,

Ju ne, 1934, PP- 258-59 . T h i s s t a t e m e n t w a s m a d e a f t e r t w e l v e

years of Fascist rule . The entire article is instructive .

78 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Nov . 12, 1937 . The Itali an

a u t h o r o f t h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s a n o n y m o u s , b u t h e a p p e a r s t o

h a v e a c c e s s t o c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n .

79. O t t o G i er k e , P o l i t i c a l T h eo r i e s o f t h e M i d d l e Ag e s, Cam-

b r i d g e U n i v . Press , 1922, p . lo . ( F i r s t e d ., 1900 . )

CHAPTER VIII

1 . Plato, Phaedrus ( t r a n s l . L a n e Co o p e r ), O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s ,

1938, p. 7 1 -

2 . G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e , The Reform of Education, H a r c o u r t ,

Bra ce, New Y or k, 1922, p . 107 .

3 . Cf . " Ku l t u r k a m p f ," Ju ne 24, 1938 . To criticize t hese philo-

s o p h i c a l c o n t e nt i o n s w o u l d l e a d u s i n t o a b s t r u s e a r g u m e n t s ,

w h i c h w o u l d b e o u t o f p l a c e i n a n u n t e c h n i c a l w o r k s u c h a s t h e

present .

4 . Musso lini, "The Polit ical and Socia l Doctr ine of Fasci sm,"

1 935 , pp .8-9-

5. Hitler, Reden, e d . Er n s t Bo e p p l e , D e u t s c h e r V o l k s v e r l a g ,

Mu n i c h , 1934, P. 3 6 .

6 . Rose nberg , Der Mythus des 20 . J a h r h u n d e r t s , 1935 , P 1 5.

Cf . i b i d . , p . 2 3, a n d Bl u t a n d Eh r e , p . 241 .

7 . J a m e s D r e n n a n , B .U .F . : O s w a l d M o s l e y a n d Br i t i s h F a s c i s m,

1 934 , p. 204 -

8. Hegel, Th e P h i l o s o p h y, o f H i s t o r y, 1 900, p . 9 .

g . Ro s e n b e r g, D e r M y t h u s d e s 20 . J a h r h u n d e r t s, p . 287 .

1 0 . Fichte, Th e V o c a t i o n o f M a n , transl . Wi l l i a m S m i t h, L o n -

do n, 1838, Bk . I I I , S e c . 3 . (Ran d, M o d e r n Cl a s s i c a l P h i l o s o p h e r s ,

Hou ght on M iff lin, Bost on, 1924, p . 516 . )

i i . Bo l t o n K i n g , Th e L i f e o f M a z z i n i , Dutton, New York,

1912, p . 288 .

12 . M a z z i n i , Th e D u t i e s o f M a n a n d O t h e r Es s a y s , 1907, p . 2 6 6 .

13. Musso lini, My Diary : ry r5-17, S m a l l , M a y n a r d , Bo s t o n ,

1925, pp. 131-32 .

14 . Alfredo Oriani, L a Ri v o l t a I d e a l e , o r i g i n a l e d ., 1907, PP -

85-86 .

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NOTES 3 8 5

15 . Cf . G i o v a n n i G en t i l e, O r i g i n i e D o t t r i n a d e l F a s c i s m o ,

L i b r e r i a d el L i t t o r i o , Ro m e , 1929, from which t h e q u o t e d

p h r a s e s i n t h e p r e s e n t p a r a g r a p h a r e t a k e n .

16 . Gentile, "The Transcending of Time in History," in

P h i l o s o p h y a n d H i s t o r y , ed . Raymond Klibansky and H . J .

P a t o n, Cl a r e n d o n P r e s s , O x f o r d, 1936, o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e .

17 . Gentile, The. Re f o r m o f Ed u c a t i o n , 1 922 , pp . 29- 93 .

18 . Cf . Gentile, Che Cosa a i t F a s c is m o, V a l l ec h i, F l o re nc e,

1925 , pp . 235- 3 6 .

1 g . London D a i l y T el e g r a p h , Oct. 29, 1936 .

20 . Qu o t e d i n L a w r e n c e P r e u s s , "N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t Co n c e p -

tions of Internati onal Law," Am e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e Re v i e w,

V o l . XXIX, p . 6oo n. (Au g. , 1 9 3 5 ) -

2 1 . Qu o t e d i n " M e m o r i a l t o Ch a n c e l l o r H i t l e r o f T e n Co n -

f e s s i o n a l L e a d e r s o f t h e G e r m a n Ev a n g e l i c a l Ch u r c h ," Inter-

national Conciliation, Nov ., 1936 .

2 2 . P a u l G o e b b e l s, M jo l n i r (Ehr er , Mun ich , 1931), qu ot ed b y

F r e d e r i c k L . Sc h u m a n, Th e Na z i D ic ta t o rs h ip ,1935, p . 3 1 5 -

23 .P o p o l o d ' I t a l i a , M a r c h 7 , 1 9 20 . Re p r o d u c e d i n S c h n e i d e r,

Making the Fascist State, 1928, pp . 274-75 .Af t e r a t t a i n i n g p o w e r

a n d s i g n i n g a t r e a t y w i t h t h e P o p e, M u s s o l i n i h a s b e e n, i n g e n -

e r a l , l e s s f r a n k .

24 . Sp e e c h o f N o v . 15, 1933 . Source Book on European Gov-

e r n m e n t s , 1937, p . 111-68 .

25 . O n t h e i m p r i s o n m e n t o f Ca t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s , s e e

New York Times, Dec. 2 a n d 12, 1937. I n a d d i t i o n, e v e n t h e

h i g h e s t Ca t h o l i c d i g n i t a r i e s, s u c h a s Ar c h b i s h o p S p r o l l , Ar c h -

b i s h o p G r o b e r, Ca r d i n a l I n n i t z e r, a n d Ca r d i n a l F a u l h a b e r, h a v e

b e e n s u b j e ct e d t o i n s u l t a n d r i o t o u s a n t i - Ca t h o l i c d e m o n s t r a -

tions .

26 . Quoted by Waldemar Gurian, H i t l e r a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n s,

S hee d & Wa r d , New Y o r k, 1936, p . 97 . Th i s b o o k , w r i t t e n b y a

Ca t h o l i c , r e v i e w s t h e N a z i a t t a c k s u p o n b o t h P r o t e s t a n t s a n d

Cat h o l i c s .

27 . Qu o t e d i n T h e Ch u r c h S t r u g g l e i n G e r m a n y : A S u r v e y o f

F o u r Cr i t i ca l Y ea r s, b y a n "En g l i s h Ch r i s t i a n ," w i t h p r e f a c e b y

t h e B i s h o p o f L i c h f i e l d , Rt . Rev. E. S . Wo o d s , D.D . , Kul t u r -

k a m p f As s o c i a t i o n , L o n d o n , 1 937 , p . 1 3 -

28 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Nov . 1 g ,1 937-

29 . Cf . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n , Apri l 23,1 937 .

30 . New York Times, Apr il 20, 1938 .

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386 NOTES

31 . News in Brief, Dec. 3 1 , 1 937, P .

20 7 -

32- " Me m o r i a l t o C h a n c e l l o r H i t l e r, e t c . , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co n -

c i l i a t i o n , Nov., 1936 .

33 . Kerr l, Feb . 13, 1937 . Qu o t e d i n T h e Ch u r c h S t r u g g l e i n

Germany, 1937 , P • 5 -

3 4 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Jul y 15,1 93 8 -

3 5- S p e e c h b y D r . Ley , Ma rc h 30, 1938 . " Ku l t u r k a m p f ," Apri l

15, 1938. For o ther stat ements of t he sa me tem per, see "Ku l t u r -

k a m p f ," Nov. 2 3, 1 93 7, a n d " M e m o r i a l t o Ch a n c e l l o r H i t l e r ,

etc.," 1936 .

36 . M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , Apr il 15, 1938 .

3 7 .The Times (Lon do n), Ju ly 29, 1936 .

38 . Rose nberg , Der Mythus des so . J a h r h u n d e r t s, 1 935 , PP.

5 1 4,6o 8 .

39 . Cf . Pr o f . Be r g m a n n ' s " Ca t e c h i s m ," H e n r i L i c h t e n b e r g e r ,

T h e T h i r d R e i c h , 1 9 37, Ap p e n d i x .

40 . " Ku l t u r k a m p f ," Ju ne 24, 1938 .

41 . Be r g m a n n , o p . c i t .

42 . Cf . G e o r g e S e l d e s, The Vatican: Yesterday-Today-To-

morrow, H a r p e r , N e w Y o r k , 1 934, P •384 . Seldes gives a vivid ac-

c o u n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e P o p e t o I t a l i a n a n d G e r m a n F a s c i s m .

H e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a v e r y d e e p c o n f l i c t , d e s p i t e

e v e n t u a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t, w i t h M u s s o l i n i a n d

Hitler's ally, General Franco .

