Nicholas I and the Crimean War, 1853-1856 Turning point in nineteenth-century Europe In Russia: Восточная война - Vostochnaya Voina In Britain: "Russian.

Nicholas I and the Crimean War, 1853-1856

Turning point in nineteenth-century Europe

In Russia: Восточная война - Vostochnaya Voina

In Britain: "Russian War"

Russian Expansion: Warm water port?

Crimean War, the Combatants

• Russian Empire: 700,000 troops

• Bulgarian legion: 7000 troops

• Ottoman Empire: 300,000 troops

• British Empire: 250,000 troops

• French Empire: 400,000 troops

• Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont: 30,000 troops

• Total: 980,000 troops

The Balkans

Russia as defender of Balkan peoples

Christian Orthodox Serbs Greeks Roumanians Bulgarians

Slavs (Slavdom) Serbs Bulgarians Slovenes Croats

Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire: “Sick Man of Europe”

Outbreak of war• 1690: Ottoman Sultan gave Roman Catholic

Church authority over churches of Nazareth, Bethlehem and Jerusalem

• 1740: Franco-Turkish treaty solidified RCC’s authority, but not many Catholics to protect.

• By 1840s Nicholas and Russian Orthodox Church basically controlled and assumed authority

• Orthodox and Catholic priests actually fought over control of these churches.

• 1844: Nicholas visited Britain, talked with Lord Aberdeen about the Ottoman Empire.

Outbreak of war (continued)• 1849: Louis Napoleon elected President of

France• 1851: Louis made himself Napoleon III • 1852: France seized control of the Holy Places• January 1853: Nicholas to British Ambassador

Seymour: “We have a sick man on our hands, a man gravely ill, it will be a great misfortune if one of these days he slips through our hands, especially before the necessary arrangements are made.” (NB: Seymour did not disagree.)

• 1853: Nicholas sent Menshikov to negotiate in Istanbul.

• 2 July 1853: Russian forces occupied Wallachia and Moldova, bullying or brinkmanship?

Outbreak of war (continued)• 2 July 1853: Russian forces occupied

Wallachia and Moldova, bullying or brinkmanship?

• Vienna note: Russia agreed; the Sultan thought too vague, and felt snubbed.

• 3 October 1853: Encouraged by British and French, Sultan Abdülmecid I declared war on Russia.

Map of Crimean War, 1853-1856

Crimean War March 28, 1854:

Britain and France declared war on Russia

Crimean Peninsula Sevastopol

Map of Crimean War, 1853-1856

Crimean War

War Correspondents

Nicholas I: No spies, all we need is the Times of London!

Roger Fenton

Battle of Balaklava (October 1854)Charge of the Light Brigade

Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892; poem 1880)

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

November 1854: Nightingale and nurses arrived at Scutari

Endgame March 2, 1855: Nicholas I died Alexander II vowed change Armistice signed on 29 February 1856 Treaty of Paris 30 March 1856:

Black Sea became neutral territory, no warships Ottoman independence and territorial integrity were to be

“respected.” Ottomans had to proclaim Muslims and non-Muslims equal

before the law. Moldavia and Wallachia back under nominal Ottoman rule Russia lost territory it had been granted at the mouth of

the Danube Russia forced to abandon its claims to protect Christians in

the Ottoman Empire in favour of France.

Death toll

Allies:• 374,600 total dead• Turks: total dead and

wounded: 200,000 est.total dead est. 50,000

• French: 100,000, of which 10,240 killed in action; 20,000 died of wounds; ca 70,000 died of disease

• British: 2,755 killed in action; 2,019 died of wounds; 16,323 died of disease

• Sardinians-Italians: 2,050 died from all causes

Russians:• (estimates vary):• High: ca 522,000 killed,

wounded and died of disease

• Medium: 256,000 killed, wounded and died of disease, of which dead 60,000 to 110,000

• Low: ca 143,000 dead and 81,000 injured, of which 25,000 killed in action; 16,000 died of wounds; 89,000 died of disease

Consequences

– Great Reforms in Russia (1860s)• serfdom abolished in 1861• Army reformed

– Isolation of Austria – War correspondents change warfare– Nursing professionalized– Britain and France on same side

National Unification

Italy and Germany

In 1848-1849, the liberal nationalists had been defeated in their efforts to unify Italy and Germany. By the early 1850’s, the Austrians had re-imposed their control over Italian and German affairs, and the German confederation had been reestablished.

