NMRN ROYAL NAVY SUBMARINE MUSEUM SERVICE NARRATIVE

NMRN ROYAL NAVY SUBMAR INE MUSEUM SERV ICE NARRAT IVE

REVIEWED BY THE COLLECTIONS RESEARCH AND LEARNINGCOMMITTEE OF THE TRUSTEES / 15 SEPTEMBER 2016

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thousands of tonnes of shipping; also how just the threat ofa submarine at sea can paralyse an entire fleet. We examinethe history of submarines in conflict and at particular pointsof significant impact; the Baltic 1915-1917, theMediterranean in 1941-1943, and the Falklands Conflict of1982. We show the potential power that submarines have toaffect events on land; by the disruption of supplies, by thethreat of nuclear strike, and deployment of Tomahawk cruisemissiles in conflicts in the Balkan and the Middle East. Weconsider how developments in roles and the power ofsubmarines have meant that submarine commanders haveuniquely challenging decisions to make when on patrol, thatcould have significant moral consequences.

We describe how the stealth of the submarine hasrevolutionised war at sea, and how crews working with asuccession of new technologies have shaped different rolesfor submarines. We examine the use of the submarine as anoffensive weapon used to sink enemy warships and merchantships in both world wars, and in the post-war era when theirnew role as hunter killer submarines for seeking anddestroying enemy submarines was established. We look atthe use of the submarine for laying mines, landing SpecialForces and surveillance. We show how in response to theSoviet threat in the Cold War new roles developed;gathering intelligence against maritime forces, trackingSoviet submarines and providing a continuous at-sea nucleardeterrence. Also how since 1990 yet further roles have been

added to increase the flexible use of submarines. We showhow these roles have taken submarines from the margins tothe heart of the Royal Navy, and we reflect on how, at times,these roles allow submarines to be independent and, atothers, that they require close co-operation with other navalforces.

We describe the rapid pace of development of the RoyalNavy’s submarines and the technologies that underpin them.We look at how this has taken place by examiningprototypes and innovation (some of which proved toodangerous to adopt) and show the contribution made byideas from outside the Royal Navy; in particular the Type 21German U-boats and the US Navy nuclear propulsion andstrategic weapons programmes. We chart the transformationin scale from the Navy’s first submarine Holland 1 of 122tonnes to the current Vanguard class of 15,900 tonnes. Welink this to the creation of industrial facilities on shore on anational scale for building, operating and refitting the fleet.We assess the operational impact of the change from boatscapable of submerging only for several hours to the nuclearsubmarines capable of remaining dived for months at a time;with greatly increased underwater speeds capable ofoperating at extreme depths and even under the Arctic icepack. We also look at how far the cramped, and unhygienicliving conditions of crews have changed from diesel boatslike HMS Alliance to the latest generation of nuclearsubmarines.

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NARRAT IVEOur narrative has four overlapping themes:

We tell the story of the people who have served in the RoyalNavy’s submarines. We examine the qualities needed bysubmariners – courage, determination and humour – and howthese have developed within such a unique environment, ascrews live and work within a cramped steel hull beneath thesea. We trace the transition of submariners from 1901 whenthe rest of the Navy disparagingly referred to them as the‘Trade’, to the revered heroes of two world wars, and finallyto the technical specialists of the 21st century who areresponsible for submarines with an awesome destructivepower. We relate the dangers faced and the sacrifices madeby crews: in the high casualty rates of the First and SecondWorld Wars; in the technical and human challenges facedsince the Cold War by submariners who spend months at seawithout contact with their families, serving in a branchbecoming less and less typical of modern life. We show howthe people in the relatively small Submarine Service havemade an impact out of proportion to their number.

We examine the impact that submarines have had at sea andon land, in peace and war. We show how a small – at timeseven midget – submarine can sink a major surface ship or

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OURS IS THE STORY of the Royal Navy’sSubmarine Service, and its impact, from itsbeginning in 1901 to the present day. We tell thishidden story – of the constant risk and frequentsacrifice of crews, alongside the creation of one of the Navy’s most dedicated and perhaps leastunderstood branches – as a tangible memorial to all submariners.

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Royal Navy Submarine Museum ~ Service Narrative

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The hazards of operating petrol driven submarines sawsubmariners lampooned as hapless and accident prone.