43 . Cf . W i l l i a m T e e l i n g , P o p e P i u s X I a n d Wo r l d A f f a i r s ,

S t o k e s, Ne w Y o r k , 1937 , P 137

. This book, written by a Catholi c,

formul ates the attitude of those Catholi cs who dislike the Vatican

c o m p r o m i s e s w i t h F a s c i s m .

44 . Ed g a r D e Wi t t J o n e s , pr e s i d e n t o f t h e F e d e r a l Co u n c i l o f

Ch u r c h e s , a n d t w e l v e o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d Am e r i c a n c l e r g y m e n ,

s t a t e d i n a w e l l d o c u m e n t e d r e p o r t : "Religion is not being at -

t a c k e d i n S p a i n . The people of Spain are not a ntireligi ous . T h e

r e g r e t t e d a n d a d m i t t e d b u r n i n g o f c h u r c h e s, e t c ., was o ccasi oned

b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h u r c h e s a t t a c k e d w e r e b e i n g u s e d a s

rebel fort s and because the hiera rchy-not , of course, the mass es

o f t h e l o w e r c l e r g y, h a d pe r m i t t ed i t s e l f t o b e i dent i f i ed w i t h r e -

a c t i o n a n d o p p r e s s i o n ." (P a m p h l e t en t i t l e d Spain, New York,

1 937, P . 2 3 . )

45 . Th e e v i d e n c e s e i z e d a t Ba r c e l o n a i s s u m m a r i z e d i n TheN a z i Con s p i r a c y i n S p a i n, b y a n a n o n y m o u s w r i t e r , p u b l i s h e d b y

G o l l a n c z , L o n d o n , 1 93 7 . P h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f s o m e o f

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t h e c o n f i s c a t e d d o c u m e n t s a r e i n c l u d e d . S i m i l a r r e p o r t s have

a p p e a r e d i n t h e M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n . An t o n i o Ru i z V i l a p l a n a ,

t h e f o r m e r d e a n o f t h e Co l l e g e o f L a w S e c r e t a r i e s a t Bu r g o s ,

m a i n t a i n s t h a t " i t i s t h e a i d f r o m G e r m a n y t h a t h a s b e e n t h e

b a s i c f a c t o r i n t h e S p a n i s h c o n f l i c t ," a n d t h a t " i t i s a m i s t a k e t o

r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f I t a l i a n i n t e r v e n t i o n a b o v e t h e G e r m a n . "

Certainly th e importance of Naz i mili tary suppli es and technical

a i d h a s b e e n v e r y g r e a t . (Cf . Vi l a pl a na ' s b oo k , Bu r g os J u s t ic e,

1938, a nd Manchester Guardian Weekly, Jan. 21, 1938, f r om

w h i c h I q u o t e . )

46 . N e w Y o r k T i m e s , May 10, 1938 .

47. M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n We e k l y , M a y 28,

1 937-

48. T h e s u m m a r y o f a s y l l a b u s i s s u e d b y t h e V a t i c a n t o t h e

S a c r e d Co n g r e g a t i o n o f S e m i n a r i e s a n d U n i v e r s i t i e s , p u b l i s h e d

b y G e o r g e s G o y a u i n t h e P a r i s F i g a r o ; cf . " Ku l t u r k a m p f ," May

1 4 , 1 93 8 .

49. Speech at Vat ican City , Jul y 29, 1938 (Inter nati ona l News

Service) . Cf . New York Times, J u l y 1 7 a n d 3 0, 1 938 . Th e F a s -

cist racialis t creed adopted in Italy is summ arized in the T i m e s ,

Jul y 15, 1 93 8 -

50- In substant iatio n of the close all iance between Franco and

the Fascist dictato rs, the follow ing news dispatches may be cited :

" Th e S pa n i s h F a s c i s t i n s u r g e n t s i n t e n d t o e s t a b l i s h a g o v e r n -

m e n t s i m i l a r t o t h e F a s c i s t r e g i m e s o f I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y , G e n -

e r a l i s s i m o F r a n c i s c o F r a n c o d e cl a r e d i n r e p l y t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e

w h i c h I s u b m i t t e d t o h i m d u r i n g m y v i s i t t o S p a i n t o r e p o r t t h e

f a l l o f B i l b a o " (W eb b M i l l e r, New York Herald Tribune, J u l y

15, 1937) . "Ch a n c e l l o r Ad o l f H i t l e r t o d a y t e l e g r a p h e d h i s c o n -

g r a t u l a t i o n s t o I n s u r g e n t G e n e r a l F r a n c i s c o F r a n c o on t h e o c c a -

s i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e S p a n i s h Ci v i l W a r " (NewY o r k T i m e s, J u l y 1 7, 1938) . "General Fra ncisco Franco has t ele-

g r a p h e d h i s c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s t o Ad o l f H i t l e r o n t h e a n ne x a t i o n

o f Au s t r i a " (New York Times, Ma y 24, 1938) . " Re b e l S p a i n

has honored Italy and Germany by awarding decorations to

Field Marshal Hermann Goring, Germany's No . 2 N a z i , a n d

Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian Foreign Minister" (Ch i c a g o

T r i b u n e , J u l y 18, 1938). S u c h n e w s i t e m s c o u l d b e i n d e f i n i t e l y

m u l t i p l i e d .

51 . Al f r e d M e n d i z i b a l , The Martyrdom of Spain, Scribner,

N e w Y o r k , 19 3 8, p p . 14-15 . S e n o r M en d i z i b a l w a s f o r m e r l y p r o -

f e s s o r o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f L a w a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O v i e d o, a n d

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388 NOTES

is secretary of the Spanish group of th e Catholic Union of Inter-

n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s . Th i s w o r k, w i t h i t s p r e f a c e b y M a r i t a i n, d i s -

s e n t s f r o m t h e P a p a l e n d o r s e m e nt o f F r a n c o . An even more

f o r t h r i g h t b o o k i n c o n d e m ni n g F r a n c o i s t h e s e n s a t i o n a l w o r k ,

L e s G r a n d s Ci m i t i e r e s s o u s l a L u n e , b y t h e g r e a t Ca t h o l i c w r i t e r,

Geo rge s Berna nos (Par is, 1938) . Here is a powerful indictment of

t h e Re b e l s w r i t t e n b y a Ca t h o l i c o f u n q u e s t i o n a b l e p r e s t i g e .

52 . G i o v a n n i G e n t i l e , The Reform of Education, 1922, pp .

231-32 .

53. An t o n i o M a r a i n i , " I t a l i a n Ar t U n d e r F a s c i s m ," Studio,

Dec. , 1 9 3 6 , p . 2 9 7 .

54. Al l o f t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n s f r o m H i t l e r ' s s p e e c h a p p e a r

i n N ew s i n Br i ef , S e p t . 2 2 ,1 937 , P P- 1 5 2- 54-

55. Thomas Mann, Th e Co m i n g V i ct o r y o f D e mo c r a cy , Kn o p f,

New York,1 93 8 , P P - 37-38 . Mann's lecture is a no ble stat ement

o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c i d ea l i n o p p o s i t i o n t o F a s c i s m .

56 . Cf . t h e b o o k o n Na z i a r t b y M . E. We r n e r t, p u b l i s h e d b y

t h e Ce n t r e d 'E t u d e s d e P o l i t i q u e E t r a n g e r, Pa r i s , 1937 .Upon

t h e b a s i s o f a b r o a d s u r v e y , W e r n er t c o n c l u d e s t h a t a r t h a s

s u f f e r e d a v e r y s e v e r e d e c l i n e u n d er H i t l e r . Cf. a l s o V . F . Cal -

v e r t o n , " Th e Cu l t u r a l B a r o m e t e r," Cur r e n t H i s t o r y, Apri l,1 937 ,

pp. 9 1 f f . ; a n d D o r o t h y T h o m p s o n , "Cu l t u r e U n d e r t h e N a z i s ,"

F o r e i g n Af f a i r s , Apr il , 1936 .

57. Sp e e c h o f H i t l e r b e f o r e t h e Re i c h s t a g , M a r c h 2 3

, 1 933 .

James K. P o l l o c k , " D o c u m e n t s o n t h e N a z i G o v e r n m e n t o f G e r -

many," in Source Book on European Governments,1 937 , P

IV-128 .

58. Speech of H itl er at Munich , Jul y 18, 1937 . U n i v e r s a l N e w s

S e r v i c e .

59 . Cf . New York Times, Apri l 16, 1933, Sec . 4 .

6o . The Times ( L o n d o n ), J u n e 5, 1 934 .

6 1 . Ro s e n b e r g, D e r M y t h u s d e s 20. J a h r h u n d e r t s ,1 935 , P . 279 .

62 . Cf . G o n d a G o r e , " Ar t i n N a z i G e r m a n y , " F o r t n i g h t l y R e-

view, Aug . , 1 9 3 8 , p . 214 .

63 . St a t e m e n t a s r e l e a s e d b y t h e N o r t h Am e r i c a n Co m m i t t e e

t o Ai d S p a n i s h D e m o c r a c y .