Leadership now passed into the hands of professional politicians. They possessed what the revolutionary idealists of 1848 had lacked: power and the will to use power, practical political experience, and a clear vision of their goals.

In Italy, Camillo Cavour, the Premier of Piedmont, established a united Kingdom of Italy in 1861, while in Germany, Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian minister-president, created a unified German Empire a decade later.

Divided Italy

• South-Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ruled by Bourbon King

• Center- the Pope governed the Papal States

• North-Austrian domination, except for Piedmont

Camillo Cavour

• As Premier of the Piedmont carried out a program of liberal reform

• Established banks, built railroads

• Under Cavour, Piedmont became a progressive state

Cavour’s Foreign Policy

• Austria presented roadblock to Italian unification

• Cavour sought French assistance

• Sent troops to Crimean war in 1854-to win support from France and England

Cavour met with Napoleon III 1858

• NIII promised to send troops to aid the Piedmont against the Austrians in war

• Piedmont would get Lombardy and Venetia

• NIII would get Nice and Savoy

Napoleon III

Austro-Sardinian War 1859

• April 1859 Cavour provoked Austria into declaring war

• A combined French and Piedmontese army counterattacked

• Austrians defeated at Magenta and Solferino-pulled out of Lombardy

NIII backs out of deal with Cavour

• Shocked by the bloodiness of the battles and fearful of a hostile reaction by French Catholics if Piedmont moved to annex Papal States

• NIII made a separate peace with Austria• Peace of Villa Franca gave Lombardy to

Piedmont• Austria was allowed to keep venetia

Cavour was furious at Napoleon III’s double dealing

Piedmont’s annexations in northern Italy

• By September 1859 revolutionary assemblies in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and a part of the Papal States offered to unite with the Piedmont

Nice and Savoy-done deal

• NIII agreed to allow Piedmont to annex the Northern territories.

• In exchange NIII received Nice and Savoy

Revolution in Southern Italy

• Revolution broke out in Sicily in response to the reactionary policies of the Bourbon King.

• Spread of revolution to the south was more than Cavour expected and more than NIII could support

Garibaldi’s Expedition

• Sailed form Genoa with 1,000 “red shirt”volunteers

• Officially Cavour opposed the expedition, Secretly he suuported it

• By April 1860 Garibaldi had taken Naples, capital of the Two Sicilies

• Bourbon King fled

The problem with Rome

• Cavour thought that the Red shirts might go for Rome.

• Could cause Austria and France to defend the Pope.

• Since 1848 French troops had been in Rome protecting the Pope against revolution

• In order to restrain Garibaldi, Cavour sent Piedmontese troops into the Papal states-avoiding Rome

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

• On March 17, 1861 the Italian Parliament proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel as King.

• Cavour died three months later.

Annexation of Venice and Rome

• April 1866 Italy made an alliance with Prussia

• Prussia defeated Austria in 7 weeks

• Austria ceded Venetia to the Italians

Addition of Rome

• With the Franco- Prussian war of 1870, French troops in Rome were removed to fight the Prussians.

• The Italians occupied and annexed Rome

• The annexations of Venetia and Rome completed the Risorgimento.

German Unification

Divided Germany

• Following 1848 german Confederaion made up of 39 States, Austria and Prussia

• Holding the presidency of the German confederation, the Austrians dominated Germany as they did Italy

Bismarcks Rise

• King William sought to strengthen the Prussian Army requiring new taxes

• Liberal parliament would not approve taxes without concessions from the King

• Bismarck addressed the parliament- “great issues of the day would not be settled by parliamentary debate and majority vote, but by blood and iron”

• Parliament still refused new taxes, Bismarck proceeded to collect the taxes any way

Schleiswig-Holstein Affair

• Danish King ruled the partly Danish and German duchies-although they were not a part of Denmark

• In 1863 the danish parliament annexed Schlewig.