As launched in 1945, HMS Alliance would be streamlinedfor Cold War operations.

‘Sherwood Forest’, the middle level of the missilecompartment of a ballistic nuclear submarine.

Submariners display ‘Jolly Roger’ skull and cross bonesbattle flags, the symbols denote each successful action.

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The following sections sets out the key events /developmentswhich have been identified as a focus within our fourthemes; the sections will also map the NMRN’s existing assetsto these themes.

1901~1918 ORIG INS

The first submariners were few in number – even during therapidly expanded service of the First World War – and wererecruited from the Fleet. They were regarded as beingeccentric mavericks, outside the mainstream; the divisions of class and rank which existed in ships were unsustainablewith such small crews living in such cramped conditions;officers had to become technically knowledgeable andproficient in operating ship systems unlike their surfacecounter-parts. Living conditions at sea were basic, unhygienicand even unhealthy with very limited supplies of water anddangerous toxic fumes – from the outset facilities in harbourwere provided by depot ships, the first being HMS Dolphin in Gosport.

Service in submarines was hazardous even in peacetime withrisk from explosion, collision and accident, often with nohope of escape; in 1904 submarine A1 was lost with all

hands, and five others were lost before 1914. Risks in warwere greater still with 52 submarines lost from all causes inthe First World War.

Royal Navy submarines made a significant impact in the FirstWorld War, sinking 53 enemy warships and 274 other vessels.In the North Sea submarines kept a close watch on theImperial German Navy’s forward base at Heligoland, whereoperating in shallow water German minefields and airpatrols took a heavy toll. In the Dardanelles Campaignsubmarines proved they could penetrate the heavilydefended Dardanelles Straits where surface ships had failed.Once inside the Sea of Marmara they wreaked havoc onTurkish supply ships that were all but driven from the sea. Inthe Baltic Sea, despite bitter conditions over winter, just fivesubmarines were able to restrict German naval forces whilstsinking thousands of tons of Swedish merchant ships carrying

iron ore to Germany. Extraordinary bravery was honoured by the award of five Victoria Crosses; we cannot know howmany other acts go unrecorded because there were seldomany survivors when submarines were lost.

The role of submarines developed significantly through theFirst World War. At the outset the role was expected to belimited to coastal defence, but very quickly this expandedinto daring offensive operations. Submarines conductedindependent attacks against enemy warships, merchant ships and surfaced submarines; they also carried outreconnaissance and minelaying. In the latter part of the warthe steam-driven K class was introduced which was designedfor a new role. With their high speed on the surface of over20 knots, they were planned to support a fleet by operatingahead, providing reconnaissance and attacking enemy forcesencountered.

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H ISTORICAL NARRATIVEThis historical narrative outlines in more detail our storywithin different periods; we will bring it to life through ourmuseum galleries, collections, historic submarines, specialexhibitions, programmes, publications and partnerships. Keyto telling the story will be our historic assets – our museumcollections, submarines, buildings and affiliate organisations.

The historical narrative is designed to be an active tool forinternal use which will help inform the decisions we need to make to actually tell this story – from collecting strategy,to updates of permanent galleries, to more detailed sitedevelopment plans.

HMS Alliance is showered in poppies. The submarinehas provided a focal point for acts of remembrance.

Sweater produced by the crew of HMS Conqueror to mark their part in the Falklands Conflict of 1982.

Last of the Royal Navy’s petrol driven submarines; C class crew’s at Fort Blockhouse (HMS Dolphin),1912.

The Royal Navy’s submarine fleet at Fort BlockhouseGosport gathered for review by King Edward VII in 1908.

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Narrative SectionsFIGURE 1

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1930s it became increasingly apparent that the submarine’soffensive role would be independent operations againstenemy warships and shipping, and this proved the case inthe Second World War. Developed during the war the X-craftmidget submarines were deployed against heavily defendedharbours that provided bases for capital ships such as theTirpitz. Submarines played a key role in inserting SpecialForces into occupied Europe and in operations to deceive theenemy. Nine Victoria Crosses were awarded to submariners,of which four were to the crew of the X-craft midgetsubmarines.