64 . J a m e s D r e n n a n , o p . c i t . , p . 194 . Cf. al so pp . 198-99 .

65 . Mu s s o l i n i , L 'Ag r i c u l t u r a e i ru r a l i : D i s c o r s i e S c r i t t i , Rome,

1931 ; q u o t e d b y Ca r l T . Schmidt , T h e P l o u g h a n d t h e S w o r d ,

1938, p . 4 2 .

66 . Hitler , quoted in D e r 3 . Re i ch s b a u e rn t a g i n G o s l a r , Be r -

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NOTES 389

l i n , 1935 , P .

7 (r e p ro d u ce d i n Br a d y , Th e S pi r i t a n d S tr u c t u r e o f

G e r m a n F a s c i s m , 1937 , P . 2 3 1 ) .

67 . R . W a l t h e r D a r r e , Das Bauerntum als Lebensquell der

N o r d i s c h e n Ra s s e , 1929, p. 5 0 -

68 . I b i d . , p . 52-

69 . I b i d . , p . 300-

7 0 -I b i d . , p . 2 94-

71- S p e e c h o f M a r c h 23, 1933 . S o u r c e Bo o k o n Eu r o p e a n G o v -

e r n m e n t s , 1937, p. IV - 1 3 1 -

72 . Qu o t e d b y Ca r l T . Schmidt , op . c i t . , p . 128 .

73 .G. Pesce, Contadini d'Ital ia, Bo l o g n a , 1 9 26 . Quoted by

S c h m i d t, p . 138 .

74 . Pr o f e s s o r S c h m i d t i s a m e m b e r o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Ec o -

n o m i c s o f Co l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y . Th e s t u dy ci t e d (The Plougha n d t h e S w o r d ) i s b a s e d o n r e s e a r c h u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e

S o c i a l S c i e n c e Re s e a r c h Co u n c i l . Pr o f e s s o r Ro b er t s ' d i s c u s s i o n i s

i n h i s b o o k, T h e H o u s e T h a t H i t l e r B u i l t , 1937, pp . 189-98 . As

t o t h e f l i g h t o f p e a s a n t s f r o m t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s ,

see New York Times, Nov. 28, 1938 . Darre estimates that since

1933 fr om 700,000 to 8oo,ooo per son s ha ve fo rsa ken th e rur al di s-

t r i c t s f o r t h e u r b a n a n d i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s .

75 . L e w i s M u m f o rd , Th e Cu l t u r e o f C i t i e s , H a r c o u r t, Br a c e,

N e w Y o r k , 19 3 8, p . 4 0 1 .

CHAPTER IX

1 . G. L o w e s D i c k i n s o n , A Modern Symposium, D o u b l e d a y ,

P a g e , Ne w Y o r k , c o p y r i g h t 1 9 0 5 , 1 933 , P P- 1 5 2- 5 3 -

2 . T h e H o u r o f D e c i s i o n (tra nsl . Char les Fr anci s Atki nso n),

K n o p f , N e w Y o r k , 1 93 4 , p . i x .

3 . Ib i d .

4 . I b i d . , p . 188 .

5 . Ib i d . , p . x i i .

6 . I b i d . , p . 23 0 -

7- Ibi d .

8 . I b i d ., p . 186 . "Ca e s a r i s m ," a s h e r e e m p l o y e d , i n v o l v e s a

r a t h e r l a r g e d o s e o f S p e n g l e r i a n r o m a n t i c i s m . I t d o es no t tr u l y

a p p l y t o m e n l i k e Au g u s t u s a n d M a r c u s Au r e l i u s .

9. Quoted by James Drennan, B .U .F . : Oswald Mosley and

Br i t i s h F a s c i s m ,1 934 , PP. 286-87 .

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390 NOTES

10 . Em i l L u d w i g , T a l k s w i t h M u s s o l i n i , 1 9 3 3 , p p . 6 2 , 2 1 6 .

11 . Drennan, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 - 17 -

1 2 . S p e e c h b y H i t l e r i n R e i c h s t a g , M a y 2 1 , 1 9 3 5 . Approved

t r a n s l a t i o n p u b l i s h e d b y M . Miill er & Soh n, Berl in, p .4 8

.

1 3 . M u s s o l i n i, T h e D o c t r i n e o f F a s c i s m , 1 9 3 6 , P . 5 5 -

1 4. Manchester Guardian Weekly, J u n e l o,

1 9 3 8 -

1 5 . Spengler, P o l i t i s c h e S c h r i f t e n , C . H. Beck, Munich andBerlin, 1 9 3 4 , p p . 2 0 2 - 4 . Th i s b o o k i s a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p i l a t i o n

of Spengler's speeches and writi ngs on polit ical sub jects, includ-

ing his Preussentum and Sozialismus .

1 6 . I b i d . , p . 8 g .

1 7 . Cf. J o h a n n v o n L e e r s , S p e n g l e r s W e l t p o l i t i s c h e s S y s t e m

a n d d e r N a t i o n a l s o z i a l i s m u s , J u n k e r & D u n n h a u p t , Be r l i n , 1 9 3 4 .

1 8 . Ro s e n b e r g , Blu t a nd Ehr e, 1936, p . 4 9 . Cf . a l s o pp . 4 0 3 ,

5 5 1 , 6 7 3 .

1g . Cf . i b i d . , p . 5 1 8 .

2 0 . T h e H o u r o f D e c i s i o n , p . 1 9 3 -

2 1 . T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , K n o p f , N e w Y o r k , V o l . I I , 1 9 2 8 ,

p . 3 6 3 . ( V o l . I a p p e a r e d i n t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1 9 2 6 , V o l . I I i n 1 9 2 8 ;

t h e s e v o l u m e s w e r e f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n G e r m a n i n 1 9 1 8 and 1 9 2 2 ,

r e s pect i v e l y . Tr a n s l a t i o n s b y Ch a r l e s F r a n c i s A t k i n s o n . )

2 2 . P o l i t i s c h e S c h r i f t e n , p. 5 5 .

2 3 . T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , V o l . I I , p . 4 2 9 . T h e t e r m " r a c e

q u a l i t y ," a s e m p l o y e d i n t h i s q u o t a t i o n , d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t

S p en g l e r s h a r e s t h e N a z i r a c e p r e ju d i c e s . Th e En g l i s h t e x t i s

h e r e s l i g h t l y m i s l e a d i n g . P e r h a p s t h e t e r m " ex c e l l e n t b r e e d i n g "

w o u l d b e m o r e f a i t h f u l t o t h e G e r m a n .

2 4 . I b i d . , p . 3 5 3 .

2 5 . I b i d . , p . 4 .

2 6 . I b i d . , p . 1 7 . Qu o t e d w i t h a p p r o v a l b y D r e n n a n , t h e Br i t i s h

F a s c i s t , o p . c i t . , p . 1 8 1 . Cf . Spengler , P o l i t i s c h e S c h r i f t e n , p . 8 4 :

" We d o n o t b e l i e v e i n t h e p o w e r o f r e a s o n o v e r l i f e . . . . The

l o g i c o f t h e s p e c t a c l e o f n a t u r e , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n c a u s e

and effect, seems to us superfi cial ; o n l y t h e l o g i c o f t h e o r g a n i c,

o f f a t e, o f i n s t i nc t, w h i c h o ne f ee l s a nd t h e a l m i g h t i ne s s o f w h i c h

one sees in the change of thi ngs, gives evidence of the depth of

becoming. "

2 7 . Drennan, o p . c i t . , p . , 8 o .

28. P o l i t i s c h e S c h r i f t e n , p . 1 0 5 .

29. I b i d . , p p . v i i - v i i i .

30 . Ibid . , p . 1 5 .

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NOTES 39 1

3 1 . I b i d . , p . 8 2 .

3 2 . C f . i b i d. , p p . 45- 4 6 , 9 5 - 9 6 .

3 3. T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , V o l . I I , p

. 4 4 3 -

3 4 - I b i d .

3 5. I b i d . , V o l . I , p . 4 0 . Inci dent a l l y, t h i s pas s ag e i mpl ie s a

s o m e w h a t e x t r e m e d e p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e a r t a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e o f

Rome . Cf . El i e F a u r e, The Spirit of the Forms, Harper, New

Y o r k ,1 9 3 0 , P P - 5 4 - 5 5 -

3 6. I b i d . , p . 4 1 .

3 7 . P o l i ti s c h e S c h r i f t e n , p p . 8 5 - 8 6 .

3 8 . I b i d . , p . 1 54 .

3 9. I b i d . , p . 8 5 .

4 0 . T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , V o l . I , p .1 0 4 -

4 1 - I b i d . , p . 1 o 6 .

42 . I b i d . , p . 1 7 4 -

4 3 - I b i d . , p . 2 2 1 .

44 . I b i d . , p . 2 1 .

45 . I b i d . , p . 3 1 -

46 . I b i d . , Ap p e n d i x , T a b l e I I I .