• Infuriated German nationalists

Austro-Prussian alliance• Bismarck proposed a Prussian alliance with

Austria to take action against Denmark.• Prussia and Austria went to war with Denmark in

1864.• Denmark was quickly defeated and gave up

Schleswig and Holstein.• Bismarck set up joint occupation of the territories

with Prussia getting Schleswig and Austria getting Holstein.

• Bismarck used arrangement to provoke arguments with Austrians

Bismarck’s Alliances isolating Austria

• Napoleon III remains neutral-he thought that Austria would win

• Alliance with Italy-promised Venetia to Italians if Prussians won

Seven Weeks WarAustro-Prussian war 1866

• Prussia accused the Austrians of violating German confederation agreements.

• Prussia proposed the abolition of the German Confederation

• The Prussians defeated the Austrains at the battle of Sadowa

Treaty of Prague

• Bismarck made a moderate peace with Austria.

• Prussia gained full possession of Schleswig and Holstein.

• Prussia also annexed the Northern German States of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt.

North German Confederation

• Austria was now out of German affairs

• Kleindeutsh

• Prussia dominated the North German Confederation

• Four independent southern States, Bavaria,Wurtemburg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt

Southern Germany

• Traditionally quite liberal and Catholic• Reluctant to be controlled by

autocratic/militaristic/Lutheran Prussia• Napoleon III opposed the further

expansion of Prussia• Bismarck believed he would have to fight a

war with France to win the Southern states

The Hohenzollern candidacy

• An 1868 revolution in Spain set the wheels in motion for Franco-Prussian war

• Spanish revolution led to overthrow of Queen Isabella-spain needed new monarch

• A Hohenzollern (Prussian relative) was considered

• France strongly opposed this possibility

French demands on Prussia

• In the face of French protests, Kaiser William I withdrew Leopold’s name

• On July 13, 1870 French ambassador Count Bennedetti met with William I in Ems and asked the king that a hohenzollern candidacy would not be considered for Spain

• William I refiused this request and reported it to Bismarck

Ems Dispatch

• Bismarck edited the Kings report and released it to the papers.

• Bismarck made it apear that William I and Bennedetti insulted each other.

• Napoleon III declared war on July, 19 1870• Bismarck had made alliances with the southern

German states in anticipation of war• Now all of Germany went to war with France

Franco-German War

• German armies invaded France

• French were defeated at the battle of Sedan

• In Paris rebels declared the third French Republic-which sought to continue the war

Completion of German Unification

• January 18,1871 William I was declared the Emperor of the Germany.

• This occurred in the Hall of mirrors at the palace of Versailles

Treaty of Frankfurt May 10, 1871

• French ceded the Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the Germans and had to pay the Germans the equivalent of $1 billion dollars.

• The annexation of Alsace and Lorraine enraged the French-pick tha back up in WWI.

EnglandEngland&&

FranceFrance

Essential Essential QuestionQuestion::

How “democratic” How “democratic” did Britain & did Britain &

France become by France become by the beginningthe beginning

of the 20of the 20cc??

TheTheThirdThird

FrenchFrenchRepublic:Republic:

The Paris The Paris CommuneCommune

Third French Republic Declared!

September, 1870 after France’s defeat at the Battle of Sedan.

Napoleon III abdicated the throne.

New government headed by Adolphe Thiers.

This new government continued the fight against the Germans who laid siege to Paris.

To defend Paris, a National Guard was raised numbering over 350,000.

France surrendered in February, 1871 after 40,000 Parisians died.

The Third French RepublicThiers’ government was seen as:

–Too conservative.

–Too royalist.

–Too ready to accept a humiliating peace with Prussia.

Prussian troops marched into Paris in March, 1871.