Scarce resources were expended in the inter-war years uponthe concept of the fleet support submarine including fittingof heavy guns and embarkation of seaplanes, all of whichproved impractical. The 21-inch Mark VIII torpedo wasintroduced in 1927 and was to remain in service, withmodifications, until the 1980s. In many aspects it wasGerman submarines which faced the operational imperativeto introduce technical innovations – such as the snorkel andboats with increased diving depths to 300 metres. The RoyalNavy was slower – for example to introduce surface radar-though construction was significantly improved with theintroduction of welding which improved submarine strengthand the speed of construction.

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The size, speed, range, diving depth and threat of the RoyalNavy’s submarines developed rapidly between 1901 and 1918– with the introduction of many different designs. The fiveHolland class submarines, displaced just 122 tonnes, had acrew of eight and carried two 18-inch torpedoes. They werepowered on the surface by a petrol engine and when dived – to a maximum safe depth of 100 feet – were propelled by a battery-powered electric motor which gave a maximumspeed of seven knots. By contrast HMS D1 launched justeight years later displaced 600-tons and was powered bydiesel engines which gave a range of 2,500 miles at a surface

speed of ten knots. The D class also had a deck gun andthree torpedo tubes making it the Royal Navy’s first oceangoing submarine. By 1914 the more heavily armed E classhad entered service in large numbers becoming thebackbone of the submarine fleet in the First World War. In 1917 the steam-driven K class were introduced but wasunstable and dangerous when dived, several sank earningthem the name of the ‘Kalamity Class’. In 1918 the R classwas introduced, able to carry out a then unique anti-submarine role and with a record maximum speed whendived of 14 knots.

1919 ~1945 COMING OF AGE

Submariners continued to face hazards and serious accidentsin the inter-war years. In the event of an accident, rescuefacilities were still very limited, though escape training didbegin with the introduction of Davis escape equipment in1927. The Service grew to a peak of 10,000 men during theSecond World War; recruits were volunteers, joining boatswith fewer distinctions of rank, where the crew were truly‘all of one company’. Submariners suffered the highestcasualty rate of any of the Navy’s branches; a total of 74submarines were lost – nearly a third of all operationalsubmarines – the majority with all hands. They served in ahighly pressured and exhausting environment, one whichworked uniquely to concentrate awareness of what washappening on the surface – and responsibility for action – inthe commanding officer alone. These, often young, men hadto make the critical decisions to risk an attack or to ensurethe boats survival; many won distinction, many too sufferedthe consequences of such stress.

At the outbreak of the war the Submarine Service focusedupon operations in the North Sea and the Norwegian coast,targeting German warships and shipping – extendingoperations into the Bay of Biscay when France was overrun.The greatest successes came in the Mediterranean where theTenth Flotilla’s (the ‘Fighting Tenth’) campaign against Axisshipping and warships disrupted supplies, especially toRommel’s North African campaign – though the success cameat a cost with 45 submarines lost. In the Far East the RNsubmarines achieved many successful sinkings of Japaneseunits; X-craft successfully attacked the Japanese battlecruiserTakao.

During the inter-war years there was significant emphasisupon the use of submarines in a role supporting the surfacefleet, but this was abandoned in the 1930s. One class ofsubmarine was built with the specific role of minelaying.Submarines were permanently based in the Mediterranean,in West Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East in supportof the Royal Navy’s role to protect the British Empire. In the

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Progress Submarine HMS E9 torpedoes the Hela, the firstGerman warship sunk by a British submarine in the First World War.

An officer demonstrates the Davis SubmergedEscape Apparatus, first used in 1929 and still in use well into the 1950s.

K class submarines at Algiers in the 1920s –despite their fearful reputation the class weretechnologically advanced.

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Immediately post-war the Submarine Service resumed itsestablished role in Anti-Submarine training. However thepotential threat posed by the growing Soviet submarineforce was recognised as early as 1947 and intelligencegathering patrols in the northern waters of the Barents Seabegan around the same time. Over the following twodecades Soviet submarine forces grew in strength peaking atapproximately 350 boats in the 1970s. Following the NassauAgreement of 1962, the US committed to supply the UK withPolaris missiles and technology. The Royal Navy now had twokey roles: tracking Soviet hunter-killer and nuclear missilesubmarines while also delivering the UK’s own nucleardeterrent with the commission of four new Resolution Classballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). From 1969 onwards theResolution boats and subsequently the Vanguard class havemaintained unbroken deterrent patrols providing the UKwith the ultimate defence capability. The role of the SSNs

was primarily anti-submarine but for a period it had thesecondary task of Fleet support. Overseas submarine bases inMalta, Singapore, Canada and Australia had been withdrawnby the 1970s as the British Empire declined and Canada andAustralia developed their own submarine forces.