47 .S p e n g l e r , M a n a n d T e c h n i c s, Knopf, New York, 1 9 3 2 ,

p . 1 0 4 .

48 . T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , V o l . I , p . 2 1 .

49 . Cf . P l a t o , T h e S o p h i s t , #245 - 2 47 .

50 . L e w i s M u m f o r d , r e v i e w o f The Decline of the West, i n

New Repub lic , Vol . XLVI, p . 3 6 8 , May 1 2 , 1 9 2 6 .

51 . Cf . Ro b i n , La Thdorie platonicienne des iddes et des

n o m b r e s a p r e s A r i s t o t l e , P a r i s , 19o8 ; M i l h a u d , L e s P h i l o s o p h e s -

g d o m e t r e s d e l a G r e e e , P l a t o n e t s e s p r e d d c e s s e u r s , Pari s, 1goo ;

Bu r n e t , Greek Philosophy , P t . I, Lond on, 1 9 2 8 , p p . 3 1 2 - 2 4 , and

Platonism, Ber kel e y , 1 9 2 9 , Chaps .2 , 3 , 5 , 7 ; T a y l o r, P l a t o : The

M a n a n d H i s Wo r k , London and New York, 1929, Chap . 19 .

Bu r n e t p o i n t s o u t t h a t N e w t o n a n d L e i b n i z w e r e a c t u a l l y i n -

f l u e n c ed b y t h i s G r e e k m a t h e m a t i c s i n w o r k i n g o u t t h e d i f f e r -

ent i a l c a l c u l u s (Greek Philos ophy, Pt . I , p . 3 2 2 ) . Cf . Spengler ,

T h e D e c l i n e o f t h e W e s t , V o l . I , p p . 6 2 - 6 7 , for an interpretation

i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e a b o v e a u t h o r i t i e s .

52 . Con s i d e r, f o r e x a m p l e, G o e t h e ' s r e m a r k : "The f o r m o f t h i s

w o r l d p a s s e s ; a n d I w o u l d f a i n o c c u p y m y s e l f w i t h t h a t o n l y

which constitutes abiding relation . " (Qu o t e d b y J o h n Ad d i n g t o n

S y m o n d s , E s s a y s : S p e c u l a t i v e a n d S u g g e s t i v e , Smit h, Elder , Lon -

d o n, 1 9 0 7 , P. 5 5 . )

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392 NOTES

53 .Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civili zatio n, H a r c o u r t ,

Bra ce, New Yo rk , 1934, p . 108 -

54. Al f o n s D o p s c h, The Economic and Social Foundati ons of

E u r o p e a n C i v i l i z a t i o n , H a r c o u r t, Br a c e, Ne w Y o r k , 1937 . D o p s c h

eruditely contends that th ere was no real break in continuity be-

t w e e n Ro m a n a n d e a r l y m e d i e v a l c i v i l i z a t i o n . H e c o n c l u d e s :

" Mu c h w h i c h o n c e s e e m e d t o b e a n e w a n d d e l i b e r a t e c r e a t i o n i s

now seen, owing t o our cl earer knowledge of the period, never to

h a v e b e e n l o s t a t a l l , b u t t o h a v e p e r s i s t e d i n t h o s e o b s c u r e ,

s p a r s e l y d o c u m e n t e d a n d t w i l i g h t c e n t u r i e s o f Eu r o p e a n c u l t u r a l

d e v e l o p m e n t . Th e l a t e r c e n t u r i e s d i d b u t c o m p l e t e a n d e x t e n d

w h a t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n i n t r o d u c ed a n d e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h a t e a r l i e r

a g e " (p . 390 ) -

55. Ar t i c l e o n " I n d i a n A r t," E n c y c l o p c e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , 14th

Ed i t i o n .

56 . V i r g i l ' s d a t e s a r e 7o -19 B . C . , a n d L u c r e t i u s ' a r e 95-52 B . C .

T he p e r i o d o f d e c a d e n c e, a c c o r d i n g t o S p e n g l e r, h a d s e t i n m o r e

t h a n t w o c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h i s t i m e . As t o Ch i n e s e a n d J a p a n e s e

paint ing, cf . L a u r e n c e B i n y o n , P a i n t i n g i n t h e F a r E a s t , 3 r d e d . ,

Lo ndo n, 1923, P.273

; and Ernes t F . Fenollosa, E p o c h s o f C h i n e s e

a n d J a p a n e s e A r t , L o n d o n, 1912, V o l . II, Cha ps . X and XI, es pe-

cially p . 1 g . As l a t e a s t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , J a p a n p r o d u c e d

t w o p a i n t e r s o f r e m a r k a b l e c a p a c i t y, H o k u s a i a n d H i r o s h i g e . Cf .

Spengler, who beli eves that a rtis tic decadence in Chinese cult ure

(in c l u d i n g J a p a n e s e), b e g a n a s e a r l y a s t h e H a n p e r i o d (A . D . 25) .

I n d e c i d i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h i s m a t t e r , w e m u s t p i t o n e m a n ' s

o p i n i o n a g a i n s t a n o t h e r ' s ; b u t a t l e a s t S p e n g l e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

i s n o t t h a t o f r e c o g n i z ed a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d . (For Speng ler' s

c h r o n o l o g y, s e e T a b l e I I, i n Ap p e n d i x t o V o l . I o f The Decline

o f t h e W e s t . )

57 . Cf . M o r t i m e r J . Adler , "Spengl er, the Spengl erit es, and

S p e n g l e r i s m," P s y c h e , V o l . V I I I , pp. 73-84 (Ju ly , 1927), and th e

e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e b y R . G . Co l l i n g w o o d , " O s w a l d S p e n g l e r a n d

t h e T h e o r y o f H i s t o r i c a l Cy c l e s ," A n t i q u i t y , Sept ., 1927, PP -

311-25, for an indi catio n of Spengler's unempi rical a nd arbit rary

methods . Al s o s e e t h e s u m m a r y o f S o r o k i n ' s a n d T o y n b e e ' s c o n -

clusions in the latt er part of the present chapter .

58 . Some critics would see in the pessimistic character of s uch

l i t e r a t u r e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o u r c u l t u r e i s d r a w i n g t o w a r d s i t s

cl o s e. But "Ecclesias tes" sounded the extreme not e of futi lity a t

t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a c u l t u r e , a n d t h e " D a n c e o f D e a t h " t h e m e

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NOTES 393

pervades th e art and lit eratu re of the la te Middle Ages, just be-

f o r e t h e a w a k e n i n g o f t h e Re n a i s s a n c e .

59. The H o u r o f D eci s i o n, p . 2 1 . Cf . M a n a n d T e c h n i c s , p p .

19 f f .

6o . P o l i t i s c h e S c h r i f t e n , p . 1 4 7 . Cf . M a n a n d T e c h n i c s , p. 4 3 ,

i n w h i c h S p e n g l e r s p e a k s o f " t h e i n t o x i c a t i o n o f f e e l i n g w h e n

the knife pierces the hosti le body, and the smell of b lood and the

s e n s e o f a m a z e m e n t s t r i k e t o g e t h e r u p o n t h e e x u l t a n t s o u l . "

Every "real m an," Spengler ass erts, feels t hese primi tive i mpulses

in contrast to "the toothless feeling of sympath y and reconcilia-

t i o n . "

6 1 . Cf . To y n b e e , A S t u d y o f H i s t o r y, V o l . I , p . 1 2 8 : "It is not

y e t t h i r t e e n c e n t u r i e s s i n c e o u r W es t e r n S o c i e t y e m e r g e d f r o m

t h e i n t e r r e g n u m w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e f a l l o f t h e Ro m a n Em p i r e .

T h e s p a n o f Eg y p t i a c h i s t o r y e x t e n ds o v e r a t l e a s t f o u r m i l l e n -

n i a ." It is tr ue, of cours e, that t he period of m aximu m achieve-

m e n t i n Eg y p t i a n c u l t u r e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y s h o r t e r .

62 . O n t h e a r b i t r a r y w a y S p en g l e r p i e c e d t o g e t h e r t h e s e e l e -

m en t s, cf . A d l e r , op . c i t . , p p. 7 4 - 75 .

63 . J . Huizinga , In t h e S h a do w o f T o m o r r o w, 1936, P•

3 5.

64 . M . Rostovtzeff, A H i s t o r y o f t h e An c i e n t W o r l d, Clarendon

Press , Oxfo rd, 1928, V ol . I I , p . 3 3 6 .

65 . H u i z i n g a , T h e Wa n i n g o f t h e M i d d l e Ag e s , E . Arnold &Co ., Lond on, 1924 .

66 . F o r a m o r e e x t e n d e d a t t a c k u p o n s u c h a n a l o g i c a l a r g u -

ments as t hose of Spengler , cf . Char les A. Bea rd , "The Coll ap se

o f H i s t o r i c a l T h e o r i e s Ba s e d o n An a l o g i e s," i n The D i s cu s s i o n

o f Human Affairs , M a c m i l l a n , 1936 .