The French government established itself at Versailles, NOT in Paris.

–Parisians were angered by this.

–They opposed the policies of this new government.

–It attempted to restore order in Paris.

Paris in Revolt!

The Paris Commune [Communards] was elected on March 28 and established itself at the Hôtel de Ville.

Civil War!

Communards

Troops from Versailles

The Commune was suppressed by government troops led by Marshal Patrice MacMahon during the last week of May, 1871.

Known as the “Bloody Week.”

The Communards

Paris City Hall Destroyed

Attempted Communard Reforms

* Allowed trade unions & workers cooperatives to take over factories not in use and start them up again.

* Set up unemployment exchanges in town halls.

* Provide basic elementary education for all they were strongly against church-controlled schools.

* Attempted to set up girls schools.* Day nurseries near factories for working mothers.

First Communist Revolution?

It served as an inspiration

to later revolutionaries like Vladimir

Lenin.

* 25,000 Communards killed.

* 35,000 were arrested.

Communard Casualties

TheTheThirdThird


Government Government StructureStructure

Declaring the3rd French Republic

An Overview of the3rd French Republic

Politically very unstable. Rivalry between monarchists and republicans. A number of scandals:

– The Boulanger Affair.– The Panama Canal Scandal.– The Dreyfus Affair [L’Affaire]

Because there were so many factions, all governments were coalitions.

Still, it survived longer than any other regime since 1789!

The Constitution* The President:

– Head of state little political power.• Right to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies with

the support of the Senate.• Right to nominate the new head of government.• Played an important role in foreign affairs.

* The Senate:– Elected by mayors & councillors in the

counties throughout France.

– Nicknamed the “Chamber of Agriculture” because the countryside was over represented.

The Constitution

* The Senate:– Senators elected every nine years.– Very conservative body able to block

progressive legislation.* The Chamber of Deputies:

– Chosen every four years.– 600 members elected by universal male suffrage.– There was no organized party system.– Major political groupings in the Chamber:

• Socialists many were Marxists.• Moderate Republicans middle class.• Radicals anti-clerical.• Monarchists Catholics, Bonapartists, etc.

TheTheThirdThird


ScandalsScandals

1. The Boulanger Affair* Bonapartism without a

Bonaparte.* Most of the army was

dominated by monarchists.

* BUT, the Minister of War, General Georges Boulanger, was a republican.

1. The Boulanger Affair

* Very popular with the troops the government was suspicious and removed him in 1887.

1. The Boulanger Affair* Now a national figure, he was the focal

point of conservative opposition to the republican government.

– Was part of a plot to overthrow the Republic.– Was summoned to trial, but he fled to

Belgium where he committed suicide on the grave of his mistress.

* Boulanger’s fall increased public confidence in the Republic.

2. The Panama Canal Scandal : Ferdinand de Lesseps

* President of the French Company that worked on the Panama Canal.

– Govt. officials took bribes from the company to withhold news from the public that it was in serious economic debt.

– One billion francs affecting 800,000 investors.

2. The Panama Canal Scandal : Ferdinand de Lesseps

* All but one of the accused went unpunished due to lack of evidence.

* Anti-Semitism:– Two German Jews were also

involved they received the most press coverage.

* Results:– The scandal proved to the public that the Republic

was corrupt.– It created a climate of anti-Semitism that would

increase in time.

3. The Dreyfus Affair

* In 1894 a list of French military documents [called a bordereau] were found in the waste basket of the German Embassy in Paris.

* French counter-intelligence suspected Captain Alfred Dreyfus, from a wealthy Alsatian Jewish family he was one of the few Jews on the General Staff.


* Dreyfus was tried, convicted of treason, and sent to Devil’s Island in French Guiana.

* The real culprit was a Major Esterhazy, whose handwriting was the same as that on the bordereau.

– The government tried him and found him not guilty in two days.


* A famous author, Emile Zola, published an open letter called J’Accuse!

– He accused the army of a mistrial and cover-up.

– The government prosecuted him for libel.

