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Nicolaus Cusanusas Prince-Bishopof Brixen (1450-64):

Historians and a Conflictof Church and State

Brian A. Pavlac

The impressive accomplishments of Nicolaus Cusanus (also calledNicolaus Treverensis, Nicolaus Cancer, Nikolaus von Kues and Nicholasof Cusa) make him one of the most important personalities of thefifteenth century. I Scholars have long been drawn to his successfrrlclerical career, which Cusanus combined with noteworthy achievementsas a humanist scholar and philosopher. Yet the historical evaluation of

1. The body of literature on Cusanus is quite large; see the useful listings in the"Cusanus-bibliographie" i^ Mitteiluflgen und Forschungsbeitrdgeer Cusanus-Gesellschaft(1961),3 (1963),6 (1967),10 (1973),15 (1982). have concentratedon examining the manyworks on his biographical and political history and not those on his philosophical thought.On the latter seeRudolf Haubst, "Aktuelles aus der Cusanus-Forschung," Mitteilungm undForschungsbeitriige er Cusanus-Gesellschaft5 (1982): 29-42; and Paul E. Sigmund, "DasFortleben des Nikolaus von Kues in der Geschichtedes politischen Denkens," Mitteilungenund Forschungsbeitriige er Cusanus-GesellschaftT1969): 120-128. The standard biography ofCusanus remains Edmond Vansteenberghe, Le Cardinal Nicolas de Cues (7401-7464):L'Action-la pensfe.Biblioth0que du XVe Siacle, vol. XXIV (1920; reprint ed., Frankfurt amMain, 1963). A recent, and rather impressionistic,biography is HeinerMartini, Der Krebsin der Reuse:Nikolaus oon Kues trier, 1986);also Helmut Gestrich, Nikolaus oon Kues 1401-1464:Lebm und Werk m Bild (Mainz, 1990), s the companion volurne to a recent travellingexhibition which tried to inform the general public about Cusanus and his work.Brun A. Pavlu is an Assistant Professor f History at Kins's College,Pennsylaania.

@ rgss HrsrozucAl REFLECTIoNS/REFLE)coNS HISToRIeuEs, vol. 21, No. 1


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1.32 HistoricalReflectionslR4flexionsistoriqueshis reign (1450-64)as prince-bishop of Brixen, or Bressanone, remainscontroversial. Since Cusanus remains an example of the contentionbetween church and state, this article provides a comprehensive surveyof the main points of the Brixen controversy and hopes to sensitizehistorians to the complexities of the scholarly disagreements aboutCusanus in Tyrol.Cusanus rose from modest beginnings to the highest ranks in theWestern Church. He was born in 1401as Nikolaus Krebs, the son of awine shipper in the town of Kues (or Cusa, part of today's Bernkastel-Kues in the Mosel valley). His ecclesiastical areer began with studiesin Heidelberg, Padua and Cologne; then he served the archbishop ofTrier in the 1420s,where he began to collect church benefices.' He firstgained international prominence at the Council of Basel (1431-49),whenhe unsuccessfully defended his archbishop against a papal provision tothe see of Trier. At first a proponent of conciliarism, he soon shifted hisallegiance to the papacy. Leaving Basel behind, he went toConstantinople to help organize the unifying Council of Ferrara-Florencefo r the pope. In the following years Cusanus promoted papal interestsat imperial diets and princely courts in Germany; a grateful pope namedhim Cardinal-priest of San Pietro in Vincoli in 1448. As papal legate,Cardinal Cusanus attempted to reform the German churches n 1451-52.And in the last years of his life he led the college of cardinals,represented he pope during papal abselces,and administeredthe papaltemporalities in Italy south of the Po.r In addition to these manifoldduties and activities, Cusanus was one of the most important Cermanhumanists of the fifteenth century. He discoveredclassicalmanuscriptsand wrote important philosophical and scientific works, such as DeConcordantiaCatholica,upon which his modern reputation is largely

2. Erich Meuthen, "Die Phinden des Cusanus," Mif l eilungenund ForschungsbeitrlgeerCusanus-Gesellschaft (1962): 15-66.

3. See Erwin Iserloh, Kirchmreform bei N*olaus von Kues, Institut frir EuropiiischeGeschichte,Mainz, Vortrilge, no. 38 (Wiesbaden,Germany, 1965); nd Erich Meuthen, Dieletzten lahre des Nikolaus von Kues: BiographischeUntersuchungm nach neuea Quellm,Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft ftir Forschung des LandesNordrhein-Westfalen, vol. III (Cologne, 1958).

NicolausCusanus 133based.'It is his reign as bishop of Brixen, however, that most provokesdisagreement among historians.lIn the literature concerning his role as prince-bishop, historiansgenerally agree about the events of Cusanus's episcopal tenure, butdisagree sharply when trying to divine the motivations or significanceof them.o Conflicting viewpoints, which crystallized in the nineteenthcentury/ have usually been divided between the advocates of Tyroleanstatehood and partisans of the Roman Catholic Church. Originally, localscholarship was dominated by the views of historians like Albert ]iiger,who approved of a strong, centralized, secular government. In thisview, the Habsburg dynast/s historical mission was to consolidatedominion in the Tyrolean AIps. Since Cusanus sought to dispute theTyrolean prince's monopoly of gower, historians of this persuasionregarded him as a troublemaker.' In the other view, Roman Catholichistorians, such as Ludwig Pastor, believed that the papacy's reformingaims and the political influence of the Catholic Church would generate

4. Nicholas of Cusa, The CatholicConcorilance, d. and trans. Paul E. Sigmund,(Cambridge, 1991).5. ErichMeuthen,NikolausaonKuesT40T-7464:SkizzeeinerBiographie.5thed.(Mrinster.1982),p.95; Anselm Sparber, "Aus der Wirksamkeit des Kardinals Nikolaus von Kues alsFrirstbischof von Brixen (7450-1464)," in Nicold Cusano agli Inizi del Mondo Moderno. Attidel Congresso nternazionale in o ccasionedel V celltmario della morte di Nicold Cusano,Bressanone, -L0 Settembre 954, Facoltl di Magistero dell ' Universitl di Padova, vol. XII(Florence, 7970), pp. 524-SE.6. The basic work on the conflict and stil l most detailed account is Albert l|ger, DerStreit des Cardinals N*oiaus aon Cusa mit d em Herzog Sigmunil von Osterreich alsGrafen uonTirol: Ein Bruchstilckaus den Kimpfm der weltlichet unil kirchlichm Ganalt nach dem Conciliumzu Basel,2 vols. (Innsbruck, Austria, 1861). For criticisms of Jege/s work see: HermannHallauer, "Eine Visitation des Nikolaus von Kues in BenediktinerinnenklosterSonnenburg," Mitteilungm unil Forschungsbeit rdgeler Cusanus-Gesellschaft (1961), p. ll2;Nilolaus Grass, "Review of Wilhelm Baum, Nikolaus Cusanus n Tirol" in Mitteilungm undForschungsbeitrdge er Cusanus-Gesellschnft7 (1986), p. 281; or Wilhelrn Baum, "Enea SilvioPicolomini (Pius II), Cusanus und Tirol," Der Schlent56(1982), p. 189. A brief summaryof the conflict in English, without comparison of the historical opinions, is Pardon E.Till inghast, "Nicholas of Cusa versus Sigmund of Habsburg: An Attempt at PosFConciliarChurch Reforrn," Church History 36 (1967):371-390.7. For example Nikolaus Grass, "Cusanus al s Rechtshistoriker, Quel' lenlritiker undJurist: Skizzen und Fragmente," in Cusanus Gedibhtnisschrift: m Auftrag der Rechts-unilStaatswksmschaftlichet Fa*ultdt der Uniaersitdt Innsbruck, Nikolaus Grass, ed., Forschungen

zur Rechts- und Kulturgeschichte, vol. III (Innsbruck-Munich, 1970), p. 134.