67 . J o h a n H u i z i n g a , Wege der Kulturgeschi chte, Drei Masken

V e r l a g , M u n i c h , 1930, PP. 57- 5 8 .

68 . S o r o k i n, S o c i a l a n d Cu l t u r a l D y n a m i c s , American Book

Co. , N e w Y o r k , 1937, V o l . III, pp . 537-38 . U s e d b y p e r m i s s i o n

o f t h e p u b l i s h e r .

69. Ibid . , V o l . I, p . 1 8 6 .

70 . Ibid . , V o l . I I I , p . 5 3 8 .

7 1 . T o y n b e e ' s A St udy o f Hi st or y i s b e i n g p u b l is h e d b y t h e

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . Th e f i r s t t h r e e v o l u m e s w e r e i s s u e d i n

1 9 3 4 , and others are to follow .

72 . Toynbee, o p . c i t . , V o l . I I I , p . 1 0 3 . Bu t a s i n d i c a t i o n t h a t

T o y n b e e r e t a i n s h o p e t h a t t h e d e c l i n e o f W e s t e r n s o c i e t y c a n b e

s t o ppe d, s ee p . 242 n .

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394NOTES

7 3. I b i d . , p

. 3 90 -

7 4 - I b i d . , V o l . I , p .1 5 -

7 5 - I b i d . , p . 8 .

7 6 . I b i d . , V o l . I I I , p . 3 7 8 n .

7 7. I b i d . , V o l . I , p . 2 8 4 .

78 . I b i d . , p . 3 3 6 . T h e t e r m " p r o l e t a r i a t," a s e m p l o y e d i n t h i s

q u o t a t i o n , m e a n s n o t j u s t a n u r b a n l a b o r i n g p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r

m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l i s m, b u t a n y d i s i n h e r i t e d c l a s s o r g r o u p w h o s e

i n t e r e s t s a r e o p p o s e d t o t h o s e o f t h e d o m i n a n t m i n o r i t y . In re-

l a t i o n t o o u r o w n c u l t u r e, t h e " i n t e r n a l p r o l e t a r i a t" w o u l d p r e -

sumably be the poor and downtrodden within the Western

c o u n t r i e s, a n d t h e "e x t e r n a l p r o l e t a r i a t" w o u l d b e t h e c o l o n i a l

a n d " b a c k w a r d " p e o p l e s , r i s i n g a s i n I n d i a a n d Ch i n a a g a i n s t

t h e i r f o r e i g n exp l o i t e r s .

7 9. I b i d . , p

. 3 0 1 -

8 o . S e e V o l . IV a nd t h e f i r s t p a r t o f V o l . I I I . Al t h o u g h a t t h e

present writ ing, Vol . I V h a s n o t b e e n p u b l i s h e d , T o y n b e e i n d i -

cates what is to be its theme .

8 1 . T o y n b e e , S u r v e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s : 1 9 3 3 , p . 1 1 5 . My

i t a l i c s .

8 2 . T o y n b e e , A S t u d y o f H i s t o r y , V o l . I I I , p p . 2 4 1 - 4 2 .

8 3 . I b i d . , p . 216 .

8 4 . Arbe it and Rhyt hmu s, L e i p z i g , 1924 . Quoted by Lewis

Mumford, T e c h n i c s a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n , 1 9 3 4 , P • 3 4 4 .

8 5 . Qu o t e d b y H u i z i n g a , The Waning o f th e Middle Ages,

1 9 2 4 , p . 2 4 .

CHAPTER X

i . Thomas Hardy, The Dynast s, Macmillan, London, 1 9 2 3 ,

P . 4 4 4 -

2 . Published in London by Gollancz and in New York by

Viking Press,1 9 3 8 -

3 .See especially the report s of the La Fo llette Civil Lib erties

Committee . T he Co m m i t t e e f o u n d t h a t " i n d u s t r i a l e s p i o n a g e w a s

. . . a c o m m o n, a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l , p r a c t i c e i n Ame r i c a n i n d u s t r y ,"

a n d t h a t b r u t a l s t r i k e b r e a k i n g a n d i n d u s t r i a l m u n i t i o n i n g w e r e

o f s h o c k i n g f r e q u e n c y . T h e Co m m i t t e e p o i n t s o u t t h a t " t h e s e

a r e t h e m e t h o d s, no t o f c r i m i n a l s a n d s a d i s t s, b u t o f e m p l o y e r s

h i g h i n t h e e s t e e m o f t h e N a t i o n , p o s s e s s i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r

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NOTES 395

o v e r m i l l i o n s o f m e n a n d w o m e n ; and that th ese practices are

n o t s p o r a d i c e x c e s s e s o f m i s m a n a g e m e n t , b u t r a t h e r t h e c h o s e n

i n s t r u m e n t s o f a d e l i b e r a t e d e s i g n t o t h w a r t t h e c o n c r e t e ex -

p r e s s i o n o f t h e r i g h t o f c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n b y i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s

w h o, w i t h o u t t h a t r i g h t , h a v e n o r i g h t s . " Violations o f Fr ee Speech

a n d Ri g h t s o f L a b o r , Report of the Committee on Education

a n d L a b o r P u r s u a n t t o S . Res. 266, Gover nment Printi ng Of fice,

W a s h i n g t o n , 1 937, P . 7 .

4 . Fo r a r e v i e w o f t h e Br i t i s h f o r e i g n p o l i c y, r ev e a l i n g i t s p r o -

F a s c i s t t r end, cf . G e o f f r e y T. G a r r a t t, Mussolini's Roman Em-pire, Bobb s-Mer ril l, Indiana poli s, 1938 . M r . Garratt was formerly

c o r r e s p o nd e n t f o r t h e M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n and has seen a great

deal of international affairs . No one who reads his book can

d o u b t t h a t d e m o c r a c y h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y a n d c y n i c a l l y b e -

t r a y e d b y t h e Br i t i s h T o r y G o v e r n m e n t .

5 . Cf . Bu l l e t i n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e w s , Ro y a l In s t it u t e o f In -

terna tiona l Affa irs, Aug . 1 , 1936, p . 6 . Co m p a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g

s t a t e m e n t b y t h e i m p a r t i a l F o r e i g n P o l i c y As s o c i a t i o n : "The

S p a n i s h Ci v i l W a r w a s n o t p r o v o k e d b y Co m m u n i s t s , e i t h e r i n

Spain or Moscow .. .

. The program of the Spanish Popular

F r o n t g o v e r n m e n t , a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e a r m y r e b e l l e d , c a l l e d f o r

l i b e r a l r a t h e r t h a n r a d i c a l r e f o r m s . " F o r e i g n P o l i c y Re p o r t s ,

Jan . 1 ,1 937 , P . 25 6 .

6 . M r . Ea r l B r o w d e r , g e n e r a l s e c r e t a r y o f t h e C o m m u n i s t

P a r t y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h a s r e p e a t e d l y a d v o c a t e d t h e m a i n -

t e n a n c e a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f Am e r i c a n d e m o c r a c y . H e h a s d e -

c l a r e d : "T h e Co m m u n i s t P a r t y o p p o s e s w i t h a l l i t s p o w e r , a n d

w i l l h e l p t o c r u s h b y a l l p r o p e r d e m o c r a t i c m e a n s , a n y c l i q u e ,

g r o u p, c i r c l e, f a c t i o n, o r p a r t y w h i c h c o n s p i r e s o r a c t s t o s u b -

vert, undermine, weaken, or over thro w, any or al l insti tuti ons of

Am e r i c a n d e m o c r a c y w h e r e b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e Am e r i c a n p e o -

p l e h a v e o b t a i n e d p o w e r t o d e t e r m i n e , i n a n y d e g r e e , t h e i r o w n

d e s t i n y " (s t a t e m e n t m a d e i n M a d i s o n S q u a r e G a r d e n , N e w Y o r k ,

Ma y 4, 1938) . Th e Co m m u n i s t s , o f c o u r s e , a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t a

complete democracy will req ui re a socializ at ion of industry, but

t h e y d o n o t a d v o c a t e S o c i a l i s m a s a n i m m e d i a t e o b j e c t i v e , a n d

t h e y d e c l a r e t h e m s e l v e s o p p o s e d t o u n d e m o c r a t i c , f o r c i b l e m e t h -

o d s o f e f f e c t i n g t h e c h a n g e . Mr . Br o w d e r h a s w r i t t e n : "The

Co m m u n i s t P a r t y r e p u d i a t e s n o w a s i n t h e p a s t , a l l t h e o r i e s o r

p r o p o s a l s l o o k i n g t o w a r d t h e f o r c i b l e , i m p o s i t i o n o f S o c i a l i s m

u p o n t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e . We repudiat e the `reckless re-

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396 NOTES

s o l v e t o s e i z e p o w e r ' b y a n y m i n o r i t y ." (Bro wde r, The Demo-

cr a t i c F r o n t, I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s, N e w Y o r k ,1 93

8 , P . 239 . )

7 . F o r a c r i t i c i s m o f t h i s c o n t e n t i o n, s e e t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f

Chap. V i n t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e , a n d e s p e c i a l l y N o r m a n An g e l l ,

Raw Materials, Population Pressure and War, World Peace

F o u n d a t i o n , N e w Y o r k, 193 6 .