– Found him guilty sentenced to a year in prison.

J’Accuse!


DreyfusardsAnti-

Dreyfusards

* Public opinion was divided it reflected the divisions in Fr. society.

* The Dreyfusards were anti-clericals, intellectuals, free masons, & socialists.

* For Anti-Dreyfusards, the honor of the army was more important than Dreyfus’ guilt or innocence.

– Were army supporters, monarchists, & Catholics.

Dreyfus, the Traitor!


* Dreyfus finally got a new trial in 1899.

* He was brought back from Devil’s Island white-haired and broken.

* Results:–Found guilty again, BUT with extenuating

circumstances.–Was given a presidential pardon.–Exonerated completely in 1906.–Served honorably in World War I.–Died in 1935.

The Zionist Movement

Theodore Herzl[1860-1904]

* Was motivated by the Dreyfus trial to write the book, Der Judenstaat, orThe Jewish State in 1896.

* Creates the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland.

* “Father of Modern Zionism.”

* Was motivated by the Dreyfus trial to write the book, Der Judenstaat, orThe Jewish State in 1896.

* Creates the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland.

* “Father of Modern Zionism.”

New Wave of Anti-Catholicism

* The anti-clerical, republican left took power in the National Assembly in 1879.

– This anti-Catholicism was a remnant of the French Revolution.

– They stayed in power until 1914.* Ferry Laws [1879-1885]:

– Named after Jules Ferry, one of the ablest politicians of the 3rd Republic.

– Were the first majorattempt at educationalreform.

Ferry Laws

* Only the State could grant degrees.* Free education in public primary schools.* Religious instruction was excluded from the

State school curriculum.* Unauthorized religious orders [Marists,

Dominicans, and Jesuits, who were eventually expelled from France] were forbidden to teach.

* Authorized Catholic orders could NOT teach in French public schools.

* State improved training of teachers.

TheTheThirdThird


Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

Aims of French Foreign Policy

1. To regain the provinces of Alsace & Lorraine lost to Germany in 1871.

2. To end her isolation in international affairs after the Franco-Prussian War.

3. To expand her colonial empire and regain some of her prestige lost after the Franco-Prussian War.

A National Trauma: France’s Loss of Alsace-Lorraine

French Colonial Empire

* The empire set up under the 3rd Republic was the greatest France had ever possessed.

* Jules Ferry played a huge role in French empire building.

* Ironically, two-thirds of the missionary priests outside Europe were French!

* By 1914, France was the second largest colonial power in the world and the largest in Africa.

France’s Colonial Empire

1889 Paris Exposition* World’s Fair held in honor of the French

Revolution Centennial.* The Eiffel Tower, completed in 1889, served as

the entrance to the Fair.

1889 Paris Exposition:Gallery of Machinery

VictorianVictorianEnglandEngland

Britain: 1850-1870s

* The most prosperous period in British history.– Unprecedented economic growth.– Heyday of free trade.– New fields of expansion shipbuilding from

wood to iron.• By 1870, Britain’s carrying trade enjoyed a virtual

monopoly.

– Br. engineers were building RRs all over the world.

– Br.’s foreign holdings nearly doubled.

* BUT, Britain’s prosperity didn’t do away with political discontent!

The “Victorian Compromise”* Therefore, the aims of the two political parties seemed

indistinguishable.* But, by the 1860s, the middle class and working class had

grown they wanted the franchise expanded!* This era saw the realignment of political parties in the House

of Commons:– Tory Party Conservative Party

under Benjamin Disraeli.– Whig Party Liberal Party under

William Gladstone.* Both Tories and Whigs had considered the 1832 Reform Bill

as the FINAL political reform.

The Two “Great Men”

* William Gladstone, Liberal Prime Minister

1868-1874 1880-1885 1886 1892-1894

* Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative Prime Minister

1868 1874-1880

The 2nd Reform Bill - 1867

* In 1866, Gladstone introduced a moderate reform bill that was defeated by the Conservatives.