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134 Historical ReflectionslRtflexions istoriquesa more virtuous comrnunity.E These historians saw the lay princessubverting Cusanus's legitimate authority as bishop and cardinal. Sincethe Tyrolean prince persecuted Cusanus in his Christian efforts toimprove society, they considered the bishop a martyr. More recenthistorians often have continued to portray Cusanus from one of thesetwo perspectives: either as the adversary of TyroleanlHabsburg nationalunity or the protagonist of Vatican/Christian righteousness. Thesedifferences reveal the historiographical difficulty in writing about issuesconceming both religion and nationalism. Even with the enrichment ofour understanding of Cusanus's rulership through the recent work ofWilllelm Baum, and the discovery of new documents and writings byCusanus in Italian, Austrian, German and even Yugoslavian archives,judgments remain ambivalent.9Cusanus's difficulties as prince-bishop originate in the changingdemands of church and state in the fifteenth century. Especially thestatus of the German imperial prince-bishops ed to conflicting claims ofjurisdiction between the Roman Church and the Holy Roman Empire.The conflicts between pope and emperor were mirrored at the local level

8. Ludwig von Pastor, Geschbhteder Pdpstcseit dem Ausgang des Miltelalters, vol. Il(Rome, 1955 [1894]). Cf . Andreas Posch, "Nikolaus von Cusa, Bischof von Brixen, imKampf um Kirchenreform und Landeshoheit in seinem Bistum," in CusanusGeddchtnisschri f t , p. 227; see also Hubert Jedin, "Zur Aufgabe de sKirchengeschichtsschreibens," Kirche des Glaubens, ol. II (Vienna, 7966), p. 279. Wilhelm Baum, while generally critical of Cusanus's ntentions and capabilities, has

been diligent in finding and then publishing documents, usually in the Souih-Tyroleancultural journal, Der Schlern,which is not widely accessible.Wilhelm Baurn, "Cusanus alsAnwalt der Brixner Kirche in Kdrnten und Krain (mit einer Edition eines unverdffentlichtenCusanusbriefes)gewidmet meinem Innsbrucker Lehrer Nikolaus Grass," De r Schlern55(1981): 385-399; "Nikolaus Cusanus und Leonhard Wiesmair: de r Kardinal und seinGegenspieler,Kanzler von Tirol und Bischofvon Chur-mit Edition von unver6ffentlichtenCusanus-Texten," Der Schlern 7 (1983):433-442; Nikolaus Cusanus und die Crafen vonGdrz: Neue Dokumente zum cill ischen Erbfolgestreit und Cusanuskon1*t," Der Schlera58 (19E4): 63-85; "Nikolaus Cusanus wird Bischof von Brixen (mit Editionunverdffentlichten Cusanus- und Kaiserurkunden," Der Schlent60 (1986):379-388; EineDenkschrift des Nikolaus von Kues riber di e Rechtsgeschichtevon Buchenstein: di ehistorische Argumentation des Cusanus im Lichte der historischen Quellen: Ein Beitrag zurGeschichtevon Buchenstein," Der Schlenr 7 (7987):92-113; Nikolaus von Kues und derKonflikt Herzog Sigmunds von Osteneich rnit den Schweizer Eidgenossen," ZeitschriftftirSchweizerische irchengeschichte 2 (1988):5-32. See also his book, N*o/aus Cusanus n Tirol:das Wirken des Philosophea als Fiirstbischol aon Brizen, Schriftenreih e des SildtirolerKulturinstituts, vol. X (Bozen, Italy, 1983), pp.7-70, which briefly reviews the importantliterature. The assertion by Gunther Hddl in his review of Baum's Sigmunil der Minzreichei^ Mitteilungen iles nstittttsftr ilsterreichische eschichtslorschung7 (79891,p. 489. that Baumgoes too far to blame Cusanus fo r most of the "lies and falsifications of history," firstsparked my interest in this entire controversy.

NicolausCusanus L35by disputes between the territorial princes, secular and religious. Prince-bishops were clerical leaders, responsible for the spiritual welfare oftheir diocese; at the sune ime, they were secular rulers, responsible fororder and justice in their principalities. The Holy Roman Empirecontained numerous such princes--from the powerful archbishops ofSalzburg down to the provosts of Berchtesgaden--who alternatelycompeted or cooperated with neighboring dukes and counts.The "Prince-bishops" of Brixen (as they titled themselves until the1950s) ruled both an extensive church diocese (covering most of theTyrol in Austria and the South Tyrol, or Alto Adige in Italy) and a muchsmaller temporal state. Grants by the German emperors in the eleventhcentury had made Brixen, situated along the Brenner pass, powerful intemporal possessions and princely prerogatives. In the twelfth century,however, real authority was increasingly appropriated by the counts ofTyrol. They had begun their rise to power as the bishop's vassals andadvocates, carrying out secular administration, iustice and warfare onhis behalf. But by the thirteenth century, the energetic counts,supported by most of the local nobles, had surpassed he bishops in realauthority. Rights once delegated to the counts were increasingly, bycustom and practice, considered as inviolably their own. And once theHabsburgs took over the county of Tyrol during the fourteenth century,the bishops gradually became the count's chief minister. ru In reality,then, the prelates were dependent upon their advocates, he counts ofTyrol, whom they recognized as temporal lords; but as imperial princesand feudal lords they were also technically superior to them. Further,until 1803 he bishops maintained some independent dominion (in theareas around the cities of Brixen, Klausen along the Etsch [or Adige]river, Bruneck in the Puster river valley and a few outlying districts),creating a curious relationship between the enclave of the Principalityof Brixen and the County of Tyrol surrounding it.

As Prince-bishop of Brixen, Cusanus struggled with thecontemporary count of Tyrol, Sigismund "der Mrinzreiche" (7439-90),over the privileges of his acquired principality. " Sigismund, from the

10. fosef Riedmann, "Mittelalter," in Geschichtedes Landes Tirol, vol. I, Von denAnfiingenbi s 1,490,2nd ed, (lnnsbruck-Vienna, 1990),p. 489; Walter Gdbel, "Entstehung,Entwicklung undRechtsstellunggeistlicherTerritorien m deutsch-italienischenGrenzraum,dargestellt am Beispiel Trients und Aquileias," Ph.D. dissertation, Julius-Maximilians-Universit,it zu Wlirzburg, 7976,p. 164.11 . Jiiger, De r Streit,vol. I, pp. vii, 75; Baum, "Cusanus als Anwalt," p. 386; WilhelmBaum, Srgmund der Miinzrebhe: Zur GeschichteTirols und der habsburgischm Ldnder imSpatmittelalter, Schriftenreihe des Sr.idtiroler Kulturinstituts, vol. XV (Bozen, Italy, 1987).

Sigismund (born 1427,died f 496)actuallygained the rule of Tyrol from his uncle Frederi&


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136 HistoricalReflectionslRtflexionsistoriquesTyrolean branch of the Habsburg dynasty, ruled over Tyrol andterritories ranging from Alsace and Swabia on the upper Rhine andDanube rivers to Lower Austria. Indeed, he used as his most pres tigiousbitle hat of "Duke of Austria," which he gained inlM6. Rivalry with hisHabsburg relatives, especiallyhis uncle, the King and Emperor FrederickII I (1440-93), nvolved Sigismund in long absences rom his lands earlyin his reign. When present, Sigismund and his advisors worked toconsolidatehis rule, tuming the nobles into subjects, rounding out theterritory and even in{luencing church affairs. Sigismund met resistancefrom Cusanus, whose agenda included implementi ng a policy ofreligious reform. His service for the powerful prince-archbishop of Trierhad probably taught him the possibilities and responsibilities of theoffice of prince-bishop, both temporal and spiritual. When he saw hisefforts for spiritual reforms contested, Cusanus asserted his temporalindependeni".l2 He sought then to restore and even increase the lostde ire power and prestije of the prince-bishops of Brixen.13The conflict began as soon as the pope appointed Cusanus bishop in1450 n an attempt to check the increasing secularization of the see.'*The.local cathedral chapter, however, had already elected Sigismund'schancellor, the canon Leonhard Wiesmair. Papal and imperial Pressuresoon brought Cusanus an uneasy victory and reluctant acceptance bySigismund and the Tyroleans. Once resident, Cardinal and BishopNicolaus initiated reforms to make his see an exemplary diocese. He

in 1446, six years after his own fathe/s death. On the end of his reign, see below.12. Gobel, p. f 51. Cf. Paul E. Sigmund, Nicholasof Cusaand Medieual Political Thought(Cambridge, MA, 1963).p. 289. On hi s us e of excommunication and interdict for both, see

William Kurtz Gotwald, Ecclesiastical msure ot the End of the Filteenth Century, lohnsHopkins University Studies in History and Political Science, no' 3 (Baltimore, 1927), pp'72-23.13. Harald Zimmermann, "Der Cancer Cusa und sein Gegner Gregor-Errorius: de rStreit des Nikolaus Cusanus mit Gregor Heimburg bei Thomas Ebendorfer," in HaraldZimmennann: lm Bann des Mittelalters: Ausg ewdhlteBeitriigezur Kirchen- und Rechtsgeschichte:Festgibe zu seinem 60. Geburtstag, mmo Eberle and Hans-Henning Korhim, eds.(Sigmaringen, Germany, 1986),P. 137;Vansteenberghe,p. 167;llger, Der Streit,vol. I, pp.14-20. On Trent and Chur see ibid., vol. l, pp . 87-87,101-104;vol. II, pp. 41-43'

14. The actual rights about who chose the Bishop of Brixen wete unclear. Tillinghast,p.377;Spatber. "Wirksamkeit," P. 525;Morimichi Watanabe, "Duke Sigmund und GtegorHaimburg," in vol. I, Festsch rift N*olars Grdss zum 60. Geburtstag dargebracht aonFachgmossen, Freurulm und Schiilern, Louis Carlen and Fritz Steinegger, eds., 2 vols.(Innsbruck-Munich, 1974), P.562. Cf . Albert Jiger, "Regesta und urkundlichen Daten tlberdas Verhelhis des Cardinals Nicolaus von Cusa, als Bischof von Brixen, zum HerzogeSigmund von Oesterreich und zu dem Lande Tirol von 1450 bis 7464," Ar chirt fir Kunde\stereichische Geschichtsquellen (1850), pp. 299, 109.