8 . Kolnai , T h e Wa r A g a i n s t t h e W e s t ,1 93

8 , pp . 677 - 7 8 .

9 . Sp e e c h b e f o r e t h e N a t i o n a l Ed u c a t i o n As s o c i a t i o n , NewY o r k T i m e s , J u l y 1 , 1938 .

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Activ is m, 21, 261-62, 300-1

Acto n, Lord , 139

Ad a m s , H e n r y , i

Ad d a m s , J a n e , 118

Agric ultur e, s e e Ruralism

Ale x a n d e r , Sa m u e l, 76

Alfie ri, 259

Am e n d o l a , G i o v a n n i , 3 5

Am e r i c a , s e e U n i t e d S t a t e s

American Form of Government, iii,

2 1 7 - 1 9,221

Anaximander, 310

An g e l l , N o r m a n , 18 o

Anti- Intel lect ual ism , 3, 17-19, 20- 43 ,

5 8 - 59 . 1 3 0 - 3 1 . 141, 153

An t i - S e m i t i s m ( s e e a l s o Jew s), 15-16,

lo o-6, 108, 117

Appe a se m e n t , P ol ic y o f, 6, 347- 50

Aqui n as , St . Thomas, 95

Aris to cr ac y, 185-88, 198, 207, 209, 215,

336

Aris to tl e, 41, 109, 120, 222, 310, 315

Ar t ( s e e a l s o Est het ic Bia s), 27-28,

214, 277-87, 303-4, 312-14

Arya n My th , 28, 107-15

Ascoli, 35

Augu sti ne, St . , g 6 , 1 1 2

Austr ia , 143-44, 1 97 - 9 8 , 338, 340

Bacon, Franci s, 52

Balbo, Ital o, 175

Bans e, Ewal d, 164

Barn e s, Major J . S . , 5 8

Barnes , Mau ric e, 22, 154

Barth , Karl , 268

Barth ou, 144

Barto k, 313

INDEX

397

Battag lini, Dr. Giulia, 1

34

Behre n d t, Walte r , 27

Benda , Juli en, 36, 139, 191

Bene s, Ed ua rd , 33

Be n t h a m , J e r e m y , 2 2 2

Bergm an n, Erns t, 270-71

Berg ner, Elis abet h, 27

Bergs on, Henr i, 22, 24

Bhose , 316

Bias , 52 -53, 59, 66, 82, 88-140, 336

Billing er, Karl , 130

Birth Rate, 122-23, 181

Bism ar ck , 112, 149, 236, 294

Blo k, Alex and er, 313

Boas, Fran z, 115

Bod y an d Sou l, Un ity o f, 253 - 54

Bo l s h e v i s m , s e e CommunismBo r g e s e , G . A

. , 3 , 3 5

Bo s i s, L a u r o d e, 35

Bour dell e, 313

Br a q u e , 314

Bre n ta n o, 226

Bridg es, Rober t, 1 73

Br i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y ( s e e a l s o Ap-pea sem ent ), 340-41

Br u c k, M o e l l e r v a n d e n , 5 1

Briin in g, He in ri c h, 27

Bii che r, Karl , 332

Buddha, 95

Bi l l o w, G e n e r a l v o n , 1o8

Burke, Edmund, 217, 226

Caes ar, 49, 295 , 3 0 5

Cae s ar is m, 210, 213, 295, 296, 298-

300, 303, 3 08, 3 1 4 , 33 1

Cap it al is m, 10-12, 15, 217, 224, 262-

64, 330

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39 8 INDEX

Car ly le, Tho ma s, 199, 208-9

Carver, Thomas Nixon, 2og

Catho lic is m, 272- 77

Ceci l, Lor d, 99

Cedi llo , 339

Ce n s o r s h i p , 33-34, 284-86

Ce za n n e, P au l, 314

Ch a l l e n g e - a n d -R e s p o n s e , 329-31

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 22,

Dewey, John, 84

D i c k i n s o n , G . Low es, 293

D i c t a t o r s h i p , s e e State,

r a c y

Dollfuss , Dr . En g e l b e r t,

Dop sc h, Alfo n s, 311

Dosto e vsk i, 65

Drahn, Hermann, 201

Dr e n n a n, Jame s, 20, 78.

Mite, Timoc-

39, 144, 340

255, 287, 296,

1o 6- 11, 1 14 , 1 54 , 2 00 , 277

Ch a m b e r l a i n , P r i m e M i n i s t e r N e v i l l e ,

301

Duca, Premier, 1 44

6, 34, 340, 350

Child, Richard Washburn, 44

Ch i n e s e - J a p a n e s e W a r , s e e J a p a n e s e -

Chinese War

Chr i s t, 28, 43, 63, 79, 95, 1 1 1 , 188,

D u e l i n g , 1 33- 34

D u t y , s e e "Ought"

Eckh art , Meis ter , 270

Economic Determinism ( s e e a l s o Ma-267, 269

Chris ti an it y, 188, 212, 250-51, 265-77

Civil Right s ( s e e a l s o L i b e r t y), 178 -

t e r i a l i s t i c

t o r y ) , 4 ,

Ec o n o m i c s ,

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H i s -

19

123- 28, 254-55,-19, 63,

79, 219, 222 302

Clas s Bia s, 123-28, 210-11, 336 Eden, Anthony,33 - 34

Clas s Confli ct, 7-10, 1 23 - 2 5 , 1 76 -77 Educ ati on, 27- 3 1 , 33 -

36, 193-96

Co h e n , M o r r i s, 232 Ei n s t e i n, Al b e r t, 27 , 30 , 313

Colon ie s ( s e e a l s o Imperi alis m), 18o- Eli te , 12- 13, 67, 153, 185-215, 279-80

81 Ends and Means, 54 - 5 6

Comm un is m, 8, 163, 174, 290, 341-43 Engelke, Dr., 269

Confl ict ( s e e a l s o Clas s Confli ct), 37-

39

England and Great Britain ( s e e a l s o

Br i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y ), 33, 1o6,

Con fu ci us , 68, 95 138, 165, 171, 176 -77, 179, 182, 208,

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K., 312 209, 216, 298, 305, 339 , 340, 343, 345,

Corp ora te Stat e, 176-77 347, 349, 351

Corr adi ni, Enri co, 237- 38

Cro c e, Ben e d e tt o, 34-35, 214 277- 7 8 ,

283

Epict etus , 95

Ep s t e i n , J a c o b, 313

Est het ic Bias , 136-40

Cul tu re O rg ani sm , 306-7, 320-22, 324

Cu o c o , V i n c e n z o , 2 3 7

Ethic s ( s e e a l s o Val ues, Bias , "Ough t"),

1 6 , 47-50, 314-16

Curie, Madame, 118 Eth io p ia n War , 141, 157, 167 , 273

Dal ad ie r, P re mi e r, 34, 350

d 'Ann un z i o, Gabr ie l e, 22, 277

Da n t e, 216, 251

F a c t u a l i s m, 304-5

Fag gi , Alfe o, 313

Fari nacci , Rober to, 101, 247

D a r r e , Wa l t h e r , 1 2 , 51, 149, 164, 166 , F asc ism, p a s s i m

211, 239, 288- g o F a u l h a b e r , Ca r d i n a l , 277

D e b u s s y , 3 13

DeMarco, 35

F e r r e r o, G u g l i e l m o, 35

F i c h t e , J o h a n n G o t t l i e b , 2 , 22, 46,

Democracy ( s e e a l s o Liberal ism), ii- 1 1 0 , 200, 228- 30, 233, 2 34 , 235 - 3 6 ,