* A more radical reform bill was introduced by Disraeli in 1867, passed largely with some Liberal support.

* Disraeli’s Goals:– Give the Conservative Party control over the reform

process.– Labor would be grateful and vote Conservative.

* Components of the Bill:– Extended the franchise by 938,427 an increase of 88%.– Vote given to male householders and male lodgers paying

at least £10 for room.– Eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000

inhabitants.– Extra representation in Parliament to larger cities like

Liverpool & Manchester.

* This ended the “Victorian Compromise.”



Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)

* A dandy and a romance novelist.* A brilliant debater.* Baptized by his father into the

Anglican Church.* BUT, he was the first & only Prime

Minister of Jewish parentage.* A strong imperialist.

– “Greater England” foreign policy.

* Respected by Queen Victoria.

William Gladstone (1809-1898)

* An active legislator and reformer.* Known for his populist speeches.* Could be preachy.* Queen Victoria couldn’t stand

him.* Tried to deal with the “Irish

Question.”* Supported a “Little England”

foreign policy.

Gladstone’s 1st Ministry

Goals: [“Gladstonianism”]1. Decrease public spending.

2. Reform laws that prevented people from acting freely to improve themselves.

• He’s against privilege & supports a meritocracy.• Protect democracy through education.

3. Promote peace abroad to help reduce spending and taxation, and to help enhance trade.

• Low tariffs.• All political questions are moral questions!

Gladstone’s 1st Ministry Accomplishments:

– 1868: Army reform peacetime flogging was illegal.

– 1869: Disestablishment Act Irish Catholics did not have to pay taxes to support the Anglican Church in Ireland.

– 1870: Education Act elementary education made available to Welsh & English children between 5-13 years.

– 1870: Irish Land Act curtailed absentee Protestant landowners from evicting their Irish Catholic tenants without compensation.

– 1871: University Test Act non-Anglicans could attend Br. universities.

Gladstone’s 1st Ministry

Accomplishments (con’t.):

–1872: Ballot Act secret ballot for local and general elections.

–1872: The settlement of the CSS Alabama claims [from the American Civil War] in America’s favor.

–1873: Legislation was passed that restructured the High Courts.

–Civil service exams introduced for many government positions.

Disraeli’s 2nd Ministry

Accomplishments:–Domestic Policy

• 1875: Artisans Dwelling Act govt. would define minimum housing standards.

• 1875: Public Health Act govt. to create a modern sewer system in the big cities & establish a sanitary code.

• 1875: Pure Food & Drug Act.• 1875: Climbing Boys Act licenses only

given to adult chimney sweeps.• 1875: Conspiracy & Protection of

Property Act allowed peaceful picketing.

Disraeli’s 2nd Ministry


• 1876: Education Act• 1878: Employers & Workmen Act

allowed workers to sue employers in civil courts if they broke legal contracts.

Gladstone’s 2nd Ministry


• 1884 Reform Bill– Extended the franchise to

agricultural laborers.– Gave the counties the same

franchise as the boroughs.– Added 6,000,000 to the total

number who could vote in parliamentary elections.

• 1885: Redistribution of Seats Act changes M.P. seats in Commons to reflect new demographic changes.

Gladstone’s Last Ministries 3rd Ministry: 1886

– First introduced an Irish Home Rule Bill.• This issue split the Liberal Party.• Gladstone lost his position in a few months.

4th Ministry: 1892-1894– 1893: Reintroduced a Home Rule Bill.

• Provided for an Irish Parliament.• Did NOT offer Ireland independence!• Passed by the Commons, but rejected in

the House of Lords.

Home Rule for Ireland??

Gladstone debates Home Rule in Commons.

Women’s Social & Political Union [W.S.P.U.]

Emmeline Pankhurst* 1858-1928.* Her husband & children were all involved in the

suffrage movement.* They became militants & were arrested and

imprisoned.* 1917: She and her

daughter, Christabel, formed the Women’s Party in 1917:

– Equal pay for equal work.– Equal marriage & divorce

laws.– Equality of rights &

opportunities in public service.– A national system of maternity benefits.