NicolausCusanus 1.37called synods, issued detailed regulations and preached regularly. Inadministration his interests ayin superrrisingchurch property, orderingfinances and enforcing tithes. )Differences between Sigismund and Cusanus soon escal ated fromlegal arguments to open warfare. As will be discussed in more detailbelow, Cusanus's personality provoked opposition and his policieschallenged the interests of noble patrons, including those of theduke.'o ConIIicts over the temporal authorify and religious jurisdiction(discussed further, below) soon focused on the Abbey of Sonnenburgand culminated in the so-called"Battle of Enneberg" in 1458.Also, the"Wilten A6fair" n 1457 ed Cusanus to accuseSigismund of threateninghis Iife and to bring into play excommunication and interdict. After thecardinal's return in 1460 rom a stay in Rome, disputes over the landsof the murdered count of Cilli, a silver mine, and Cusanus's refusal toconJirm the privileges of his cathedral chapter widened the rift.17Subsequently, n April 1460,several priests going to an Eastersynod atBruneck were accostedby ducal troops, and Cusanus believed that theattacks were directed against him. He therefore renewed an interdictagainst Sigismund (despitepapal restrictions), refused to bless the holyoil from parish churches whose priests did not follow the interdict, andthreatened to confiscate Sigismund's fiefs held from Brixen and grantthem to the duke's uncle, Emperor Frederick III. Upon hearing of theseacts from priests sent by Cusanus to the duke, Sigismund reacted bydispatching an arrny, which withoutwaming attackedBruneck onEasterSunday, April 13.'o By Tuesday the city fell to attacking ducal troops,

15 . Sparber, Wirksamkeit ," p.524; Baum, CusanusnTirol ,pp.8,99; AntonLribke,Nrtolaus von Kues:Kirchmfiirst zwischet Mittelalter und Neuzeit (Munich, f 968), pp. 16l-762,164;Meuthen, Skizze,pp.98. 100.15 . Vansteenberghe, p. 774;leger, Der Streit,vol. I, p. 137. See ohann Martin Dr,ix,Der deutscheCardinal Nicolaus on Cusaund die Kirche einerZeit, vol. II, 2 vols. (Regensburg,18af , p. 126,conceming a difficulty about patronage over one parish, and Till inghast, p.377 n. 20, where the two compromised over another parish.77 . li iger, De r Streit.vol. I, pp. 345-349,358-359. he Cill i lands lay east of Tyrol andwere c'laimedby several Habsburg family members; in the warfare over them Sigismundsuspected that Cusanus had made an alliance with Frederick III to invade Tyrol usingBrixen's castles.The silver rnine of Gernstein, near Klausen, had been seized by episcopalsoldiers, but was claimed by Sigismund.18 . See Nikolaus Grass, "Cusanus und das Fehdewesen: dargestellt am Beispiel de rGradner und Brunecker Fehde und des Thurgauer Krieges," in ArbeitslebenundRechtsordnung: estschrift erhardSchnorr um 55. Gebu,rtstog, swin Martinek and GustavWachter, eds. (Vienna, 1988), p. 793-795;GeorgMutschlechner, "Tiroler Burgen im Lebendes Nikolaus Cusanus," in Cusanus Geddchtnisschrift, . 295, Hans Hdrtnagl, "Der


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738 HistoricalReflectionslRhflexionsistoriquesand Sigismund himself arrived to lead the siege of the ci!y's castlewhere Ltrunn, still resisted.After negotiations' Cusanus capitulated onwednesday. The duke occupied Cusanus',scastle in Bruneck, makingCusanus "ithut u prisoner or, according to Sigisml^1 .u shelteredzuest.le On April 2i, Cusanus signed a capitulation which included anIccount of the conflict, a renunciation of his own claims to temporalrule, the order to open episcopal castles to the duke's men andad,ministrators, the foi6ving of the duke's debts, and the commitmenttopayanindemnitytothe-duke'CusanusevenexcusedSigismund'su"tior,t in a letter written to the pope' When released' however'Crru..r, repud,iated he agreements and renewed his interdict beforeleaving his diocese on April i27,1460,never to return'2OWiih Cusanus's exile, the controversyexpanded beyond the bordersof the Tyrol and inflamed the conflict between the Roman Church andthe Holy Roman Empire' The papacy intervened on Cusanus's behalf'defending the immunity both bf a cleric from secular Persecution andchurch bisiness from temporal interference. The Church tried to breakSigismund through various means, from diplomatic-

pressure to a.risade. yet, by ir,d t".g" both secular and spiritual princes supportedSigismund's prerogativei. In the end the PaPacyyas fylhq.excludedfrJm imperil uffii.r and Cusanus died in exile, while Sigismundorur"*"i, if not expanded, his authority over the principality and its'.hrrr.h"r.i1 Furthei, the Bishopric of Brixen was left spirituallydesolate;al l of Cusanus's efforts toward reform had been wasted. The

Brunecker uberfall des Herzogs sigmund und sein Ritt an die Etsch zu ostern 1460," DerSchlenr 7 (7926), PP. 467-468'

19 . Historians are uncertain whether Sigismund took contro'l of the castle with orwithout Cusanus's permission; Jiiger,Der Streit,vol' II , p' 13; Baum' Cuscnus n Tirol' p'3gg. paul )oachimsoin, GregorHeimburg,Historische Abhandlungen aus dem Mr.i-nchenerSeminar, vol. I (Bamberg lAnl, p. 18!, agreeswith Jiiger' Der Streit' vol' II' p 26 n' 64 'that Cusanus was not a prisonet. since Sigismund made every attemPt to Prevent theappearanceof force.

20.Meuthen,Sk izze,p. l05.GeorgYoigt ,EneaS i tv iode 'P icco lom in i :derPapstP iusderZweiteunil seinzeitalter Berlin, 185G63),vol. III, p.363, criticizes Cusanus here for notntshingtothepope(accordingtoGuidoKisch,ErreaSi lvioPiccolominiunddieIurisprudmz(Basel,"1967), . 4 voigt is th! leading nineteenth-century biographer of Pius II; see alsoB uu* , c u , o , u ,i nT i r o l , p . 392 ; andGras s , , 'C us anus a l s Rec h t s h i s t o r i ke r , , , P ' 198 .

21. Baum, Sigmund,pp.240'243' An agreement was finally sealed near Vienna onAugust 25 , 1464,Wo weeis after the death of cusanus and eleven days after the deathof iope pius II. In this agreernent elations were restored to the statusquo of 1460,exceptthat an administrator was to have carried ou t chutch business for Cusanus in Tyrol, andS i g i s m undd i dno t hav e t oask f o r f o rg i v eness ; F rede r i c kl l l apo l og i z edonh i s beha l f t othe next PoPe.