1 3 ,43, 123, 178-79, 185-88, 197-98, 237 , 256, 257 , 259

202-3, 207 -9, 214-15, 337 - 41, 345 - 51F l i c k, 126

De nni s, Law re nce , 56, 71-72, 124, 209

De Sanct is, 35

Fo rce and Vi ol enc e, 49-50, 98-99, 124-

85, X89, 331 , 339

Deschamps, 333 F o rd, He n ry , 8, 9

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Galil eo, 63

Gandhi, 316

Garth, T. R ., 115

G a y d a, V i r g i n i o, 34

Ge d d e s, P atri c k, 291

G e n t i l e , G i o v a n n i , 2 2 , 2 3 , 3 4 . 237 ,

253, 259-6 1, 264 . 275, 2 77 , 278 -79 ,

283

Geo rge , Stef an, 200-1

Germany and German Fascism, p a s -

s i m

Gibbon, Edward, 213

Gide, Andr6, 182

G i e r k e , O t t o v o n , 250

Giobe rti, 262

Giol itti, 260

Gobineau, Count Arthur de, 1o6-8,

111, 113 , 2 77

G o e b b e l s , D r . Pa ul , 18, 26, 32, 63-64,

103, 265, 268, 284, 341

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 42,

is m), 232 - 33 , 23 8 - 45 ,249-50, 260- 61

INDEX 399

Hi tl er , Ado lf , 6, lo, 14, 26, 114, 125,

144, 179, 182, 210, 231 , 249, 294,

297, 340

I d e a s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s : on a rt , 279-

86 ; on Chri sti ani ty , 267, 271-72 ;

on la ss-c ol labor ation, 9, 230; o n

the eli te, 191, 196 ; o n e c o n o m i c s,

255 ; on France as friend and

e n e m y , 1 6 o , 1 6 1 - 6 2 ; o n h i s t o r y ,

27 ; o n i n e q u a l i t y a s c o n g e n i t a l ,

211 ; o n o b je c t i v i t y a s a w e a k n e s s ,

17-1 8, 27, 41, 88 ; o n p r o p a g a n d a ,

17-18, 32 ; on ra ce, 102, 103, 117-

18 ; o n t h e r e n a i s s a n c e o f W e s t -

e r n c u l t u r e , 296 ; o n r u r a l l i f e ,

288, 290 ; on s cie nce, 27, 6o-6i ;

on Socialism, 9 ; o n t h e S t a t e ,

233, 235 ; on t h e Versailles

T r e a t y , 159, 1 65 ; on war and

vio lenc e, 158-64 ; on women, 115-

19

P e r s o n a l i t y a n d c h a r a c t e r : bellicose

temperament, 158-59 ; his d e c e p -

t i o n o f G e r m a n p u b l i c , 33 ; gen-

e r a l i s s i m o o f F a s c i s m , 33 8 ; "in-

fall ibil ity ," 39, 192-93 ; non-intel-

lectuality , 23 ; r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e,

268-6 9, 271, 331 ; r e t r i b u t i v e a t -

tit ud e , 128; showmanship, 137-

H o l m e s , As s o c i a t e J u s t i c e , 220

Fosc o lo, 259

Fr an ce , 33, 34, 138, 160-62, 165, 298,

G r y n s z p a n , H e r s c h e l , l o b

G i i n t h e r, H a n s , 114-15

339, 340. 344. 347 , 349, 351

F r a n c e , An a t o l e , 154

F r a n c i s, St ., 65

Franck, Dr. James,

102,

Haile Selassie , 246

H a l l e r , L u d w i g v o n , 23

Hamilton, Dr. G. V ., 81-82

Hamsun, Knut, 28927

F r a n c o , G e n er a l F r a n c i s c o , 101,

168, 169, 246, 273, 274 . 276, 290, Hardy, Thomas, 313, 334

339 , 341H ar t, s e e L i d d e l l H a r t

Frank, Dr. H a n s , 1 2 9

Freder ick t he G reat , 112, 294

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 2,

6o , 200, 230 - 34 . 236, 245 , 25 1 . 253 ,

F re e Will , 56-58 255-57, 261, 329

F r e n c h Re v o l u t i o n , 22 5- 2 6

F r e u d , S i g m u n d , 6 9, 70

Fri ede ll, Egon , 319

F r i e s l e r , D r . Rol an d, 129-30

Fu tu ri sm , 155, 286

H e i n e , H e i n r i c h , 2 85

H e i s e n b e r g , 3 13

H e s s , M y r a , 1 18

Heyse, Dr., 254H i n d e m i t h , P a u l , 2 85

Hi st or y, 27-28, 36, 253 - 65, 303 - 33

305, 310

Goring, General Hermann, 78, 133 ,

158, 189, 190-91, 192- 93, 198, 213,

264

G r a n t , M a d i s o n , 2 09

Gra ziani , Marsh al, 167

Gre at Britai n, see England

G r e e n , Ca n o n P e t e r , 170-7 1

Gr op i us , Walt e r , 27, 283 , 3 1 4 38

G r o s z , G e o r g e , 2 7

Group Mind (see also S o c i a l O r g a n -

Hobbes, Thomas, 63

Hobhouse, L . T . , 2 4 0 , 242

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400 INDEX

H o l z , D e p u t y " G a u l e i t e r , " 1 04

Housman, A . E ., 313

H o w a r d , S i r E b e n e z e r , 29 1

Huberman, Bronislaw, 27

H u i z i n g a , J o h a n , 1, 317-18, 321

Humanism, 43.

8 6 , 335, 337 -38

Hume, David, 52, 91

H u x l e y , J u l i a n , 1 1 4

I b s e n , H e n r i k , 118

Idea lis m, 16-17, 253- 92, 327, 332, 337

Imp eri al ism , 179-83, 263, 347

Int ern at io nal is m, 15-16, 99, 250-52,

261, 298, 328

Intu iti on, 24, 63-66, 82

I r r a t i o n a l i s m , see An t i - I n t e l l e c t u a l i s m

I t a l y a n d I t a l i a n F a s c i s m , p a s s i m

J a e g e r, 2 67

J a m e s, W i l l i a m, 22, 24

Ja pa n, 2, 14, 36, 97 , 157 , 179 -80, 182-

83

J a p a n e s e - C h i n e s e W a r , 1 4 1- 4 2 , 1 7 1,

312

J e f f e r s o n , Th o m a s, 218 -19

J e w s ( s e e also Race), 16, 37, ioi -8,

113, 116 -17, 140, 174, 210-11, 270-

71, 289

Journ alis m, F asc ist, 33- 34

J u d i c i a l P r o c e d u r e , 130-8 3

Jung, C. G., 297

Justice, s e e j u d i c i a l P r o c e d u r e , P e n a l

S y s t e m

K a h r s t e d t , D r ., 29

K a n t , I m m a n u e l , 187, 231, 24 3

Ke p l e r , 6 o

Kerrl , Reich M ini ste r, 265, 268, 269

Kiro v, 144

Kleist , 226

Klemperer, Otto, 27

Koellreu tter , Otto , g6

K o h l e r, Be r n h a r d , 8

Kol na i, Aur el , 200, 338, 35 1

K r i e c k , D r . Ern st , 29

Labor ( s e e a l s o Clas s Bias, Clas s Con-

fl ic t), 8-9, 125-26, 1 7 6 - 77 , 346

L a b o r T h e o r y o f V a l u e , 22 3

L a g a r d e , P a u l d e , 233-35

Lao- tz u, 95

L a s k i , H a r o l d J ., i5, 186

Lasswell, Harold D ., 198

L a u r e n c i n , M a r i e , 1 1 8

Law, Fasci st Theo ry o f, 36, 12g-31

Le a d e r sh ip , 15, 188-89

L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , 99, 1 33, 1 43

Le Bon, Gus ta ve, 199, 201-3, 207

L e C o r b u s i e r , 3 1 4

L e e r s , J o h a n n v o n , 2 98

Lehmbruck, 313

L e n a r d , P h i l i p p , 3 1

L e n i n , 65

L e o p a r d i , 2 59

Ley, Dr. Rob er t, 9, 14, 17, 194, 195,

269

L i b e r a l i s m, 216 - 26, 243

L i b e r t y , 1 0 , 32 ,39-40, 222, 225, 238,

247-48

L i c h t e n b e r g e r , H e n r i , 1 6 7

Lid d e l l H ar t, Cap t ai n, 173, 195-96

Li nco ln , Abra ha m, 218, 219, 223-24

Lobatchewsky, 313

L o c k e , Jo hn , 40, 216,

Loeb, Harold, 8o

Long, Huey, 7, 137

L u c r e t i u s, 313

L u d e n d o r f f , F r a u , 2 71

L u d e n d o r f f, G e n e r a l, 164,

L u t h e r , M a r t i n , 2 00

L y n c h i n g , l o o , 1 66

218, 223

271

Mac hia vel li , Niccol o, 2, 5, 17, 46, 50,

1 45 - 4 8 , 1 7 4 , 1 99 , 236 , 277

M a d i s o n , J a m e s , 2 17

Maill ol, 313

Maimonides, 234

Ma nn , Tho ma s, 27, 200, 281

M a n n h e i m, K a r l , 67, 70, 20 3

Manzoni, 259

M a r a i n i , An t o n i o , 2 79

March, Juan, 219

Marin e tti , F . T ., 155, 286

Marit ain, Jacque s, 276-77

Ma rx , Karl , 9, 69-70, 212, 250,

301, 320, 329

M a t e r i a l i s t i c I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

t o r y ( s e e a l s o Economic Determin-

ism), 254-55, 260, 262- 65

Mat te o ti , Gia c o mo , 34, 35, 144, 197

Mau rr as, Charl e s, 9, 22, 154

Maz z i n i, Gu ise p p e, 199, 236-37, 256,

259

254,

H i s -

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McDonald, James G ., 105-6

Mead, Dr. Margar e t, 127

Means, see Ends and Means

Meg ar o, Gau den s, 69-7o, 151-52, 158,

M i l i t a r i s m (see also For ce, War), 3- 7 ,

311

M u n d e l e i n , Ca r d i n a l , 2 76

I d e a s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s : o n a n t i -

intell ectual ism, 17, 22-25 ; on art,

283 ; o n Ca e s a r i s m , 97 , 2 9 5 ; o n

class-col laborati on, 9, 124; on de-

mo cr acy , 16, 189, 338 ; o n t h e e l i t e ,

INDEX 401

l i b e r a l i s m, 225 ; o n l i b e r t y, 1 o ,

247 ; on mate riali stic in te rp re ta-

t i o n o f h i s t o r y,254-55 ;