Representation of the People Act (1918)

* Women over 30 got the right to vote.

* All men gained suffrage.– Property qualifications were

completely eliminated!

* Reform Act of 1928– Women over 21 years of age

gained the right to vote at last!

VictorianVictorianEngland:England:

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

The Foreign Policy Debate

“Big England”

Policy

“Little England”

Policy

* Disraeli* Conservative Party* England must be the

greatest colonial power.* Spend £ on supporting

the empire.

* Gladstone.* Liberal Party.* England must invest

in her own people at home.

* Try negotiations, rather than costly military solutions.

VictorianVictorianEngland:England:

Foreign PolicyForeign PolicyIssuesIssues

1. “Scramble for Africa”

* 1869: Disraeli pushed for the completion of the Suez Canal.


* Gladstone opposed the “Mad Scramble.”

* 1880-1881: First Boer War in South Africa [Gladstone].


* 1884-1885: Mahdi uprising in the Sudan [Gladstone].

Muhammad Ahmad “al-

Mahdi”

Charles Gordon “Pasha”

2. Middle East

* 1878-1880: Second Anglo-Afghan War

Congress of Berlin (1878)

* Purpose Great Powers & Ottomans met to settle issues from the Russo-Turkish War.

* Disraeli represented England.

Keep the “Sick Man of Europe” in Good Health!

3. India: The British Raj

The new “Empress of India” receiving the “Jewel in the Crown” of her Empire.

Britain Is Everywhere!

The Sun Never Sets on the British Empire

England’s Economic Decline?(1870s-1914)

Germany & the U. S. became England’s chief economic rivals. Influx of cheap agricultural products from overseas caused a

rapid decline in British farming. Germany & U. S. overtake Britain in basic iron & steel

production. England’s share of world trade fell from 23% in 1876 to 15% in

1913. British science & technological education lagged behind

Germany. England is slow to modernize her aging industrial infrastructure.

England clings to free trade while everyone else is erecting tariff walls.

Fabianism A British socialist intellectual movement founded in the mid-

1880s. Purpose advance socialism by working through the political

system, not through revolution. Laid the foundations for the British Labour Party. Famous Fabian Society

members:

– George Bernard Shaw.

– H. G. Wells.

– Sidney & Beatrice Webb.

– Emmeline Pankhurst.

– Bertram Russell.

– John Maynard Keynes.

* Founded in 1900 by the Scotsman, Keir Hardie.

– The growth of labor unions gave voice to socialism in Britain.

– By 1906, it won 26 seats in Commons.

– Had to form a political coalition with the Liberal Party.

– By the 1920s, Labour would replace the Liberals as on of the two major British political parties.

The British Labour Party

* Labour’s Political Agenda:– Gradual socialization of key industries & utilities.

– Workman’s Compensation Act.

– State employment bureaus.

– Minimum wage set.

– Aid to dependent children & the elderly.

– Old age pension to all over 70.

– National Insurance Act.

The Beginnings of the “Welfare State”?

* The Liberals dominated government from 1906 to 1924.

* The Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, presented a “People’s Budget” in 1911.

– Increase income taxes for those in the higher brackets.

– Raise the inheritance tax.* The House of Lords rejected this budget.

The “People’s Budget”

* A political crisis.– WHY? Lords had traditionally approved

all revenue bills passed by the Commons in the past.

– By threatening to create enough new Liberal peer to control that chamber, King George V forced the House of Lords to pass this bill!!

* Also known as the 4th Reform Bill.* Provisions:

– Lords could not defeat a bill passed three times by Commons.

– Lords can’t hold up revenue bills for more than one month.

– Members of Commons would be paid a salary.

The Parliament Act of 1911

Summary Summary QuestionQuestion::

Who was more Who was more “democratic” at “democratic” at

the beginningthe beginningof the 20of the 20c c —Britain —Britain

OR France?OR France?

Kulturkampf, 1870s

Barring Jesuits from the Empire

The Kulturkampf

1870: The doctrine of Papal Infallibility published.