NicolausCusanus 139conflict demonstrated that the chief prelates of the Roman church couldhardly resist determined German territorial princes of the mid-fifteenthcentury.when analyzing this controversy, historians often emphasize thepersonalities involved, rather than the tensions between reform andterritorial expansion. For example, Cusanus is generally recognized forhis intellectual genius, sincere piery, ascetic demeanoi and ieformingspirit.- Despite these virtues and his successesas papal legate andcardinal, some historians have portrayed him as ,ttrsuiteb for tlheofficeof bishop: he supposedly administered the diocesepoorly, abandonedit for long periods, and neglectedthe special needs of Tyroleans.23Totake one case,although Nikolaus GrassacknowredgesCusanus,ssuccessin collecting the tithes owed the see, he criticizes the bishop foryd.g^q, every last penny from the hard work of poor mountainfarmers." others argue that Cusanus became pt"o...tpi"d with pettydetails and small tasks. This last criticism is acknowledged by some ofhis admirers, but excused since the exactitude of rures ind rezulationswas intended to further his spiritual reforms.25 The most io**o^criticism concems Cusanus's uncompromising sfubbom.r"ss.26Barr^

22 . Sparbet, "Wirksamkeit,,,p.5ZZ; Lribke, pp. 400-404.posch, p. 234;Meuthen, ,.Dieletzten lahre," pp . 87-109.23 . ceorg Mutschlechner, "Itinerar des Nikolaus von Kues ftir den Aufenthalt inTirol," in CusanusGediichtaisschrift,. 533. Grass, "Cusanus und Fehdewesen,,,p.794: orGrass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker,,,p. 19g24 . Grass, "Cusanus al s Rechtshistoriker,,'pp. 167-170,175, g0 .25 ' ceorg Mutschlechner, "Nikolaus Cusanus und Eleanore von schottland,,, inCusanusGediichtnisschrift,, 260;Till inghast, p. 390; Baum, cusanus n Tirol, p.34g. Grass,

"cusanus ai s Rechtshistoriker," p. 190, defends cusanus on this point; see also HeinzHrirten, cusanus-Tette v. Br&ener Dokumerte, Erstesammlung: Aktmiur ReformdesBistumsBrixet, sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse, 2. Abhandlung (Heidelberg, 1960),p. 65 .25. Erich Meuthen, "Neue schlaglichter auf das Leben des Nikolaus von Kues,,,Mitteilungm und Forschungsbeitriigeer cusanus-Gesellschaft (1964), p. 49; Meuthen , skizze,p. 101;Hermann Hallauer, "Eine Denkschrift des Nikolaus von Kues zum Kauf der AmterTaufers und uttenheim in sr.idtirol," Mitteilungm und Forschungsbeitriigeler Cusanus-Gesellschaft (1961), p. 82 ; Mutschlechner, ,,Cusanus und Eleanor.,' , p. ZSI; Edwardwinter, "Das geistige Profil von Nikolaus von Kues im widerstreit der ieit," in Mkolausaon Kues:Wissenschaftliche onferenzdesPlenumsder deutschen kademieder'WissmschaftmzuBerlin anlril3lich der 500. lr'liederkehr seines Todesiahres: Referateund Diskussionsbiftrage,Deutsche Akademie der wissenschaften zu Berlin: vortrege und schriften, vol. XCVII(Berlin, 1965),p' 10; Leo Stern, "Nikolaus von Kues als Kirchenpolitiker und Diplomat,,'in the same volume, p. 47 .


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1,40 Historical eflectionslRtflexionsistoriquesattributes his ultimate failure to an unyielding personality which forcedeveryone, even the PoPe, to choose either for him or Sigismund'''ihu.g"s conceming Cusanus's personalityoften focus on accusationsof hypocrisy.To takeone case,he arguedagainstpluralismbu t collectednrr*"torr tenefices.2ssome historians criticize his switching sides tothe papary early in his career.29At the Council of Basel he protestedugai.,si a papal provision and then became he beneficiary of bne.30Tomake matters worse, Cusanus reportedly put temporal politics beforethe care of souls.3l When necessary, this scrupulous cleric, whodisliked bloodshed, encouraged known criminals and robber-knights touse thievery, murder and ;'all the horrors of offensive warfire."3zCusanus even allegedly abused the confessionalby blackm"ailingpeoplein order to us e their testimony against Sigismund'rr Further, areputedly,,machiavellian" Cusanus was willing to injure other spiritual

2f . Baum, Cusanus n Tirol, pp' 102, 272, 349; Anselm Sparber, "Wie kam es zurGefangennahme des Fiirstbischofs und Kardinals Nikolaus von cues in Bruneck?" inBruneiker Buch: Festschrift ur 700-lahr-Feier der Stadterhebuag, Schlern-Schriften vol. CLII(Innsbruck, 1956), .100; Vansteenberghe,p. 456;Ja9er,Der Streit, ol' I' pp' 147-148'308'28. Meuthen, "Pfriinden," pp ' 62-63;Brigide Schwarz, "Uber Patronageund Klientel

in der spiltrnittelalterlichen Kirche am Beispiel des Nikolaus von Kues," Quellen undForschungm aus talienischm Architten und Bfuliotheken 8 (1988), p' 307'

2g. Cf. FeliceBattaglia, "Politica e religione in Nicold da Cusa," in NrcoldCusanoagliInizi del Mondo Moderao. Atti del Congresso nternazionalen occasione el V centenariodellamorte di Nicold cusano, Bressanone, -'10 settembre1964, Facolt) di Magistero dell 'Universitl di Padova, vol. XII (Florence, 7970):39-72'

30. Sparber, "Wirksamkeit," p. 525;Baum, "Cusanus wird Bischof," p 379;Till inghast'p. 375.

31 . Baum, "Cusanus als Anwalt," p' 387, complains that a' l l Cusanus's lettersconcerning the see'seasternpossessions oncernedonly money and politics, no t IeliSiouslife. Cf. in-general Gerd Heinz-Mohr, "Nikolaus von Kues und de r Laie in der Ki.rche,"Mitteilungen und Forschungsbeitriige er Cusnnus-Gesellschaft(196\, p. 312' see also Grass,,,Cusanui und Fehdewesen," p.789, who criticizesCusanus's attitude toward the Bishopof Trent.

32 . Grass,"Cusanus und Fehdewesen," p. 802.Grassdeclaims that Cusanus objectedto bloodshed against the Gradner brothers (seebelow), bu t encouraged the Gradners tose t the Swiss alainst Sigismund; he does no t note, however, that Cusanus explicitly toldone of the brothers not to shed blood. Cf. the document in Baum, "Nikolaus und de rKonflikt Sigmunds mit den Schweizer," pp.2G27' See also Grass' "Cusanus undFehdewesen," P. 786'

33. Hartrnut Boockmann, Lcur mtiusBlumanau: Ffirstlicher Rat-!urist-Humankt (ca.14'15-1484), Gottinger Bausteine zur Geschichtswissenschaft, vol. xXXVII (Gottingen, 7965)' P.167.

NicolausCusanus 141"institutions for his own benefit.34 n u dispute over the mine of Fursilhe asserted his own episcopal rights against a neighboring power,Venice, ignoring its true owner, Neustift, a collegiatJfoundaiion nearBrixen. Finally, although a ruler responsible to uphold the law, hesupposedly fwisted.outdated and outmoded legal rights to suit hispolitical purposes.rr As a schotar, he studied-old -documentsan drecords in order to compose numerous Denkschriften, r memoranda,trying to establish the see'sclaims to properties in Tp.ol. This researchencouraged several attempteg acquisitions: mortgaged fiefs from thepowerful Freundsbergfamilfb (which would havi doubled the size ofhis temporal jurisdiction); the old rights of the church of Brixen3T(which would have streng-thenedCusanus,s independence); and therenewaf of the Bergregal,r6 ights for mining salt, silver and othermetals.In his political writings Cusanus wrote of promoting harmony andcooperation between the political state and the universal church.39Hefurther argued that bishops should not become invorved in worldlymatters. In exile Cusanus even once suggested hat he should havegiven up temporal power. In an oft-quoted letter of ]une 4, 1460 o thebishop of Eichstiitt, he wrote: ,, I recognize my mistake; the bishops

34. Baum, "Denkschrift,,, p. 105, who draws on a dissertation by peter Hofer,"Nicolaus cusanus in seinem Verhiltnisse zum Kloster Neustift,,, ph.b. dissertatron,university of Pavia, 1978.see also Baum, cusanus n Tirot,p.171. cf. Hermann Hallauer,"Cusanus und Neustift," in vol. I, 2 vols., FestschriftNikolausGrasszum 60. Geburtstagdargebracht on Fathgenossen, reundenund schiilent, Louis Carlen and Fritz steinegger, eds.(Innsbruck-Munich, 1974),p. 312.35. Posch, p. 234;Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker,,,p. 18g; Baum, Sigmund,pp .131 -132 .36. litger, Der Streit, vol. I, pp. ZG80; posch, p. 235; Vansteenberghe,p. 123. Baum,

cusanus n Tirol. pp.293, 298,348, sees he action against the Freunds6ergs as a test casebefore taking on the more powerful duke.37. Baum, "Denlschrift,,, p. 103; Riedmann. p. 4g3; Grass, ,,Cusanus alsRechtshistoriker," pp. 130, 165;Posch, pp.231-232.38 . Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker,"p. 165;IAger, Der Streit,vol. I, p. 76, andPosch, pp. 237-232.Esp. note Baum sigmund, pp. l4o-741; and cf. Baurn, cusanus n Tirol,p. 319. Salt and silver mines made sigismund's Tyrol one of the richest areas n Europeby the late fifteenth century.39 . fohannes Bdrmann, "Cusanus und die Reichsreform,,, Mitteilungm undForschungsbeitriige er Cusanus-Gesellschaft (1964),p. g7; Morirnichi watanabe, rtte pomicalldeas of Nicholcs of Cusa with special Refermce o his De concordantio Catholica, Travauxd'Hurnanisrne et Renaissance, ol . XVIII (Geneva, 1963),pp . 1g5-rg6; paul E. sigmund,Nicholas of Cusa and Medinal Potitical Thoughr (Cambridge, MA, 1963), p. 122jBaum,Cusanus n Tirol, pp. 90-9f; Posch, p. 231.