on the

n ation a l trad it ion, 231 ; o n p e s -

s i m i s m, 296 ; on the philosophy

o f F a s c i s m , 1 g ; o n p o l i t i c a l o p -

posit ion, 39; o n r a c e , 1 0 0 - 1 ; on

relativis m, 71 ; on rural life, 287-

88 ; o n s c i e n c e , 6o - 6 1 ; on the

Sta te , 14, 232-33, 239, 245 ; on

struggle, 37-38 ; on war and vio-

lence, 4 - 5, 155-57 . 266; on wom-

en, 121-22

P e r s o n a l i t y a n d c h a r a c t e r : c yn ic ism,

67, 266 ; d o u b l e - d e a l i n g w i t h t h e

P o p e , 273-76 ; "infalli bilit y," 39,

Niet zs che , Fri edr ich , 2, 21, 46, 71,

145, 1 49 - 51 , X89, 1 9 1 , 199 . 200, 207,

277

N o r d i c s (see also Aryan Myth), 288-

8g

Novali s, 226

N o v e l l i , D r . G i o v a n n i, 134

O b j e c t i v i t y (see also Bias ), 17-18, 41,

66, 88-96, 141, 335-36

O b l i g a t i o n , see "Ought"

Munich P a c t , 5 - 6 , 144, 165 , 305, 350

M us so li ni , Be ni to , 2, 3, 34, 1 25 , 144,

182, 210, 237, 243, 244, 291, 297,

3 40, 3 41 , 349

1 1 , 14-15, 123, 195 -96, 213 - 14, 331, 192 ; i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a n d i n s i n -

336-37

M i l l, J o h n S t u a r t, 40

cerit ies, 67-68 ; a r e n e g a d e S o c i a l -

i s t , 7 ; showmanship, 1 38 - 39

M i l l a y, Ed n a , 118

M i l l e r , W e b b , 1 42

W r i t e r s i n f l u e n c i n g h i m : G e n t i l e,

261-62 ; H e g e l, 232-3 3 ; Le Bon,M i l t o n , J o h n , 40 201-3 ; M a c h i a v e l l i , 1 45 -48, 174 ;

Minkowsky, 313

M i s e s , L u d w i g v o n , 222

Nie t z s c he , 149-51 ; O r i a n i , 2 58 -

59 ; P a r e t o, 44-46 ; Sor el , 21, 151-

M o l a , G e n e r a l , 16 g 53 , 203

M o l t k e , G e n e r a l v o n , 2 77 , 2 99

M o r a l i t y , s e e Bi a s , " O u g h t , " V a l u e s

M y s t i c i s m, 255

Myt hs , 19, 21-22, 24-25, 40 - 41, 1 53

Mos ca, Ga eta no, 199, 206-8, 220

Mo sl e y , O swa ld , 1o6, 124, 176, 294, 232ap ol eo n, 59, 226, 229,

295 Nati ona lis m, 15-16, 31, 36-37, 96-loo ,

M o r r i s , W i l l i a m , 2 83 229-35, 251-52, 260, 328

M o r i t z, 129

Muller, Adam, 22, 38, 226-28, 233,

N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m, p a s s i m

Nehru, 316

237 N e w t o n , I s a a c , 6 o

M u l l e r , Bi s h o p L u d w i g , 2 6 7- 6 8 N i c o l a i, D r . H e l m u t, 130 -31, 264

M u m f o r d , L e w i s , 2 00, 2 82 - 83 , 2 91 - 92 , N i e m b l l e r , P a s t o r , 1 32

189, 191, 196 ; on fre e wil l,

on human brotherhood, 78,

on inequality of mankind,

57 ;

266 ;

1 3 ,

Ogburn, W. F ., 317

O n a i n d a , F a t h e r A l b e r t o , 1 6 8- 6 9

Organism, s e e S o c i a l O r g a n i s m , Cu l -

ture Organism11 ; on in te rn atio n alism , 15 ; o n

262, 273

M e i k l e j o h n , Al e x a n d e r , 1 8 5

M e i n e c k e , F r i e d r i c h , 20

Meli sso s, 310

M e n d e l s s o h n , F e l i x , 285

Mendi zib al, Alfr ed, 276

M e t a x a s , 3 39 . 342

M e t t e r n i c h, 22 6

Mi ch el s, Rob er t, 199, 206, 208

Mi ddl e Ages , 250-51, 319, 325-26

Milhaud, 310

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402

O r i a n i , Alfr e d o , 257 - 5 8

O r l a n d o , P r e m i e r , 1 3 9

O r o z c o , 3 14

Oss ietz ky, Carl v on, 132-33

"Ought," 77-85, 88-96, 304

P a n u n z i o , S e r g i o , 36

P a p i n i , G i o v a n n i , 22

Pa ret o, Vil fr edo , 2, 17, 22, 44-86, 145,

153-54. 199, 203- 7, 220, 277

Pa sca l, 46, 53

Pe ar son, Karl, 115

Pea sa ntr y, 286-91

Pe ll e gri n i, An ge l o, 138 -39

P e l l i z i, Ca m i l l o, 78

P e n a l S y s t e m , 1 29 - 3 6

P e s sim ism , 290-97, 33 0 - 33

P e t r i e , S i r W i l l i a m F l i n d e r s, 213

P i c a s s o, P a b l o, 287

P i t k i n , W a l t e r B ., 209

P i u s X I , P o p e , 2 73 - 7 6

P i u s X I I , P o p e , 276

Planck, Max, 313

P lan n in g, Soc ial, 11, 79-85, 282

Pl at o, 41, 85, 185-86, 189-92, 214-15,

253, 305, 310 , 315

Plo ti nus , 46, 310

P r a g m a t i s m , 2 3 - 2 4

P r o p a g a n d a , 1 8, 31-34, 40-42, 88, 159,

283-84

P r e j u d i c e , see Bias

P y t h a g o r a s, 36

Race, 15-16, 25-26, 36-37, loo -18, 130-

31, 159-60, 182, 210-11, 234 - 35, 239,

243, 249-50, 264, 265- 67, 270-71,

285-86, 297- 99 , 33 6

Ra t h , Er n s t v o m , l o b

Rati ona liz ati on, 19, 51, 66-70

Reaso n, F asc i st Re volt ag ain s t, 20 -43

Re i c h e n b a c h , H a n s , 2 7

Reinhardt, Max, 27

INDEX

Ri g h t ( s e e also "Oug ht "), 92-93, 96,

264 - 6 5

Rive ra, Die g o, 314

Ro b e r t s , S t e p h e n H ., 126, 199, 291

Robin, 310

R oc a f u l , Ca n o n , 277

Roc co, Alf red o, 236 - 37, 239, 243

Ro m a n C i v i l i z a t i o n (see also Cae sar-

is m), 303, 305, 3 1 7 - i 8 , 319

Ro m a n t i c i s m , 3 8, 173-74, 226

Ro o s e v e l t , F r a n k l i n D ., 32, 102, 1o6 ,

163, 172, 340, 351

Rosenb erg , Alf re d, 21, 22, 25-26, 28,

38, 43, 64, 96, 102, 103-4, 1o 6, ii i-

14, 120-2 1, 124, 149, 164, 173, 175 -

76, 194, 200, 225, 233, 235, 243, 248,

253, 255, 256, 270, 272, 285, 299,

338

Rosenf eld , Kur t, 27, 129

Ro s e n s t o c k - F r a n c k , M . , 1 77

Ro s e l l i , Ca r l o a n d N e l l o , 3 3 - 34 , 35 ,

1 44

Rostov tzeff , Profes sor, 318

Ro u s s e a u , H e n r i, 314

Rous se a u, Je a n Jac q ue s, 46

Ru l i n g C l a s s (see also Elite), 49-50

Rura li sm , 287-92, 299

Rusk in, Joh n, 283

Russel l, Bertr and , 83, 214, 229, 313

Ru s s i a ( s e e also Communism), ,6o,

183, 220- 21, 290, 312, 328, 343, 348,

351

Rust , Ber nh ar d, 29, 191, 193

Salaz ar, 339

Salv emi ni, Gaeta no, 35, 125 , 1 77

Sant ay ana , Geo rg e, 44, 57 , 79

S a r f a t t i, M a r g h e r i t a , 23, 44 , 52

Savon aro la, 65

Sc hle ie rmac he r, 226

Schell ing, 226

Schiller , Franz, 32