1872: Catholic schools brought under state control. The Jesuit Order banned from Germany.

1873: The ‘May Laws’– Only candidates for ordination who had been trained in Germany

and passed a state approved examination could become priests.– All religious appointments had to be approved by the state.

1874: Civil marriage introduced.

1875: All religious orders except nursing orders banned.

Cranium measurements became a popular means of proving the hereditary nature of papal stupidity

Enemies Within: Social Democrats

August Bebel

The Development of the SPD

• 1869: August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht form the Marxist Social Democratic Workers’ Party.

• 1875: This merges with Ferdinand Lassale’s General German Workers’ Association to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD) at a ‘Unity Conference’ in Gotha.

• The party’s ‘Gotha Programme’ (1875) of the SPD called for: • “universal, direct, equal suffrage, with secret ballot and obligatory voting for

all citizens over 20 years of age”• freedom of press, association and assembly • the abolition of child & female labour• a shorter working week• free, universal primary education

Anti-Socialist Legislation• 1876: Legislation banning the

publication of Socialist propaganda defeated in the Reichstag.

• 1878: Two failed assassination attempts on Wilhelm I provide an opportunity to introduce anti-Socialist legislation.

• Oct 1878: The Anti-Socialist Law passed by the Reichstag:

– Banned socialist organizations (including trade unions)

– Gave the police powers to break up socialist meetings

– Outlawed the publication and distribution of socialist literature

State SocialismInnovative social insurance policies that failed

to woo workers from SPD or successfully tackle growing social and economic problems:

• 1883: Sickness Insurance Act– Provided medical treatment and up to 13 weeks sick pay

for 3 million low-paid workers.

• 1884: Accident Insurance Act– Provided protection for workers permanently disabled or

sick for more than 13 weeks.

• 1889: Old Age & Disability Act– Provided old age and disability pensions for people over 70

and those permanently disabled.

Enemies Within: Minorities

• Poles

• Danes

• Alsatians

Enemies Within: Jews?•Legally, German Jews had equality before the

law.•Central Union of German Citizens of the Jewish

Faith est. to prove Jewish loyalty to the empire.

Enemies Within: Degenerates?

• Criminally Insane

• Alcoholics

• “Degenerate” Urban Dwellers

Assessment

Bismarck’s Admirers• He maintained peace between 1871

and 1890• His policies helped Germany’s

economic development• He pioneered state socialism• In the 1870s he worked closely with

the National Liberals and implemented many liberal policies

• He was not a dictator – his powers were limited and he worked with the parties in the Reichstag

• His long tenure in power points to his political skill

Bismarck’s Critics• He was responsible for France

remaining isolated and embittered

• His influence has been exaggerated

• “Negative integration” – using attacks on minorities to whip up patriotism

• The Kulturkampf was a major miscalculation

• His anti-socialist policies were unsuccessful

• He was unable to delegate and jealous of perceived rivals

• A flawed legacy – Bismarck’s rule led to Wilhemine & Nazi Germany

Questions for Reading

• How did social/regional divisions affect the new nation?

• In what ways were these divisions new or manipulated from above?

• In what ways were they part of people’s lived experience?

1888 – The Year of Three Emperors

Wilhelm I (1861-88) Friedrich III (1888) Wilhelm II (1888-1918)

Wilhelm II, 1859-1941

“I shall let the old man shuffle on for six months . . . then I shall rule myself.”

‘Dropping the Pilot’

• Bismarck and Wilhelm disagreed over the need to retain close links with Russia.

• They clashed over social policy and the Anti-Socialist Law.

• In March 1890 Bismarck and Wilhelm quarrelled over ministers access to the monarch.

• Wilhelm gave Bismarck an ultimatum: resign or be dismissed. The next day Bismarck resigned.

Nicholas I and the Crimean War, 1853-1856 Turning point in nineteenth-century Europe In Russia: Восточная война - Vostochnaya Voina In Britain: "Russian.

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