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742 Historical ReflectionslRflexionsistoriquesshould not gather treasures, but only keep what is sufficient and givethe excess to the poor. God has ordained that we should dedicateourselves to our spititual office and our pastoral duties."a0 CertainlySigismund and his supporters argued that the church should have littleor no secular iurisdiction. The idea of ecclesiastical ule was outmodedin Tyrol and other regions with strong secular territorial governments.In other regions, though, contemporary spiritual principalities, such asCusanus's homeland of Trier. endured and even expanded theirauthority.alWhatever his personal shortcomings, a large share of Cusanus'sfailure can be attributed to the resistanceof powerful interest groups inTyrol: the Iocal estates of the clergy, nobility, and commoners."' Theclerg"yonly reluctantly accepted their new leader who was imposed bypapal provision. And Cusanus's reformist inclinations and zeal toenforce regulations alienated many. Local clerics strongly resisted hisefforts against concubinage and simony. Resistance among his owncathedral chapter found its most concrete orm in 1456,when Cusanus'searlier rival for Brixen, Wiesmair, was electedbishop of the neighboringdioccse of Chur. When Cusanus forced the Brixen chapter to fill thevacancy with his own nephew, he promptly excommunicated fourcanons who openly disapproved of the appointment." This actionreputedly alienated the entire chapter of Brixen and a large part of thediocesan clergy. Undeniably, quite a few of his clerg:y,whether through

40. A German translation is printed in Baum, Cusanus n Tirol, pp . 393-396.See alsoJosefGelmi, DieBr&nerBischi i feinderGeschichteTirols(Bozen,taly,1984), p. 106;Grass,"Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker," p. 177; Posch, p. 242.

41 . Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker," p. 136.42 . Some historians also focus on native Tyrolean resistance o Cusanus based on hisbeing a "foreigner" from the Rhineland. SeeJiiger, Der Streit, vol. II, pp. 5, 8; NikolausGrass, Clsanus unil das Volkstum der Berge, Studien zur Rechts-, Wirtschafts- undKulturgeschichte,vol. III, Verdffentlichung der Universitat Innsbruck, vol. XXV (Innsbruck,

1972), pp.44, 100; osef Koch, Der deutsche ardinal n deutschea anden:die Legationsreisedes Nikolausvon Kues 145112), leine Schriften der Cusanus-Gesellschaft5 $ner, 7964);Watanabe, Political deas, p. 170; Kolumban Spahr, "Nikolaus von Cues, das adeligeFrauenstift Sonnenburg OSB und die mittelalterliche Nonnenklausur." in CusnnusGeddchtnisschrift,. 324. Cf . Pastor, p. 139;Anselm Sparber, "Vom Wirken des KardinalsNikolaus von Cues al s Frirstbischof von Brixen," Vcrilffntlirhungen des MuseumsFerdinanileumn Innsbruck26-29 1946149), . 378;and Lubke, p. 155. Even Baum, Cusazusin Tirol, p. 212, sees a certain xenophobia in most Tyrolean historians' heatment ofCusanus; cf . Grass, "Review of Baum," p. 285.

43. Baum, "Cusanus und Wiesmair," p. 437; Sparber, "Wirksamkeit," p. 5E;Meufhen, Skizze,pp. 101-102.

NicolausCusanus 14Jdislike of Cusanus, xenophobia, sinfulness, or fear of Sigismund,refu,sed o support either his reforms or his position.Cusanus also had problems with the local nobility.aa His attemptsto reassert episcopal power threatened the privileges of powerfulfamilies such as the Freundsbergs and Gufidaunsl Furthlr, bothtownspeople and peasants,who in Tyrol were part of the estates, oundgrounds fo r opposition. Historians unsympalhedc to Cusanus havecensured him for taking too little account of local circumstances andconditions, particularly when he tried to enforce the Church reformers,stricter guidelines of behavior.{5He determinedly sought to limit whatmost Renaissance umanists considered superstitious ibuses: overusedpilgrirnages and holidays, false venerations of relics and eucharisticblood miracles. These acts, however, were popular forms of religiousexpression. other reforms, equally unpopular, limited dancing, cardplaying and fairs. Conceming the requirement that unmarried rioth"r,perform public penance before being readmitted into the church, BaumdescribesCusanus as positively "unchristian," since he povertyof manyTyroleans made marriage difficurt.a6Grass imputes to busanls, in his

effort to strengthen the observation of faits, a ,,near draconianharshness" for trying to insist that the mountain peasantsgive up milk,cheese and eggs during fasting periods.aT

44. Perhapscontributing to thesepoor relationswas another alleged law in Cusanus,scharacter:an inferiority complex aggravatedby pride. The dynastic riobility of Austria andTyrol supposedly looked down on tire bourgeois son of a wine-merchant. see Meuthen,Skizze,p. 99 ; Ialer, Der Streit, vol. I, pp. 16l, 190;Grass, Cusaausunil Volkstum, p. 49 ;Celmi, p. 100; Baum, Sigmund,p. 137; Baum, ,,Cusanusals Anwalt , , , p. 3g6. Also cf .Ltibke, p. 159, who comments on cusanus's affection for florid titles. on the other hand,the Tyrolean nobles supposedly encouraged one brief period of cooperation betweensigismund and cusanus when_they forced sigismund to disavow hi s ,,ioreign,, advisors,the Gradner brothers. see Albert Jiiger, "Die Fehde de r Gradner gegen den HerzogSigmund, " Denkschriftm der kaiserl.Academie er Wissmschaftn , philosophisci-historische lasse9 (1859):233-301, 55 ; and Baum, Cusanus nTirol , p. 352. For cri t ic ismsof Cusanus.srelations to the brothers see Grass, "Cusanus und Fehdewesen,', pp . 7g2-7g3,7g6, go2;and Baum, Sigmund, . 165.45 . Crass, Cusanus nd Volkstum,pp . M,4G47; Spahr, p. 310. Cf. Hermann Hallauer,"Zur Gewerbepolifrk des Nikolaus von Kues," in Cusanui Geddchtnisschrift,p. 499-500;Meuthen, Skizze, . l l1.46. Baum, S i gm und , . 137 .47 . He goes further to suggest ha t Cusanus,either from willful ignorance or religioushaughtiness, dismissed the hardship this would cause he p"urur,t"IGr"rs, Cusanus nilV o l k s t um , pp . 44 , 47 -49 .eealsoRiedmann,p.4g2;Baum, us anus i nT i r o l , p . 242 . Gras s ,"Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker," p. 191, also laments poor farmers hurt ty Cusanus,sexcommunicationsand nterdicts. other comments on excommunication are sparber, ,,wie


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144 HistoricalReflectionslRiflexionsistoriquesWhatever Cusanus's failings, the conflict was sustained by the other

key figure in Tyrol, Sigismund. Clearly, from the Christian moralp"tsp"iti.r", Sigismund's pursuit of food, drink and women was lessadmiraUle than Cusanus's asceticit*.48 Attd Sigismund's suPPorters,who berate Cusanus for his apparent shortcomings, rarely criticize theduke's illegal or questionable actions, and they frequently excuse hisdeviousneJs.49Accusations against the cardinal, such as the breakingof agreements (the salzburg tTeary) or violations of safe conductlBlurienau in Rome), find iaralleis with the duke.so In the mostglaring example of harshness and interference in church affairs(complrable to Cusanus's oppression of the nuns of Sonnenburg,discuised below), the duke also persecuted religious women. He hadthe Poor Clare nuns in Brixen (who had been reformed by andsupported Cusanus) bodily driven from their nunnery."-One controversial confrontation with Sigismund, the so-called"Wilten Aff.air" of fune L457, illustrates the confusing nature of theseissues.Named after the abbeyoutside Innsbruck where Cusanus residedduring a visit to Innsbruck, the affair Ied to a serious break in relations

kam es," p. 107. Baum, Cusonusn Tirol, P. 383; Grass, "Cusanus und Fehdewesen," p796. Cf. Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker," p' 151, where he approves of Cusanus'sexcommunicating a man who chatged usurious interest to Duke Sigismund'