After the Second World War it was clear that submarinesneeded a step-change in technology to counter advances in anti-submarine warfare. The wartime submarines weremodernised with streamlined hulls and other measuresdesigned to make them faster and quieter underwater andto remain submerged for longer; much more powerful‘active’ sonar systems were added, snorkels were fitted thatallowed them to operate at periscope depth whilst still usingtheir diesel engines. The Porpoise and Oberon classes ofdiesel boats, introduced from 1958, brought a number ofsignificant technical improvements which made them far

more capable of meeting the operational requirement of the post war period. In the late 1950s two experimental HighTest Peroxide (HTP) powered submarines were built andachieved very high underwater speeds but were hindered bynumerous technical limitations – not least the volatility ofthe fuel, earning HMS Explorer the nickname HMS Exploder.This type of propulsion was eclipsed by the advent of nuclearpower at sea.

The first Royal Navy nuclear powered submarineDreadnought was commissioned in 1963 with the USNproviding its nuclear power-plant. The Swiftsure Class SSNintroduced in 1973 was the Royal Navy’s first deep-divingsubmarine with a safe operating depth of 1,250 feet. It wasfollowed by the Trafalgar Class SSN which first enteredservice in 1982. The four vessel 7,500 ton Polaris submarineforce was commissioned from 1968 onwards. Guided homingtorpedoes were introduced in the 1960s and the 65 milerange Sub-Harpoon anti-ship missile was fitted in SSNs from1982. The last of the Submarine depot ships – HMS Forth de-commissioned in 1978. Submarine escape equipmentcontinued to improve and a rescue capability was availablefrom the 1970s.

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1945 ~1989 THE COLD WAR

Immediately after the War the Submarine Service continuedto be drawn largely from volunteers. However, at times ashortage of manpower prevented boats going to sea,technical skills had to be drafted in and for a number ofyears the Service was seen as a career backwater. The adventof nuclear powered submarines and the Polaris missile systemsaw the Service rapidly expanded – becoming a significantproportion of naval manpower – and its people successfullymet the difficult challenge of transition from conventionalpower to nuclear propulsion. This clear increase inprofessionalism and prestige led to many promotions ofsubmariners to Flag Rank; Sir John Fieldhouse became FirstSea Lord and Chief of the Defence Staff.

Conditions for crews operating on board changed astechnical advances such as the snorkel increased the lengthof dives – HMS Alliance setting a new world record in 1947for time spent submerged. Four peacetime submarine lossesreinforced the need for better escape and rescue facilitiesand even better trainings and standards of professionalism.Nuclear submarines allowed longer patrols and many otherchanges (not always improvements) to conditions for crews –

supplies of fresh water increased, but hot bunking was alsowidespread. Once ashore crews lived with a need to keepsecrets that was more vital than ever, and in an environmentwhere some public opinion – e.g. the permanent Peace Campat Faslane since 1982 – has questioned the need and moralityof their work.

During the Indonesian Confrontation, 1962-65, submarinesdemonstrated their versatility in conducting both valuableintelligence gathering missions and the landing of SpecialForces. During the 1982 Falklands Conflict, HMS Conquerorand other SSNs emphatically demonstrated the ability of thenuclear submarine to project power; their speed meant theywere the first vessels to enter the South Atlantic, carrying athreat which affected enemy operations even before theyactually arrived. Their stealth and operational independencemade them a powerful threat and following Conqueror’ssinking of the Argentinian cruiser Belgrano the ArgentineNavy could not tolerate any further losses and effectivelyreturned to harbour. Intelligence gathering operationsagainst Soviet maritime forces took place predominantly in the North Atlantic Ocean and Barents, Baltic andMediterranean seas. Royal Navy submarines beganperiodically deploying under the Arctic ice-cap.