48 . Criticisms of Sigismund come from Dtix, vol. II, p' 108;Pastor, p' 140;Ltibke, p'175; Sparber, "Wirksamkeit," p. 533; Anselm Sparber, Die Brbmer Firstbischdfe mMittelalrcr:hr Lebm und Wirkm (Bozen, taly, 1968),PP. 150, 157;Joachimsohn,p' 241 Incontrast to his relations with Sigismund, Cusanus was able to cooPelate in monasticreform with Duke Albert III "the Pious" of Bavaria-Munich (1a38-60); ee Erich Meuthen.,,Nikolaus von Kues und die wittelsbacher," in Festschrift iir Andreas Kraus zum 50 .Geburtstog,Pankraz Fried and Walter Ziegler, eds., Mrinchener Historische Studien,Abteilung BayerischeGeschichte,vol' X (Kallmtinz, Germany, 1982),pp ' 104-105'

49 . Hddl, p. 489. Cf' Baum, Sigmund, pP.87,199' 226; Till inghast, p' 380'50 . For Sigismund,s breaking of agreements (especially those of 1451 and 1454 by

supporting AbLess Verena of Sonnenburg, see below) with Cusanus, seeDiix, vol. II. p.124; or violation of safeconduct seeBaum, "Nikolaus und de r Konflikt sigmunds mit denSchweizer," pp. 18-19; or expelling nuns see Batsm, Sigmund,p' 238' see also lilger, DerStreit,vol. I, P. 188.

51 . Hermann Hallauer, "Nikolaus von Kues und das Brixener Klarissen Kloster,"Mitteilungen und Forschungsbeitriigeler Cusanus-Gesellschaft (1967), p. 92. Baurn, sigmund,p. 238, mentions it without comment. For defenses of Sigismund on church reform seeiosch, p. 232; Robert Gismann, ',Die Beziehung zwischen Tirol und Bayern im Ausgangdes Mitlelalters: Herzog Sigmund der Mrinzreiche und di e Wittelsbacher n Landshut undMrinchen von 1439 b\s1479," Ph.D. dissertation, university of lnnsbruck, 1976, p.78;Till inghast, p. 380. Cf. Baum, sigmund, pp.321,510-511, on sigismund's mixed religiousmotives.

NicolausCusanus 145between the two men. It began when sigismund discovered from DukeAlbrecht II I of Bavaria (143g-60) that Cusanus had. contempratedresigning his bishopric and passing it on to a prince of the wittelsbachramlty."- buch a move. would have gravely threatened Tyrol byestablishing an alliance between a powerful Bavaria and the weil-situated Brixen on the Alpine passes. As a result, sigismund invitedCusanus to Innsbruck for important consultations, to-which Cusanusreluctantly c"me.53Conflicting descriptionsand evidence only ailow a general outrine ofevents after Cusanus's arrival. First, Sigismund was iot even presentwhen the consultations were scheduGd to begin; he was insteadescorringthe duchessof Bavariaback to Munich. flen, during the nightof |une 24th, armed men apparently surrounded and tried toiain entryto the wilten monastery. Cusanus feared.he wourd be taken"prisoner:he soon heard that the duke himself had. ntended to captureiim andhad only been prevented from doing so by an accid.entalail from hishor9e. In any case, the duke derayedmeeting the bishop untir the 26thand in the-ensuing discussionscusanus felt insulted. ouring his retumto Brixen he narrowly avoided a capture by the ministeriai Gufidaunfamily.sa He soon left tne city of nrixen (forever, as it turned out) onfuly 4th and retreated to his castreAndraz (or st . Raphaersburg as hecalled it) in an isolated part of the dioceseon the venetian bor&.._ subsequently cusanus indicted sigismund for using the trip toInnsbruck and wilten as an opportunity to threaten his liie. Cusanus,sprice for reconciliaLionwas the retum of certain castles and iudicialdistricts, or even the elevation of the episcopal principality to a fosition

52. Baum, Cusanus n Tirol, p.340; Baum, Sigmund,pp . 145_152; euthen. ,,Nilolausund die wirtelsbacher," pp . 95-113. iiger,De r streit, vol. I, pp. 140, rgl, rg5-rgg, sees hisattempted deal with a foreign prince as causing the finai break with sigismund; cf .Cismann, pp . 97 , 624-625 . 78 -53. Baum, Cusanus n Tirol, p. 356; and Joachimsohn, p. 175 n. 1; and fosef Koch,Nikolaus von Cues und seine LLmwelt, unrersuchungen zu r Cusanus Texte IV/1,Sitzungsberichtede r Heidelberger Akadernie lg44/4g,philosophisch-historischeKlasse,z.Abhandlung (Heidelberg, 1948), pp. 73-74. somewhat iustifies Cusanus,s generalapprehension becauseof previous assassinationattempts.54' The Gufidauns, judges of the district Rodeneck, hoped to capture or harmcusanus because he had restricted their role in maintaining brder at fairs on churchholidays; Grass, Cusanusund Volkstum,p. 6J.


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746 HistoricalReflectionslRtflexionsistoriquesof equality with Tyrol.ss Late in 7457, in a report to his cathedralchapter, Cusanus pushed his temporal claims further, saying he wouldreclaim old fiefs, have true temporal superiority, and make the count hisvassal again.56Supporters of the duke, both contemporaries and modern historians,have frequently dismissed the threats surrounding the "Wilten Nfair,"denied Sigismund's role, or suggested that they were only to wam orintimidate Cusanus. Some have used the incident to characterizeCusanus as cowardly and therefore unworthy of rulership.sT Grassargues that Sigismund's actions were only theater. Yet he also admitsSi[ismund wa-s ready to have Cusanus hanged..58For his part, Jdgercompares Cusanus's version of events,which was set down shortly afterthe incident (in which he stated he was threatened six times) withSigismund's version from three years later, written under the influenceof, if not by, the Franconian lawyer and humanist scholar GregoryHeimburg.)' Still, Jiiger largely dismisses Cusanus's version as aproduct of fear, suspicion and hearsay; he tscounts, as well, lateriubstantiation, dismissing it as mere-- o..60 In contrast, othersclearly implicate the duke. Zani suspects that Sigismund used hischancellor's escort of Cusanus and his own trip to Munich as an alibi.Gismann thinks Sigismund used the Gufidauns to threaten Cusanus, but

55. Jeger, Der Streit, vol. I, pp. 235'238; Sparber, "Wirksamkeit," p. 529; Baum,Cusanus n Tirol, p. 191. These were the castles of Rodene&, Velthurns and Gufidaun.Cusanus also offeted to have complaints discussedat an imperial court mediated by thesympathetic Duke of Bavaria, but Sigismund declined.

56 . Nevertheless, Cusanus soon moderated his position as he delayed pronouncingor enforcing the papal interdict until February and even restricted its full effects andenforcement until mid-March (and again until fuly and yet again until September);Margarete Kdfler, "Eleonore von Schottland," in Die BeidenFraum des Erzhozogs Sigmundaon Osteneich-Tirol, by Margarete Kitfler und Silvia Caramelle, Schlem-Schriften, vol.CCLKX (Innsbruck, 1982), p.33; Posch, p. 237.

57 . Mutschlechner, "Cusanus und Eleanore," p. 260; Baum, Sigmund, p' 178; andespecially lger, De r Streit,vol. I, pp. 368-369, 73, and 212' Meuthen, Skizze, . 102, saysSigismund purposefully exploited this weakness.58 . Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker," p. 194.59 . On Heimburg, who had worked against Cusanus at the Council of Basel andbecame one of Sigismund's chief advisors after Cusanus's exile, see Joachimsohn.Interestingly, most historians agree that Heimburg worsened the conflict: e.g. Baum,Cusanus n Tirol, p.348; Pastor, p. 138;Posch, p. 24E;and even liger, Der Streit,vol. II, pp.9t-94.60. laget, Det Strdt, vol. I, pp. 270-226, 25}?55. Mutschlechner , "Cusanus und

Eleanore," p. 260.

NicolausCusanus 147then things went too far. Finally, Baum iudges that the onlyascertainable fact is that the Gufidauns and otheis waited to attack:"j:,irt"hH"fil;1. trip; sigismund'somplicityn the incidentIn the short term sigismund won a personal victory againstCusanusand the Church, reaching the apex of his power and garningrecognitionthroughout Europe. Later, through profitless *a.s,- his iicomp-etencelld " profligate court (including pensions for his more than fortyillegitimate children), he ran himself seriously into debt. His heavyborrowing from the Bavarian wittelsbachs and the lack of legitimateheirs troubled the Tp'olean estates and his Habsburg relatiies. Hehimself was deposed n 1490 n favor of his cousin Maxfuiilian (king andthen emperor from 1493 to 1519). ronically, sigismund's grounds forwar against Cusanus, the possible oss of the small bishopric of Brixento either a wittelsbach from Bavariaor the Austrian Habsburg emperor,found their fulfillment in his loss of ryror to the main"Habsburgdynasty.Another incident that has provided controversyabout Cusanus's roleas a prince-bishop concerns his attempted reform and enforcedenclosure of the nuns in the Abbey of sonnenburg. Cardinal Cusanusprofessed that renewal of the Church began in the cloisters; heaccordingly made monastic reform a major goal, one already apparentduring his trip as papal legate in 1451-52.But he encountered difhcultieseven in assertingminimal episcopalsupenrisionover many abbeys n hisdiocese.o' The foundafions repeatedly appeared o their ieading patronand territorial lord, sigismund, who listened to their complainis andmore often than not supported them against Cusanus.The most famous case concerned the Benedictine abbey ofSonnenburg, which controlled surrounding villages and lands, andreceived its support from Tyrolean noble families as a refuge for theirunmarried, or unmarriageable, daughters. Although not particularly

61. Baurn, Cusanus in Tirol, pp. 363-368. Cf. Karl Franz Zani, ,,Mordplan gegenKardinal Nikolaus Cusanus (1457)," De r Schlera 6 (lg12), p. 224; Gisman", p. fOA.62. Till inghast, p. 38r. on his reforms and rnotives see, for example, Nikolaus Grass,"Das Hochstift Brixen, die Abtei Disentis und Nikolaus von kues,,, in CusanusGeddchtaisschrift, pp. 727-737; Hans (Hermann) Lentze, 'Nikolaus von cues und dieReform des stiftes wilten," ver\ffentlichungen des Museum Ferilinanileum in lnnsbruck 3l(r951): 501-527;Adalbert Mischlewski, "Die Auseinandersetzung des Nikolaus von Kuesmit den Antonitem," Innsbrucker Historische studien g (tsg6), pp. E-26. For a successfulreform, see Hallauer, ',Nikolaus und das Klarissen Kloster..


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148 HistoricalReflectionslRflexionsistoriquescomrpt or dissolute, the abbey was not a center of monasticspirituality.63 Supervision was divided among a number of persons,in a typically late-medieval-Germannetwork of jurisdictions. First, theabbess, Verena von Stuben, held jurisdiction for petty crimes overvillages around the abbey (she also claimed a place in the counsels ofthe Tyrolean court).oaSecond, the bishop of Brixen was both spiritualsupervisor and temporal judge of the areasaround the abbey. Next, thecount of Gorz (in whose territory some of the lands lay) and the bishopof Trent were the nominal temporal advocates. Last, the count of Tyrolclaimed the advocary from the bishop of Trent and welcomed theabbess's petitions for support. Cusanus viewed the matter as one ofproper order. Both as the diocesanordinary and a cardinal equippedwith papally authorized powers (a fact often ignored by his opponents),he had the right to reform the abbey spiritually.o'The matter was complicated by temporal economic interests. Thepeasants of the village of Enneberg grazed their livestock on an alpinemeadow which Abbess Verena claimed for the abbey. As bishop,Cusanus had stepped in as temporal advocateand judge for the village,buf his right to judge in this matter was disputed by the abbey, whichappealed to Sigismund. Somehave criticized the cardinal for switchinghis jurisdiction from temporal advocacy to spiritual obedience, since hehad more rights over the abbey according to canon law than throughimperial or Tyrolean secular aw.oo n any event, he enforced enclosureon the nuns (forbidding them to leave the abbey and limiting contactswith outsiders). Although a commonly used tool of contemPorary

53 . Posch, p. 230; see Gelrni, p. 63, on its rather comfortable life.64 . Abbess Verena has had two different Pictures of her painted by historians'Admirers of he r "manly" qualities include Spahr, p' 375;Jeget, De r Streit,vol. I, pp. 95 ,

325; and Posch, p. 234, who suPPortshe r defenseof the see's ernpora'l ul e (although onthe same page he criticizes Cusanus's mixture of temporalities and spiritualities).Detractors include Sparber, "Wirksarnkeil," p' 528; Vansteenberghe, p. 152; andTill irighast, pp. 382-383.Baum, Cusanus n Tirol,pp.210-212,warns about personifying theconflict too much, since the Sonnenburg casebegan long before and continued long afterCusanus, Verena and Sigismund.

65 . Hal' lauer,"EineVisitationdesNikolaus,"p. 106'Sparber,"BrixenerFtirstbischdfe,"pp. 15G157 considers that such a small matter for the diocese, involving no serious moralproblem, wasted too much of Cusanus's effort. Til l inghast, p. 382,however, explains thatCusanus could not yield since the abbey's resistance had gained so much attention.

66 . leger, Der Streit, vol. I, p. 60; Spahr, p. 311;and Baum, Crsanus inTirol, pp.777'191, deplores Cusanus's attemPt to Promote "the kingdorn of God with political tricks."Cf. Hans Liermanry "Nikolaus von Cues und das deutsche Recht," in CusanusGeildchtnisschrift,P. 272, who admires Cusanus's clevemess at this iuncture.

NicolausCusanus 149monastic reformers, endosure had the effect of hindering the nuns,political rule. They decried Cusanus's action as a ruse to"keup th".r,from assrrting temporar authority over their viilages and to tat


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L50 HistoricnlReflectionslRiflexionsistoriquessince.69 Hallauer, however, considers the battle hardly worthmentionins, except for its use by modem biographers to criticizeCusanus.TUHe coiects the misinformation put out later by the duke'spropagandists,whodistortedthefactstoportraythe}ishop.ascallous'u"a .ir"f. In their presentations which lacked any foundation in theeadiest sources, the nuns had been starving, and the episcopal captain'pr"lt, had massacred and left to rot fifty peasants, driven the nurrs fromtheir abbey, had been rewarded by Cusanus with a silver cup"'One la'si point of controversy remains,-namely how the election ofthe famous humanist Aeneas sylvius Piccolomini as Pope Pius II (1458-O+; fnrttt". changed the situation. Pius and Cusanus were wellacquait t"a, and ;rter Cusanus's exile the pope convinced the cardinalto'-orf for him in Rome. Indeed, at the time of his elevation to thecard.inalate,Aeneas wrote and tried to convince Cusanus to come toRome and not le t his talents "dissipate while buried in snow and darkiu.o* valleys.,'7tVansteenberghe has suggested that Pius wanted towork with cusanus. others, however, believe Pius wanted Cusanussafely under supervision in Rome, to keep him from

rnaking moret o"fjf " in Tyrol, for Aeneas' former Patrons, the Habsburgs' or for papalplans to lead a cnrsade against the Turks (prom^oted at the Congress offfi;;i;lJ f';;;une tisr to anuary+oo1'73Whatever his attitude towards Cusanus, after the capitulation atBruneck in April 1460, Pius became Sigismund's main opponent' Ap.opaga.,da campaign began with Sigismund and the clergy of Tyrollpp'"uii"g to a futuri ,,betler-instructed,, pope,and council. Pius'.readyur,i*., t-o th"re appeals was the famous blll Exeffabilis, which was

69 . Sparber, "Wie kam es," p' 101; liger, De t Streit' vol' l' p' 296' See also theequivocation of Baum, Cusonus n Tirol, pp' 200-201'

T0. See Hallauer, Die "Schlacht," pp' 461, 466' and esp' p' 44S Franz Klein-Bruckschwaiger, ,,Um die rechtliche Bewertung der Enneberger Schlacht irn Jahre 1458,,'Der Schlem z 1wZl7' 300-309, offers a fine analysis of the mutual legal claims andjurisdictions.