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The submarine depot ship HMS Forth, mother ship for the submarine flotilla at Malta during the 1950s.

A trainee surfaces at the top of the 100 foot (30 metre) Submarine Escape Training Tank (Sett).

The launch of the Royal Navy’s first nuclear submarineHMS Dreadnought by HM The Queen on Trafalgar Day,21 October 1960.

An officer checking the bearing accuracy of the searchperiscope in the control room of HMS Revenge.

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The Upholder Class diesel submarine was introduced in 1989,but as part of post-Cold War defence cuts all four vessels ofthis class were decommissioned after only a few years’service; with the paying-off of the last of the Upholder Classin 1994 the Flotilla became an all-nuclear force. From themid-1990s the Resolution Class ‘Polaris’ force was replaced by the 15,900 ton Vanguard Class submarines that carry theTrident ballistic missile system which, like Polaris, was alsopurchased from the US Navy.

The SSN force downsized from a peak of 17 hulls to onlyseven by the early 2000s and the first of the new 8,000 tonneAstute Class SSN was commissioned in 2010 several years lateand 19 years after the last of the Trafalgar Class enteredservice. British ship-building capability – alongside designand project management of procurement – weresignificantly diminished in this period; co-operation with the US Navy was essential.

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1990 ~ PRESENT CHANGING WORLD

The need since 1990 to deliver an expanded range of roles,with a reduced fleet of submarines, has created a differentset of challenges for the Submarine Service. Crews are nolonger predominantly all volunteers, and recruitment can be a problem as the restrictions demanded by the Serviceremove it further from what is normal in general navalservice, and from everyday life. Secrecy, silence and yet lessvisibility are incompatible with expectations that personallives remain connected through social media. Demandsplaced on crews have increased further as work packagesrequired to keep an ageing fleet in operation mean crewscan be as busy in harbour as at sea; better shore facilitieshave helped people cope, but at times training opportunitieshave been squeezed and leave has become difficult to take.Retention of personnel too is a persistent problem becauseof fewer opportunities for advancement in a reduced fleet;

there is a shortage of specialist engineering skills. Despitethese challenges individuals have shown admirable flexibilityin managing change; life at sea will change further as the2014 decision enabling women to serve on Trident Classsubmarines takes effect.

Maintaining the power of an ageing fleet to deliver theseroles has been a significant challenge with reductions innumbers of SSNs and of diesel submarines. The submarinebase at Gosport HMS Dolphin was closed in 1994 and theremaining squadrons are based in either Devonport orFaslane. Staff work to create a ‘single operational base’ at Faslane is underway.

The Tomahawk missile with 1,000lb warhead and range of up to 1,000 miles has been a visible sign of submarinesactive part in recent conflicts; TLAM launched against targetsin Kosovo (1999), Afghanistan (2001), Iraq (2003) and Libya(2012). Intelligence gathering has been extended alongcoastlines in the Middle-East, and, following a firstdeployment in 1993, Royal Navy submarines now provide a regular presence East of Suez.

A reduction in force levels in the 1990s was not matched by a reduction of roles, or of commitments for the Service.The importance of submarines in intelligence gathering hasgrown yet further; submarines’ ability to share what theygather has been assisted by the introduction of High DataRate Communications via satellite which has alsorevolutionised the information provided to submarinecommanders on deployment. Continuous at-sea deterrencehas been maintained by the Polaris/Trident weapon systemsfrom 1996 onwards, but the SSBNs have added the sub-strategic nuclear role previously the responsibility of theRoyal Air Force.

The Tomahawk land-attack (TLAM) missile was introduced in the late 1990s and has given SSNs the additional role ofpower projection through attacking land targets. The AstuteClass is fitted with a dry-deck shelter facility – making themthe stealthiest way to arrive and insert Special Forces on aforeign shore.

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ProgressFirst used as a submarine shore support base in 1954,Faslane (HMS Neptune) pictured in the 1980s.

The Royal Navy’s submarine-launched Tomahawkland attack cruise missile breaks surface.

Vanguard class deterrent submarines berthedalongside their shore support base in Faslane,Scotland.

Two Upholder class, these were the last dieselpowered submarines to serve with the Royal Navy.

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