71.Baum,S igmund,p.183; inh isb iographyofs ig i smund'Baumis-moreequivocalabou t C us anus .s " ro l e t han i nh is b i og raphy o f Cus anus . F o ro the rm i s l ead ing l egends.oi."^i.g prack and the afterrnath oi the ;Battle," see Baum, Cusonusn Tirol, PP. 387,ilt, zSs, p".b"r. "Wirksamkeit," p' 534;Baum, "Cusanus als Anwalt"' P 395'

T2. Cited from Baum, Cusanus n Tirol, p' 189' see also Guido Kisch"'NicolausCusanus und Aenas Silvius Piccolomini," in CusonusGedichtnisschrilt, pp. J5'43'

T3.Sparber , "VomWirken, "pp '36+365;T i l l i nghast ' p ' 38En'54;Jager 'DerS t re i t '.ror. i, pf. 230'231,308, asserts ttt"t pi"s was perceptive enough to see that Cusanus*o"ra 6i.,ry,,addoil to the fue,'of the problems berween German princes and the papacy"r,J th"r"io.u tried io lure hirn away from Tyrol; cf' Vansteenberghe' pp ' 188-189'

NicolausCusanus 751issued at the end of the Congress of Manhra and forbade alr suchap-peals.7a On August g, iir, "*.o*-unicated Sigismund, hisofficials and his allies and laid Tyror under interdict. lftu"y prr"."r,however, basing their case on Heimburg's widery read maniies'tos andpamphlets, supported Sigismund,s appJd and ignored the papacy. Tomake the excommunication effective, -the Roma-n Curia tried io incitefoqeign princes and even conunon ruffians either to attack sigismund orat least to support u Tu-d" embargo. Only the Swiss respo"a?Jio tt "r"^"l?l,uno":, although largely foitheir o*r,."uro^, u.,i to conquer onesma, provlnce.', The papal efforts on behalf of Cusanus "u*" tonothing.How should historians evaruate he reign of prince-bishop NicolausCusanus of Brixen?76The probrems go bey'ond he personalities,or thebehaviors prov-oking specific affairi or iattles. i would argue thatcusanus's conflict with sigismund ilustrates the difficurties iaced bymany fifteenth-century European rurers. The Roman Church wasrecovering from the strains of the Great Schism, while the papacy wasasserting tself against conciliarism, finding its place n the Rinaissance,and trying to maintain the respect ana -aisciptine of princes. Thesepri nces, m eanwhil e, were buil ding s roxger terri toriar, tu't"r, expandingtheir institutional authority, turning thJir inferiors into suuleits, andcompeting with their neighbors. ostensibly the Christian raitn unitedthe community. As seen in Cusanus,s example, however, too manyvested interests were invorved. The Roman crerics insisted. on ,,theliberty of the church,,; princes sought a clergy malleable to theirrulership; territorial nobres defended their patronages, dominated theIocal clergy and loosely interpreted the demands oi monastic life; thelocal clergy resented outsiders and the imposition of rerigious reforms;

74 , Watanabe, ,Duke Sigmund,,, p. 563. The bull was actually published (January 18 ,1460) o forestall any resistance o the tax fo r tlre ousade against the Turks; Zimmermann,p' 138' Grass, "cusanus und Fehdewese :' p. 295, gnoreJthe long patienceof the papacybefore it enforced the punishments which techniJly followed "automaticalty from theduke's acts. The pope actually arrestedSigismund,seivoy, Blumenau, for heresy, but hemanaged to escape;Boockmann, pp . l7O_175.75. Erich Meuthen, ,,Pius II. und die Besetzung des Thurgaus,,, Festschrift NikolausGras.s"um 60 Geburtstag argebracht on Fachgenossen,"Freundennd schiirern,vol. I, 2 vols.,Louis Carlen and Fritz Steinegger,eds. (Innsbruck_Munich, lg74), pp . 6Z_90.76' on problems of interpretation, see the comments of Klein-Bruckschwaiger, p. 309;Gerhard Kallen, Reviewof Karrfaspers, Nikolauscusanus, rg64,inHktorischezeitschripz03(1966): 394-396,who takes Jaspersto task for appllng his twentieth-century, free-thinkingstandards against cusanus's fifteenth-century, ciristi'an beliefs; and Meuthln, ,,Die ietzten

[ahre," pp. 7G17, who cautions against the iimpte ,,schoolmastel, criticisms of Cusanus.


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1,52 HistoricalReflectionslRflexionsistoriquesthe peasants often disliked changes n their manner of worship. And aconfusing tangle of legal jurisdictions complicated all disputes. Thecomplex and changing political situation in Germany, where many ofthe rival territorial princes were prince-bishops, only further intensifiedthe conflicts. No wonder that the religious reforms advocated by somany humanists and mystics fell by the wayside until the cataclysm ofthe Reformation.Ironically, the Renaissancehumanist Cusanus had the opportunityto put his theories into practice as he pursued the goal of spirituallyreforming his di ocese. To succeed, however, he needed wealth andinfluence. Since the local prince, Sigismund, was not prepared to reformthe church on Cusanus's terms, the bishop tried to obtain the authorityto do it on his own, employing the temporal power of the principalityof Brixen. Sigismund, however, continued his opposition and had thepower to defeat Cusanus. Frustrated in the temporal sphere, Cusanuswas reduced to appealing to a higher authority. Perhaps noting thegrowing secularization of the age, Cusanus once wrote that while manyothers feared the duke more than God, he did not.77 He insisted uponSigi'smund's capitulation because he believed the Roman Churchnecessarily supervised moral issues.While people fought and died for their state or church in the fifteenthcentury, historians today should try to avoid the simple dichotomybetween loyalty to Tyrolean nationalism represented by Sigismund orCatholic religiosity embodied in Cusanus. They should instead try toexplain how Sigismund succeeded n his aims and Cusanus ailed in his.The main issue of conllict, on which neither side was ready tocompromise, boils down to the secular Habsburg prince's domination ofthe Tyrolean territorial principality versus the religious prince'sattempted revival of the Brixen territorial principality./u Clearly bothmen sought power, and both twisted opportunifies to their ownadvantage. Yet Cusanus's twelfth-century views of episcopalindependence were incompatible with Sigismund's fifteenth-centurypractice. Moreover, as duke and count, Sigismund considered it naturalto interfere in church matters, especially if temporal jurisdictions were

77. Vansteenberghe,p. 185-186;Ager,DerStrtit,vol. , pp.272-273.78 . Riedmann, p. 493;Grass, "Cusanus als Rechtshistoriker " p.134, also noting fdger,De r Strcit, vol. l, p. 107, and II, p. 118. See also Otto Stolz, "Zur Entstehung undBedeutung des Landesftlrst entums in Riume Bayem-6sterreich -Tirol,' Zcitschrift ilerSaaigny-Stiftung lilr Rechtsgeschbhte,Germoische AbttilungTT(1954): 339-353; Baum , Cusanusin Tirol, p. 305. Ioachimsohn, p. 248, notes how Cusanus was one of the last to assert the

independence of the Church against the Fowing dominance by territorial princes.

Nicolaus Cusanus l-SJinvojyed,.The- egary of prince-bishopricssuch as Trier, and theirombinationof churchand statepo*"i, tua encouraged nd enabledCardinaland Prince-Bishop icoli"r C,rru.,u, o turn to secular orce.For all the personarityconliicts, he theoreticaldisputations, iu or"rrupof egal urisdictions-thetreaties -"a to*ir"s, onrypowercourddecidehose conceptionwould shape he frr;.;.Cusanuswould havebeena ..r.""rrfrt prince_bishopf the cardinaland the dukehad beenabre o estabrish basisof .""p;;;;.'s,.,"" uutual understandingwas not forthcoming,Cusanushad to find theeans o defeatsisismund. His inabirity o do so doomedhis efforts.First' Cusanus,de#ite his dirigence".,i o.gur,iration, ackedenougt,wealth andpower o raise.suffi"i""t-tii".y forces.Unrikeother prince-bishoprics Brixen had faten too far L"ii'"a in poriticar resouices toompetewith the principarityof Tyror.Additionariy,p".nuir-.-"-g.utti.,gdeathsand bloodshed s a .n"..n^"" rlirrrd, Cusanus hower a realeluctance o use phvsicar iorence. u*"a, Cusanus everconvincedthe local nobles o, "lurgy ,? "pp;-ail; prince-. n organizing anypposition, CusanuswaJperhapsu g".,"*tio., too rate,sincenumerousTp'olean nobreshad beeneagei o .[dre.,ge sigismund's father. Third,Cusanus'althoughwe'-conriect"au"a iutious throughout he empire,could not entice neighboringpowers to in "ut"r, Tyrol. Not even the111-": rJ,'*|." papacy" ourdLrn tn" uJ",-srnce it aiso Iu.t"a-*-iriturymeans, while excommunicationand interdict had long "i"."l.ri ,r,"i.sting' Thus, without sufficient armies o. -"upor* at his command,Cusanus'spolitical-and hence spiritual--aims emained unfulfilled.Regardless f thevirtuesof eitherria", ur-r""* as the spheresof interestbetweenchurchand state emained o con'use. and neitherparty wasprepared o submit to the other, conflict was nevitabre.And sowas theailure of CardinarNicorausc"rut ur ", fi--""-ui"t op of Brixen.

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